U.S.

ARMY MEDICAL DEPARTMENT CENTER AND SCHOOL

FORT SAM HOUSTON, TEXAS 78234-6100

THE ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM

SUBCOURSE MD0583 EDITION 100

 DEVELOPMENT

This subcourse is approved for resident and correspondence course instruction. It

reflects the current thought of the Academy of Health Sciences and conforms to printed
Department of the Army doctrine as closely as currently possible. Development and
progress render such doctrine continuously subject to change.

The subject matter expert responsible for content accuracy of this edition was the
NCOIC, Nursing Science Division, DSN 471-3086 or area code (210) 221-3086, M6
Branch, Academy of Health Sciences, ATTN: MCCS-HNP, Fort Sam Houston, Texas
78234-6100.

ADMINISTRATION

Students who desire credit hours for this correspondence subcourse must meet
eligibility requirements and must enroll in the subcourse. Application for enrollment
should be made at the Internet website: http://www.atrrs.army.mil. You can access the
course catalog in the upper right corner. Enter School Code 555 for medical
correspondence courses. Copy down the course number and title. To apply for
enrollment, return to the main ATRRS screen and scroll down the right side for ATRRS
Channels. Click on SELF DEVELOPMENT to open the application and then follow the
on screen instructions.

For comments or questions regarding enrollment, student records, or examination

shipments, contact the Nonresident Instruction Branch at DSN 471-5877, commercial
(210) 221-5877, toll-free 1-800-344-2380; fax: 210-221-4012 or DSN 471-4012, e-mail
[email protected], or write to:

NONRESIDENT INSTRUCTION BRANCH

AMEDDC&S
ATTN: MCCS-HSN
2105 11TH STREET SUITE 4191
FORT SAM HOUSTON TX 78234-5064

CLARIFICATION OF TERMINOLOGY

When used in this publication, words such as "he," "him," "his," and "men" 'are intended
to include both the masculine and feminine genders, unless specifically stated otherwise
or when obvious in context.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Lesson Paragraphs

INTRODUCTION

1 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM ..................................................................................... 1-1--1-9

Exercises

2 DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM ..................................................................................... 2-1--2-7

Exercises

3 DIABETES MELLITUS................................................................ 3-1--3-11

Exercises

MD0583 i
 CORRESPONDENCE COURSE OF
THE U.S. ARMY MEDICAL DEPARTMENT CENTER AND SCHOOL

SUBCOURSE MD0583

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

Two systems, the nervous system and the endocrine system, work together to
regulate and integrate the processes of the body. The activities of these systems
operate like an interlocking supersystem. Some parts of the nervous system stimulate
the release of hormones while some parts of the endocrine system stimulate nerve
impulses. In this subcourse, you will study the endocrine system, its anatomy,
physiology, diseases, and disorders. A particular disease, diabetes mellitus, will also be
studied. Do your best to achieve the objective of this subcourse. As a result, you will
be better able to perform functions of your medical MOS.

Subcourse Components:

The subcourse instructional material consists of seven lessons as follows:

Lesson 1, Anatomy and Physiology of the Endocrine System.

Lesson 2, Diseases and Disorders of the Endocrine System.
Lesson 3, Diabetes Mellitus.

Here are some suggestions that may be helpful to you in completing this
subcourse:

--Read and study each lesson carefully.

--Complete the subcourse lesson by lesson. After completing each lesson, work
the exercises at the end of the lesson, marking your answers in this booklet.

--After completing each set of lesson exercises, compare your answers with those
on the solution sheet that follows the exercises. If you have answered an exercise
incorrectly, check the reference cited after the answer on the solution sheet to
determine why your response was not the correct one.

MD0583 ii
Credit Awarded:

Upon successful completion of the examination for this subcourse, you will be
awarded 8 credit hours.

To receive credit hours, you must be officially enrolled and complete an

examination furnished by the Nonresident Instruction Branch at Fort Sam Houston,
Texas.

You can enroll by going to the web site http://atrrs.army.mil and enrolling under
"Self Development" (School Code 555).

A listing of correspondence courses and subcourses available through the

Nonresident Instruction Section is found in Chapter 4 of DA Pamphlet 350-59, Army
Correspondence Course Program Catalog. The DA PAM is available at the following
website: http://www.usapa.army.mil/pdffiles/p350-59.pdf.

MD0583 iii
 LESSON ASSIGNMENT

LESSON 1 Anatomy and Physiology of the Endocrine System.

LESSON ASSIGNMENT Paragraphs 1-1 through 1-9.

LESSON OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you should be able to:

1-1. Define endocrine gland, hormone, target, and

action.

1-2. Identify the composition and activities of

hormones.

1-3. Identify the chief hormone(s) secreted by the

glands of the endocrine system.

1-4. Identify the target and primary actions of the

major hormones secreted by the endocrine
system.

SUGGESTION After completing the assignment, complete the

exercises at the end of this lesson. These exercises
will help you to achieve the lesson objectives.

MD0583 1-1
 LESSON 1

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

1-1. GENERAL

The endocrine system is one of two major systems which control the body's
activities. The endocrine system is composed of glands which secrete substances
called hormones into the bloodstream. These hormones act as chemical messengers
and float in the bloodstream to the body's organs, the target of the particular hormone.
At the target, the hormone causes some action. The hormone either turns on a
biochemical reaction or turns off a biochemical reaction.

a. The Endocrine System and the Nervous System. The endocrine system
works with the nervous system to regulate and integrate the processes of the body such
as growth, development, reproduction, response to stress, and change of food into
energy and body tissue. The two systems work together like a giant super system.
Some parts of the nervous system stimulate or prevent the release of hormones. Some
hormones can stimulate or prevent the flow of nerve impulses.

b. Composition and Activities of Hormones. Hormones are composed of

proteins, amino acids, or steroids. Although hormones affect many of the body's
activities, hormone actions can be categorized into four broad areas:

Figure 1-1. General location of major endocrine glands.

MD0583 1-2
 (1) Internal environment control. Hormones help control the body's internal
environment by regulating the chemical composition and volume of the body's fluids and
tissues.

(2) Environmental condition adjustments. Hormones help the body adjust to

changes in the environment. Thanks to various hormones, the body can cope with
emergency demands such as infection, trauma, emotional stress, dehydration,
starvation, hemorrhage, and temperature extremes.

(3) Growth and development.

Hormones are instrumental in regulating the growth and development of the body.

(4) Reproduction. Hormones are very important in the basic process of

reproduction. Various hormones play a significant part in fertilization, nourishment of
the embryo and fetus, delivery, and nourishment of the newborn.

1-2. PINEAL GLAND

a. Description. The pineal gland is located just posterior to the third ventricle in
the brain. The name was chosen because this gland resembles a pine cone. The
pineal gland starts to calcify (becomes hard due to deposit of calcium salts) at about the
time of puberty. These calcium deposits are referred to as brain salts.

Figure 1-2. The pineal gland and the pituitary gland.

MD0583 1-3
 b. Hormones. Scientists are not sure of the effect of the hormones secreted by
the pineal gland. It is known that this gland causes animals to come into heat.
Research indicates the following in regard to humans:

(1) Melatonin. This hormone seems to be secreted on a day/night cycle

with the highest production at night and the lowest production during the day. Its
function is to prevent ovarian secretion.

(2) Serotonin. This hormone seems to prevent extremes in the blood

vessels of the brain. If blood vessels in the brain seem too small, serotonin dilates the
vessels (makes them wider). The levels of this hormone are highest at noon and lowest
at midnight.

(3) Glomerulotropin. This hormone stimulates the secretion of adrenal

aldosterone.

1-3. PITUITARY GLAND

a. Description. The pituitary gland is small weighing only about 600 mg;
however, it is a key organ. The pituitary gland influences every structure and system in
the body. Structurally and functionally, the pituitary gland is divided into two lobes: the
anterior lobe and the posterior lobe.

b. Anterior Lobe--Hormones.

