The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

Tom Fawcett
Bootdisk−[email protected]

Copyright © 1995−2002 by Tom Fawcett

v4.5, January 2002

This document describes how to design and build boot/root diskettes for Linux. These disks can be used as
rescue disks or to test new system components. You should be reasonably familiar with system
administration tasks before attempting to build a bootdisk. If you just want a rescue disk to have for
emergencies, see Appendix A.1.
 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

Table of Contents
1. Preface..............................................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Version notes....................................................................................................................................1
1.2. To do list...........................................................................................................................................1
1.3. Feedback and credits.........................................................................................................................1
1.4. Distribution policy............................................................................................................................2

2. Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................3

3. Bootdisks and the boot process......................................................................................................................4

3.1. The boot process...............................................................................................................................4
3.2. Disk types.........................................................................................................................................5

4. Building a root filesystem...............................................................................................................................7

4.1. Overview...........................................................................................................................................7
4.2. Creating the filesystem.....................................................................................................................7
4.3. Populating the filesystem..................................................................................................................9
4.3.1. /dev....................................................................................................................................9
4.3.2. /etc...................................................................................................................................10
4.3.3. /bin and /sbin...................................................................................................................12
4.3.4. /lib...................................................................................................................................12
4.4. Providing for PAM and NSS..........................................................................................................13
4.4.1. PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules)....................................................................13
4.4.2. NSS (Name Service Switch)...........................................................................................14
4.5. Modules..........................................................................................................................................14
4.6. Some final details............................................................................................................................15
4.7. Wrapping it up................................................................................................................................15

5. Choosing a kernel..........................................................................................................................................16

6. Putting them together: Making the diskette(s)..........................................................................................17

6.1. Transferring the kernel with LILO.................................................................................................17
6.2. Transferring the kernel without LILO............................................................................................18
6.3. Setting the ramdisk word................................................................................................................19
6.4. Transferring the root filesystem......................................................................................................20

7. Troubleshooting, or The Agony of Defeat..................................................................................................21

8. Reducing root filesystem size.......................................................................................................................23

8.1. Increase the diskette density...........................................................................................................23
8.2. Replace common utilities with BusyBox........................................................................................23
8.3. Use an alternate shell......................................................................................................................24
8.4. Strip libraries and binaries..............................................................................................................24
8.5. Move files to a utility disk..............................................................................................................24

9. Miscellaneous topics......................................................................................................................................25
9.1. Non−ramdisk root filesystems........................................................................................................25
9.2. Building a utility disk.....................................................................................................................25

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 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

Table of Contents
10. How the pros do it.......................................................................................................................................27

11. Creating bootable CD−ROMs...................................................................................................................28

11.1. What is El Torito?.........................................................................................................................28
11.2. How it Works................................................................................................................................28
11.3. How to make it work.....................................................................................................................28
11.4. Create Win9x Bootable CD−Roms...............................................................................................29
Notes.........................................................................................................................................30

12. Frequently Asked Question (FAQ) list.....................................................................................................36

A. Resources and pointers................................................................................................................................37

A.1. Pre−made Bootdisks.................................................................................................................................38

A.2. Rescue packages........................................................................................................................................39

A.3. LILO −− the Linux loader........................................................................................................................40

A.4. Ramdisk usage...........................................................................................................................................41

A.5. The Linux boot process.............................................................................................................................42

B. LILO boot error codes.................................................................................................................................43

C. Sample root filesystem listings....................................................................................................................49

D. Sample utility disk directory listing...........................................................................................................49

ii
1. Preface

This document may be outdated. If the date on the title page is

more than six months ago, please check the
Bootdisk−HOWTO homepage to see if a more recent version
exists.

Although this document should be legible in its text form, it looks much better in Postscript, PDF or HTML
forms because of the typographical conventions used.

1.1. Version notes

Graham Chapman wrote the original Bootdisk−HOWTO and supported it through version 3.1. Tom Fawcett
started as co−author around the time kernel v2 was introduced, and he is the document's current maintainer.
Chapman has disappeared from the Linux community and his whereabouts are currently unknown.

This information is intended for Linux on the Intel platform. Much of this information may be applicable to
Linux on other processors, but I have no first−hand experience or information about this. If you have
experience with bootdisks on other platforms, please contact me.

1.2. To do list
1. User−mode−linux ( http://user−mode−linux.sourceforge.net) seems like a great way to test out
bootdisks without having to reboot your machine constantly. I haven't been able to get it to work. If
anyone has been using this consistently with homemade bootdisks, please let me know.
2. Re−analyze distribution bootdisks and update the "How the Pros do it" section.
3. Figure out just how much of the init−getty−login sequence can be simplified, and rip it out. A few
people have said that init can be linked directly to /bin/sh; if so, and if this imposes no great
limitations, alter the instructions to do this. This would eliminate the need for getty, login, gettydefs,
and maybe all that PAM and NSS stuff.
4. Go through the 2.4 kernel source code again and write a detailed explanation of how the boot process
and ramdisk−loading process work, in detail. (If only so that I understand it better.) There are some
issues about initrd and limitations of booting devices (eg flash memory) that I don't understand yet.
5. Delete section that describes how to upgrade existing distribution bootdisks. This is usually more
trouble than it's worth.
6. Replace rdev commands with LILO keywords.

1.3. Feedback and credits

I welcome any feedback, good or bad, on the content of this document. I have done my best to ensure that the
instructions and information herein are accurate and reliable, but I don't know everything and I don't keep up
on kernel development. Please let me know if you find errors or omissions. When writing, please indicate the
version number of the document you're referencing. Be nice.

1. Preface 1
 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

We thank the many people who assisted with corrections and suggestions. Their contributions have made it
far better than we could ever have done alone.

Send comments and corrections to the author at the email address above. Please read Section 7 before asking
me questions. Do not email me disk images.

1.4. Distribution policy

Copyright © 1995−2002 by Tom Fawcett and Graham Chapman. This document may be distributed under
the terms set forth in the Linux Documentation Project License. Please contact the authors if you are unable
to get the license.

This is free documentation. It is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but without any warranty;
without even the implied warranty of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.

1.4. Distribution policy 2

2. Introduction
Linux boot disks are useful in a number of situations, such as testing a new kernel, recovering from a disk
failure (anything from a lost boot sector to a disk head crash), fixing a disabled system, or upgrading critical
system files safely (such as libc.so).

There are several ways of obtaining boot disks:

• Use one from a distribution such as Slackware. This will at least allow you to boot.
• Use a rescue package to set up disks designed to be used as rescue disks.
• Learn what is required for each of the types of disk to operate, then build your own.
Some people choose the last option so they can do it themselves. That way, if something breaks, they can
work out what to do to fix it. Plus it's a great way to learn about how a Linux system works.

This document assumes some basic familiarity with Linux system administration concepts. For example, you
should know about directories, filesystems and floppy diskettes. You should know how to use mount and df.
You should know what /etc/passwd and fstab files are for and what they look like. You should know
that most of the commands in this HOWTO should be run as root.

Constructing a bootdisk from scratch can be complicated. If you haven't read the Linux FAQ and related
documents, such as the Linux Installation HOWTO and the Linux Installation Guide, you should not be
trying to build boot diskettes. If you just need a working bootdisk for emergencies, it is much easier to
download a prefabricated one. See Appendix A.1, below, for where to find these.

2. Introduction 3
3. Bootdisks and the boot process
A bootdisk is basically a miniature, self−contained Linux system on a diskette. It must perform many of the
same functions that a complete full−size Linux system performs. Before trying to build one you should
understand the basic Linux boot process. Here we present the basics, which are sufficient for understanding
the rest of this document. Many details and alternative options have been omitted.

3.1. The boot process

All PC systems start the boot process by executing code in ROM (specifically, the BIOS) to load the sector
from sector 0, cylinder 0 of the boot drive. The boot drive is usually the first floppy drive (designated A: in
DOS and /dev/fd0 in Linux). The BIOS then tries to execute this sector. On most bootable disks, sector 0,
cylinder 0 contains either:

• code from a boot loader such as LILO, which locates the kernel, loads it and executes it to start the
boot proper; or
• the start of an operating system kernel, such as Linux.

If a Linux kernel has been raw−copied to a diskette, the first sector of the disk will be the first sector of the
Linux kernel itself. This first sector will continue the boot process by loading the rest of the kernel from the
boot device.

When the kernel is completely loaded, it initializes device drivers and its internal data structures. Once it is
completely initialized, it consults a special location in its image called the ramdisk word. This word tells it
how and where to find its root filesystem. A root filesystem is simply a filesystem that will be mounted as
``/''. The kernel has to be told where to look for the root filesystem; if it cannot find a loadable image there, it
halts.

In some boot situations often when booting from a diskette the root filesystem is loaded into a ramdisk,
which is RAM accessed by the system as if it were a disk. RAM is several orders of magnitude faster than a
floppy disk, so system operation is fast from a ramdisk. Also, the kernel can load a compressed
filesystem from the floppy and uncompress it onto the ramdisk, allowing many more files to be squeezed onto
the diskette.

Once the root filesystem is loaded and mounted, you see a message like:

VFS: Mounted root (ext2 filesystem) readonly.

Once the system has loaded a root filesystem successfully, it tries to execute the init program (in /bin or
/sbin). init reads its configuration file /etc/inittab, looks for a line designated sysinit, and
executes the named script. The sysinit script is usually something like /etc/rc or
/etc/init.d/boot. This script is a set of shell commands that set up basic system services, such as
running fsck on hard disks, loading necessary kernel modules, initializing swapping, initializing the network,
and mounting disks mentioned in /etc/fstab.

This script often invokes various other scripts to do modular initialization. For example, in the common
SysVinit structure, the directory /etc/rc.d/ contains a complex structure of subdirectories whose files
specify how to enable and shut down most system services. However, on a bootdisk the sysinit script is often

3. Bootdisks and the boot process 4

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very simple.

When the sysinit script finishes control returns to init, which then enters the default runlevel, specified in
inittab with the initdefault keyword. The runlevel line usually specifies a program like getty, which
is responsible for handling commununications through the console and ttys. It is the getty program which
prints the familiar ``login:'' prompt. The getty program in turn invokes the login program to handle login
validation and to set up user sessions.

3.2. Disk types

Having reviewed the basic boot process, we can now define various kinds of disks involved. We classify
disks into four types. The discussion here and throughout this document uses the term ``disk'' to refer to
floppy diskettes unless otherwise specified, though most of the discussion could apply equally well to hard
disks.

boot

A disk containing a kernel which can be booted. The disk can be used to boot the kernel, which then
may load a root file system on another disk. The kernel on a bootdisk usually must be told where to
find its root filesystem.

Often a bootdisk loads a root filesystem from another diskette, but it is possible for a bootdisk to be
set up to load a hard disk's root filesystem instead. This is commonly done when testing a new kernel
(in fact, ``make zdisk'' will create such a bootdisk automatically from the kernel source code).

root

A disk with a filesystem containing files required to run a Linux system. Such a disk does not
necessarily contain either a kernel or a boot loader.

A root disk can be used to run the system independently of any other disks, once the kernel has been
booted. Usually the root disk is automatically copied to a ramdisk. This makes root disk accesses
much faster, and frees up the disk drive for a utility disk.

boot/root

A disk which contains both the kernel and a root filesystem. In other words, it contains everything
necessary to boot and run a Linux system without a hard disk. The advantage of this type of disk is
that is it compact everything required is on a single disk. However, the gradually increasing size of
everything means that it is increasingly difficult to fit everything on a single diskette, even with
compression.

utility

A disk which contains a filesystem, but is not intended to be mounted as a root file system. It is an
additional data disk. You would use this type of disk to carry additional utilities where you have too
much to fit on your root disk.

