Chapter 2

Motion of Charged Particles in Fields

Plasmas are complicated because motions of electrons and ions are determined by the electric
and magnetic elds but also change the elds by the currents they carry.
For now we shall ignore the second part of the problem and assume that Fields are Prescribed.
Even so, calculating the motion of a charged particle can be quite hard.
Equation of motion:
dv v B ) = q ( E + dt charge Eeld velocity Beld Rate of change of momentum Lorentz Force m (2.1)

Have to solve this dierential equation, to get position r and velocity (v= r) given E(r, t), B(r, t). Approach: Start simple, gradually generalize.

2.1

Uniform B eld, E = 0.
mv = qv B (2.2)

2.1.1

Qualitatively

in the plane perpendicular to B: Accel. is perp to v so particle moves in a circle whose radius rL is such as to satisfy mrL 2 = m is the angular (velocity) frequency
2 2 1st equality shows 2 = v /rL (rL = v /) 2 v = |q |v B rL

(2.3)

17

Figure 2.1: Circular orbit in uniform magnetic eld.

Hence second gives m v 2 = |q |v B

i.e. = Particle moves in a circular orbit with angular velocity =

|q|B . m

(2.4)

|q |B the Cyclotron Frequency m v and radius rl = the Larmor Radius.

(2.5) (2.6)

2.1.2

By Vector Algebra

Particle Energy is constant. proof : take v. Eq. of motion then d 1 2 mv.v = mv dt 2

= qv.(v B) = 0.

(2.7)

Parallel and Perpendicular motions separate. v = constant because accel ( v B) is perpendicular to B. Perpendicular Dynamics: Take B in z direction and write components mvx = qvy B , mvy = qvx B Hence vx = Solution: vx = v cos t Substitute back: vy = qB qB vy = m m
2

(2.8)

vx = 2 vx

(2.9)

(choose zero of time) m |q | vx = v sin t qB q 18 (2.10)

Integrate: x = x0 +

v sin t ,

y = y0 +

q v cos t |q|

(2.11)

Figure 2.2: Gyro center (x0 , y0 ) and orbit This is the equation of a circle with center r0 = (x0 , y0 ) and radius rL = v /: Gyro Radius.
[Angle is = t]
Direction of rotation is as indicated opposite for opposite sign of charge:
Ions rotate anticlockwise. Electrons clockwise about the magnetic eld.
The current carried by the plasma always is in such a direction as to reduce the magnetic
eld.
This is the property of a magnetic material which is Diagmagnetic.
When v is nonzero the total motion is along a helix.

2.2

Uniform B and nonzero E

mv = q(E + v B) (2.12)

Parallel motion: Before, when E = 0 this was v = const. Now it is clearly v = Constant acceleration along the eld.
Perpendicular Motion
Qualitatively:
Speed of positive particle is greater at top than bottom so radius of curvature is greater.
Result is that guiding center moves perpendicular to both E and B. It drifts across the
eld.
Algebraically: It is clear that if we can nd a constant velocity vd that satises
E + vd B = 0 19 (2.14) qE m (2.13)

Figure 2.3: E B drift orbit then the sum of this drift velocity plus the velocity vL = d [rL ei(tt0 ) ] dt (2.15)

which we calculated for the E = 0 gyration will satisfy the equation of motion. Take B the above equation: 0 = E B + (vd B) B = E B + (vd .B)B B 2 vd so that vd = does satisfy it.
Hence the full solution is
v= v + vd + vL parallel crosseld drift Gyration qE m (2.18) EB B2 (2.16)

(2.17)

where v = and

(2.19)

vd (eq 2.17) is the E B drift of the gyrocenter. Comments on E B drift: 1. It is independent of the properties of the drifting particle (q, m, v, whatever). 2. Hence it is in the same direction for electrons and ions. 3. Underlying physics for this is that in the frame moving at the E B drift E = 0. We have transformed away the electric eld. 4. Formula given above is exact except for the fact that relativistic eects have been ignored. They would be important if vd c. 20

2.2.1

Drift due to Gravity or other Forces

Suppose particle is subject to some other force, such as gravity. Write it F so that 1 mv = F + q v B = q( F + v B) q This is just like the Electric eld case except with F/q replacing E. The drift is therefore vd = 1FB q B2 (2.21) (2.20)

In this case, if force on electrons and ions is same, they drift in opposite directions.
This general formula can be used to get the drift velocity in some other cases of interest (see
later).

