CHAPTER 1

Unity in Diversity
Introduction One feature that is most often noticed about India is its unity in diversity. This overworked clich has become a part of Indias self-identity. India is a country of subcontinental proportions. From north to south, east to west, people from diverse backgrounds have mixed and cultures have intermingled over centuries. Nevertheless, there has been an underlying continuity in identity. There are very few countries which have such an enormous cultural diversity that India has to offer. Beneath the bewildering diversity of religion, language and customs of this vast country, the underlying unity is remarkable. The idea of unity is traced back by scholars to ancient times. The underlying cultural unity was strengthened further with the administrative unity brought about during the British rule and with the construction of India as a modern independent nation after the independence. The enduring nature of Indian unity has always been fascinating. Indian unity is the product of certain historical factors that are present in various fields of Indian social life. It appears as if the inhabitants from the Himalayas in the north to Kanyakumari in the south, and Kutchh in the west to Arunachal in the east are woven together into a beautiful tapestry. In the process of its evolution, Indian society has acquired a culture characterised by stable patterns of pluralism. However, the acceptance of cultural pluralism does not detract us from the idea of promoting economic, political and social integration. European Sociology conceptualises unity in a society in terms of linguistic nationality or in terms of political sovereignty. Thus, the primary basis of unity belongs to a nation. According to many Indian sociologists, however, unity in India and the whole of South Asia, in fact, has been civilisational, going back to ancient times and continuing to the present day. Thus, at the civilisational level there is unity in South Asia, but this South Asian civilisation is divided today into many nations like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal. In terms of social institutions like the family, caste and lifestyles

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there is a fundamental unity in the different societies and nations of South Asia. An important source of unity in traditional India was rooted in the processes of cultural communication and interaction. Sociologists have identified the role of traders, storytellers, crafts-people and artists, for example potters, musicians, dancers in traditional India, in building common cultural traditions. The institutions of pilgrimage, fairs and festivals provide yet another link for cultural unity. In addition to these agencies, the social structure and economy forged linkages of reciprocity and interaction between regions, groups and cultural traditions. Accommodation without assimilation has been the characteristic of Indian civilisation. Accommodation is a social process by which different elements of a society are integrated without losing their separate identity. Assimilation on the other hand is a type of integration where the earlier identity of the elements is dissolved. In Indian history and culture, additions of new components have not meant the discarding of old ones. The accommodation of diversity has been the underlying ideology and numerous social and cultural factors have contributed to the enduring nature of Indian unity. Order and stability was maintained not primarily by the state but through social, cultural, moral and technological values and institutions of Indian civilisation. Indian civilisation gave enough freedom for the practice of any way of life although different

customary ways were ranked in a hierarchy. This created inequality and integration as well . THE FACTORS OF UNITY IN DIVERSITY We can discuss the following five factors of unity in diversity of India: 1. Geographical and Demographic Factors The first striking feature about India is its diversity because of Indias geographical environment and numerous population. It is difficult to imagine the vast territory that stretches from north to south and east to west as one continuous territory. It is nearly fourteen times as large as Great Britain and over ten times the size of the entire British Isles. The temperature varies from extreme heat to extreme cold. The temperate, the tropical and the polar climates are found in India. In terms of physical features of the population, there is a diversity in appearance, skin colour, eye colour, height and figure. However, geography seems to have played an important role in engendering Indian unity and the sense of Indianness. Shut off from the rest of Asia by the inaccessible barriers of the mighty Himalayas and with the seas and the ocean on all other sides, India is clearly marked out to be a geographical entity. Not only are her territories thus sharply demarcated from the rest of the world, but nature has generously placed within her