3.2. Disk types 5

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In general, when we talk about ``building a bootdisk'' we mean creating both the boot (kernel) and root (files)
portions. They may be either together (a single boot/root disk) or separate (boot + root disks). The most
flexible approach for rescue diskettes is probably to use separate boot and root diskettes, and one or more
utility diskettes to handle the overflow.

3.2. Disk types 6

4. Building a root filesystem
Creating the root filesystem involves selecting files necessary for the system to run. In this section we
describe how to build a compressed root filesystem. A less common option is to build an uncompressed
filesystem on a diskette that is directly mounted as root; this alternative is described in Section 9.1.

4.1. Overview
A root filesystem must contain everything needed to support a full Linux system. To be able to do this, the
disk must include the minimum requirements for a Linux system:

• The basic file system structure,

• Minimum set of directories: /dev, /proc, /bin, /etc, /lib, /usr, /tmp,
• Basic set of utilities: sh, ls, cp, mv, etc.,
• Minimum set of config files: rc, inittab, fstab, etc.,
• Devices: /dev/hd*, /dev/tty*, /dev/fd0, etc.,
• Runtime library to provide basic functions used by utilities.

Of course, any system only becomes useful when you can run something on it, and a root diskette usually
only becomes useful when you can do something like:

• Check a file system on another drive, for example to check your root file system on your hard drive,
you need to be able to boot Linux from another drive, as you can with a root diskette system. Then
you can run fsck on your original root drive while it is not mounted.
• Restore all or part of your original root drive from backup using archive and compression utilities
such as cpio, tar, gzip and ftape.

We describe how to build a compressed filesystem, so called because it is compressed on disk and, when
booted, is uncompressed onto a ramdisk. With a compressed filesystem you can fit many files (approximately
six megabytes) onto a standard 1440K diskette. Because the filesystem is much larger than a diskette, it
cannot be built on the diskette. We have to build it elsewhere, compress it, then copy it to the diskette.

4.2. Creating the filesystem

In order to build such a root filesystem, you need a spare device that is large enough to hold all the files
before compression. You will need a device capable of holding about four megabytes. There are several
choices:

• Use a ramdisk (DEVICE = /dev/ram0). In this case, memory is used to simulate a disk drive. The
ramdisk must be large enough to hold a filesystem of the appropriate size. If you use LILO, check
your configuration file (/etc/lilo.conf) for a line like RAMDISK = nnn which determines
the maximum RAM that can be allocated to a ramdisk. The default is 4096K, which should be
sufficient. You should probably not try to use such a ramdisk on a machine with less than 8MB of
RAM. Check to make sure you have a device like /dev/ram0, /dev/ram or /dev/ramdisk.
If not, create /dev/ram0 with mknod (major number 1, minor 0).
• If you have an unused hard disk partition that is large enough (several megabytes), this is acceptable.

4. Building a root filesystem 7

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• Use a loopback device, which allows a disk file to be treated as a device. Using a loopback device
you can create a three megabyte file on your hard disk and build the filesystem on it.

Type man losetup for instructions on using loopback devices. If you don't have losetup, you can get
it along with compatible versions of mount and unmount from the util−linux package in the
directory ftp://ftp.win.tue.nl/pub/linux/utils/util−linux/.

If you do not have a loop device (/dev/loop0, /dev/loop1, etc.) on your system, you will have
to create one with ``mknod /dev/loop0 b 7 0''. Once you've installed these special mount and
umount binaries, create a temporary file on a hard disk with enough capacity (eg, /tmp/fsfile).
You can use a command like:

dd if=/dev/zero of=/tmp/fsfile bs=1k

nnn
count=
to create an nnn−block file.

Use the file name in place of DEVICE below. When you issue a mount command you must include
the option −o loop to tell mount to use a loopback device.

After you've chosen one of these options, prepare the DEVICE with:

dd if=/dev/zero of=DEVICE bs=1k count=4096

This command zeroes out the device.

Zeroing the device is critical because the filesystem will be

compressed later, so all unused portions should be filled
with zeroes to achieve maximum compression. Keep this
in mind whenever you move or delete files on the
filesystem. The filesystem will correctly de−allocate the
blocks, but it will not zero them out again. If you do a lot
of deletions and copying, your compressed filesystem may
end up much larger than necessary.

Next, create the filesystem. The Linux kernel recognizes two file system types for root disks to be
automatically copied to ramdisk. These are minix and ext2, of which ext2 is preferred. If using ext2, you may
find it useful to use the −N option to specify more inodes than the default; −N 2000 is suggested so that you
don't run out of inodes. Alternatively, you can save on inodes by removing lots of unnecessary /dev files.
mke2fs will by default create 360 inodes on a 1.44Mb diskette. I find that 120 inodes is ample on my current
rescue root diskette, but if you include all the devices in /dev you will easily exceed 360. Using a
compressed root filesystem allows a larger filesystem, and hence more inodes by default, but you may still
need to either reduce the number of files or increase the number of inodes.

So the command you use will look like:

mke2fs −m 0 −N 2000 DEVICE

(If you're using a loopback device, the disk file you're using should be supplied in place of this DEVICE.)

4. Building a root filesystem 8

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The mke2fs command will automatically detect the space available and configure itself accordingly. The
``−m 0'' parameter prevents it from reserving space for root, and hence provides more usable space on the
disk.

Next, mount the device:

mount −t ext2 DEVICE /mnt

(You must create a mount point /mnt if it does not already exist.) In the remaining sections, all destination
directory names are assumed to be relative to /mnt.

4.3. Populating the filesystem

Here is a reasonable minimum set of directories for your root filesystem [1]:

• /dev −− Device files, required to perform I/O

• /proc −− Directory stub required by the proc filesystem
• /etc −− System configuration files
• /sbin −− Critical system binaries
• /bin −− Essential binaries considered part of the system
• /lib −− Shared libraries to provide run−time support
• /mnt −− A mount point for maintenance on other disks
• /usr −− Additional utilities and applications

Three of these directories will be empty on the root filesystem, so they only need to be created with mkdir.
The /proc directory is basically a stub under which the proc filesystem is placed. The directories /mnt and
/usr are only mount points for use after the boot/root system is running. Hence again, these directories only
need to be created.

The remaining four directories are described in the following sections.

4.3.1. /dev
A /dev directory containing a special file for all devices to be used by the system is mandatory for any
Linux system. The directory itself is a normal directory, and can be created with mkdir in the normal way.
The device special files, however, must be created in a special way, using the mknod command.

There is a shortcut, though copy devices files from your existing hard disk /dev directory. The only
requirement is that you copy the device special files using −R option. This will copy the directory without
attempting to copy the contents of the files. Be sure to use an upper case R. For example:

cp −dpR /dev/fd[01]* /mnt/dev

cp −dpR /dev/tty[0−6] /mnt/dev
assuming that the diskette is mounted at /mnt. The dp switches ensure that symbolic links are copied as
links, rather than using the target file, and that the original file attributes are preserved, thus preserving
ownership information.

If you want to do it the hard way, use ls −l to display the major and minor device numbers for the devices

4.3. Populating the filesystem 9

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you want, and create them on the diskette using mknod.

However the devices files are created, check that any special devices you need have been placed on the
rescue diskette. For example, ftape uses tape devices, so you will need to copy all of these if you intend to
access your floppy tape drive from the bootdisk.

Note that one inode is required for each device special file, and inodes can at times be a scarce resource,
especially on diskette filesystems. You'll need to be selective about the device files you include. For example,
if you do not have SCSI disks you can safely ignore /dev/sd*; if you don't intend to use serial ports you
can ignore /dev/ttyS*.

If, in building your root filesystem, you get the error No space left on device but a df command
shows space still available, you have probably run out of inodes. A df −i will display inode usage.

Be sure to include the following files from this directory:

console, kmem, mem, null, ram0 and tty1.

4.3.2. /etc
The /etc directory contains configuration files. What it should contain depends on what programs you intend
to run. On most systems, these can be divided into three groups:

1. Required at all times, e.g. rc, fstab, passwd.

2. May be required, but no one is too sure.
3. Junk that crept in.
Files which are not essential can usually be identified with the command:
ls −ltru
This lists files in reverse order of date last accessed, so if any files are not being accessed, they can be omitted
from a root diskette.

On my root diskettes, I have the number of config files down to 15. This reduces my work to dealing with
three sets of files:

1. The ones I must configure for a boot/root system:

a. rc.d/* −− system startup and run level change scripts

b. fstab −− list of file systems to be mounted
c. inittab −− parameters for the init process, the first process started at boot time.
d. gettydefs −− parameters for the init process, the first process started at boot time.
2. The ones I should tidy up for a boot/root system:

a. passwd −− Critical list of users, home directories, etc.

b. group −− user groups.
c. shadow −− passwords of users. You may not have this.
d. termcap −− the terminal capability database.

If security is important, passwd and shadow should be pruned to avoid copying user passwords off
the system, and so that unwanted logins are rejected when you boot from diskette.

4.3.2. /etc 10
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Be sure that passwd contains at least root. If you intend other users to login, be sure their home
directories and shells exist.

termcap, the terminal database, is typically several hundred kilobytes. The version on your
boot/root diskette should be pruned down to contain only the terminal(s) you use, which is usually
just the linux or linux−console entry.

3. The rest. They work at the moment, so I leave them alone.

Out of this, I only really have to configure two files, and what they should contain is surprisingly small.

• rc should contain:
#!/bin/sh
/bin/mount −av
/bin/hostname Kangaroo
Be sure it is executable, be sure it has a "#!" line at the top, and be sure any absolute filenames are
correct. You don't really need to run hostname it just looks nicer if you do.
• fstab should contain at least:
/dev/ram0 / ext2 defaults
/dev/fd0 / ext2 defaults
/proc /proc proc defaults
You can copy entries from your existing fstab, but you should not automatically mount any of your hard
disk partitions; use the noauto keyword with them. Your hard disk may be damaged or dead when the
bootdisk is used.

Your inittab should be changed so that its sysinit line runs rc or whatever basic boot script will be
used. Also, if you want to ensure that users on serial ports cannot login, comment out all the entries for
getty which include a ttys or ttyS device at the end of the line. Leave in the tty ports so that you can
login at the console.

A minimal inittab file looks like this:

id:2:initdefault:
si::sysinit:/etc/rc
1:2345:respawn:/sbin/getty 9600 tty1
2:23:respawn:/sbin/getty 9600 tty2
The inittab file defines what the system will run in various states including startup, move to multi−user
mode, etc. Check carefully the filenames mentioned in inittab; if init cannot find the program
mentioned the bootdisk will hang, and you may not even get an error message.

Note that some programs cannot be moved elsewhere because other programs have hardcoded their locations.
For example, on my system, /etc/shutdown has hardcoded in it /etc/reboot. If I move reboot to
/bin/reboot, and then issue a shutdown command, it will fail because it cannot find the reboot file.