(1) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). This hormone is secreted by the

anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce
steroid hormones. A primary action of ACTH is to promote and maintain normal growth
and development of the adrenal cortex.

(2) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). FSH stimulates the normal growth

cycle of the ovarian follicle in females. In males FSH stimulates the seminiferous
tubules (tubes that convey semen) to produce spermatozoa.

(3) Growth hormone (GH). This hormone promotes fat mobilization,

prevents glucose from being used, and affects the rate of skeletal and visceral (internal
organs) growth. Too much of this hormone can cause diabetes. Also, an excess of this
hormone in early life can cause a child to become a giant. Too little of this hormone is
early life can cause an infant to become a dwarf. Another name for GH is somatotropin.

(4) Interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH). ICSH stimulates testicular

interstitial cells in the male to produce androgen, a substance that stimulates the
development of male sex characteristics. This hormone in the male is the same as the
luteinizing hormone in the female which is essential for ovulation (discharge of an ovum
from the mature follicle of the ovary).

MD0583 1-4
 (5) Luteinizing hormone (LH). LH promotes the maturation of the ovarian
follicle; secretion of progesterone; ovarian follicle to release the ovum; and the
conversion of the ruptured follicle into the corpus luteum (the scar tissue which forms
the ruptured follicle).

(6) Pituitary growth hormone (PGH). PGH is a growth hormone. Also

known as the somatotropic hormone (STH), this hormone turns on body cells to grow.
The principal function is to increase the rate of growth of body cells and to maintain their
size once growth is attained. The growth hormone also increases the rate of protein
synthesis and promotes a process called fat catabolism. Fat catabolism causes cells to
switch from burning carbohydrates to burning fats for energy.

c. Posterior Lobe--Hormones.

(1) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH). This hormone has a potent antidiuretic

action. ADH makes the collecting duct of the kidney permeable to water and allows
reabsorption of water and concentration of urine in the kidney.

(2) Oxytocin. Oxytocin is formed in the base of the brain (hypothalamus)

and stored in the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. This hormone stimulates smooth
muscle and causes strong contractions of the uterus and the ejection of milk from the
breast.

NOTE: Oxytocin is not to be confused with the hormone prolactin which stimulates
the production of milk.

1-4. THYROID GLAND

a. Description. The thyroid gland is located just below the larynx with a right
and left lateral lobe on either side of the trachea. A mass of tissue called an isthmus
lies in front of the trachea and connects the two lateral lobes of the thyroid gland. The
thyroid gland weighs about 25 grams and receives a rich supply of blood (about 80 to
120 ml per minute).

b. Hormones. Thyroid hormones have three principal effects on the body.

They regulate the body's metabolism rate; regulate the body's growth and development;
and regulate the activity of the nervous system. To fulfill these functions, the thyroid
gland releases these hormones; tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine or T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3). Both of these hormones contain iodine. Iodine collects in the
thyroid gland in the process of thyroid hormones being made.

MD0583 1-5
 Figure 1-3. The thyroid gland and the parathyroid glands.

1-5. PARATHYROID GLANDS

a. Description. The parathyroid glands are tiny bean-shaped glands embedded

on either side of the thyroid gland. There are usually four parathyroid glands, but there
may be more. The upper parathyroids are usually located at the point where the upper
and middle third of the thyroid gland meet. The lower parathyroids are usually located
in the branches of the inferior thyroid artery, but these parathyroids may be located in
the chest.

b. Hormones. The parathyroid glands secrete the hormone parathormone.

This hormone regulates the concentration of calcium and phosphorus in the blood.
Parathormone also influences the passage of calcium and phosphorus among the
bloodstream, bones, and urine.

1-6. ADRENAL GLANDS

a. Description. The adrenal glands are located above the kidneys. The
adrenal cortex is the outer part of the gland, and the medulla is the inner portion of the
gland.

MD0583 1-6
 Figure 1-4. The adrenal glands.

b. Hormones. Glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and small amounts of sex

hormones are made and secreted by the adrenal cortex. All together, these hormones
are called corticosteroids. Two neurohormones are produced by the adrenal medulla:
epinephrine and norepinephrine.

(1) Glucocorticoids. The glucocorticoids secreted by the adrenal cortex aid

protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism to help the body meet stress conditions.
Glucocorticoids accelerate the breakdown of protein to amino acid which is changed to
glucose in the liver. In this way, the amount of serum glucose in the body is increased.
Glucocorticoids also help the body withstand stress from anxiety or sever injury
because the hormone has an anti-inflammatory effect. Catecholamine hormones, a
type of glucocorticoid hormone, are commonly known as the "fight or flight" hormones
because these hormones give the body extra energy in stressful situations.

MD0583 1-7
 (2) Mineralocorticoids. Mineralocorticoids keep mineral salt metabolism in
balance which, in turn, helps to maintain the body's electrolyte and fluid intracellulary
balance. Aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, regulates the metabolism of sodium,
chloride, and potassium. Aldosterone causes sodium to be absorbed into the blood
which leads to water being reabsorbed in the farthest renal tubules. Proper levels of
aldosterone also cause potassium to be excreted and aids in the maintenance of normal
blood Ph.

1-7. PANCREAS

a. Description.

(1) Functions. The pancreas is a gland with two major functions, one an
endocrine function and the other an exocrine function. As an endocrine organ, the
pancreas produces the hormone insulin. As an exocrine organ, the pancreas produces
a variety of enzymes (protein-digesting enzymes, fat-digesting enzymes, and
carbohydrate-digesting enzymes).

(2) Composition. The pancreas, located slightly behind and toward the top
of the stomach, is composed of three parts: a head, body, and tail. The average length
is about six inches, and the average weight is about three ounces. The endocrine
portion of the pancreas is called the isles of Langerhans which are clusters of cells.
Three kinds of cells are found here: alpha cells, beta cells, and delta cells.

Figure 1-5. The pancreas.

b. Hormones. Alpha cells secrete the hormone glucagon which acts primarily
on the liver. Alpha cells increase the body's blood sugar level by causing sugar to be
removed from storage in the liver and transferred to the blood. Beta cells secrete
insulin which affects most body cells. Insulin causes a decrease in blood sugar by
increasing the ability for body cells to take up and use sugar. Beta cells promote
storage of sugars and fats on body tissue and promote building of body protein. Delta
cells secrete somatostatin, a hormone which inhibits growth.

MD0583 1-8
1-8. GONADS

a. Description. The gonads are the sex glands. In the female, the gonads are
the ovaries which are located in the pelvic cavity. In the male, the gonads are the testes
which are located in the scrotum. These glands give the primary sex characteristics in
the growth and development of the primary reproductive organs at puberty. These
glands are also responsible for the secondary sex characteristics.

b. Hormones.

(1) Hormones in females. The ovaries, in the female, produce estrogen,

progesterone, and relaxin. Estrogen is responsible for stimulating the development of
the female sex organs and secondary sexual characteristics of voice pitch, broad pelvis,
and hair pattern. Progesterone acts with estrogen to regulate menstruation. Relaxin
causes the birth canal to widen.

(2) Hormones in males. The testes, in the male, produce the hormone
testosterone. Testosterone is the principal male hormone and has a number of effects
on the body. First, this hormone controls the development, growth, and maintenance of
the male sex organs. Additionally, the hormone stimulates bone growth, sexual
behavior, final maturation of sperm, and development of male secondary sex
characteristics. Secondary male sex characteristics include the following:

(a) Muscular and skeletal development such as wide shoulders and

narrow hips.

(b) Body hair patterns that include pubic hair, armpit hair and chest
hair, facial hair, and hair recession at the temple.

(c) Enlargement of the thyroid cartilage of the larynx which produces

the deepening of the male voice.

NOTE: Testosterone is also responsible for stimulating the descent of the testes just
before a male is born.

1-9. CLOSING

The interworking of the endocrine system with all other systems is a remarkable
and delicate balance. As you evaluate your patients, you will not be looking for
diseases of the adrenal medulla or thyroid gland but the symptoms of what their
malfunction will show. Keep in mind that your patient's body is a complex machine
where every part affects another part.