2.3

NonUniform B Field

If Blines are straight but the magnitude of B varies in space we get orbits that look quali tatively similar to the E B case:

Figure 2.4: B drift orbit Curvature of orbit is greater where B is greater causing loop to be small on that side. Result is a drift perpendicular to both B and B. Notice, though, that electrons and ions go in opposite directions (unlike E B). Algebra We try to nd a decomposition of the velocity as before into v = vd + vL where vd is constant.
We shall nd that this can be done only approximately. Also we must have a simple expres
sion for B. This we get by assuming that the Larmor radius is much smaller than the scale
length of B variation i.e.,
rL << B/|B | (2.22) 21

in which case we can express the eld approximately as the rst two terms in a Taylor expression: B B0 + (r.)B (2.23) Then substituting the decomposed velocity we get: dv = mvL = q(v B) = q[vL B0 + vd B0 + (vL + vd ) (r.)B] dt or 0 = vd B0 + vL (r.)B + vd (r.)B m (2.24) (2.25)

Now we shall nd that vd /vL is also small, like r|B |/B. Therefore the last term here is second order but the rst two are rst order. So we drop the last term. Now the awkward part is that vL and rL are periodic. Substitute for r = r0 + rL so 0 = vd B0 + vL (rL .)B + vL (r0 .)B (2.26)

We now average over a cyclotron period. The last term is eit so it averages to zero: 0 = vd B + vL (rL .)B . To perform the average use v q rL = (xL , yL ) = sin t, cos t |q | q vL = (xL , yL ) = v cos t, sin t |q | d [vL (r.)B]x = vy y B dy d [vL (r.)B]y = vx y B dy

(2.27)

(2.28) (2.29) (2.30) (2.31)

So

(Taking B to be in the ydirection). Then v2 vy y = cos t sin t

= 0 2 q v2 1 v q vx y = cos t cos t = |q | 2 |q | So vL (r.)B = Substitute in: 0 = vd B 22
2 q 1 v B |q | 2

(2.32)
(2.33)

(2.34)

2 q v
B |q
2 |

(2.35)

and solve as before to get

2 1 v |q| 2

B B B2 =

vd = or equivalently

2 q v
B B |q
2 B 2 |

(2.36)

vd = This is called the Grad B drift.

2 1 mv B B B2 q 2B

(2.37)

2.4

Curvature Drift

When the Beld lines are curved and the particle has a velocity v along the eld, another drift occurs.

Figure 2.5: Curvature and Centrifugal Force Take |B | constant; radius of curvature Re . To 1st order the particle just spirals along the eld. In the frame of the guiding center a force appears because the plasma is rotating about the
center of curvature.
This centrifugal force is Fcf
Fcf = m as a vector
2 Fcf = mv
2 v pointing outward Rc

(2.38)

Rc 2 Rc

(2.39)

[There is also a coriolis force 2m( v) but this averages to zero over a gyroperiod.] Use the previous formula for a force vd =
2 mv Rc B 1 Fcf B =
2 2 q B2 qB Rc

(2.40)

23

This is the Curvature Drift.

It is often convenient to have this expressed in terms of the eld gradients. So we relate Rc
to B etc. as follows:

Figure 2.6: Dierential expression of curvature (Carets denote unit vectors) From the diagram db = b2 b1 = Rc and d = Rc So Rc db Rc = = 2 Rc Rc dl db = (B.)b dl So the curvature drift can be written
vd =
2 2 mv Rc mv B (b.)b B
2 = 2 2 q Rc B q B

(2.41) (2.42)

(2.43)

But (by denition) (2.44)

(2.45)

2.4.1

Vacuum Fields

Relation between B & Rc drifts The curvature and B are related because of Maxwells equations, their relation depends on the current density j. A particular case of interest is j = 0: vacuum elds.