For the rest, just copy all the text files in your /etc directory, plus all the executables in your
/etc directory that you cannot be sure you do not need. As a guide, consult the sample listing in Appendix
C. Probably it will suffice to copy only those files, but systems differ a great deal, so you cannot be sure that
the same set of files on your system is equivalent to the files in the list. The only sure method is to start with
inittab and work out what is required.

Most systems now use an /etc/rc.d/ directory containing shell scripts for different run levels. The
minimum is a single rc script, but it may be simpler just to copy inittab and the /etc/rc.d directory

4.3.2. /etc 11
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from your existing system, and prune the shell scripts in the rc.d directory to remove processing not
relevent to a diskette system environment.

4.3.3. /bin and /sbin

The /bin directory is a convenient place for extra utilities you need to perform basic operations, utilities
such as ls, mv, cat and dd. See Appendix C for an example list of files that go in a /bin and
/sbin directories. It does not include any of the utilities required to restore from backup, such as cpio,
tar and gzip. That is because I place these on a separate utility diskette, to save space on the boot/root
diskette. Once the boot/root diskette is booted, it is copied to the ramdisk leaving the diskette drive free to
mount another diskette, the utility diskette. I usually mount this as /usr.

Creation of a utility diskette is described below in Section 9.2. It is probably desirable to maintain a copy of
the same version of backup utilities used to write the backups so you don't waste time trying to install
versions that cannot read your backup tapes.

Be sure to include the following programs: init,

getty or equivalent, login, mount, some shell
capable of running your rc scripts, a link from sh to the
shell.

4.3.4. /lib
In /lib you place necessary shared libraries and loaders. If the necessary libraries are not found in your
/lib directory then the system will be unable to boot. If you're lucky you may see an error message telling
you why.

Nearly every program requires at least the libc library, libc.so.N, where N is the current version
number. Check your /lib directory. The file libc.so.N is usually a symlink to a filename with a
complete version number:

% ls −l /lib/libc*
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 4016683 Apr 16 18:48 libc−2.1.1.so*
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 13 Apr 10 12:25 libc.so.6 −> libc−2.1.1.so*

In this case, you want libc−2.1.1.so. To find other libraries you should go through all the binaries you
plan to include and check their dependencies with ldd. For example:

% ldd /sbin/mke2fs
libext2fs.so.2 => /lib/libext2fs.so.2 (0x40014000)
libcom_err.so.2 => /lib/libcom_err.so.2 (0x40026000)
libuuid.so.1 => /lib/libuuid.so.1 (0x40028000)
libc.so.6 => /lib/libc.so.6 (0x4002c000)
/lib/ld−linux.so.2 => /lib/ld−linux.so.2 (0x40000000)
Each file on the right−hand side is required. The file may be a symbolic link.

Note that some libraries are quite large and will not fit easily on your root filesystem. For example, the
libc.so listed above is about 4 meg. You will probably need to strip libraries when copying them to your

4.3.3. /bin and /sbin 12

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root filesystem. See Section 8 for instructions.

In /lib you must also include a loader for the libraries. The loader will be either ld.so (for A.OUT
libraries, which are no longer common) or ld−linux.so (for ELF libraries). Newer versions of ldd tell
you exactly which loader is needed, as in the example above, but older versions may not. If you're unsure
which you need, run the file command on the library. For example:

% file /lib/libc.so.4.7.2 /lib/libc.so.5.4.33 /lib/libc−2.1.1.so

/lib/libc.so.4.7.2: Linux/i386 demand−paged executable (QMAGIC), stripped
/lib/libc.so.5.4.33: ELF 32−bit LSB shared object, Intel 80386, version 1, stripped
/lib/libc−2.1.1.so: ELF 32−bit LSB shared object, Intel 80386, version 1, not stripped
The QMAGIC indicates that 4.7.2 is for A.OUT libraries, and ELF indicates that 5.4.33 and 2.1.1 are
for ELF.

Copy the specific loader(s) you need to the root filesystem you're building. Libraries and loaders should be
checked carefully against the included binaries. If the kernel cannot load a necessary library, the kernel may
hang with no error message.

4.4. Providing for PAM and NSS

Your system may require dynamically loaded libraries that are not visible to ldd. If you don't provide for
these, you may have trouble logging in or using your bootdisk.

4.4.1. PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules)

If your system uses PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules), you must make some provision for it on your
bootdisk. Briefly, PAM is a sophisticated modular method for authenticating users and controlling their
access to services. An easy way to determine if your system uses PAM is run ldd on your
login executable; if the output includes libpam.so, you need PAM.

Fortunately, security is usually of no concern with bootdisks since anyone who has physical access to a
machine can usually do anything they want anyway. Therefore, you can effectively disable PAM by creating
a simple /etc/pam.conf file in your root filesystem that looks like this:

OTHER auth optional /lib/security/pam_permit.so

OTHER account optional /lib/security/pam_permit.so
OTHER password optional /lib/security/pam_permit.so
OTHER session optional /lib/security/pam_permit.so
Also copy the file /lib/security/pam_permit.so to your root filesystem. This library is only about
8K so it imposes minimal overhead.

This configuration allows anyone complete access to the files and services on your machine. If you care
about security on your bootdisk for some reason, you'll have to copy some or all of your hard disk's PAM
setup to your root filesystem. Be sure to read the PAM documentation carefully, and copy any libraries
needed in /lib/security onto your root filesystem.

You must also include /lib/libpam.so on your bootdisk. But you already know this since you ran ldd
on /bin/login, which showed this dependency.

4.4. Providing for PAM and NSS 13

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

4.4.2. NSS (Name Service Switch)

If you are using glibc (aka libc6), you will have to make provisions for name services or you will not be able
to login. The file /etc/nsswitch.conf controls database lookups for various servies. If you don't plan
to access services from the network (eg, DNS or NIS lookups), you need only prepare a simple
nsswitch.conf file that looks like this:

passwd: files
shadow: files
group: files
hosts: files
services: files
networks: files
protocols: files
rpc: files
ethers: files
netmasks: files
bootparams: files
automount: files
aliases: files
netgroup: files
publickey: files
This specifies that every service be provided only by local files. You will also need to include
/lib/libnss_files.so.X, where X is 1 for glibc 2.0 and 2 for glibc 2.1. This library will be loaded
dynamically to handle the file lookups.

If you plan to access the network from your bootdisk, you may want to create a more elaborate
nsswitch.conf file. See the nsswitch man page for details. You must include a file
/lib/libnss_service.so.1 for each service you specify.

4.5. Modules
If you have a modular kernel, you must consider which modules you may want to load from your bootdisk
after booting. You might want to include ftape and zftape modules if your backup tapes are on floppy tape,
modules for SCSI devices if you have them, and possibly modules for PPP or SLIP support if you want to
access the net in an emergency.

These modules may be placed in /lib/modules. You should also include insmod, rmmod and lsmod.
Depending on whether you want to load modules automatically, you might also include modprobe,
depmod and swapout. If you use kerneld, include it along with /etc/conf.modules.

However, the main advantage to using modules is that you can move non−critical modules to a utility disk
and load them when needed, thus using less space on your root disk. If you may have to deal with many
different devices, this approach is preferable to building one huge kernel with many drivers built in.

In order to boot a compressed ext2 filesystem, you must

have ramdisk and ext2 support built−in. They cannot be
supplied as modules.

4.4.2. NSS (Name Service Switch) 14

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

4.6. Some final details

Some system programs, such as login, complain if the file /var/run/utmp and the directory
/var/log do not exist. So:

mkdir −p /mnt/var/{log,run}
touch /mnt/var/run/utmp

Finally, after you have set up all the libraries you need, run ldconfig to remake /etc/ld.so.cache on
the root filesystem. The cache tells the loader where to find the libraries. You can do this with:

ldconfig −r /mnt

4.7. Wrapping it up
When you have finished constructing the root filesystem, unmount it, copy it to a file and compress it:

umount /mnt
dd if=DEVICE bs=1k | gzip −v9 > rootfs.gz
When this finishes you will have a file rootfs.gz. This is your compressed root filesystem. You should
check its size to make sure it will fit on a diskette; if it doesn't you'll have to go back and remove some files.
Some suggestions for reducing root filesystem size appear in Section 8.

4.6. Some final details 15

5. Choosing a kernel
At this point you have a complete compressed root filesystem. The next step is to build or select a kernel. In
most cases it would be possible to copy your current kernel and boot the diskette from that. However, there
may be cases where you wish to build a separate one.

One reason is size. If you are building a single boot/root diskette, the kernel will be one of the largest files on
the diskette so you will have to reduce the size of the kernel as much as possible. To reduce kernel size, build
it with the minumum set of facilities necessary to support the desired system. This means leaving out
everything you don't need. Networking is a good thing to leave out, as well as support for any disk drives and
other devices which you don't need when running your boot/root system. As stated before, your kernel
must have ramdisk and ext2 support built into it.

Having worked out a minimum set of facilities to include in a kernel, you then need to work out what to add
back in. Probably the most common uses for a boot/root diskette system would be to examine and restore a
corrupted root file system, and to do this you may need kernel support. For example, if your backups are all
held on tape using Ftape to access your tape drive, then, if you lose your current root drive and drives
containing Ftape, then you will not be able to restore from your backup tapes. You will have to reinstall
Linux, download and reinstall ftape, and then try to read your backups.

The point here is that, whatever I/O support you have added to your kernel to support backups should also be
added into your boot/root kernel.

The procedure for actually building the kernel is described in the documentation that comes with the kernel.
It is quite easy to follow, so start by looking in /usr/src/linux. If you have trouble building a kernel,
you should probably not attempt to build boot/root systems anyway. Remember to compress the kernel with
``make zImage''.

5. Choosing a kernel 16
6. Putting them together: Making the diskette(s)
At this point you have a kernel and a compressed root filesystem. If you are making a boot/root disk, check
their sizes to make sure they will both fit on one disk. If you are making a two disk boot+root set, check the
root filesystem to make sure it will fit on a single diskette.

You should decide whether to use LILO to boot the bootdisk kernel. The alternative is to copy the kernel
directly to the diskette and boot without LILO. The advantage of using LILO is that it enables you to supply
some parameters to the kernel which may be necessary to initialize your hardware (Check the file
/etc/lilo.conf on your system. If it exists and has a line like ``append=...'', you probably need this
feature). The disadvantage of using LILO is that building the bootdisk is more complicated and takes slightly
more space. You will have to set up a small separate filesystem, which we shall call the kernel filesystem,
where you transfer the kernel and a few other files that LILO needs.

If you are going to use LILO, read on; if you are going to transfer the kernel directly, skip ahead to Section
6.2.

6.1. Transferring the kernel with LILO

First, make sure you have a recent version of LILO.

You must create a small configuration file for LILO. It should look like this:

boot =/dev/fd0
install =/boot/boot.b
map =/boot/map
read−write
backup =/dev/null
compact
image = KERNEL
label = Bootdisk
root =/dev/fd0
For an explanation of these parameters, see LILO's user documentation. You will probably also want to add
an append=... line to this file from your hard disk's /etc/lilo.conf file.

Save this file as bdlilo.conf.

You now have to create a small filesystem, which we shall call a kernel filesystem, to distinguish it from the
root filesystem.

First, figure out how large the filesystem should be. Take the size of your kernel in blocks (the size shown by
``ls −s KERNEL'') and add 50. Fifty blocks is approximately the space needed for inodes plus other files.
You can calculate this number exactly if you want to, or just use 50. If you're creating a two−disk set, you
may as well overestimate the space since the first disk is only used for the kernel anyway. Call this number
KERNEL_BLOCKS.