MD0583 1-9
 Figure 1-6. Location of female gonads.

Figure 1-7. Female gonads.

MD0583 1-10
 Figure 1-8. Location of male gonads.

Figure 1-9. Male gonads.

Continue with Exercises

MD0583 1-11
EXERCISES, LESSON 1

INSTRUCTIONS. The following exercises are to be answered by writing the answer in

the space provided. After you have completed all the exercises, turn to the solution at
the end of the exercises and check your answers.

1. The ______________ gland, located in front of the neck at the junction of the

larynx and the trachea, secretes a hormone that aids in the regulation of the

body's metabolic rate.

2. The _______________ glands, the smallest of the endocrine glands, secrete a

hormone which regulates the concentration of calcium and phosphorus in the

blood.

3. The ______________ secretes glucorticoids which help the body meet

conditions of stress.

4. A small cone-shaped gland, the ______________ gland, is located inside the

cranial cavity, secretes the hormone melatonin which seems to inhibit

reproductive activities.

5. The alpha cells of the ______________ secrete glucagon, a hormone produced

when the body's blood sugar gets too low.

6. ______________ cells secrete insulin (hypoglycemic hormones) which causes a

decrease in blood sugar by increasing the body's ability to take up and use

sugar.

7. The hormone somatostatin is produced by the ______________.

MD0583 1-12
 8. A principal effect of the ______________ gland is to regulate the body's

metabolic rate.

9. ______________ is the hormone which releases the milk formed by the

glandular cells of the nursing female.

10. The adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) has the primary action of __________

________________________________________________________________.

11. The _______________ hormone is secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary

gland and stimulates the normal growth cycle of the ovarian follicle in females.

12. ______________ hormone is secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary

gland. This hormone makes the collecting duct of the kidney permeable to water

and allows concentration of water.

13. The hormone which promotes the maturation of the ovarian follicle as well as the

secretion of progesterone is the ______________ hormone.

14. The hormone which works with estrogens to regulate menstruation is ________.

15. The hormone responsible for the secondary sex characteristics of voice pitch,

broad pelvis, and hair pattern in women is ______________.

16. The hormone responsible for secondary sex characteristics in men is

______________

MD0583 1-13
17. The gland responsible for animals coming into heat is the ______________

gland.

18. The mineralocorticoid (secreted by the adrenal glands) help maintain _________

balance and ______________ balance.

19. The catecholamine hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine (secreted by the

adrenal medulla) are commonly known as the __________________________

hormones because they give the body extra energy in stressful situations.

Check Your Answers on Next Page

MD0583 1-14
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES, LESSON 1

1. Thyroid (paras 1-4a, b)

2. Parathyroid (paras 1-5a, b)

3. Adrenal cortex (para 1-6b)

4. Pineal (paras 1-2a, 2b(1))

5. Pancreas (para 1-7b)

6. Beta cells (para 1-7b)

7. Delta cells (para 1-7b)

8. Thyroid (para 1-4b)

9. Oxytocin (para 1-3c(2))

10. Promoting and maintaining normal growth and development of the adrenal cortex.
(para 1-3b(1))

11. Follicle-stimulating (para 1-3b(2))

12. Antidiuretic (para 1-3c(1))

13. Lutenizing (para 1-3b(5))

14. Progesterone (para 1-8b)

15. Estrogen (para 1-8b)

16. Testosterone (para 1-8b(2))

17. Pineal (para 1-2b)

18. Electrolyte, fluid (para 1-6b(2))

19. Fight or flight (para 1-6b(1))

End of Lesson 1

MD0583 1-15
 LESSON ASSIGNMENT

LESSON 2 Diseases and Disorders of the Endocrine System.

LESSON ASSIGNMENT Paragraphs 2-1 through 2-7.

LESSON OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you should be able to:

2-1. Identify the signs, symptoms, and treatment for

the thyroid gland disorders hyperthyroidism and
adult hypothyroidism.

2-2. Identify the signs, symptoms, and treatment for

the adrenal gland disorders Addison's disease,
Cushing's disease, Conn's syndrome, and
pheochromocytoma.

2-3. Identify the signs, symptoms, and treatment for

the anterior lobe adrenal gland disorders
hypersecretion and hyposecretion.

2-4. Identify the signs, symptoms, and treatment for

the parathyroid glands disorders
hyperparathyroidism and hypoparathyroidism.

2-5. Define the Islands of Langerhans disorders of

hypersecretion of insulin and hyposecretion of
insulin.

SUGGESTION After completing the assignment, complete the

exercises of this lesson. These exercises will help you
to achieve the lesson objectives.

MD0583 2-1
 LESSON 2

DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

2-1. INTRODUCTION

The function of the endocrine system is to help the nervous system regulate the
processes of the body; for example, growth, metabolic rate, etc. Therefore, disease in
any part of the endocrine system will cause problems in several body functions. This
lesson examines some of the diseases and disorders of the endocrine system.

2-2. DISEASES OF THE THYROID GLAND

a. Hyperthyroidism (Graves Disease).

(1) Description. Hyperthyroidism is an imbalance in the body's metabolism

caused by excessive production of the thyroid hormone. Too much thyroxine is
produced which leads to many changes in the body, a most noticeable change being an
enlarged thyroid gland in the neck--a goiter. This condition occurs chiefly in the 30 to 40
age group. Only five percent of patients with this condition are under age 15.

(2) Signs and symptoms. Excessive production of the thyroid hormone

causes changes in many of the body systems. Central nervous system changes
include excitability or nervousness and a tremor in the hands. Cardiovascular system
changes include tachycardia and a full, bounding pulse. Respiratory changes include
labored breathing, and a higher incidence of spontaneous abortions is one of the
changes in the reproductive system. Not all these changes always occur in a patient
with hyperthyroidism. The most common body changes, characteristic of Graves'
disease, a type of upper thyroidism, and are listed below.

(a) Enlarged thyroid gland, commonly called a goiter.

(b) Heat intolerance and unusual sweating.

(c) Nervousness and weakness.

(d) Overactivity combined with irritability and fatigue.

(e) Unexplained weight loss, usually with increased appetite.

(f) Exophthalmos (protruding eyes), a fixed stare, and a lack of visual

accommodation. (Protruding eyes are caused by the effects of accumulated
intracellular material and fluids in the tissues behind the eye which force the eyeball
outward. Sometimes the eyelids retract causing the patient to look as if he is staring.)

MD0583 2-2
 (g) These signs/symptoms can increase in intensity suddenly. This
condition is called Thyroid storm. It is dangerous and can be fatal. Signs and
symptoms can be accompanied by extreme irritability, hypertension, tachycardia,
vomiting, and a temperature up to 106 F. Final stages include delirium followed by
coma.

NOTE: A nodular (lumpy) goiter with no exophthalmos (protruding eyeball) indicates

Plummers' disease. This condition is less dangerous than Graves' disease.

(3) Treatment.

(a) Primary treatment for hyperthyroidism. The two main types of

treatment are antithyroid drugs and surgery. Method of treatment depends on the size
of the goiter, the causes, the patient's age and whether or not pregnant, and how long
before surgery could be performed (if surgery is one the patient's options). In the past,
surgical removal of the goiter has been the most widely used method of treatment.
Antithyroid drug therapy includes use of thyroid hormone antagonists such as
propylthiouracil (PTU) and methimazole. Both drugs reduce the production of the
thyroid hormone thyroxin. Another form of treatment is a single dose of I131, a
radioactive element which destroys some of the thyroid gland's cells that normally
produce thyroxin. The result is that thyroid hormone production decreases, and the
thyroid gland decreases to its normal size. At its normal size, the gland produces only
the normal amount of the hormone thyroxin.

(b) Thyroid storm treatment. Drug therapy is used. Other measures

include such supportive treatment as nutrients, vitamins, giving fluid, and sedation, if
necessary.

b. Adult Hypothyroidism (Myxedema).