Figure 2.7: Local polar coordinates in a vacuum eld B=0 (static case) 24 (2.46)

Consider the zcomponent

0 = ( B)z = = or, in other words, (B)r = [Note also 0 = ( B) = B /z : (B)z = 0]
2 and hence (B)perp = B Rc /Rc .

B r

1 (rB ) (Br = 0 by choice). r r B + r B Rc

(2.47) (2.48)

(2.49)

Thus the grad B drift can be written: vB =

2 2 mv B B mV Rc B = 2 2q B3 2q Rc B 2

(2.50)

and the total drift across a vacuum eld becomes vR + vB = Notice the following: 1. Rc & B drifts are in the same direction. 2. They are in opposite directions for opposite charges. 3. They are proportional to particle energies 4. Curvature Parallel Energy ( 2) B Perpendicular Energy 5. As a result one can very quickly calculate the average drift over a thermal distribution of particles because 1 2 T mv = 2 2 1 2 mv
= T 2 Therefore (2.52) 2 degrees of freedom

1 2 Rc B 1 2 mv + mv . 2 q 2 Rc B 2

(2.51)

(2.53)

2T Rc B 2T B b. b vR + vB = = 2 q Rc B 2 q B2

(2.54)

25

2.5 Interlude: Toroidal Connement of Single Parti cles

Since particles can move freely along a magnetic eld even if not across it, we cannot ob viously conne the particles in a straight magnetic eld. Obvious idea: bend the eld lines into circles so that they have no ends.

Figure 2.8: Toroidal eld geometry Problem Curvature & B drifts 1 2 vd = mv + q 1 2 |vd | = mv + q

1
2 R B mv
2
R2 B 2 1
2 1 mv
2 BR

(2.55)
(2.56)

Ions drift up. Electrons down. There is no connement. When there is nite density things

Figure 2.9: Charge separation due to vertical drift are even worse because charge separation occurs E E B Outward Motion.

2.5.1 How to solve this problem?

Consider a beam of electrons v = 0 v = 0. Drift is
2 mv 1 vd = q BT R

(2.57)

26

What Bz is required to cancel this?

Adding Bz gives a compensating vertical velocity
v = v We want total Bz BT for Bz << BT (2.58)

2 mv q Bz vz = 0 = v + BT q BT R

(2.59)

So Bz = mv /Rq is the right amount of eld. Note that this is such as to make rL (Bz ) = |mv | =R . |qBz | (2.60)

But Bz required depends on v and q so we cant compensate for all particles simultaneously. Vertical eld along cannot do it.

2.5.2

The Solution: Rotational Transform

Figure 2.10: Tokamak eld lines with rotational transform Toroidal Coordinate system (r, , ) (minor radius, poloidal angle, toroidal angle), see gure 2.8.
Suppose we have a poloidal eld B
Field Lines become helical and wind around the torus: gure 2.10.
27

In the poloidal crosssection the eld describes a circle as it goes round in . Equation of motion of a particle exactly following the eld is: r and r = constant. Now add on to this motion the cross eld drift in the direction. z (2.62) d B B B B = v = v = v dt B B B B (2.61)

Figure 2.11: Components of velocity d B = v + vd cos dt B dr = vd sin dt 1 dr = r d ud sin + vd cos

(2.63) (2.64)

Take ratio, to eliminate time:

B v B

(2.65)

Take B , B, v , vd to be constants, then we can integrate this orbit equation: [ln r] = [ ln | Take r = r0 when cos = 0 ( = ) then 2 Bvd r = r0 / 1 + cos b v If
Bvd B v

B v + vd cos |] . B

(2.66)

(2.67)

<< 1 this is approximately r = r0 cos (2.68)

where =

Bvd r B v 0

This is approximately a circular orbit shifted by a distance :

28

Figure 2.12: Shifted, approximately circular orbit Substitute for vd

1 2 2 B 1 (mv +
2 mv
) 1 r0 B q v B R 1 2 2 1 mv
+ 2 mv rp qB v R mv r0 r0 If v = 0 = = rL , qB R R

(2.69) (2.70) (2.71)

where rL is the Larmor Radius in a eld B r/R.