Put a floppy diskette in the drive (for simplicity we'll assume /dev/fd0) and create an ext2 kernel
filesystem on it:

6. Putting them together: Making the diskette(s) 17

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

mke2fs −N 24 −m 0 /dev/fd0 KERNEL_BLOCKS

The ``−N 24'' specifies 24 inodes, which is all you should need for this filesystem. Next, mount the
filesystem, remove the lost+found directory, and create dev and boot directories for LILO:
mount −o dev /dev/fd0 /mnt
rm −rf /mnt/lost+found
mkdir /mnt/{boot,dev}

Next, create devices /dev/null and /dev/fd0. Instead of looking up the device numbers, you can just
copy them from your hard disk using −R:

cp −R /dev/{null,fd0} /mnt/dev
LILO needs a copy of its boot loader, boot.b, which you can take from your hard disk. It is usually kept in
the /boot directory.
cp /boot/boot.b /mnt/boot
Finally, copy in the LILO configuration file you created in the last section, along with your kernel. Both can
be put in the root directory:
cp bdlilo.conf KERNEL /mnt
Everything LILO needs is now on the kernel filesystem, so you are ready to run it. LILO's −r flag is used for
installing the boot loader on some other root:
lilo −v −C bdlilo.conf −r /mnt
LILO should run without error, after which the kernel filesystem should look something like this:
total 361
1 −rw−r−−r−− 1 root root 176 Jan 10 07:22 bdlilo.conf
1 drwxr−xr−x 2 root root 1024 Jan 10 07:23 boot/
1 drwxr−xr−x 2 root root 1024 Jan 10 07:22 dev/
358 −rw−r−−r−− 1 root root 362707 Jan 10 07:23 vmlinuz
boot:
total 8
4 −rw−r−−r−− 1 root root 3708 Jan 10 07:22 boot.b
4 −rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 3584 Jan 10 07:23 map
dev:
total 0
0 brw−r−−−−− 1 root root 2, 0 Jan 10 07:22 fd0
0 crw−r−−r−− 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 10 07:22 null

Do not worry if the file sizes are slightly different from yours.

Now leave the diskette in the drive and go to Section 6.3.

6.2. Transferring the kernel without LILO

If you are not using LILO, transfer the kernel to the bootdisk with dd:

% dd if=KERNEL of=/dev/fd0 bs=1k

353+1 records in
353+1 records out
In this example, dd wrote 353 complete records + 1 partial record, so the kernel occupies the first 354 blocks
of the diskette. Call this number KERNEL_BLOCKS and remember it for use in the next section.

Finally, set the root device to be the diskette itself, then set the root to be loaded read/write:

6.2. Transferring the kernel without LILO 18

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

rdev /dev/fd0 /dev/fd0

rdev −R /dev/fd0 0
Be careful to use a capital −R in the second rdev command.

6.3. Setting the ramdisk word

Inside the kernel image is the ramdisk word that specifies where the root filesystem is to be found, along with
other options. The word can be accessed and set via the rdev command, and its contents are interpreted as
follows:

Bit field Description

0−10 Offset to start of ramdisk, in 1024 byte blocks
11−13 unused
14 Flag indicating that ramdisk is to be loaded
15 Flag indicating to prompt before loading rootfs

If bit 15 is set, on boot−up you will be prompted to place a new floppy diskette in the drive. This is necessary
for a two−disk boot set.

There are two cases, depending on whether you are building a single boot/root diskette or a double
``boot+root'' diskette set.

1. If you are building a single disk, the compressed root filesystem will be placed right after the kernel,
so the offset will be the first free block (which should be the same as KERNEL_BLOCKS). Bit 14 will
be set to 1, and bit 15 will be zero. For example, say you're building a single disk and the root
filesystem will begin at block 253 (decimal). The ramdisk word value should be 253 (decimal) with
bit 14 set to 1 and bit 15 set to 0. To calculate the value you can simply add the decimal values. 253 +
(2^14) = 253 + 16384 = 16637. If you don't quite understand where this number comes from, plug it
into a scientific calculator and convert it to binary,
2. If you are building a two−disk set, the root filesystem will begin at block zero of the second disk, so
the offset will be zero. Bit 14 will be set to 1 and bit 15 will be 1. The decimal value will be 2^14 +
2^15 = 49152 in this case.

After carefully calculating the value for the ramdisk word, set it with rdev −r. Be sure to use the
decimal value. If you used LILO, the argument to rdev here should be the mounted kernel path, e.g.
/mnt/vmlinuz; if you copied the kernel with dd, instead use the floppy device name (e.g., /dev/fd0).

rdev −r KERNEL_OR_FLOPPY_DRIVE VALUE

If you used LILO, unmount the diskette now.

Do not believe what the rdev/ramsize manpage says about ramdisk size. The
manpage is obsolete. As of kernel 2.0 or so, the ramdisk word no longer
determines the ramdisk size; the word is instead interpreted according to the table
at the beginning of section Section 6.3. For a detailed explanation, see the

6.3. Setting the ramdisk word 19

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

documentation file ramdisk.txt or

http://www.linuxhq.com/kernel/v2.4/doc/ramdisk.txt.html.

6.4. Transferring the root filesystem

The last step is to transfer the root filesystem.

• If the root filesystem will be placed on the same disk as the kernel, transfer it using dd with the
seek option, which specifies how many blocks to skip:
dd if=rootfs.gz of=/dev/fd0 bs=1k seek=KERNEL_BLOCKS
• If the root filesystem will be placed on a second disk, remove the first diskette, put the second
diskette in the drive, then transfer the root filesystem to it:
dd if=rootfs.gz of=/dev/fd0 bs=1k

Congratulations, you are done!

You should always test a bootdisk before putting it aside

for an emergency. If it fails to boot, read on.

6.4. Transferring the root filesystem 20

7. Troubleshooting, or The Agony of Defeat
When building bootdisks, the first few tries often will not boot. The general approach to building a root disk
is to assemble components from your existing system, and try and get the diskette−based system to the point
where it displays messages on the console. Once it starts talking to you, the battle is half over because you
can see what it is complaining about, and you can fix individual problems until the system works smoothly. If
the system just hangs with no explanation, finding the cause can be difficult. The recommended procedure for
investigating the problem where the system will not talk to you is as follows:

• You may see a message like this:

Kernel panic: VFS: Unable to mount root fs on XX:YY
This is a common problem and it has only a few causes. First, check the device XX:YY against the list
of device codes in /usr/src/linux/Documentation/devices.txt. If it is incorrect, you
probably didn't do an rdev −R, or you did it on the wrong image. If the device code is correct, then
check carefully the device drivers compiled into your kernel. Make sure it has floppy disk, ramdisk
and ext2 filesystem support built−in.
• If you see many errors like:
end_request: I/O error, dev 01:00 (ramdisk), sector NNN
This is an I/O error from the ramdisk driver, usually because the kernel is trying to write beyond the
end of the device. The ramdisk is too small to hold the root filesystem. Check your bootdisk kernel's
initialization messages for a line like:
Ramdisk driver initialized : 16 ramdisks of 4096K size
Check this size against the uncompressed size of the root filesystem. If the ramdisks aren't large
enough, make them larger.
• Check that the root disk actually contains the directories you think it does. It is easy to copy at the
wrong level so that you end up with something like /rootdisk/bin instead of /bin on your root
diskette.
• Check that there is a /lib/libc.so with the same link that appears in your /lib directory on
your hard disk.
• Check that any symbolic links in your /dev directory in your existing system also exist on your root
diskette filesystem, where those links are to devices which you have included in your root diskette. In
particular, /dev/console links are essential in many cases.
• Check that you have included /dev/tty1, /dev/null, /dev/zero, /dev/mem,
/dev/ram and /dev/kmem files.
• Check your kernel configuration −− support for all resources required up to login point must be built
in, not modules. So ramdisk and ext2 support must be built−in.
• Check that your kernel root device and ramdisk settings are correct.

Once these general aspects have been covered, here are some more specific files to check:

1. Make sure init is included as /sbin/init or /bin/init. Make sure it is executable.

2. Run ldd init to check init's libraries. Usually this is just libc.so, but check anyway. Make sure
you included the necessary libraries and loaders.
3. Make sure you have the right loader for your libraries −− ld.so for a.out or ld−linux.so for
ELF.
4. Check the /etc/inittab on your bootdisk filesystem for the calls to getty (or some getty−like
program, such as agetty, mgetty or getty_ps). Double−check these against your hard disk
inittab. Check the man pages of the program you use to make sure these make sense.
inittab is possibly the trickiest part because its syntax and content depend on the init program

7. Troubleshooting, or The Agony of Defeat 21

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

used and the nature of the system. The only way to tackle it is to read the man pages for init and
inittab and work out exactly what your existing system is doing when it boots. Check to make
sure /etc/inittab has a system initialisation entry. This should contain a command to execute
the system initialization script, which must exist.
5. As with init, run ldd on your getty to see what it needs, and make sure the necessary library files and
loaders were included in your root filesystem.
6. Be sure you have included a shell program (e.g., bash or ash) capable of running all of your rc
scripts.
7. If you have a /etc/ld.so.cache file on your rescue disk, remake it.

If init starts, but you get a message like:

Id xxx respawning too fast: disabled for 5 minutes

it is coming from init, usually indicating that getty or login is dying as soon as it starts up. Check the
getty and login executables and the libraries they depend upon. Make sure the invocations in
/etc/inittab are correct. If you get strange messages from getty, it may mean the calling form in
/etc/inittab is wrong.

If you get a login prompt, and you enter a valid login name but the system prompts you for another login
name immediately, the problem may be with PAM or NSS. See Section 4.4. The problem may also be that
you use shadow passwords and didn't copy /etc/shadow to your bootdisk.

If you try to run some executable, such as df, which is on your rescue disk but you yields a message like:
df: not found, check two things: (1) Make sure the directory containing the binary is in your PATH,
and (2) make sure you have libraries (and loaders) the program needs.

7. Troubleshooting, or The Agony of Defeat 22

8. Reducing root filesystem size
One of the main problems with building bootdisks is getting everything to fit into one (or even two) diskettes.
Even when files are compressed this can be very difficult, because Linux system components keep growing.
Here are some common techniques used to make everything fit.

8.1. Increase the diskette density

By default, floppy diskettes are formatted at 1440K, but higher density formats are possible. Whether you can
boot from higher density disks depends mostly on your BIOS. fdformat will format disks for the following
sizes: 1600K, 1680K, 1722K, 1743K, 1760K, 1840K, and 1920K. See the fdformat man page and
/usr/src/linux/Documentation/devices.txt.

But what diskette densities/geometries will your machine support? Here are some (lightly edited) answers
from Alain Knaff, the author of fdutils.

This is more an issue of the BIOS rather than the physical format of the disk. If the BIOS
decides that any sector number greater than 18 is bad, then there is not much we can do.
Indeed, short of disassembling the BIOS, trial and error seems to be the only way to find out.
However, if the BIOS supports ED disks (extra density: 36 sectors/track and 2.88MB),
there's a chance that 1722K disks are supported as well.

Superformatted disks with more than 21 sectors/track are likely not bootable: indeed, those
use sectors of non−standard sizes (1024 bytes in a sector instead of 512, for example), and
are likely not bootable. It should however be possible to write a special bootsector program
to work around this. If I remember correctly, the DOS 2m utility has such a beast, as does
OS/2's XDF utilities.