(1) Description. Hypothyroidism is the reverse of hyperthyroidism. The

thyroid gland produces too much thyroxin in hyperthyroidism. The condition
hypothyroidism is caused when the thyroid gland produces too little thyroxin. Lack or
complete absence of thyroid gland activity from birth causes cretinism. Cretinism is a
dwarfed, mentally retarded state due to a failure of physical growth and mental
development. Early detection and treatment of this condition can prevent abnormal
physical development and mental retardation. Children under one year can be treated.

(2) Early signs/symptoms.

(a) Fatigue.

(b) Forgetfulness.

(c) Sensitivity to cold.

MD0583 2-3
 (d) Unexplained weight gain.

(e) Constipation.

(3) Later signs/symptoms.

(a) Decreasing mental stability.

(b) Dry, flaky, inelastic skin.

(c) Puffy face, hands, feet.

(d) Hoarseness.

(e) Edema around the eyes.

(f) Upper eyelids droop.

(g) Dry, sparse hair.

(h) Thick, brittle nails.

(4) Still later signs/symptoms.

(a) Gradual or sudden coma.

(b) Progressive stupor.

(c) Hypoglycemia.

(d) Hypotension.

(5) Treatment. Treat by giving thyroid extract or synthetic thyroid

preparation usually by mouth. The drugs of choice are Synthroid and Levothroid.

(6) Diagnostic tests.

(a) Thyroxin test (T4). This is a blood test which measures the amount
of thyroxin in the blood. The level of thyroxin in the blood will be lower in
hypothyroidism and higher in hyperthyroidism.

MD0583 2-4
 (b) Radioactive iodine uptake test. This test measures the amount of
radioactive iodine (I131) which the thyroid gland metabolizes. The patient is given
radioactive iodine orally or intravenously. Then, a scintillation camera scans the thyroid
gland and produces a pattern which shows the size of the gland. If the patient is given
radioactive iodine orally, the test will be done twenty-four hours later. Iodine
administered intravenously allows the test to be performed thirty minutes later. There
are no fluid or food restrictions for a patient having this test. Several factors affect the
test results causing the results to be invalid. These factors include:

1 The patient has been taking drugs and estrogens containing

iodine in the last thirty days (adrenocorticosteroids, sulfonamide, contraceptives).

2 The patient has had x-ray studies using iodine containing

media.
3 The patient has eaten a lot of seafood recently.

(c) Thyrotropin test (TSH). This test measure the thyroid gland
response to pituitary hormone stimulus.

2-3. DISEASES OF THE ADRENAL GLANDS

a. Addison's Disease (Adrenal Hypofunction).

(1) Description. Addison's disease is a condition resulting from

adrenocortical insufficiency; that is, the adrenal gland is not functioning enough. The
adrenal gland has either degenerated or stopped functioning.

(2) Signs and symptoms. Typical signs and symptoms include:

(a) Weakness, fatigue, weight loss.

(b) Swollen lymph nodes.

(c) Conspicuous bronze coloration of light-colored skin.

(d) Dehydration, hypotension, small heart size.

(e) Anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

(f) Nervous and mental irritability.

(g) Faintness after missing meals.

(h) Decreased tolerance to cold and hypometabolism (lowered

metabolism rate).

MD0583 2-5
 (i) Scant to absent armpit and pubic hair (especially in women).

(j) Absence of sweating.

(k) Severe dental caries.

(3) Treatment. Give steroid medications such as cortisone or

hydrocortisone.

b. Cushing's Disease.

(1) Description. Also called Cushing's syndrome, this is a group of

abnormalities caused by too high a level of adrenocortical hormones.

(2) Signs and symptoms. This condition causes changes in many of the
body's systems. Common signs and symptoms are:

(a) Obesity with a round face ("moon face").

(b) Impotence in the male.

(c) Weakness.

(d) Backache.

(e) Hypertension.

(f) Excessive hair growth.

(g) Purple bands (striae), especially around the thighs, breasts, and
abdomen.

(h) Dental caries (tooth decay).

(3) Treatment. There are three possibilities: irradiation; drug therapy; or

surgery. The type of treatment selected depends on the condition of the individual
patient.

c. Conn's Syndrome (Hyperaldosteronism).

(1) Description. This condition, the adrenal cortex secretes too much
mineral-ocorticoid aldosterone (a steroid in the adrenal cortex that controls salt
metabolism). The result is that the body reabsorbs too much sodium and water, and the
kidneys excrete too much potassium.

MD0583 2-6
 (2) Signs and symptoms. Included are the following:

(a) Decline in potassium level in the blood (hypokalemia) which results

in muscle weakness.

(b) Concentration of urine by the kidneys is difficult (polyuria).

(c) Elevation in blood sodium (hypernatremia) which results in

excessive thirst (polydipsio) and high blood pressure (hypertension).

(3) Treatment. One possible treatment is unilateral adrenalectomy (removal

of the adrenal gland). Another possible treatment is administration of spironolactone ( a
potassium- sparing diuretic) and sodium restriction; this treatment has been successful
in controlling the condition without surgery.

d. Pheochromocytoma.

(1) Description. A pheochromocytoma is a tumor of the chromaffin cells

which is usually found in the adrenal medulla.

(2) Signs and symptoms. Included are:

(a) Hypertension.

(b) Tachycardia.

(c) Tremor.

(d) Excessive perspiration.

(e) Hyperglycemia.

(f) Polyuria (passage of abnormally large quantities of urine).

(g) Gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea,

vomiting.

(h) Abnormal sensation (burning, tingling, or numbness) in the

extremities, possibly.

(3) Treatment. Usually, the tumor is removed surgically.

MD0583 2-7
2-4. DISEASES OF THE PITUITARY GLAND--ANTERIOR LOBE

a. Hypersecretion (Hyperpituitarism, Acromegaly, Gigantism).

(1) Description. The pituitary gland secretes too much of the growth
hormone. If this occurs in children, the result is giantism (an abnormal skeletal
development). Excessive production of the growth hormone when an individual is an
adult causes acromegaly (head, face, hands, feet, and internal organs get progressively
larger). In giantism, the people are generally large but usually very weak. In
acromegaly, the bones of the face, hands, and feet widen. The jaw protrudes, and the
forehead bones bulge.

(2) Signs and symptoms. The condition acromegaly develops slowly and
produces a variety of symptoms including excessive sweating, oily skin, a high
metabolic rate, and heavy hair growth in places where the hair growth is usually light;
for example, on the female face. In contrast, giantism seems to develop rapidly. As
giantism progresses, the pituitary tumor which causes the condition gets bigger causing
disturbances in other systems of the body. Treatment includes irradiation or surgical
removal of the tumor.

b. Hyposecretion.

(1) Description. The condition occurs when not enough hormones are
secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. The result is metabolic dysfunction,
sexual immaturity, and growth retardation when the problem takes place in childhood.
In an adult, insufficient amounts of these hormones results in a condition called
Simmond's disease. Signs and symptoms include emaciation (extreme thinness),
asthenia (severe weakness or loss of strength), lowered metabolic rate, low
temperature, and low blood pressure. The cause of this deficiency in the production of
hormones is usually trauma, tumor, or hemorrhage.

(2) Treatment. Treatment is either surgical removal or x-ray irradiation if

there is a tumor. Drug therapy to replace needed hormones is very effective. Cortisol,
thyroxin, and androgen or cyclic estrogen may be prescribed.

2-5. DISEASES OF THE PARATHYROID GLANDS

a. Hyperparathyroidism. One or more of the parathyroid glands enlarges. Too

much parathyroid hormone is secreted, and the serum calcium level becomes too high.
There is a change in the function of cells of the bone, renal tubules, and gastrointestinal
mucosa. The withdrawal of calcium from bones (osteoporosis) leads to hypercalcemia
(abnormally high concentration of calcium in the blood) and kidney stones. Other signs
and symptoms include muscular weakness, gastrointestinal symptoms such as
anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pains. Treatment depends on the diagnosis
of the cause of the condition. Surgical removal of the parathyroid tissue is often the
treatment.