Provided is small, particles will be conned. Obviously the important thing is the poloidal
rotation of the eld lines: Rotational Transform.
Rotational Transform poloidal angle 1 toroidal rotation poloidal angle (transform/2 =) . toroidal angle

rotational transform

(2.72) (2.73)

(Originally, was used to denote the transform. Since about 1990 it has been used to denote the transform divided by 2 which is the inverse of the safety factor.) Safety Factor
qs =

1 toroidal angle . = poloidal angle

(2.74)

Actually the value of these ratios may vary as one moves around the magnetic eld. Denition
strictly requires one should take the limit of a large no. of rotations.
qs is a topological number: number of rotations the long way per rotation the short way.
Cylindrical approx.:
qs = rB RB (2.75)

29

In terms of safety factor the orbit shift can be written || = rL (assuming B >> B ). r B r = rL = r L qs R B R (2.76)

2.6 The Mirror Eect of Parallel Field Gradients: E = 0, B B

Figure 2.13: Basis of parallel mirror force In the above situation there is a net force along B. Force is < F > = |qv B| sin = |q|v B sin Br sin = B Calculate Br as function of Bz from .B = 0. .B = Hence rBr = Suppose rL is small enough that
Bz z

(2.77) (2.78)

1 (rBr ) + Bz = 0 . r r z

(2.79)

Bz dr z

(2.80)

const.

0 rL

[rBr ]rL 0 So

rdr

1 2 Bz Bz = rL z z 2

(2.81)

1 Bz Br (rL ) = rL 2 z rL 1 Bz Br =+ sin = B 2 2 z

(2.82) (2.83)

30

Hence

1 mv 2 Bz v rL Bz . (2.84) = 2 B z 2 z As particle enters increasing eld region it experiences a net parallel retarding force.

< F >= |q|

Dene Magnetic Moment 1 2 mv /B . 2 Note this is consistent with loop current denition
2 = AI = r
. L

(2.85)

|q |rL v |q |v = 2rL 2

(2.86)

Force is F = . B This is force on a magnetic dipole of moment . F = . B Our always points along B but in opposite direction. (2.87)

2.6.1

Force on an Elementary Magnetic Moment Circuit

Consider a plane rectangular circuit carrying current I having elementary area dxdy = dA. Regard this as a vector pointing in the z direction dA. The force on this circuit in a eld B(r) is F such that Fx = Idy[Bz (x + dx) Bz (x)] = Idydx Fy Fz Bz x Bz = Idx[Bz (y + dy) Bz (y)] = Idydx y = Idx[By (y + dy) By (y)] Idy[Bx (x + dx) Bx (x)] Bz Bx By = Idxdy + = Idydx x y z (2.88) (2.89) (2.90) (2.91)

(Using .B = 0). Hence, summarizing: F = IdydxBz . Now dene = IdA = Idydx and take it constant. z Then clearly the force can be written F = (B.) [Strictly = (B).] (2.92)

is the (vector) magnetic moment of the circuit.

The shape of the circuit does not matter since any circuit can be considered to be composed
of the sum of many rectangular circuits. So in general
= IdA 31 (2.93)

and force is F = (B.) ( constant), (2.94) We shall show in a moment that || is constant for a circulating particle, regard as an elementary circuit. Also, for a particle always points in the B direction. [Note that this means that the eect of particles on the eld is to decrease it.] Hence the force may be written F = B (2.95) This gives us both: Magnetic Mirror Force: F = B and Grad B Drift: vB = 1 FB B B = . 2 q B q B2 (2.97) (2.96)