Some BIOSes artificially claim that any sector number greater than 18 must be in error. As
1722K disks use sector numbers up to 21, these would not be bootable. The best way to test
would be to format a test DOS or syslinus disk as 1722K and make it bootable. If you use
LILO, don't use the option linear (or else LILO would assume that the disk is the default 18
sectors/track, and the disk will fail to boot even if supported by the BIOS).

8.2. Replace common utilities with BusyBox

Much root filesystem space is consumed by common GNU system utilities such as cat, chmod, cp,
dd, df, etc. The BusyBox project was designed to provide minimal replacements for these common system
utilities. BusyBox supplies one single monolithic executable file, /bin/busybox, about 150K, which
implements the functions of these utilities. You then create symlinks from different utilities to this
executable; busybox sees how it was called and invokes the correct code. BusyBox even includes a basic
shell. BusyBox is available in binary packages for many distributions, and source code is available from the
BusyBox site.

8. Reducing root filesystem size 23

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

8.3. Use an alternate shell

Some of the popular shells for Linux, such as bash and tcsh, are large and require many libraries. If you don't
use the BusyBox shell, you should still consider replacing your shell anyway. Some light−weight alternatives
are ash, lsh, kiss and smash, which are much smaller and require few (or no) libraries. Most of these
replacement shells are available from http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/Linux/system/shells/.
Make sure any shell you use is capable of running commands in all the rc files you include on your bootdisk.

8.4. Strip libraries and binaries

Many libraries and binaries are distributed with debugging information. Running file on these files will tell
you ``not stripped'' if so. When copying binaries to your root filesystem, it is good practice to use:

objcopy −−strip−all FROM TO

When copying libraries, be sure to use strip−debug instead

of strip−all.

8.5. Move files to a utility disk

If some of your binaries are not needed immediately to boot or login, you can move them to a utility disk. See
Section 9.2 for details. You may also consider moving modules to a utility disk as well.

8.3. Use an alternate shell 24

9. Miscellaneous topics
9.1. Non−ramdisk root filesystems
Section 4 gave instructions for building a compressed root filesystem which is loaded to ramdisk when the
system boots. This method has many advantages so it is commonly used. However, some systems with little
memory cannot afford the RAM needed for this, and they must use root filesystems mounted directly from
the diskette.

Such filesystems are actually easier to build than compressed root filesystems because they can be built on a
diskette rather than on some other device, and they do not have to be compressed. We will outline the
procedure as it differs from the instructions above. If you choose to do this, keep in mind that you will have
much less space available.

1. Calculate how much space you will have available for root files. If you are building a single boot/root
disk, you must fit all blocks for the kernel plus all blocks for the root filesystem on the one disk.
2. Using mke2fs, create a root filesystem on a diskette of the appropriate size.
3. Populate the filesystem as described above.
4. When done, unmount the filesystem and transfer it to a disk file but do not compress it.
5. Transfer the kernel to a floppy diskette, as described above. When calculating the ramdisk word, set
bit 14 to zero, to indicate that the root filesystem is not to be loaded to ramdisk. Run the rdev's as
described.
6. Transfer the root filesystem as before.

There are several shortcuts you can take. If you are building a two−disk set, you can build the complete root
filesystem directly on the second disk and you need not transfer it to a hard disk file and then back. Also, if
you are building a single boot/root disk and using LILO, you can build a single filesystem on the entire disk,
containing the kernel, LILO files and root files, and simply run LILO as the last step.

9.2. Building a utility disk

Building a utility disk is relatively easy −− simply create a filesystem on a formatted disk and copy files to it.
To use it with a bootdisk, mount it manually after the system is booted.

In the instructions above, we mentioned that the utility disk could be mounted as /usr. In this case, binaries
could be placed into a /bin directory on your utility disk, so that placing /usr/bin in your path will
access them. Additional libraries needed by the binaries are placed in /lib on the utility disk.

There are several important points to keep in mind when designing a utility disk:

1. Do not place critical system binaries or libraries onto the utility disk, since it will not be mountable
until after the system has booted.
2. You cannot access a floppy diskette and a floppy tape drive simultaneously. This means that if you
have a floppy tape drive, you will not be able to access it while your utility disk is mounted.
3. Access to files on the utility disk will be slow.

Appendix D shows a sample of files on a utility disk. Here are some ideas for files you may find useful:
programs for examining and manipulating disks (format, fdisk) and filesystems (mke2fs, fsck, debugfs,

9. Miscellaneous topics 25
 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

isofs.o), a lightweight text editor (elvis, jove), compression and archive utilities (gzip, bzip, tar, cpio, afio),
tape utilities (mt, ftmt, tob, taper), communications utilities (ppp.o, slip.o, minicom) and utilities for
devices (setserial, mknod).

9. Miscellaneous topics 26
10. How the pros do it
You may notice that the bootdisks used by major distributions such as Slackware, RedHat or Debian seem
more sophisticated than what is described in this document. Professional distribution bootdisks are based on
the same principles outlined here, but employ various tricks because their bootdisks have additional
requirements. First, they must be able to work with a wide variety of hardware, so they must be able to
interact with the user and load various device drivers. Second, they must be prepared to work with many
different installation options, with varying degrees of automation. Finally, distribution bootdisks usually
combine installation and rescue capabilities.

Some bootdisks use a feature called initrd (initial ramdisk). This feature was introduced around 2.0.x and
allows a kernel to boot in two phases. When the kernel first boots, it loads an initial ramdisk image from the
boot disk. This initial ramdisk is a root filesystem containing a program that runs before the real root fs is
loaded. This program usually inspects the environment and/or asks the user to select various boot options,
such as the device from which to load the real rootdisk. It typically loads additional modules not built in to
the kernel. When this initial program exits, the kernel loads the real root image and booting continues
normally. For further information on initrd, see your local file
/usr/src/linux/Documentation/initrd.txt and
ftp://elserv.ffm.fgan.de/pub/linux/loadlin−1.6/initrd−example.tgz

The following are summaries of how each distribution's installation disks seem to work, based on inspecting
their filesystems and/or source code. We do not guarantee that this information is completely accurate, or that
they have not changed since the versions noted.

Slackware (v.3.1) uses a straightforward LILO boot similar to what is described in Section 6.1. The
Slackware bootdisk prints a bootup message (Welcome to the Slackware Linux bootkernel
disk!) using LILO's message parameter. This instructs the user to enter a boot parameter line if
necessary. After booting, a root filesystem is loaded from a second disk. The user invokes a setup script
which starts the installation. Instead of using a modular kernel, Slackware provides many different kernels
and depends upon the user to select the one matching his or her hardware requirements.

RedHat (v.4.0) also uses a LILO boot. It loads a compressed ramdisk on the first disk, which runs a custom
init program. This program queries for drivers then loads additional files from a supplemental disk if
necessary.

Debian (v.1.3) is probably the most sophisticated of the installation disk sets. It uses the SYSLINUX loader
to arrange various load options, then uses an initrd image to guide the user through installation. It appears
to use both a customized init and a customized shell.

10. How the pros do it 27

11. Creating bootable CD−ROMs

This section was contributed by Rizwan Mohammed Darwe

(rizwan AT clovertechnologies dot com)

This section assumes that you are familiar with the process and workings of writing CDs in linux. Consider
this to be a quick reference to include the ability to boot the CD which you will burn. The
CD−Writing−HOWTO should give you an in−depth reference.

11.1. What is El Torito?

For the x86 platform, many BIOS's have begun to support bootable CDs. The patches for mkisofs is based on
the standard called "El Torito". Simply put, El Torito is a specification that says how a cdrom should be
formatted such that you can directly boot from it.

The "El Torito" spec says that any cdrom drive should work (SCSI or EIDE) as long as the BIOS supports El
Torito. So far this has only been tested with EIDE drives because none of the SCSI controllers that has been
tested so far appears to support El Torito. The motherboard definately has to support El Torito. How do you
know if your motherboard supports "El Torito"? Well, the ones that support it let you choose booting from
hard disk, Floppy, Network or CDROM.

11.2. How it Works

The El Torito standard works by making the CD drive appear, through BIOS calls, to be a normal floppy
drive. This way you simply put any floppy size image (exactly 1440k for a 1.44 meg floppy) somewhere in
the ISO filesystem. In the headers of the ISO fs you place a pointer to this image. The BIOS will then grab
this image from the CD and for all purposes it acts as if it were booting from the floppy drive. This allows a
working LILO boot disk, for example, to simply be used as is.

Roughly speaking, the first 1.44 (or 2.88 if supported) Mbytes of the CD−ROM contains a floppy−disk image
supplied by you. This image is treated like a floppy by the BIOS and booted from. (As a consequence, while
booting from this virtual floppy, your original drive A: (/dev/fd0) may not be accessible, but you can try
with /dev/fd1).

11.3. How to make it work

First create a file, say "boot.img", which is an exact image of the bootable floppy−disk which you want to
boot via the CD−ROM. This must be an 1.44 MB bootable floppy−disk. The command below will do this

dd if=/dev/fd0 of=boot.img bs=10k count=144

assuming the floppy is in the A: drive.

Place this image somewhere in the hierarchy which will be the source for the iso9660 filesystem. It is a good

11. Creating bootable CD−ROMs 28

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

idea to put all boot related files in their own directory ("boot/" under the root of the iso9660 fs, for example).

One caveat −− Your boot floppy must load any initial ramdisk via LILO, not the kernel ramdisk driver! This
is because once the linux kernel starts up, the BIOS emulation of the CD as a floppy disk is circumvented and
will fail. LILO will load the initial ramdisk using BIOS disk calls, so the emulation works as designed.

The El Torito specification requires a "boot catalog" to be created as well. This is a 2048 byte file which is of
no interest except it is required. The patchwork done by the author of mkisofs will cause it to automatically
create the boot catalog, but you must specify where the boot catalog will go in the iso9660 filesystem.
Usually it is a good idea to put it in the same place as the boot image, and a name like
boot.catalog seems appropriate.

So we have our boot image in the file boot.img, and we are going to put it in the directory boot/ under
the root of the iso9660 filesystem. We will have the boot catalog go in the same directory with the name
boot.catalog. The command to create the iso9660 fs in the file bootcd.iso is then:

mkisofs −r −b boot/boot.img −c boot/boot.catalog −o bootcd.iso .

The −b option specifies the boot image to be used (note the path is relative to the root of the iso9660 disk),
and the −c option is for the boot catalog file. The −r option will make approptiate file ownerships and modes
(see the mkisofs manpage). The "." in the end says to take the source from the current directory.

Now burn the CD with the usual cdrecord command and it is ready to boot.

11.4. Create Win9x Bootable CD−Roms

The first step is to get hold of the bootable image used by the source CD. But you cannot simply mount the
CD under linux and dd the first 1440k to a floppy disk or to a file like boot.img. Instead you simply boot
with the source CD−ROM.

When you boot the Win98 CD you are dropped to A: prompt which is the actual ramdisk. And D: or Z: is
where all the installables are residing. By using the diskcopy command of dos copy the A: image into the
actual floppy drive which is now B: The command below will do this.

diskcopy A: B:
It works just like dd. You can try booting from this newly created disk to test if the booting process is similar
to that of the source CD. Then the usual dd of this floppy to a file like boot.img and then rest is as usual.