MD0583 2-8
 b. Hypoparathyroidism. This condition is the result of insufficient amounts of
the parathyroid hormone (PTH) being produced by the parathyroid glands. The cause
can be disease, injury, or a malfunction of these glands which was present at birth. This
hormonal insufficiency leads to lower than normal blood concentration of calcium
resulting in muscle spasms and convulsions. There can be dermatologic,
ophthalmologic (cataracts), psychiatric, and dental symptoms of this condition.
Treatment is the replacement of calcium in the body.

2-6. ISLANDS OF LANGERHANS (IN THE PANCREAS).

The islands or islets of Langerhans consist of clusters of cells that make up the
endocrine portion of the pancreas. These cells produce hormones. These cells can be
classified as A cells, B cells, D cells, and F cells depending on the hormone produced
by each type of cell. The most numerous cells are B cells which produce insulin. Two
types of disorders result if the B cells do not produce the necessary quantity or quality of
insulin: hyposecretion of insulin and hypersecretion of insulin.

a. Hyposecretion of Insulin. Too little insulin is secreted. There is sugar in the

urine, and the level of blood sugar is abnormally high. These are characteristics of
diabetes mellitus, a disease discussed in lesson 3.

b. Hypersecretion of Insulin. Too much insulin is secreted by the cells in the

islands of Langerhans. The result is hypoglycemia which is abnormally low levels of
blood sugar. The signs and symptoms of this condition include sweating, hunger,
weakness, and lightheadedness. The symptoms often disappear after the patient eats
a snack.

2-7. CLOSING

These diseases and disorders may not be life-threatening, but they can be
painful and a detriment to the soldier's completion of duty. Management of patients with
these health problems can have a great impact on the Army's ability to complete the
mission.

Continue with Exercises

MD0583 2-9
EXERCISES, LESSON 2

INSTRUCTIONS. The following exercises are to be answered by writing the answer in

the space provided. After you have completed all the exercises, turn to the solution at
the end of the exercises and check your answers.

1. What is hyperthyroidism? Hyperthyroidism is ____________________________

________________________________________________________________

2. List three signs/symptoms of hyper-thyroidism.

a. _____________________________________________________________

b. _____________________________________________________________

c. _____________________________________________________________

3. Myxedema, also referred to as ________________________, is caused when

the thyroid gland produces ________________________________.

4. List four early signs/symptoms of myxedema.

a. _____________________________________________________________

b. _____________________________________________________________

c. _____________________________________________________________

d. _____________________________________________________________

5. Addison's disease results when the adrenal gland does not produce enough

__________________________ hormones.

MD0583 2-10
 6. Typical signs/symptoms of adrenal hypofunction include: (list three).

a. _____________________________________________________________

b. _____________________________________________________________

c. _____________________________________________________________

7. List three signs/symptoms of Cushing's syndrome.

a. _____________________________________________________________

b. _____________________________________________________________

c. _____________________________________________________________

8. In Conn's syndrome, the adrenal cortex secretes too much mineralocorticoid with

the result that the body reabsorbs too much _______________________ and

_____________________________, and the kidneys excrete too much.

9. A _______________________ is a tumor which occurs in the chromaffin cells.

This tumor is usually found in the adrenal medulla.

10. Gigantism can be caused when the _________________________ gland

secretes too much of the growth hormone.

11. _______________________________ can occur when the anterior lobe of the

pituitary gland does not secrete enough hormones.

12. ____________________________ is a condition caused by not enough

parathyroid hormone being produced by the parathyroid glands.

MD0583 2-11
13. Sometimes too much parathyroid hormone is secreted, and one or more of the

parathyroid glands enlarges. The name of this condition is _________________

14. The islands of Langerhans are clusters of cells making up the endocrine part of

the ________________________. Insulin is produced by the _________cells in

the islands of Langerhans.

Check Your Answers on Next Page

MD0583 2-12
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES, LESSON 2

1. An imbalance in the body's metabolism caused by excessive production of the

thyroid hormone. (para 2-2a(1))

2. You are correct if you listed any three of the following:

Enlarged thyroid gland.

Heat intolerance/unusual sweating.
Nervousness/weakness.
Overactivity plus irritability/fatigue.
Unexplained weight loss with increased appetite.
Exophthalmos, fixed stare, decreased visual accommodation. (para 2-2a(2))

3. Adult hypothyroidism, too little thyroxin. (para 2-2b(1))

4. You are correct if you listed any four of the following:

Fatigue.
Forgetfulness.
Sensitivity to cold.
Unexplained weight gain.
Constipation. (para 2-2b(2)(a))

5. Adrenocortical. (para 2-3a)

6. You are correct if you listed any three of the following:

Weakness, fatigue, weight loss.

Swollen lymph nodes.
Conspicuous bronze coloration of light skin.
Dehydration, hypotension, small heart size.
Anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea.
Nervous and mental irritability.
Faintness after missing meals.
Decreased tolerance to cold.
Scant to absent armpit/pubic hair.
Absence of sweating.
Sever dental caries (cavities). (para 2-3a(2))

MD0583 2-13
 7. You are correct if you listed any three of the following:

Obesity with a round face.

Impotence in the male.
Weakness.
Backache.
Hypertension.
Excessive hair growth.
Purple bands.
Tooth decay. (para 2-3b(2))

8. Sodium
Water
Potassium. (para 2-3c(1))

9. Pheochromocytoma. (para 2-3d(1))

10. Pituitary. (para 2-4a(1))

11. Growth retardation. (para 2-4b(1))

12. Hypoparathyroidism. (para 2-5b)

13 Hyperparathyroidism. (para 2-5a)

14. Pancreas.
B. (para 2-6)

End of Lesson 2

MD0583 2-14
 LESSON ASSIGNMENT

LESSON 3 Diabetes Mellitus.

LESSON ASSIGNMENT Paragraphs 3-1 through 3-11.

LESSON OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you should be able to:

3-1. Define diabetes mellitus.

3-2. Identify the factors that increase the risk of

diabetes mellitus.

3-3. Define Type I and Type II diabetes.

3-4. Identify the signs, symptoms, and treatment of

diabetes mellitus.

3-5. Define insulin shock and identify the signs,

symptoms, and treatment for insulin shock.

3-6. Identify the causes, signs, symptoms, and

treatment for hyperglycemia and ketoacidosis.

3-7. Identify characteristics of these diabetic health

problems: vascular disturbances, visual
problems, neuropathy, and infection.

SUGGESTION After completing the assignment, complete the

exercises of this lesson. These exercises will help you
to achieve the lesson objectives.

MD0583 3-1
 LESSON 3

DIABETES MELLITUS

3-1. INTRODUCTION

a. Definition. Diabetes is a term which refers to diseases characterized by

excessive urination. Used alone, the word diabetes refers to diabetes mellitus.
Diabetes, a disease that affects the way the body uses food, causes sugar levels in the
blood to be too high.

b. Normal Digestive Process. In the digestive process, the body changes

sugars, starches, and other foods into a form of sugar called glucose. The blood carries
this glucose to cells throughout the body. Insulin (a hormone) in the body's cells
changes glucose into quick energy which can be used immediately by the cells or
stored for future needs. (Beta cells in the pancreas produce insulin). The body's
process of turning food into energy is critical for survival since the body depends on
food for every action--running, jumping, swimming, thinking, pumping blood, etc.

c. Diabetic Digestive Process. For the diabetic patient, the body does not turn
food into energy in the normal way. The body does change food into glucose, but a
problem arises in the production of insulin. In one type of diabetes (Type I diabetes),
the pancreas cannot make insulin. In another type of diabetes (Type II diabetes), the
pancreas either does not make enough insulin or the body cannot use the insulin or
both conditions occur. Without insulin performing its function, cells in the bloodstream
can not use glucose to make energy. What happens is that glucose collects in the
blood giving the diabetic person high sugar levels in the blood, a sign of untreated
diabetes.

d. General Information. Diabetes is a widespread disease affecting about 11

million people or nearly one in every twenty people. Roughly 1 million people have
insulin-dependent diabetes (Type I diabetes). Approximately 10 million persons have
non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Additionally, there are about 5 million people who
have non-insulin-dependent diabetes and do not know they are diabetics. While
diabetes cannot be cured, the disease can be managed effectively.