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boundaries all resources that human beings need for developing a rich and creative life. Thus, Indian geography has facilitated unity and continuity of her history as a country. Attempts either to divide the country or to expand it beyond its natural frontiers have mostly failed. The vastness of the land influenced the mind of Indians in two ways. The great variety in landscape, climate and conditions of life prepared in the mind a readiness to accept differences. Besides, the vast spaces offered room for slow infiltration by newcomers and allowed each locality unhampered scope of development along its own lines. The geographical unity of the country has had its effects on the economic life of the people. The size of the country and quality of the land permitted gradual increase in population and expansion of cultivation. The fact that India has continually developed and maintained an agricultural economy for almost four or five thousand years explains in part the depth and tenacity of her culture and traditions. The primacy of agricultural economy led to the development of common characteristics and a common outlook. The geographical unity of India is easily missed in her vastness and variety. A permanent and characteristically Indian expression of unity is found in the network of shrines and sacred places spread throughout the country. The visit to holy places as an imperative religious duty has made travelling a habit for Indians. Similarly,

the multitude of monuments associated with different religious communities which have adorned the land influence the geographical consciousness of a large number of people. 2. Religious Factors India is a multi-religious country. There are seven major religious groups in India according to 1991 census. The Hindus constitute the majority of Indian population, about 82 per cent. The Muslims constitute the second largest religious group (about 12.12 per cent). The Christians (about 2.34 per cent), the Sikhs (about 1.94 per cent), the Buddhists (about 0.76 per cent), the Jains (about 0.40 per cent) and others the Jews, the Zoroastrians or Parsis and the Animists (about 0.44 per cent) may not be numerically big, but their contribution to India is as significant as the other bigger groups. Religion is both a factor of unity and diversity in Indian society. All religious groups are differentiated internally. Caste or caste like status groups are found in Hinduism, Islam, Christianity and Sikhism. Within a homogeneous society, religion plays a highly integrative role but by the same token in a multi-religious society religion can become an issue of contention and lead to conflicts. Traditionally, different religious groups have lived in India in more or less peaceful coexistence. In recent years, however, harmony between religious groups, which in India we refer to as communal harmony, has been under strain. There are two major aspects to any religion, the spiritual and the temporal.

STRUCTURE OF INDIAN SOCIETY

The spiritual aspect of religion is quite similar in all religions. In every religion an emphasis is placed on the moral conduct and transcendence of the selfish ego. While this aspect of religion is a matter of personal devotion, the temporal aspect of religion is always related with the group identity and solidarity is maintained by religious rituals and communitys beliefs. At the temporal level, different religious groups differ from each other. In India, there has not been only a great degree of religious tolerance among the different religious communities, but some religious places have acquired a character and popularity that goes beyond a single religious community. Similarly, some religious festivals are celebrated, at least in a limited way, by many religious communities. Places like Varanasi, Ujjain, Amritsar, Mathura, Bodhgaya, Vaishno Devi, Tirupati and Ajmer Sharif are some such religious centres. For instance, a large number of Hindus also visit Ajmer Sharif, a Muslim pilgrimage place. Also, the economy of these religious centres often involves shopkeepers and service providers from other religions. In the field of bhakti and devotion the Hindu Saints and Muslim Sufis had many similarities and commonalities. Some religious festivals like Diwali, Dushehera and Holi have two aspects, ritualistic and cultural. The ritualistic aspect is restricted to Hindus but the cultural aspect is more or less celebrated by all the communities. In the same way, Christmas and Id-ul-fitr

are also celebrated at many places by different religious communities. Kabir, Akbar, Dara Shikoh and Mahatma Gandhi have been instrumental in developing common ethos among the different religious communities in India. Persian Sufism took a new shade of colour in India. Poets and religious teachers Ramanand and Kabir tried to combine the best and condemn the worst in Hinduism and Islam alike. At the courts of Oudh and Hyderabad there grew aesthetic standards in painting, in poetry, in love and in food, which drew on the courtly traditions of Rajasthan and Persia. Muslims borrowed caste from Hindus, Hindus took purdah from Muslims. Religion, however, is also a factor of diversity and animosity. The country was partitioned into India and Pakistan, primarily on religious and communal lines. Even after partition the communal problem raised its head from time to time. Communalism, which breeds hatred and violence against other religions, is the result of fundamentalism. Fundamentalism is an attitude of some religious people who emphasise the letter of religious dogmas over the underlying spirit. It is a product of ignorance as well as deliberate mischief by vested interests to gain political power and economic benefits by exploiting religious sentiments of the faithful people and dividing them along communal lines. 3. Cultural Factors The story of Indian culture is one of continuity, synthesis and enrichment.