11.4. Create Win9x Bootable CD−Roms 29

12. Frequently Asked Question (FAQ) list
Q: I boot from my boot/root disks and nothing happens. What do I do?
Q: How does the Slackware/Debian/RedHat bootdisk work?
Q: How do I use higher−density (> 1440K) diskettes? How do I figure out which densities will work with my
diskette drive?
Q: How do I increase the size of my ramdisks?
Q: How do I make bootable CD−ROMs?
Q: How do I make bootable LS−120 disks?
Q: How can I make a boot disk with a XYZ driver?
Q: How do I update my root diskette with new files?
Q: How do I remove LILO so that I can use DOS to boot again?
Q: How can I boot if I've lost my kernel and my boot disk?
Q: How can I make extra copies of boot/root diskettes?
Q: How can I boot without typing in ahaxxxx=nn,nn,nn every time?
Q: At boot time, I get error A: cannot execute B. Why?
Q: My kernel has ramdisk support, but initializes ramdisks of 0K. Why?

Q: I boot from my boot/root disks and nothing happens. What do I do?

A: See Section 7, above.

Q: How does the Slackware/Debian/RedHat bootdisk work?

A: See Section 10, above.

Q: How do I use higher−density (> 1440K) diskettes? How do I figure out which densities will work with my
diskette drive?

A: See Section Section 8, above, for the comments by Alain Knaff on this subject. His is the most
authoritative answer I know of.

Q: How do I increase the size of my ramdisks?

A: This probably should be explained better in the text, but I'll put an answer here for the time being.

First, do not attempt to use the rdev or ramsize commands to do this, no matter what their documentation
says. The ramdisk word no longer determines the size of ramdisks.

Second, keep in mind that ramdisks are actually dynamic; when you set a ramdisk size you aren't allocating
any memory, you're just setting the limit of how large it can grow. Don't be afraid to set these fairly large (eg,
8 or even 16 meg). The RAM space is not actually consumed until you need it. You can set these limits in
one of several ways.

1. Use the ramdisk_size=NNN command line parameter. You can either enter this manually or use a
command like append="ramdisk_size=NNN" with LILO.
2. If you're using LILO, you can use a kernel option like ramdisk=8192K in the lilo.conf file.
3. Change the kernel configuration option CONFIG_BLK_DEV_RAM_SIZE and recompile your
kernel.

12. Frequently Asked Question (FAQ) list 30

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

Q: How do I make bootable CD−ROMs?

A: See section Section 11.

Q: How do I make bootable LS−120 disks?

A: Since I don't have an LS−120 drive, the following information is summarized from information provided
by Dave Cinege from the Linux Router Project.

The LS−120 is an IDE floppy drive. It is compatible with both standard 3.5" disks and the new 120MB disks.
As of Linux v2.0.31 there is full support. To be able to boot from these you must have a BIOS that
specifically allows the LS−120 to be treated as drive 0 (whereas IDE devices normally start at 80). If you do
not have BIOS support, you can purchase a small IDE FloppyMAX card from Promise Technologies to
overcome this deficiency.

The kernel boot loader does not like the LS−120, and instantly dies. Also 2m disks do not like it and will not
boot. 1.44MB through 1.74MB disks will work fine. SYSLINUX works with the 120MB disks as of v1.32.
You would better off partitioning the disk and using ext2 or minix, instead of SYSLINUX unless you need
MS−DOS compatibility.

LILO does work fine with 120MB disks. Here is a sample lilo.conf:

boot=/dev/hda
compact
disk=/dev/hda bios=0
install=/floppy/boot.b
map=/floppy/map
image=/floppy/linux
label=Linux
append="load_ramdisk=1"
initrd=/floppy/root.bin
ramdisk=8192
The line "disk=/dev/hda bios=0" is what does the trick to make it boot the LS−120.

Q: How can I make a boot disk with a XYZ driver?

A: The easiest way is to obtain a Slackware kernel from your nearest Slackware mirror site. Slackware
kernels are generic kernels which atttempt to include drivers for as many devices as possible, so if you have a
SCSI or IDE controller, chances are that a driver for it is included in the Slackware kernel.

Go to the a1 directory and select either IDE or SCSI kernel depending on the type of controller you have.
Check the xxxxkern.cfg file for the selected kernel to see the drivers which have been included in that kernel.
If the device you want is in that list, then the corresponding kernel should boot your computer. Download the
xxxxkern.tgz file and copy it to your boot diskette as described above in the section on making boot disks.

You must then check the root device in the kernel, using the command rdev zImage. If this is not the same as
the root device you want, use rdev to change it. For example, the kernel I tried was set to /dev/sda2, but
my root SCSI partition is /dev/sda8. To use a root diskette, you would have to use the command rdev
zImage /dev/fd0.

If you want to know how to set up a Slackware root disk as well, that's outside the scope of this HOWTO, so
I suggest you check the Linux Install Guide or get the Slackware distribution. See the section in this HOWTO

12. Frequently Asked Question (FAQ) list 31

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

titled ``References''.

Q: How do I update my root diskette with new files?

A: The easiest way is to copy the filesystem from the rootdisk back to the DEVICE you used (from Section
4.2, above). Then mount the filesystem and make the changes. You have to remember where your root
filesystem started and how many blocks it occupied:

dd if=/dev/fd0 bs=1k skip=ROOTBEGIN count=BLOCKS | gunzip > DEVICE

mount −t ext2 DEVICE /mnt
After making the changes, proceed as before (in Section 4.7) and transfer the root filesystem back to the disk.
You should not have to re−transfer the kernel or re−compute the ramdisk word if you do not change the
starting position of the new root filesystem.

Q: How do I remove LILO so that I can use DOS to boot again?

A: This is not really a Bootdisk topic, but it is asked often. Within Linux, you can run:

/sbin/lilo −u

You can also use the dd command to copy the backup saved by LILO to the boot sector. Refer to the LILO
documentation if you wish to do this.

Within DOS and Windows you can use the DOS command:

FDISK /MBR
MBR stands for Master Boot Record. This command replaces the boot sector with a clean DOS one, without
affecting the partition table. Some purists disagree with this, but even the author of LILO, Werner
Almesberger, suggests it. It is easy, and it works.

Q: How can I boot if I've lost my kernel and my boot disk?

A: If you don't have a boot disk standing by, probably the easiest method is to obtain a Slackware kernel for
your disk controller type (IDE or SCSI) as described above for ``How do I make a boot disk with a XXX
driver?''. You can then boot your computer using this kernel, then repair whatever damage there is.

The kernel you get may not have the root device set to the disk type and partition you want. For example,
Slackware's generic SCSI kernel has the root device set to /dev/sda2, whereas my root Linux partition
happens to be /dev/sda8. In this case the root device in the kernel will have to be changed.

You can still change the root device and ramdisk settings in the kernel even if all you have is a kernel, and
some other operating system, such as DOS.

rdev changes kernel settings by changing the values at fixed offsets in the kernel file, so you can do the same
if you have a hex editor available on whatever systems you do still have running −− for example, Norton
Utilities Disk Editor under DOS. You then need to check and if necessary change the values in the kernel at
the following offsets:

HEX DEC DESCRIPTION

0x01F8 504 Low byte of RAMDISK word
0x01F9 505 High byte of RAMDISK word

12. Frequently Asked Question (FAQ) list 32

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

0x01FC 508 Root minor device number − see below

0X01FD 509 Root major device number − see below

The interpretation of the ramdisk word was described in Section 6.3, above.

The major and minor device numbers must be set to the device you want to mount your root filesystem on.
Some useful values to select from are:

DEVICE MAJOR MINOR

/dev/fd0 2 0 1st floppy drive
/dev/hda1 3 1 partition 1 on 1st IDE drive
/dev/sda1 8 1 partition 1 on 1st SCSI drive
/dev/sda8 8 8 partition 8 on 1st SCSI drive
Once you have set these values then you can write the file to a diskette using either Norton Utilities Disk
Editor, or a program called rawrite.exe. This program is included in all distributions. It is a DOS program
which writes a file to the ``raw'' disk, starting at the boot sector, instead of writing it to the file system. If you
use Norton Utilities you must write the file to a physical disk starting at the beginning of the disk.

Q: How can I make extra copies of boot/root diskettes?

A: Because magnetic media may deteriorate over time, you should keep several copies of your rescue disk, in
case the original is unreadable.

The easiest way of making copies of any diskettes, including bootable and utility diskettes, is to use the
dd command to copy the contents of the original diskette to a file on your hard drive, and then use the same
command to copy the file back to a new diskette. Note that you do not need to, and should not, mount the
diskettes, because dd uses the raw device interface.

To copy the original, enter the command:

dd if=DEVICENAME of=FILENAME
where DEVICENAME is the device name of the diskette drive and FILENAME is the name of the
(hard−disk) output file. Omitting the count parameter causes dd to copy the whole diskette (2880 blocks if
high−density).

To copy the resulting file back to a new diskette, insert the new diskette and enter the reverse command:

dd if=FILENAME of=DEVICENAME

Note that the above discussion assumes that you have only one diskette drive. If you have two of the same
type, you can copy diskettes using a command like:

dd if=/dev/fd0 of=/dev/fd1

Q: How can I boot without typing in ahaxxxx=nn,nn,nn every time?

A: Where a disk device cannot be autodetected it is necessary to supply the kernel with a command device
parameter string, such as:

aha152x=0x340,11,3,1
This parameter string can be supplied in several ways using LILO:

12. Frequently Asked Question (FAQ) list 33

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

• By entering it on the command line every time the system is booted via LILO. This is boring, though.
• By using LILO's lock keyword to make it store the command line as the default command line, so
that LILO will use the same options every time it boots.
• By using the append= statement in the LILO config file. Note that the parameter string must be
enclosed in quotes.

For example, a sample command line using the above parameter string would be:

zImage aha152x=0x340,11,3,1 root=/dev/sda1 lock

This would pass the device parameter string through, and also ask the kernel to set the root device to
/dev/sda1 and save the whole command line and reuse it for all future boots.

A sample APPEND statement is:

APPEND = aha152x=0x340,11,3,1

Note that the parameter string must not be enclosed in quotes on the command line, but it must be enclosed in
quotes in the APPEND statement.

Note also that for the parameter string to be acted on, the kernel must contain the driver for that disk type. If
it does not, then there is nothing listening for the parameter string, and you will have to rebuild the kernel to
include the required driver. For details on rebuilding the kernel, go to /usr/src/linux and read the
README, and read the Linux FAQ and Installation HOWTO. Alternatively you could obtain a generic
kernel for the disk type and install that.

Readers are strongly urged to read the LILO documentation before experimenting with LILO installation.
Incautious use of the BOOT statement can damage partitions.

Q: At boot time, I get error A: cannot execute B. Why?

A: There are several cases of program names being hardcoded in various utilities. These cases do not occur
everywhere, but they may explain why an executable apparently cannot be found on your system even though
you can see that it is there. You can find out if a given program has the name of another hardcoded by using
the strings command and piping the output through grep.

Known examples of hardcoding are:

• shutdown in some versions has /etc/reboot hardcoded, so reboot must be placed in the
/etc directory.
• init has caused problems for at least one person, with the kernel being unable to find init.

To fix these problems, either move the programs to the correct directory, or change configuration files (e.g.
inittab) to point to the correct directory. If in doubt, put programs in the same directories as they are on
your hard disk, and use the same inittab and /etc/rc.d files as they appear on your hard disk.

