Class XII - India People & Economy (Geography)
Class XII - India People & Economy (Geography)
Class XII - India People & Economy (Geography)
Foreword iii
Unit I
1. Population : Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition 1-14
2. Migration : Types, Causes and Consequences 15-22
3. Human Development 23-31
Unit II
4. Human Settlements 32-39
Unit III
5. Land Resources and Agriculture 40-59
6. Water Resources 60-71
7. Mineral and Energy Resources 72-84
8. Manufacturing Industries 85-103
9. Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context 104-112
Unit IV
10. Transport and Communication 113-124
11. International Trade 125-134
Unit V
12. Geographical Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems 135-145
Appendices 146-156
Glossary 157
References 158-159
The people are very important component of a
Unit I country. India is the second most populous
Chapter 1 country after China in the world with its total
population of 1,028 million (2001). India’s
population is larger than the total population
of North America, South America and Australia
put together. More often, it is argued that such
a large population invariably puts pressure
on its limited resources and is also responsible
for many socio-economic problems in the
country.
Distrib ution of P
Distribution opula
Population
opulation
Examine Fig. 1.1 and try to describe the
patterns of spatial distribution of population
shown on it. It is clear that India has a highly
uneven pattern of population distribution. The
percentage shares of population of the states
and Union Territories in the country (Appendix–i)
show that Uttar Pradesh has the highest
population followed by Maharashtra, Bihar,
West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.
p 2 -p1
* Decadal growth rate: g= ×100
p2
Where P1 = population of the base year
P2 = population of the present year
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answers of the followings from the given options.
(i) India’s population as per 2001 census is :
(a) 1028 million (c) 3287 million
(b) 3182 million (d) 20 million
(ii) Which one of the following states has the highest density of population in
India?
(a) West Bengal (c) Uttar Pradesh
(b) Kerala (d) Punjab
(iii) Which one of the following states has the highest proportion of urban
population in India according to 2001 Census?
(a) Tamil Nadu (c) Kerala
(b) Maharashtra (d) Gujarat
Fig. 2.1 a : Intra State Migration by Place of Fig. 2.1 b : Inter State Migration by Place of
Last Residence Indicating Migration Streams Last Residence Indicating Migration Streams
(Duration 0-9 years), India, 2001 (Duration 0-9 years), India, 2001
Source: Census of India, 2001
Examine Fig. 2.1 a and 2.1 b showing intra-state and inter-state migration in India according to the Census 2001
and find out:
(i) Why are the numbers of females migrating from rural to rural areas in both the diagrams higher?
migration, four streams are identified: (a) Census 2001 has recorded that more than 5
rural to rural (R-R); (b) rural to urban (R-U); million person have migrated to India from
(c) urban to urban (U-U); and (d) urban to other countries. Out of these, 96 per cent came
rural (U-R). In India, during 2001, out of from the neighbouring countries: Bangladesh
(3.0 million) followed by Pakistan (0.9 million)
315 million migrants, enumerated on the
and Nepal (0.5 million). Included in this are 0.16
basis of the last residence, 98 million had
million refugees from T ibet, Sri Lanka,
changed their place of residence in the last
Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and
ten years. Out of these, 81 million were intra- Myanmar. As far as emigration from India is
state migrants. The stream was dominated concerned it is estimated that there are around
by female migrants. Most of these were 20 million people of Indian Diaspora, spread
migrants related to marriage. across 110 countries.
Migration: Types, Causes and Consequences 17
Table 2.1 : Immigrants by last residence
from neighbouring countries by all
Represent the data given in Table 2.1 by pie diagrams duration in India, 2001
assuming the migration from neighbouring countries Countries% No of % of
(4,918,266 persons as 100 per cent). immigrants total
immigrants
Spatial Variation in Migration Total international
Some states like Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat and migration 5,155,423 100
Haryana attract migrants from other states such Migration from
as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, etc. (see Appendix–vii for neighbouring
detail). Maharashtra occupied first place in the countries 4,918,266 95.5
list with 2.3 million net in-migrants, followed by Afghanistan 9,194 0.2
Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana. On the other hand,
Bangladesh 3,084,826 59.8
Uttar Pradesh (-2.6 million) and Bihar
Bhutan 8,337 0.2
(-1.7 million) were the states, which had the largest
number of net out-migrants from the state. China 23,721 0.5
Among the urban agglomeration (UA), Myanmar 49,086 1.0
Greater Mumbai received the higher number of Nepal 596,696 11.6
in migrants. Intra-states migration constituted Pakistan 997,106 19.3
the largest share in it. These differences are Sri Lanka 149,300 2.9
largely due to the size of the state in which these
Urban Agglomeration are located. Source : Census of India, 2001
Study the story of Subbalakshmi and Manish Gawarkar. Compare their cases on the basis of types of
migration, causes of migration and their living conditions.
planning, girl’s education, etc. get diffused from pollution, disposal of sewage and management
urban to rural areas through them. of solid wastes.
Migration leads to intermixing of people
from diverse cultures. It has positive Others
contribution such as evolution of composite
Migration (even excluding the marriage
culture and breaking through the narrow
migration) affects the status of women directly
considerations and widens up the mental
or indirectly. In the rural areas, male selective
horizon of the people at large. But it also has
out migration leaving their wives behind puts
serious negative consequences such as
extra physical as well mental pressure on the
anonimity, which creates social vacuum and
women. Migration of ‘women’ either for
sense of dejection among individuals.
education or employment enhances their
Continued feeling of dejection may motivate
autonomy and role in the economy but also
people to fall in the trap of anti-social activities
increases their vulnerability.
like crime and drug abuse.