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Culture is also a source of unity as well as diversity like religion. Powerful kingdoms and empires such as the Mauryas and the Guptas did not aggressively intervene in social and cultural matters; leaving much diversity intact. Although Islam was the politically dominant religion in large parts of the country for several centuries it did not absorb Hinduism, or disturb the Hindu social structure. Nor did Hinduism, which was demographically and otherwise dominant seek to eliminate the beliefs and practices, characteristic of other religions. Various beliefs and practices are pursued and maintained by Hindus, Muslims and Christians alike. Over the time Indian society has come to be divided into innumerable tribes, castes, sub-castes, clans, sects and communities each of which seek to maintain their own style of life and code of conduct. Many sociologists have recorded in detail the immense variety in the habits, practices and customs of the people in different geographical regions. The distribution of material traits such as dress, habitation, arts and crafts, endless variety of food and their preparation, makes India a living example of regional diversity. The role played by Indian religion, philosophy, art and literature in bringing about unity is conspicuous. Social institutions like the caste system and the joint family, which are found throughout the length and breadth of the country, are typically Indian. The celebration of festivals is observed all

over India in much the same manner. Likewise, similarities in art and culture engraved on the temple and palace walls all over India have generated the feeling of oneness. Inspite of their distinctiveness the coexistence of cultures is celebrated. 4. Political Factors It is generally believed that Indias continuity as a civilisation was social and cultural rather than political. Order and stability were maintained not by means of the state but through culture and society. The vastness of the countrys extreme diversity of physical features, endless variety of races, castes, creeds and languages and dialects have made it difficult to establish an allIndian empire. This also accounts for the fact that political unity is not the normal characteristic of ancient and medieval Indian history. However, the idea of bringing the whole country under one central authority has always been on the minds of great kings and statesmen of India. It was with this purpose that the kings of ancient India proclaimed the idea of Chakravarti. Kings like Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka, Samudragupta and Harshvardhana had put this idea into practice. The socio-political contributions of some Muslim rulers such as Akbar and Jehangir were also highly commendable. Akbars Din-e-elahi and Jehangirs emphasis on justice deserve special mention in this regard. In a sense, India has never been a well-organised political unit under the government of a single state. Even

STRUCTURE OF INDIAN SOCIETY

British India was a part of India and did not comprehend the whole of it, which was split up into about 600 states, large and small but separate and independent as autonomous entities. The British tried to establish political unification under a paramount power with regard to the defence, external relations, foreign policy and certain economic matters within the whole of India. Such attempts, however, were not uncommon in earlier periods. After the independence India was united politically and administratively but it was already divided between India and Pakistan. After the independence the unity of India is expressed in the institution of the nation. It is the product of the freedom movement as well as the constitutional legacy of the British rule. There is political and administrative unity today but there are different political parties and diverse political ideologies. Therefore, politics is both a factor of unity and diversity. 5. Linguistic Factors India is a multilingual country. Language is another source of cultural diversity as well as unity. It contributes to collective identities and even to conflicts. Eighteen languages are recognised by Indian Constitution. All major languages have regional and dialectical variations, for example, Hindi has Awadhi, Brij, Bhojpuri, Magadhi, Bundeli, Pahari, Malwi and several other dialects. The situation is further complicated since 179 languages and 544 dialects are recognised in India. These languages and dialects are