Q: My kernel has ramdisk support, but initializes ramdisks of 0K. Why?

A: Where this occurs, a kernel message like this will appear as the kernel is booting:

12. Frequently Asked Question (FAQ) list 34

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

Ramdisk driver initialized : 16 ramdisks of 0K size

This is probably because the size has been set to 0 by kernel parameters at boot time. This could possibly be
because of an overlooked LILO configuration file parameter:

ramdisk= 0

This was included in sample LILO configuration files in some older distributions, and was put there to
override any previous kernel setting. If you have such a line, remove it.

Note that if you attempt to use a ramdisk of 0 size, the behaviour can be unpredictable, and can result in
kernel panics.

12. Frequently Asked Question (FAQ) list 35

A. Resources and pointers
When retrieving a package, always get the latest version unless you have good reasons for not doing so.

A. Resources and pointers 36

A.1. Pre−made Bootdisks
These are sources for distribution bootdisks. Please use one of the mirror sites to reduce the load on these
machines.

• Slackware bootdisks, rootdisks and Slackware mirror sites

• RedHat bootdisks and Red Hat mirror sites
• Debian bootdisks and Debian mirror sites
• Mandrake downloads

In addition to the distribution bootdisks, the following rescue disk images are available. Unless otherwise
specified, these are available in the directory
http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/Linux/system/recovery/!INDEX.html

• RIP is a boot/rescue system which comes in several versions: one that fits on a 1.44M floppy
diskette and one that fits on a CD−ROM. It has large file support and many utility programs for disk
maintenance and rescue. It has support for ext2, ext3, iso9660, msdos, ntfs, reiserfs, ufs and vfat. RIP
is available from http://www.tux.org/pub/people/kent−robotti/looplinux/rip/index.html
• tomsrtbt, by Tom Oehser, is a single−disk boot/root disk based on kernel 2.0, with a large set of
features and support programs. It supports IDE, SCSI, tape, network adaptors, PCMCIA and more.
About 100 utility programs and tools are included for fixing and restoring disks. The package also
includes scripts for disassembling and reconstructing the images so that new material can be added if
necessary.
• rescue02, by John Comyns, is a rescue disk based on kernel 1.3.84, with support for IDE and
Adaptec 1542 and NCR53C7,8xx. It uses ELF binaries but it has enough commands so that it can be
used on any system. There are modules that can be loaded after booting for all other SCSI cards. It
probably won't work on systems with 4 mb of ram since it uses a 3 mb ram disk.
• resque_disk−2.0.22, by Sergei Viznyuk, is a full−featured boot/root disk based on kernel
2.0.22 with built−in support for IDE, many difference SCSI controllers, and ELF/AOUT. Also
includes many modules and useful utilities for repairing and restoring a hard disk.
• cramdisk images, based on the 2.0.23 kernel, available for 4 meg and 8 meg machines. They
include math emulation and networking (PPP and dialin script, NE2000, 3C509), or support for the
parallel port ZIP drive. These diskette images will boot on a 386 with 4MB RAM. MSDOS support is
included so you can download from the net to a DOS partition.

A.1. Pre−made Bootdisks 37

A.2. Rescue packages
Several packages for creating rescue disks are available on www.ibiblio.org. With these packages you specify
a set of files for inclusion and the software automates (to varying degrees) the creation of a bootdisk. See
http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/Linux/system/recovery/!INDEX.html for more
information. Check the file dates carefully. Some of these packages have not been updated in several years
and will not support the creation of a compressed root filesystem loaded into ramdisk. To the best of our
knowledge, Yard is the only package that will.

A.2. Rescue packages 38

A.3. LILO −− the Linux loader
Written by Werner Almesberger. Excellent boot loader, and the documentation includes information on the
boot sector contents and the early stages of the boot process.

Ftp from ftp://tsx−11.mit.edu/pub/linux/packages/lilo/. It is also available on Metalab and mirrors.

A.3. LILO −− the Linux loader 39

A.4. Ramdisk usage
An excellent description of the how the ramdisk code works may be found with the documentation supplied
with the Linux kernel. See /usr/src/linux/Documentation/ramdisk.txt. It is written by Paul
Gortmaker and includes a section on creating a compressed ramdisk.

A.4. Ramdisk usage 40

A.5. The Linux boot process
For more detail on the Linux boot process, here are some pointers:

• The Linux System Administrators' Guide has a section on booting.

• The LILO ``Technical overview'' has the definitive technical, low−level description of the boot
process, up to where the kernel is started.
• The source code is the ultimate guide. Below are some kernel files related to the boot process. If you
have the Linux kernel source code, you can find these under /usr/src/linux on your machine;
alternatively, Shigio Yamaguchi (shigio at tamacom.com) has a very nice hypertext kernel
browser for reading kernel source files. Here are some relevant files to look at:

arch/i386/boot/bootsect.S and setup.S

Contain assembly code for the bootsector itself.

arch/i386/boot/compressed/misc.c

Contains code for uncompressing the kernel.

arch/i386/kernel/

Directory containing kernel initialization code. setup.c defines the ramdisk word.

drivers/block/rd.c

Contains the ramdisk driver. The procedures rd_load and rd_load_image load blocks from a device
into a ramdisk. The procedure identify_ramdisk_image determines what kind of filesystem is found
and whether it is compressed.

A.5. The Linux boot process 41

B. LILO boot error codes
Questions about these codes are asked so often on Usenet that we include them here as a public service. This
summary is excerpted from Werner Almsberger's LILO User Documentation.

When LILO loads itself, it displays the word LILO. Each letter is printed before or after performing some
specific action. If LILO fails at some point, the letters printed so far can be used to identify the problem.

Output Problem
(nothing) No part of LILO has been loaded. LILO either isn't installed or the partition on which its boot
sector is located isn't active.
L The first stage boot loader has been loaded and started, but it can't load the second stage boot
loader. The two−digit error codes indicate the type of problem. (See also section ``Disk error
codes''.) This condition usually indicates a media failure or a geometry mismatch (e.g. bad
disk parameters).
LI The first stage boot loader was able to load the second stage boot loader, but has failed to
execute it. This can either be caused by a geometry mismatch or by moving
/boot/boot.b without running the map installer.
LIL The second stage boot loader has been started, but it can't load the descriptor table from the
map file. This is typically caused by a media failure or by a geometry mismatch.
LIL? The second stage boot loader has been loaded at an incorrect address. This is typically caused
by a subtle geometry mismatch or by moving /boot/boot.b without running the map
installer.
LIL− The descriptor table is corrupt. This can either be caused by a geometry mismatch or by
moving /boot/map without running the map installer.
LILO All parts of LILO have been successfully loaded.

If the BIOS signals an error when LILO is trying to load a boot image, the respective error code is displayed.
These codes range from 0x00 through 0xbb. See the LILO User Guide for an explanation of these.

B. LILO boot error codes 42

C. Sample root filesystem listings
/:
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 bin
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 4096 Nov 1 15:39 dev
drwx−−x−−x 3 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 etc
drwx−−x−−x 4 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 lib
drwx−−x−−x 5 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 mnt
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 proc
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 root
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 sbin
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 tmp
drwx−−x−−x 7 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 usr
drwx−−x−−x 5 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 var

/bin:
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 62660 Nov 1 15:39 ash
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 9032 Nov 1 15:39 cat
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 10276 Nov 1 15:39 chmod
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 9592 Nov 1 15:39 chown
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 23124 Nov 1 15:39 cp
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 23028 Nov 1 15:39 date
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 14052 Nov 1 15:39 dd
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 14144 Nov 1 15:39 df
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 69444 Nov 1 15:39 egrep
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 395 Nov 1 15:39 false
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 69444 Nov 1 15:39 fgrep
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 69444 Nov 1 15:39 grep
−rwx−−x−−x 3 root root 45436 Nov 1 15:39 gunzip
−rwx−−x−−x 3 root root 45436 Nov 1 15:39 gzip
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 8008 Nov 1 15:39 hostname
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 12736 Nov 1 15:39 ln
−rws−−x−−x 1 root root 15284 Nov 1 15:39 login
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 29308 Nov 1 15:39 ls
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 8268 Nov 1 15:39 mkdir
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 8920 Nov 1 15:39 mknod
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 24836 Nov 1 15:39 more
−rws−−x−−x 1 root root 37640 Nov 1 15:39 mount
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 12240 Nov 1 15:39 mt
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 12932 Nov 1 15:39 mv
−r−x−−x−−x 1 root root 12324 Nov 1 15:39 ps
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 5388 Nov 1 15:39 pwd
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 10092 Nov 1 15:39 rm
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 3 Nov 1 15:39 sh −> ash
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 25296 Nov 1 15:39 stty
−rws−−x−−x 1 root root 12648 Nov 1 15:39 su
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 4444 Nov 1 15:39 sync
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 19712 Nov 1 15:39 touch
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 395 Nov 1 15:39 true
−rws−−x−−x 1 root root 19084 Nov 1 15:39 umount
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 5368 Nov 1 15:39 uname
−rwx−−x−−x 3 root root 45436 Nov 1 15:39 zcat

/dev:
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 6 Nov 1 15:39 cdrom −> cdu31a
brw−rw−r−− 1 root root 15, 0 May 5 1998 cdu31a
crw−−−−−−− 1 root root 4, 0 Nov 1 15:29 console
crw−rw−rw− 1 root uucp 5, 64 Sep 9 19:46 cua0
crw−rw−rw− 1 root uucp 5, 65 May 5 1998 cua1
crw−rw−rw− 1 root uucp 5, 66 May 5 1998 cua2

C. Sample root filesystem listings 43

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

crw−rw−rw− 1 root uucp 5, 67 May 5 1998 cua3

brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 0 Aug 8 13:54 fd0
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 36 Aug 8 13:54 fd0CompaQ
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 84 Aug 8 13:55 fd0D1040
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 88 Aug 8 13:55 fd0D1120
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 12 Aug 8 13:54 fd0D360
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 16 Aug 8 13:54 fd0D720
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 120 Aug 8 13:55 fd0D800
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 32 Aug 8 13:54 fd0E2880
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 104 Aug 8 13:55 fd0E3200
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 108 Aug 8 13:55 fd0E3520
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 112 Aug 8 13:55 fd0E3840
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 28 Aug 8 13:54 fd0H1440
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 124 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H1600
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 44 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H1680
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 60 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H1722
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 76 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H1743
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 96 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H1760
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 116 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H1840
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 100 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H1920
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 7 Nov 1 15:39 fd0H360 −> fd0D360
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 7 Nov 1 15:39 fd0H720 −> fd0D720
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 52 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H820
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 68 Aug 8 13:55 fd0H830
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 4 Aug 8 13:54 fd0d360
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 8 Aug 8 13:54 fd0h1200
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 40 Aug 8 13:54 fd0h1440
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 56 Aug 8 13:55 fd0h1476
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 72 Aug 8 13:55 fd0h1494
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 92 Aug 8 13:55 fd0h1600
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 20 Aug 8 13:54 fd0h360
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 48 Aug 8 13:55 fd0h410
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 64 Aug 8 13:55 fd0h420
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 24 Aug 8 13:54 fd0h720
brw−rw−−−− 1 root floppy 2, 80 Aug 8 13:55 fd0h880
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 0 May 5 1998 hda
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 1 May 5 1998 hda1
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 2 May 5 1998 hda2
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 3 May 5 1998 hda3
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 4 May 5 1998 hda4
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 5 May 5 1998 hda5
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 6 May 5 1998 hda6
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 64 May 5 1998 hdb
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 65 May 5 1998 hdb1
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 66 May 5 1998 hdb2
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 67 May 5 1998 hdb3
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 68 May 5 1998 hdb4
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 69 May 5 1998 hdb5
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 3, 70 May 5 1998 hdb6
crw−r−−−−− 1 root kmem 1, 2 May 5 1998 kmem
crw−r−−−−− 1 root kmem 1, 1 May 5 1998 mem
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 12 Nov 1 15:39 modem −> ttyS1
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 12 Nov 1 15:39 mouse −> psaux
crw−rw−rw− 1 root root 1, 3 May 5 1998 null
crwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10, 1 Oct 5 20:22 psaux
brw−r−−−−− 1 root disk 1, 1 May 5 1998 ram
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 1, 0 May 5 1998 ram0
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 1, 1 May 5 1998 ram1
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 1, 2 May 5 1998 ram2
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 1, 3 May 5 1998 ram3
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 1, 4 May 5 1998 ram4
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 1, 5 May 5 1998 ram5