2.6.2

is a constant of the motion

Adiabatic Invariant Proof from F Parallel equation of motion m So mv or dv dB = F = dt dz (2.98)

dv d 1 2 dB dB = ( mv ) = vz = dt dt 2 dz dt d 1 2 dB ( mv ) + = 0 . dt 2 dt d 1 2 1 2 ( mv + mv ) = 0 dt 2 2 d 1 2 = ( mv + B) = 0 dt 2

(2.99) (2.100)

Conservation of Total KE (2.101) (2.102)

Combine

d dB (B) = 0 dt dt d = =0 As required dt 32

(2.103) (2.104)

Angular Momentum of particle about the guiding center is rL mv =

2 mv 2m 1 mv 2 mv = |q|B |q | B 2m = . |q |

(2.105) (2.106)

Conservation of magnetic moment is basically conservation of angular momentum about the guiding center. Proof direct from Angular Momentum Consider angular momentum about G.C. Because is ignorable (locally) Canonical angular momentum is conserved. p = [r (mv + qA)]z Here A is the vector potential such that B = A the denition of the vector potential means that Bz = rL A (rL ) = Hence p = q m rL v m + q |q | |q | q = m. |q| (2.110) (2.111) 1 (rA )) r r

0 rL

conserved.

(2.107)

(2.108)
2 rL m Bz = 2 |q |

r.Bz dr =

(2.109)

So p = const = constant.
Conservation of is basically conservation of angular momentum of particle about G.C.

2.6.3

Mirror Trapping

F may be enough to reect particles back. But may not!

Lets calculate whether it will:
Suppose reection occurs.
At reection point vr = 0.
Energy conservation
1 2 1 2 2 m(v0 + v0 ) = mvr 2 2 33 (2.112)

Figure 2.14: Magnetic Mirror conservation

1 2 mv0 2

B0 Hence

1 2 mvr 2

Br

(2.113)

2 2 v0 + v0 =

B0 Br

Br 2 v B0 0 v2 = 2 0 2 v0 + vo

(2.114) (2.115)

2.6.4 Pitch Angle

tan = v v (2.116) (2.117)

2 B0 v0 = 2 = sin2 0 2 Br v0 + v0

So, given a pitch angle 0 , reection takes place where B0 /Br = sin2 0 . If 0 is too small no reection can occur. Critical angle c is obviously Loss Cone is all < c .
Importance of Mirror Ratio: Rm = B1 /B0 .
c = sin1 (B0 /B1 ) 2
1

(2.118)

2.6.5

Other Features of Mirror Motions

2 m2 v = 2 2 B q B

Flux enclosed by gyro orbit is constant. =

2 rL B

(2.119)

34

Figure 2.15: Critical angle c divides velocity space into a losscone and a region of mirror trapping
2 2m 1 mv 2 = q2 B 2m = = constant. q2

(2.120) (2.121)

Note that if B changes suddenly might not be conserved.

Figure 2.16: Flux tube described by orbit Basic requirement rL << B/|B | Slow variation of B (relative to rL ). (2.122)

2.7

Time Varying B Field

(E inductive)

Particle can gain energy from the inductive E eld B t d or E.dl = B.ds = dt s E = Hence work done on particle in 1 revolution is w =

(2.123) (2.124)

|q |E.d = +|q|

d 2 B.ds = +|q | = |q|BrL dt s

(2.125)

35

Figure 2.17: Particle orbits round B so as to perform a line integral of the Electric eld (d and v q are in opposition directions).

1 2 mv 2

2 = |q|BrL = = 2 B . ||

2 2 Bm 1 mv 2 B |q|B

(2.126) (2.127)

Hence

|| 1 2 db d 1 2 mv = mv = 2 dt dt 2 2

(2.128) (2.129) (2.130)

but also Hence

d d 1 2 (B) . mv = dt dt 2

d = 0. dt
2m , q2

Notice that since = orbit is conserved.

this is just another way of saying that the ux through the gyro

Notice also energy increase. Method of heating. Adiabatic Compression.