divided into three linguistic families Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and Mundari. Indo-Aryan family of languages includes Sanskrit and other North Indian languages such as Hindi, Bengali, Oriya, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Urdu, etc. and their dialects. The Dravidian family of languages includes Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malaylam. The Mundari group of languages and dialects are found among the tribal communities of India. During the medieval period Persian, Arabic and Urdu became popular languages. Urdu developed in India with Hindi around the same period as Hindustani language. They have different script but many similarities. Arabic and Persian played the role of official and court languages replacing Sanskrit and Pali. In the post independence period, English replaced Urdu as the official and court language. After independence, Hindi was made the national language but English remained the language of the central government and of the courts. English has also remained the language of higher education and research in India after 1835. The importance given to English in Independent India has also had an impact on Indian languages and literature, as well as on social structure and divisions in Indian society. The social and economic distinction between an English speaking, prosperous elite and the masses who speak the Indian vernacular languages or dialects is quite pronounced.

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Linguistic diversity has posed administrative and political problems. But language too has an underlying role in the unity in diversity of Indian culture. Although there is bewildering diversity in the languages and dialects of India, fundamental unity is found in the ideas and themes expressed in these languages. There is unity also at the level of grammatical structures. Sanskrit has deeply influenced most languages of India with its vocabulary. Dravidian languages also have a number of Sanskrit words today. Persian, Arabic and English words too have become part of the Indian languages and dialects today. The spirit of accommodation, which united different ethnic groups into one social system, also expresses itself in the literatures of India. Language is also a factor of diversity and separatism. Linguistic separatism has a strong emotional appeal. Political mobilisations and conflicts have arisen between different linguistic groups. However, it is important to note that neither political mobilisation, nor linguistic antagonism flows naturally out of linguistic diversities. These political mobilisations and antagonisms are the product of modern historical circumstances. After independence linguistic problems of India were centred around three issues: 1. The official languages issue, 2. The demands for the linguistic reorganisation of the provinces of India whose boundaries during the British rule did not conform to

linguistic division; and 3. The status of minority languages within reorganised states. After much deliberations, Hindi was made the official language of India but English was retained at least for a transition period. Earlier, this transition period was supposed to last for fifteen years. In 1965, English was given the status of an associate additional official language of the union and of inter -provincial communication. The major regional languages are used in their own provinces and recognised as other national languages through their incorporation into the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. Hindi is the official language of the country but the associate additional official language English has retained its power, status and glamour as well. Elements of Unity in Traditional India Due to cultural and economic interaction and geographical mobility there has emerged an all-India style, a series of inter -linkages and much commonality between different regions of India. The elements of all-India structure include the following: (1) India is characterised by numerous local level traditions or folk traditions as well as what could be deemed as the greater classical tradition. The latter would be more widely spread over the country but also confined to certain dominant sections of society.

STRUCTURE OF INDIAN SOCIETY

(2)

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The Sanskrit Brahmi at one end and Persian script at another for Indian and other subcontinental languages and literature. Common to each linguistic region are specific agriculture castes which form the core of rural communities, along with their complementary artisan and service castes. These were involved in a jajman service provider relation-ship. In the urban areas there were predominantly, castes of banias (traders), crafts persons and castes such as brahmans and kayasthas. In the institutions of administration and defence both social and spatial mobility existed. Cosmopolitan recruitment also took place due to traditional cultural institutions such as gharanas of music and dancing. There were also schools of medicine, shastric schools of learning, peethas, and akharas of devotional sects. Pilgrimage centres have also led to a type of unity at the all India level. Barriers of caste, class and other social taboos were almost absent at pilgrimage centres during several cultural occasions. People from different regions were able to interact at the pilgrim centres with each other leading to the establishment of cultural bonds. Trans-sectarian pilgrim sites include Kashi, Haridwar, Rameshwaram, Dwarka, Badrinath, Gaya, similarly Amritsar and Ajmer Sharif also become pilgrimage

(6)