3-2. FACTORS THAT INCREASE THE RISK OF DIABETES MELLITUS

A number of factors influence the risk of a person having diabetes mellitus. Chief
among these factors are over 40, overweight, and a family history of diabetes. Persons
with these characteristics should see a doctor periodically to be tested for diabetes. For
some reason, obesity causes the body to resist using the insulin it produces. Another
factor is that the disease tends to be more common among women than men. Women
giving birth either to many babies or very large babies are at risk. Other factors include
pancreatic disease, injury, or tumor. Some medications are known to increase the risk
of diabetes; for example, steroids (adrenal corticosteroids) and thiazides (thiazide

MD0583 3-2
diuretics). Stress--psychological or emotional--is considered a risk factor regardless of
what causes the stress (surgery, infection, pregnancy, the environment, and so forth).

3-3. TYPES OF DIABETES MELLITUS

There are two main types of diabetes mellitus: insulin-dependent and non-
insulin-dependent. There are other less common types of diabetes.

a. Insulin-Dependent (Type I) Diabetes (IDDM). This type usually occurs

before age 30 but may occur at any age. It used to be called juvenile-onset diabetes
because it occurred most often in children and young adults. Research revealed that
IDDM could occur at any age; therefore, the name was changed. The patient is usually
thin, needs insulin medication, and must adjust his diet to control the disease. Typically,
the pancreas either stops making insulin or does not make enough insulin. Insulin must
be injected every day to help turn food into energy for survival.

b. Noninsulin-Dependent (Type II) Diabetes NIDDM). This type of diabetes is

the one which usually affects people who are over 40 and overweight. Often diet and
exercise can control this form of diabetes. Here the pancreas produces some insulin,
but the body is unable to use that insulin effectively. Sometimes insulin medication is
required.

c. Other Types of Diabetes.

(1) Gestational diabetes. Pregnant women sometimes have this type of

diabetes during pregnancy. After the birth of the baby, the disease usually disappears.

(2) Secondary diabetes. Damage to the pancreas from chemicals,

particular medicines, or pancreatic disease such as cancer can cause diabetes. In this
case, diabetes is secondary, the result of another disease.

(3) Impaired glucose tolerance. This diagnosis means that the level of
sugar in the blood falls between a normal level and a diabetic level. Such people have
an increased risk of developing diabetes. Terms previously used for this condition
include latent diabetes, chemical diabetes, and borderline diabetes. Impaired glucose
tolerance is no longer considered a form of diabetes.

3-4. SIGNS/SYMPTOMS OF DIABETES MELLITUS

Listed are signs and symptoms which are typical of the patient who has diabetes.
Some individuals who have noninsulin-dependent diabetes have symptoms so mild that
neither the person nor anyone else notices.

a. Signs/Symptoms of Insulin-Dependent Diabetes. These signs and

symptoms usually occur suddenly:

MD0583 3-3
 (1) Frequent urination (polyuria).

(2) Excessive thirst (polydipsia).

(3) Extreme hunger (polyphagia).

(4) Sudden weight loss.

(5) Irritability.

(6) Weakness and fatigue.

(7) Nausea and vomiting.

b. Signs/Symptoms of Noninsulin-Dependent Diabetes. Signs and

symptoms of insulin-dependent diabetes may be present with these additional
conditions:

(1) Hard-to-heal skin infections.

(2) Gum or bladder infections which do not heal quickly.

(3) Drowsiness.

(4) Blurred vision.

(5) Tingling or numbness in hands or feet.

(6) Itching.

3-5. ETIOLOGY OF DIABETES MELLITUS

The cause of diabetes mellitus is unknown. Research indicates that the

tendency to develop diabetes may be present at birth. Some viral infections seem to
trigger the onset of diabetes. Despite the fact that some viruses are believed to help
cause diabetes, diabetes is not a disease that one person can catch from another
person. Being overweight is a contributing cause to diabetes in those persons who
have a tendency toward non-insulin-dependent diabetes. The reason is that too much
fat prevents insulin from being used properly by the body.

3-6. DIAGNOSTIC TESTS FOR DIABETES MELLITUS

Diabetes mellitus is a very complex disease; nevertheless, the disease is very

easy to detect. Urine normally contains no glucose or acetone, but both are present in
the urine of a diabetic patient. Ketone bodies are also present in the urine of a diabetic
if fats are metabolized faster than the body can use them. Blood glucose and glucose

MD0583 3-4
tolerance tests may be needed to confirm a diagnosis of diabetes in addition to a test for
glucose in the urine. The reason is that glucose in the urine is not always an indication
that the person has diabetes. Also, not all diabetics excrete glucose in the urine.

a. Urine Tests.

(1) Glucose tests. These are common methods of tests for glucose in the
urine:
(a) Tes-tape. Dip a strip of Tes-tape into the urine specimen. The
tape will turn green or blue if glucose is present in the urine. Use only the end of the
tape that you have not touched with your fingers. Be sure the tape has not previously
been exposed to light or air.

(b) Clinitest. Put ten drops of water in a test tube. Add two or five
drops of urine (depending on the type of Clinitest used). Put in one tablet of Clinitest.
The liquid in the tube will change colors. A Clinitest color chart will show you how to
grade the color chart to grade the resulting color of the urine specimen in the test tube.

(c) Diastix. Dip a plastic strip in urine. You can read the strip in thirty
seconds.

(2) Ketones. Ketone bodies are present in the urine of diabetic patients. A
doctor will decide whether it is necessary to test for ketones. Two tests are Ketostix
strips which test the urine for ketones and Keto-Diastix which tests the urine for glucose
and ketones. Testing for ketones is especially important when the patient has a fever,
is vomiting, or has glucose in his urine.

b. Blood Tests. Common tests include the following:

(1) Fasting blood glucose. The patient fasts for eight hours. Then, a single
specimen of blood is taken in the morning. Eighty to 120 mg/dl is the normal range.

(2) Postprandial glucose. Two hours after the patient has eaten a high-
carbohydrate meal, a single sample of blood is taken. The normal range is 140 to 160
mg/dl.

(3) Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). After the patient has fasted for
about eight hours, a blood sample and a urine specimen are taken. The patient
consumes an oral glucose solution after which blood is drawn at 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2
hours, and 3 hours. A urine specimen is also collected at each of these times. Be sure
to label all specimens with the time of collection. In the nondiabetic patient, the blood
glucose level returns to normal after two to three hours; the urine sample is negative for
glucose. In the diabetic patient, however, the blood glucose levels return to normal
more slowly; the urine tests positive for glucose.

MD0583 3-5
3-7. TREATMENT OF DIABETES MELLITUS

The goal in treating diabetes is to keep the patient's blood sugar level in the
normal range. A major factor in the management of diabetes is patient education. The
patient must realize that diabetes is a lifelong disease which he can manage if he
maintains a balance of diet, exercise, and sometimes medications.

a. Treatment for Insulin-Dependent Diabetes. Generally, treatment includes

insulin injections, regular exercise, and a balanced meal plan that limits the
consumption of sugar. This diabetic patient may need to eat three meals per day plus
two or three snacks a day. This food will have to be eaten at the same time each day in
order to balance insulin which is also given at the same time each day.