C. Sample root filesystem listings 44

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 1, 6 May 5 1998 ram6

brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 1, 7 May 5 1998 ram7
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 1, 8 May 5 1998 ram8
brw−rw−−−− 1 root disk 1, 9 May 5 1998 ram9
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 4 Nov 1 15:39 ramdisk −> ram0
*** I have only included devices for the IDE partitions I use.
*** If you use SCSI, then use the /dev/sdXX devices instead.
crw−−−−−−− 1 root root 4, 0 May 5 1998 tty0
crw−w−−−−− 1 root tty 4, 1 Nov 1 15:39 tty1
crw−−−−−−− 1 root root 4, 2 Nov 1 15:29 tty2
crw−−−−−−− 1 root root 4, 3 Nov 1 15:29 tty3
crw−−−−−−− 1 root root 4, 4 Nov 1 15:29 tty4
crw−−−−−−− 1 root root 4, 5 Nov 1 15:29 tty5
crw−−−−−−− 1 root root 4, 6 Nov 1 15:29 tty6
crw−−−−−−− 1 root root 4, 7 May 5 1998 tty7
crw−−−−−−− 1 root tty 4, 8 May 5 1998 tty8
crw−−−−−−− 1 root tty 4, 9 May 8 12:57 tty9
crw−rw−rw− 1 root root 4, 65 Nov 1 12:17 ttyS1
crw−rw−rw− 1 root root 1, 5 May 5 1998 zero

/etc:
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 164 Nov 1 15:39 conf.modules
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 668 Nov 1 15:39 fstab
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 71 Nov 1 15:39 gettydefs
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 389 Nov 1 15:39 group
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 413 Nov 1 15:39 inittab
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 65 Nov 1 15:39 issue
−rw−r−−r−− 1 root root 746 Nov 1 15:39 ld.so.cache
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 32 Nov 1 15:39 motd
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 949 Nov 1 15:39 nsswitch.conf
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 pam.d
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 139 Nov 1 15:39 passwd
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 516 Nov 1 15:39 profile
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 387 Nov 1 15:39 rc
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 55 Nov 1 15:39 shells
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 774 Nov 1 15:39 termcap
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 78 Nov 1 15:39 ttytype
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 15 Nov 1 15:39 utmp −> ../var/run/utmp
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 15 Nov 1 15:39 wtmp −> ../var/log/wtmp

/etc/pam.d:
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 356 Nov 1 15:39 other

/lib:
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 45415 Nov 1 15:39 ld−2.0.7.so
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 11 Nov 1 15:39 ld−linux.so.2 −> ld−2.0.7.so
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 731548 Nov 1 15:39 libc−2.0.7.so
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 13 Nov 1 15:39 libc.so.6 −> libc−2.0.7.so
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 17 Nov 1 15:39 libcom_err.so.2 −> libcom_err.so.2.0
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 6209 Nov 1 15:39 libcom_err.so.2.0
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 153881 Nov 1 15:39 libcrypt−2.0.7.so
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 17 Nov 1 15:39 libcrypt.so.1 −> libcrypt−2.0.7.so
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 12962 Nov 1 15:39 libdl−2.0.7.so
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 14 Nov 1 15:39 libdl.so.2 −> libdl−2.0.7.so
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 16 Nov 1 15:39 libext2fs.so.2 −> libext2fs.so.2.4
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 81382 Nov 1 15:39 libext2fs.so.2.4
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 25222 Nov 1 15:39 libnsl−2.0.7.so
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 15 Nov 1 15:39 libnsl.so.1 −> libnsl−2.0.7.so
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 178336 Nov 1 15:39 libnss_files−2.0.7.so
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 21 Nov 1 15:39 libnss_files.so.1 −> libnss_files−2.0.7.so
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 14 Nov 1 15:39 libpam.so.0 −> libpam.so.0.64
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 26906 Nov 1 15:39 libpam.so.0.64

C. Sample root filesystem listings 45

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 19 Nov 1 15:39 libpam_misc.so.0 −> libpam_misc.so.0.64

−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 7086 Nov 1 15:39 libpam_misc.so.0.64
−r−xr−xr−x 1 root root 35615 Nov 1 15:39 libproc.so.1.2.6
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 15 Nov 1 15:39 libpwdb.so.0 −> libpwdb.so.0.54
−rw−r−r−−− 1 root root 121899 Nov 1 15:39 libpwdb.so.0.54
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 19 Nov 1 15:39 libtermcap.so.2 −> libtermcap.so.2.0.8
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 12041 Nov 1 15:39 libtermcap.so.2.0.8
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 12874 Nov 1 15:39 libutil−2.0.7.so
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 16 Nov 1 15:39 libutil.so.1 −> libutil−2.0.7.so
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 14 Nov 1 15:39 libuuid.so.1 −> libuuid.so.1.1
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 8039 Nov 1 15:39 libuuid.so.1.1
drwx−−x−−x 3 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 modules
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 security

/lib/modules:
drwx−−x−−x 4 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 2.0.35

/lib/modules/2.0.35:
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 block
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 cdrom

/lib/modules/2.0.35/block:
drwx−−−−−− 1 root root 7156 Nov 1 15:39 loop.o

/lib/modules/2.0.35/cdrom:
drwx−−−−−− 1 root root 24108 Nov 1 15:39 cdu31a.o

/lib/security:
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 8771 Nov 1 15:39 pam_permit.so

*** Directory stubs for mounting

/mnt:
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 cdrom
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 floppy

/proc:

/root:
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 176 Nov 1 15:39 .bashrc
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 182 Nov 1 15:39 .cshrc
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 455 Nov 1 15:39 .profile
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 4014 Nov 1 15:39 .tcshrc

/sbin:
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 23976 Nov 1 15:39 depmod
−rwx−−x−−x 2 root root 274600 Nov 1 15:39 e2fsck
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 41268 Nov 1 15:39 fdisk
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 9396 Nov 1 15:39 fsck
−rwx−−x−−x 2 root root 274600 Nov 1 15:39 fsck.ext2
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 29556 Nov 1 15:39 getty
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 6620 Nov 1 15:39 halt
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 23116 Nov 1 15:39 init
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 25612 Nov 1 15:39 insmod
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 10368 Nov 1 15:39 kerneld
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 110400 Nov 1 15:39 ldconfig
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 6108 Nov 1 15:39 lsmod
−rwx−−x−−x 2 root root 17400 Nov 1 15:39 mke2fs
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 4072 Nov 1 15:39 mkfs
−rwx−−x−−x 2 root root 17400 Nov 1 15:39 mkfs.ext2
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 5664 Nov 1 15:39 mkswap
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 22032 Nov 1 15:39 modprobe
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 4 Nov 1 15:39 reboot −> halt

C. Sample root filesystem listings 46

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 7492 Nov 1 15:39 rmmod

−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 12932 Nov 1 15:39 shutdown
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 6 Nov 1 15:39 swapoff −> swapon
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 5124 Nov 1 15:39 swapon
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 4 Nov 1 15:39 telinit −> init
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 6944 Nov 1 15:39 update

/tmp:

/usr:
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 bin
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 lib
drwx−−x−−x 3 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 man
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 sbin
drwx−−x−−x 3 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 share
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 Nov 1 15:39 tmp −> ../var/tmp

/usr/bin:
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 37164 Nov 1 15:39 afio
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 5044 Nov 1 15:39 chroot
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 10656 Nov 1 15:39 cut
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 63652 Nov 1 15:39 diff
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 12972 Nov 1 15:39 du
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 56552 Nov 1 15:39 find
−r−x−−x−−x 1 root root 6280 Nov 1 15:39 free
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 7680 Nov 1 15:39 head
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 8504 Nov 1 15:39 id
−r−sr−xr−x 1 root bin 4200 Nov 1 15:39 passwd
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 14856 Nov 1 15:39 tail
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 19008 Nov 1 15:39 tr
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 7160 Nov 1 15:39 wc
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 4412 Nov 1 15:39 whoami

/usr/lib:
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 17 Nov 1 15:39 libncurses.so.4 −> libncurses.so.4.2
−rw−r−r−−− 1 root root 260474 Nov 1 15:39 libncurses.so.4.2

/usr/sbin:
−r−x−−x−−x 1 root root 13684 Nov 1 15:39 fuser
−rwx−−x−−x 1 root root 3876 Nov 1 15:39 mklost+found

/usr/share:
drwx−−x−−x 4 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 terminfo

/usr/share/terminfo:
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 l
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 v

/usr/share/terminfo/l:
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 1552 Nov 1 15:39 linux
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 1516 Nov 1 15:39 linux−m
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 1583 Nov 1 15:39 linux−nic

/usr/share/terminfo/v:
−rw−−−−−−− 2 root root 1143 Nov 1 15:39 vt100
−rw−−−−−−− 2 root root 1143 Nov 1 15:39 vt100−am

/var:
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 log
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 run
drwx−−x−−x 2 root root 1024 Nov 1 15:39 tmp

C. Sample root filesystem listings 47

 The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO

/var/log:
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 0 Nov 1 15:39 wtmp

/var/run:
−rw−−−−−−− 1 root root 0 Nov 1 15:39 utmp

/var/tmp:

C. Sample root filesystem listings 48

D. Sample utility disk directory listing
total 579
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 42333 Jul 28 19:05 cpio
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 32844 Aug 28 19:50 debugfs
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 103560 Jul 29 21:31 elvis
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 29536 Jul 28 19:04 fdisk
−rw−r−r−−− 1 root root 128254 Jul 28 19:03 ftape.o
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 17564 Jul 25 03:21 ftmt
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 64161 Jul 29 20:47 grep
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 45309 Jul 29 20:48 gzip
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 23560 Jul 28 19:04 insmod
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 118 Jul 28 19:04 lsmod
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 5 Jul 28 19:04 mt −> mt−st
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 9573 Jul 28 19:03 mt−st
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 6 Jul 28 19:05 rmmod −> insmod
−rwxr−xr−x 1 root root 104085 Jul 28 19:05 tar
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 5 Jul 29 21:35 vi −> elvis

Notes

[1]
The directory structure presented here is for root diskette use only. Real Linux systems have a more
complex and disciplined set of policies, called the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard, for determining
where files should go.)

D. Sample utility disk directory listing 49