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centre during medieval period. Cultural identity is maintained by a common metaphysical base, such as the idea of ethical compensation (Karmphal) and the idea of transcendence. Variants of all India epics and mythology, which emphasise certain values and goals, are found in all regions. Examples are purusharth (achievement ideals), rinas (obligations), dana (sharing), Samskara (sacraments) at birth, death and marriage, vrata (the ritual to earn merit) and prayaschita (penance or expiation). Traditional personal laws and social customs of the Hindus were applicable in different regions. The dayabhaga system of inheritance was popular in Bengal whereas the mitakshara prevailed over the rest of the country, except in Kerala and Bengal. Most Indians believe in the ideas of heaven and hell and cherish the idea of moksha, salvation or nirvana liberation from the cycle of life and death. This concept of moksha or nirvana is linked with the perception of the one ultimate Brahma. Elements of Unity during the Medieval India

In the middle ages when the world witnessed the most intensely fought religious wars in Europe and the Middle East, India stood out as a country where many religions

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co-existed in relative social harmony. The role of the ruler like Akbar was also very important in this context. Islam seems to have strengthened the de-ritualising and egalitarian trends in Medieval Hinduism, while Hindu philosophy seems to have strengthened the mystical spiritual strain in Muslim religious thought. For example, the Bhakti movement initiated by the Nayanar Saints of South India found strength in the context of Islam and Muslim dominance in North India. In the same way, the mystic and devotional aspect of Islam was strengthened in the philosophical milieu of Hinduism. Ramanand, Kabir, Nanak and Dara Shikoh played a significant role in the spread of mutual understanding among the Hindu and the Muslim masses. A unified culture in language, music and the arts was developed during the medieval period. Hindi and Urdu are the product of this unified Hindustani culture of medieval India. Both languages have common roots, common vocabulary but these are written in different scripts Devanagari and Persian respectively. In music and arts, the Hindus and the Muslims had come together. North Indian (Hindustani) music was nurtured at the kings courts and in the Hindu temples. Hindus sang at the Muslim courts and Muslims have sung bhajans at Hindu temples. Krishna, Radha and the gopis have provided the staple theme for many of the compositions sung by Hindu and Muslim masters alike. In architecture the process of

blending Hindu and Muslim elements was perfected during the medieval period. During the rule of Akbar, a synthesis of the Turko-Persian conceptions with Indian style was attempted. In Jehangirs time the Hindu influence seems to have had increased. The tomb of Akbar at Sikandra shows, in spite of its Muslim arches and domes, the general pattern of Buddhist viharas or of the rathas of Mahablipuram. Jain influence is found on the mosque of Fathehpur Sikri and Mount Abu. The Mughal architecture acquired new qualities which neither the Persian nor the old Indian styles had ever possessed. Painting also developed a new style during this period through the blending of the Turko-Iranian with the old Indian style. Akbar founded an academy of painting at his court where Indian and Persian artists worked together. Jehangir was not only a patron of art but was himself an artist, and during his time Mughal painting reached its zenith. Elements of Unity in the Modern India During the colonial rule different factors led to significant changes in the structure of Indian society. The traditional framework of unity in Indian civilisation came under tremendous stress. Modern education introduced by the colonial rulers initiated a process of cultural westernisation. The freedom movement (1857-1947) created new sources of unity in Indian society. Now, nationalism replaced

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religion and culture as the cementing force within Indian society. Despite the partition in 1947, the experience of freedom movement is still the foundation of Indian unity in modern India. After the independence the nation and its different organs have become the pillars of unity in India. The constitution built on the pre- existing unity of India has strengthened it still further by emphasising the values of equality, fraternity, secularism and justice. In contemporary India the pillars of unity include the following: (1) The Indian Constitution is the most fundamental source of unity in India today. Indians believe in the basic framework of the Constitution. (2) Indian Parliament is the national legislative organ of the Indian nation. Representatives are elected by the people and every adult citizen (above 18 years) of India has a right to vote. This represents the peoples will in general. (3) The Government of India is formally headed by the President who rules on the advice of a council of ministers headed by the Prime Minister. (4) The Judiciary is the legal guardian of Indian people. The judiciary is an autonomous body at the local, regional and central levels. It works as the custodian of the Indian Constitution. (5) The bureaucracy, the police and other educated professionals such as engineers, scientists, doctors, academics and journalists have