NOTE: Food raises the level of blood sugar while insulin lowers the level of blood
sugar. Therefore, the effects of food and insulin must be balanced in order to
control diabetes.

b. Treatment for Noninsulin- Dependent Diabetes. Generally, these patients

are treated with a diet plan designed specifically for each patient. The overweight
patient must lose weight because fat keeps the body from using the insulin it produces
effectively. Sugar intake is restricted, and the patient must follow an exercise plan. The
patient may need to take medication, either orally or by injection, if diet and exercise do
not bring the blood sugar level in the normal range. Such medication does not correct
the blood sugar level alone. The patient must adhere to a special diet and exercise
plan, both of which have been designed for him.

c. Diet. The amount and kind of food the diabetic patient consumes is most
important in controlling this disease. For example, the diabetic who consumes more
carbohydrates than he can use or store will eventually develop ketoacidosis.
Ketoacidosis (excessive amounts of ketone acids in the body) is a condition which can
progress from severe illness to coma to death. If the diabetic patient takes insulin but
does not eat enough food, he may develop hyperinsulinism (insulin shock) which results
in hypoglycemia (lower than normal level of glucose in the blood). The results are the
same as for ketoacidosis. It is very important for the diabetic patient to eat both the
right kind of food and the right amount of food. A special diet is prescribed for each
diabetic based on that person's sex, age, height, weight, activity, state of health, former
dietary habits, and cultural background. General rules include the following:

(1) The diet will include a balance of calories, percentages of

carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

(2) These foods are usually excluded: sugar, candy, honey, jam, jelly,
marmalade, preserves, syrup, molasses, pie, cake, cookies, condensed milk, chewing
gum containing sugar, and non-diet soft drinks.

MD0583 3-6
 (3) The patient must remember that alcohol is high in calories and that any
alcoholic drink he consumes must be counted into his total caloric intake.

(4) The diabetic patient can usually have as much as he wants of these
foods: unsweetened gelatin, clear and fat-free broth, unsweetened pickles, cranberries,
rhubarb, coffee, tea, and certain salads.

(5) Before eating any dietetic foods, the diabetic patient should consult his
physician. Additionally, a diabetic patient should remember to count these foods in his
diet and to read the label of these foods. Sugar, fat, and protein contents should be
listed. "Low calorie" and "dietetic do not always mean "no sugar."

d. Medications. Oral hypoglycemic agents (Sulfonylureas) will stimulate the

pancreas to produce and release insulin. Sulfonylureas are not insulin. When there is
some pancreatic function and when diabetes is unable to be controlled by insulin alone,
oral hypoglycemic agents are usually given. Oral hypoglycemic agents are NOT usually
prescribed when there is no insulin production and when there is cardiac disease.
Some of the oral hypoglycemic agents are tolbutamide (OrinaseR), chlorpropamide
(diabinese), acetohexamide (DymelorR), and tolazamide (TolinaseR).

e. Insulin. Sources of insulin are animals, genetic engineering of E. Coli.

Injectable insulin is obtained from cattle, pigs, and E. Coli. Insulin promotes glucose
uptake by cells. There are two categories of insulin: the short-acting and the long-
acting types. The short-acting type of insulin has an onset of 30 to 60 minutes and
reaches its peak effectiveness at four to six hours. This type of insulin is effective for a
period of six to twelve hours. Short-acting insulin agents are Regular, Actrapid, and
Semilente. The longer acting type of insulin has an onset of one to two hours and
reaches its peak of effectiveness from eight to twelve hours. It has a duration of 24 to
48 hours. The agents of the longer acting insulin type are NPH, Lente, and Lentard.
Insulin is not given orally because gastric acids will destroy insulin. Insulin is
administered subcutaneously or intravenously in concentration of U-40 (40 units/1 cc) or
U-100 (100 units /1cc). Insulin must be stored at 75 degrees Fahrenheit. Freezing
temperatures may change the crystal size of insulin.

f. Exercise. Proper exercise is important in controlling diabetes mellitus.

Exercise improves circulation and helps the body metabolize carbohydrates, both of
which decrease the need for insulin. A patient who exercises very little during the week
but is more active on the weekends will find that the amount of glucose in his blood
varies greatly. If there is no way the patient can exercise more during the week, he
should discuss this situation with his physician. His food and insulin requirements may
need to be adjusted to fit his activities. A patient should be sure to have some easy to
eat carbohydrates with him during exercise in case he feels symptoms of hypoglycemia
(weak, sweaty, pale skin, etc.).

MD0583 3-7
 g. Skin and Foot Care. Breaks in the skin heal more slowly in diabetic patients;
therefore, skin and foot care is important to keep the patient's skin soft and supple with
a minimum of cracks. These general guidelines should be followed:

(1) Use proper first aid measures even for minor skin abrasions. If redness
occurs, consult a physician immediately. Ulcers or gangrene may develop from any
break in the skin.

(2) Do not use strong irritating antiseptics such as iodine on breaks in the
skin. After using a mild antiseptic, cover the area immediately with sterile gauze. Use
fine paper tape or cellulose tape (scotch tape) rather than adhesive tape. Adhesive
tape may tear the skin.

(3) Take good care of the feet in order to avoid dry cracked skin. Wash the
feet daily with mild soap and lukewarm water. Dry the feet thoroughly but do not rub
hard since the skin is delicate. Dry feet can be rubbed with vegetable oil to keep them
soft, prevent excess friction, remove scales, and prevent dryness. The patient should
wear low heeled shoes that fit comfortably and correctly to prevent shoes rubbing on the
feet and creating problems.

3-8. INSULIN REACTION (INSULIN SHOCK)

a. Definition. Insulin reaction, also called insulin shock, is defined as low blood
sugar. It may be caused by an overdose of insulin or of an oral agent. Increased
exercise or a delayed or missed meal may also cause an insulin reaction.

b. Signs/Symptoms. Included are the following:

(1) Hypoglycemia. The sugar level in the blood is lower than normal.

(2) Sweating and pale skin.

(3) Hunger.

(4) Irritability.

(5) Dizziness.

(6) Headache.

(7) Tremors.

(8) Palpitations and tachycardia (abnormally fast heart beat).

(9) Lethargy.

MD0583 3-8
 (10) Seizures.

(11) Coma.

c. Treatment. Insulin shock is a critical situation, and the patient must be

treated immediately. Emergency treatment includes the following:

(1) Give a conscious patient orange juice, soft drinks which contain sugar,
sugar cubes, or candy to help raise his carbohydrate level.

(2) If the patient is unconscious, do no try to give him something to drink.

Instead follow this procedure:

(a) Establish an airway and administer oxygen.

(b) Rub a sugar cube on the patient's tongue. (Do not leave the sugar
cube in his mouth. The cube could become lodged in his throat).

(c) Give treatment for complications such as shock or convulsions.

(d) Transport the patient immediately to a medical treatment facility.

(3) A patient will usually improve immediately after consuming sugar. Here
is a list of foods that supply an adequate amount of glucose:

(a) Nabisco Animal Crackers (4).

(b) Apple juice (4 ounces).

(c) Orange juice (4 ounces).

(d) Lifesavers (5-6).

(e) Coca-Cola (3 ounces).

(f) Ginger ale (4 ounces).

(g) Corn syrup ( 2 level teaspoons).

(h) Gumdrops ( 10 small ones).

(i) Honey (2 level teaspoons).

(j) Wheat peanut butter crackers (3).

MD0583 3-9
 (4) You need not worry about the amount of sugar you have given the
patient. The doctor at the medical treatment facility will balance the patient's sugar level
against insulin production.

NOTE: Diabetic patients have trouble with the level of blood sugar being either too
high or too low. If the patient is exhibiting signs of insulin shock
(hypoglycemia), give sugar (one of the foods listed in paragraph 3-8c(3)).
The person with too high a blood sugar level will not be harmed. And on the
other hand, you may save the life of a patient whose blood sugar level is too
low.

(5) Frequently, diabetic patients carry a card in the wallet which advises the
reader that if the person is behaving strangely, he may be having an insulin reaction or
his blood sugar may be too low. The reader is instructed to give the diabetic sugar,
candy, fruit juice, or a sweetened drink. The reader is also instructed to call a physician
or send the person to a hospital immediately.