2.8

Time Varying Eeld

vEB =

(E, B uniform)
(2.131)

Recall the E B drift:

EB B2 when E varies so does vEB . Thus the guiding centre experiences an acceleration vEB d = dt

EB B2

(2.132)

In the frame of the guiding centre which is accelerating, a force is felt. d Fa = m dt

EB B2

(Pushed back into seat! ve.) 36

(2.133)

This force produces another drift

vD 1 Fa B m d EB = = B q B2 qB 2 dt B2 m d = (E.B) B B 2 E qB dt m = E qB 2

(2.134) (2.135) (2.136)

This is called the polarization drift. EB m + E B2 qB 2 EB 1 = + E 2 B B

vD = vEB + vp =

(2.137) (2.138)

Figure 2.18: Suddenly turning on an electric eld causes a shift of the gyrocenter in the direction of force. This is the polarization drift. Startup eect: When we switch on an electric eld the average position (gyro center) of an initially stationary particle shifts over by 1 the orbit size. The polarization drift is this 2 polarization eect on the medium. Total shift due to vp is r

vp dt =

m m [E ] E dt = 2 qB qB 2
dE dt

(2.139)

2.8.1

Direct Derivation of

eect: Polarization Drift

Consider an oscillatory eld E = Eeit ( r0 B) m dv = q (E + v B) dt = q Eeit + v B (2.140) (2.141)

Try for a solution in the form v = vD eit + vL 37 (2.142)

 where, as usual, vL satises mvL = qvL B Then (1) Solve for vD : m(ivD = q (E + vD B) xit (2.143)

Take B this equation: (2) mi (vD B) = q E B + B2 .v|D B B 2 vD

(2.144)

add mi (1) to q (2) to eliminate vD B. m2 2 vD + q 2 (E B B 2 vD ) = miqE

(2.145) (2.146) (2.147)

or : i.e.

vD vD

m2 2 mi EB 1 2 2 = 2E+ q B qB B2

2 iq EB 1 2 = E+ B|q| B2

Since i t this is the same formula as we had before: the sum of polarization and E B drifts except for the [1 2 2 ] term.

This term comes from the change in vD with time (accel).

Thus our earlier expression was only approximate. A good approx if << .

2.9

Non Uniform E
m

(Finite Larmor Radius)

dv = q (E(r) + v B) dt (2.148)

Seek the usual soltuion v = vD + vg . Then average out over a gyro orbit m dvD = 0 = q (E(r) + v B) dt = q [E(r) + vD B] E(r) B B2 (2.149) (2.150)

Hence drift is obviously vD = (2.151)

So we just need to nd the average E eld experienced. Expand E as a Taylor series about the G.C. x2 2 y2 2 E(r) = E0 + (r.) E + + E + cross terms + . 2!x2 2! y 2

(2.152)

38

 (E.g. cross terms are xy xy E).

Average over a gyro orbit: r = rL (cos , sin , 0).

Average of cross terms = 0.
Then
E(r) = E + (rL .)E + linear term rL = 0. So
2 rL 2 E 4 Hence E B with 1st niteLarmorradius correction is 2 r L 2 E. 2!

(2.153)

E(r) E +

(2.154)

vEB

r2 EB = 1 + L 2 . r B2

(2.155)

[Note: Grad B drift is a nite Larmor eect already.] Second and Third Adiabatic Invariants There are additional approximately conserved quantities like in some geometries.

2.10

Summary of Drifts
vE = vF = vE = vB = vR = vR + vB = vp = EB Electric Field B2 1FB General Force q B2 2 rL 2 E B 1+ Nonuniform E B2 4 2 mv B B
GradB 2q B3 2 mv Rc B Curvature 2 q Rc B 2 1 1 2 Rc B 2 mv
+ mv Vacuum Fields. 2 q 2 Rc B 2
q E Polarization |q | ||B (2.156) (2.157) (2.158) (2.159) (2.160) (2.161) (2.162)

Mirror Motion Force is F = B. 39

2 mv 2B

is constant

(2.163)