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played an important role in governing the country, maintaining law and order and in carrying out various development projects and schemes of the government. The military services deserve special mention in view of the wars, insurgency and the interborder tensions experienced during the last few decades, as also during national calamities like floods, earthquakes, cyclones etc. Modern means of communication, the network of railways, surface transport, civil aviation, post offices, telegraph, telephones, print media, radio and television have played important roles in maintaining and strengthening the national ethos and creating a we feeling among Indians. Industrialisation, urbanisation and other economic factors have led to the creation of the capitalist and the middle classes and have also created mobility of labour and services throughout the country. Problems of NationBuilding and National Integration

The formation of consciousness of identity in terms of culture, custom, way of life and language, etc. gives rise to ethnicity and ethnic groups. Ethnic conflicts and ethnic self-consciousness result invariably from perceived or real experiences of domination or subordination of one group by another either politically, economically, culturally or socially. A caste group, tribe, linguistic, religious or cultural

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group may also act as an ethnic group in its competitive quest for access to resources. A large part of ethnic demands can be resolved following a strategy of constructive reconciliation. There were and there are many ethnic demands in post-independence India. Attempts were made to reconcile some of the ethnic demands of minority religious groups, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes in the Indian Constitution itself. There was also a demand for linguistic reorganisation of regional states. There have been the Dravidian movement, ethnic assertions in Kashmir, the North-East, Gorkhaland, Punjab and other places. The Constitution offers two types of policies for nation building in India, (a) positive discrimination in favour of the traditionally deprived and exploited sections of society, and (b) a broad national policy of social, economic and political development based on principles of civic culture and judicial,

administrative and institutional modernisation. The biggest challenge to effective nation-building and national integration comes from containing poverty, economic polarisation, overpopulation and regional imbalances in development. On the one hand, globalisation is opening up new opportunities for the educated and the well-off who have the education, skills and financial resources to compete in the national and global marketplace. On the other hand, a large number of rural and urban youth and families continue to languish in poverty, unemployment and underemployment. The impact at the cultural level is diverse. On the one hand, we have list of channels focussing on religious themes and on the other hand, we have western serials dubbed in Indian languages. The issue is not just of west ern or non -western sources of culture. But whether the media encourages a critical or passive attitude generally?

GLOSSARY
ACCRETION. An increase in the size of a society as a result of the addition of a new outside group. ACCULTURATION.The process whereby one group of people becomes more like another group of people without loosing their own identity in behaviour, customs, etc., usually because of living near them for a long time. DIVERSITY. Variety in kind, form, type, composition etc.

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INTEGRATION . The social process by which different units of a society are integrated viz., brought together to form a whole. NATION. A community of people of mainly common descent, culture, history, language, etc. forming a state or inhabiting a territory. PILGRIMAGE. A journey to a shrine or other holy places, or to a place celebrated or made special by its associations, undertaken in order to gain a greater sense of closeness to the religion, etc. PLURALISM. The existence within a society of a variety of ethnic, cultural and religious groups. UNITY. To bring different elements within a society to form a single unit or whole.

EXERCISES 1. Explain the geographical factors of unity in India.

SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Ahmad, Imtiaz, Ghosh, P. S. and Reifeld, H., ed., Pluralism and Equality : Values in Indian Society and Politics, Sage Publication, New Delhi, 2000. 2. Gore, M. S., Unity in Diversity : The Indian Experience in Nation-Building, Rawat Publication, Jaipur, 2002. 3. Kabir, Humayun, Our Heritage, National Information and Publications Ltd., Mumbai, 1946. 4. Malik, S. C., Understanding Indian Civilisation : A Framework of Enquiry, Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Simla, 1975. 5. Sharma, S. L. and Oommen, T. K., ed, Nation and National Identity in South Asia, Orient Longman, New Delhi, 2000. 6. Singh, Yogendra, Social Change in India, Har -Anand Publications, New Delhi, 1993.