3-9. HEALTH PROBLEMS REQUIRING IMMEDIATE CARE

In addition to insulin shock, there are several other conditions a diabetic patient
may have, conditions which require immediate attention. Hyperglycemia (high blood
sugar) and ketoacidosis (diabetic coma) are two such conditions.

a. Hyperglycemia. The level of sugar in the blood is too high in this condition.
The patient has probably eaten too much food or not taken enough insulin. Other
causes of high blood sugar include illness and emotional stress. Large amounts of
sugar in the urine and blood indicate hyperglycemia. The patient may also be very
thirsty, urinate more often than usual, and feel nauseated. A physician should be
consulted to treat high blood sugar.

b. Ketoacidosis. This is another name for diabetic coma, a condition which

may go along with high blood sugar. The cause of the condition is an imbalance of
insulin and blood sugar to so great a degree that ketones build up in the blood. Ketones
in great amount in the blood are poisonous. A slow developing ketoacidosis (occurring
over several hours or several days) can usually be controlled at the first signs of high
blood sugar or ketones in the urine. (Consult a physician immediately for instructions.)
Other symptoms the patient may experience in addition to high blood sugar and ketones
in the urine include dry mouth, great thirst, loss of appetite, excessive urination, dry and
flushed skin, labored breathing, and fruity smelling breath. Less common symptoms
which are sometimes present include vomiting, abdominal pain, and unconsciousness.
Type I diabetics (insulin-dependent) are most likely to develop ketoacidosis.

MD0583 3-10
3-10. OTHER HEALTH COMPLICATIONS FOR THE PATIENT

Diabetes mellitus is a complex metabolic disorder that can affect many parts of
the body. Disturbances in other body parts may occur even before the usual symptoms
of excessive thirst, too frequent urination, etc., appear.

a. Vascular Disturbances. There may be disturbances in the vessels of any

part of the body. Most likely are problems in the nerves (diabetic neuropathy), the retina
of the eye (diabetic retinopathy), kidneys, and the legs. The diabetic patient has a
decreased blood supply to the tissues of the lower extremities (legs and feet) which
increases the risk of problems in those areas. Any infection in the legs and feet must be
attended to promptly; otherwise, ulcers may form and even gangrene leading to
amputation.

b. Visual Problems. The retinal capillaries in diabetic patients have a tendency

to develop multiple tiny bulges with small points of hemorrhage and exudates. The
result is that scarring occurs in these capillaries from repeated hemorrhages. Presently
treatment involves controlling the level of sugar in the blood and managing hypertension
associated with the blood sugar level. The effect of laser therapy is being evaluated
and researched also.

c. Neuropathy. Damage to nerve tissue is possible for the diabetic patient.

The patient may experience facial paralysis or loss of muscle tone in the urinary system
may result in diarrhea or constipation. A more common condition is problems in the
legs. The patient may feel itching, numbness, tingling, and/or pain in the legs, a
condition which is worse at night. There may also be a loss of sensation in the legs with
the result that since the patient does not feel intense heat, for example, he can be
burned without realizing it.

d. Infection. Infections heal slowly in diabetic patients. While the infection

persists, diabetes becomes more severe. Skin lesions such as carbuncles and
furuncles occur and are very slow to heal. If a diabetic patient has any skin eruption, he
should contact his physician immediately.

3-11. CLOSING

Since the brain is so dependent on sugar, the patient with low blood sugar is in a
life-threatening situation. Look for the signs and symptoms which spell impending doom
and manage the situation early. Making a diagnosis is not critical, but appropriate
interpretations of the patient's signs and symptoms are.

Continue with Exercises

MD0583 3-11
EXERCISES, LESSON 3

INSTRUCTIONS. The following exercises are to be answered by writing the answer in

the space provided. After you have completed all the exercises, turn to the solution at
the end of the exercises and check your answers.

1. Diabetes is a disease that ___________________________________________

________________________________________________________________.

2. _______________________ (Type I) diabetes is the kind of diabetes in which

the pancreas either does not make insulin or makes too little insulin for the body's

needs.

3. List three factors that increase the risk of diabetes.

a. ____________________________________________________________.

b. ____________________________________________________________.

c. ____________________________________________________________.

4. In a person without diabetes, blood carries glucose to cells throughout the body,

and insulin changes glucose into quick energy which __________________ or

stored for future energy needs.

5. In the digestive process of a diabetic patient, the normal process breaks down at

the point where insulin should change glucose into quick energy or store the

glucose. Instead, cells in the bloodstream cannot use glucose to make energy,

and glucose __________________ resulting in _________________________.

MD0583 3-12
 6. _________________________ diabetes usually affects people who are over 40

and overweight.

7. Hard-to-heal skin infections, blurred vision, tingling or numbness in the hands or

feet, and gum infections which clear up slowly are signs/symptoms of _________

__________________ diabetes.

8. How does obesity increase the risk of diabetes? __________________________

________________________________________________________________

9. The Tes-tape test in a urine test. If glucose is present in the urine, tape dipped

into the urine will turn _______________ or ___________________.

10. For the ________________________ test, the patient fasts for eight hours after

which a blood sample and a urine specimen are taken. The patient drinks an

oral glucose solution after which blood is drawn at 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours,

and 3 hours.

11. The goal in treating diabetes mellitus patients is to ________________________

________________________________________________________________.

12. Excessive amounts of ketone acids in the body is called ___________________.

13. A diabetic patient who takes insulin but does not eat enough food may develop

___________________, also called _______________________ shock.

MD0583 3-13
14. A proper diet for the diabetic patient will have a balance of:

a. ____________________________________________________________.

b. ____________________________________________________________.

c. ____________________________________________________________.

d. ____________________________________________________________.

15. List two reasons exercise is of vital importance for the diabetic patient.

a. ____________________________________________________________.

b. ____________________________________________________________.

16. List four signs/symptoms of insulin shock.

a. ____________________________________________________________.

b. ____________________________________________________________.

c. ____________________________________________________________.

d. ____________________________________________________________.

17. __________________________ is the result when the diabetic patient's insulin

and blood sugar become imbalanced to such a degree that ketones (poisonous

in abundance) build up in the blood.

18. A diabetic patient may burn his leg because he has lost sensation to heat in his

leg, a condition termed ___________________________________.

Check Your Answers on Next Page

MD0583 3-14
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES, LESSON 3

1. Affects the way the body uses food and causes sugar levels in the blood to be too
high. (para 3-1).

2. Insulin-dependent. (para 3-3a)

3. You are correct if you listed any three of the following:

Heredity.
Obesity.
Women who have large babies.
Women who have many babies
Pancreatic injury, disease, or tumor.
Emotional stress.
A major disease. (para 3-2)

4. Can be used by the cells immediately. (para 3-1b)

5. Accumulates in the blood.

High blood sugar levels. (para 3-1c)

6. Noninsulin-dependent. (para 3-3b)

7. Noninsulin-dependent. (para 3-4b)

8. Too much fat keeps insulin from being used properly by the body. (para 3-5).

9. Green.
Blue. (para 3-6a(1)(a))

10. Oral glucose tolerance test. (para 3-6b(3))

11. Keep the patient's blood sugar level in the normal range. (para 3-7)

12. Ketoacidosis. (para 3-7c)

13. Hyperinsulinism.
Insulin. (para 3-7c)

14. Calories.
Carbohydrates.
Fats.
Proteins. (para 3-7c(1))

MD0583 3-15
15. Exercise improves circulation.
Exercise helps the body metabolize carbohydrates. (para 3-7f)

16. You are correct if you listed any four of the following:

Hypoglycemia.
Sweating and pale skin.
Hunger.
Irritability.
Dizziness.
Headache.
Tremors.
Palpitations and tachycardia.
Lethargy.
Seizures.
Coma. (para 3-8b)

17. Ketoacidosis (diabetic coma). (para 3-9b)

18. Diabetic neuropathy. (para 3-10c)

End of Lesson 3

MD0583 3-16