If remittances are the major benefits of
migration from the point of view of the source
Environmental Consequences
region, the loss of human resources
Overcrowding of people due to rural-urban particularly highly skilled people is the most
migration has put pressure on the existing serious cost. The market for advanced skills
social and physical infrastructure in the urban has become truly a global market and the
areas. This ultimately leads to unplanned most dynamic industrial economies are
growth of urban settlement and formation of admitting and recruiting significant
slums shanty colonies. proportions of the highly trained professionals
Apart from this, due to over-exploitation from poor regions. Consequently, the existing
of natural resources, cities are facing the acute underdevelopment in the source region gets
problem of depletion of ground water, air reinforced.
Which one of the states in India has the highest proportion of population below poverty line?
Arrange the states on the basis of their percentage of population below poverty line in ascending order.
Select 10 states which have the high proportion of population below poverty line and represent the data by bar
diagram.
Human Development 27
fundamental to freedom. Literacy is the Table 3.4 : India – Human Development
beginning of access to such a world of Index-2001
knowledge and freedom.
State HDI Value
Human Development 29
Development Report 1993, tried to amend some scarcity of resources as compared to the human
of the implicit biases and prejudices which were population. Apparently this argument looks
entrenched in the concept of development. logical and convincing, but a critical look will
People’s participation and their security were the reveal certain intrinsic flaws such as resources
major issues in the Human Development Report are not a neutral category. It is not the
of 1993. It also emphasised on progressive availability of resources that is as important as
democratisation and increasing empowerment their social distribution. Resources everywhere
of people as minimum conditions for human are unevenly distributed. Rich countries and
development. The report recognised greater people have access to large resource baskets
constructive role of ‘Civil Societies’ in bringing while the poor find their resources shrinking.
about peace and human development. The civil Moreover, unending pursuit for the control of
more and more resources by the powerful and
society should work for building up opinion for
use of the same for exhibiting ones prowess is
reduction in the military expenditure, de-
the prime cause of conflicts as well as the
mobilisation of armed forces, transition from
apparent contradictions between population-
defence to production of basic goods and services
resource and development.
and particularly disarmament and reduction in
Indian culture and civilisation have been
the nuclear warheads by the developed
very sensitive to the issues of population,
countries. In a nuclearised world, peace and
resource and development for a long time. It
well-being are major global concerns. would not be incorrect to say that the ancient
At the other extreme of this approach lie scriptures were essentially concerned about the
the views expressed by the Neo-Malthusians, balance and harmony among the elements of
environmentalists and radical ecologists. They nature. Mahatma Gandhi in the recent times
believe that for a happy and peaceful social life advocated the reinforcement of the harmony and
proper balance between population and balance between the two. He was quite
resources is a necessary condition. According apprehensive about the on-going development
to these thinkers, the gap between the resources particularly the way industrialisation has
and population has widened after eighteenth institutionalised the loss of morality, spirituality,
century. There have been marginal expansion self-reliance, non-violence and mutual co-
in the resources of the world in the last three operation and environment. In his opinion,
hundred years but there has been phenomenal austerity for individual, trusteeship of social
growth in the human population. Development wealth and non-violence are the key to attain
has only contributed in increasing the multiple higher goals in the life of an individual as well as
uses of the limited resources of the world while that of a nation. His views were also re-echoed
there has been enormous increase in the demand in the Club of Rome Report “Limits to Growth”
for these resources. Therefore, the prime task (1972), Schumacher’s book “Small is
before any development activity is to maintain Beautiful” (1974), Brundtland Commission’s
parity between population and resources. Report “Our Common Future” (1987) and
Scholar like Sir Robert Malthus was the first finally in the “Agenda-21 Report of the Rio
one to voice his concern about the growing Conference” (1993).
Human Development 31
Human Settlement means cluster of dwellings
Unit II of any type or size where human beings live.
Chapter 4 For this purpose, people may erect houses and
other structures and command some area or
territory as their economic support-base. Thus,
the process of settlement inherently involves
grouping of people and apportioning of territory
as their resource base.
Settlements vary in size and type. They
range from a hamlet to metropolitan cities. With
size, the economic character and social structure
of settlements changes and so do its ecology and
technology. Settlements could be small and
sparsely spaced; they may also be large and
HUMAN closely spaced. The sparsely located small
settlements are called villages, specialising in
SETTLEMENTS agriculture or other primary activities. On the
other hand, there are fewer but larger settlements
which are termed as urban settlements
specialising in secondary and tertiary activities.
The basic differences between rural and urban
settlements are as follows :
• The rural settlements derive their life
support or basic economic needs from
land based primary economic activities,
whereas, urban settlements, depend on
processing of raw materials and
manufacturing of finished goods on the
one hand and a variety of services on the
other.
• Cities act as nodes of economic growth,
provide goods and services not only to
urban dwellers but also to the people of
the rural settlements in their hinterlands
in return for food and raw materials. This
functional relationship between the urban
and rural settlements takes place through
transport and communication network.
• Rural and urban settlements differ in
terms of social relationship, attitude and
outlook. Rural people are less mobile and
therefore, social relations among them are
intimate. In urban areas, on the other
hand, way of life is complex and fast, and
social relations are formal.
Types of Rur
Rural Settlement
ural
Types of the settlement are determined by the
extent of the built-up area and inter-house
distance. In India compact or clustered village Semi-Clustered Settlements
of a few hundred houses is a rather universal
Semi-clustered or fragmented settlements may
feature, particularly in the northern plains.
result from tendency of clustering in a
However, there are several areas, which have
restricted area of dispersed settlement. More
other forms of rural settlements. There are
often such a pattern may also result from
various factors and conditions responsible for
segregation or fragmentation of a large compact
having different types of rural settlements in
village. In this case, one or more sections of
India. These include: (i) physical features –
the village society choose or is forced to live a
nature of terrain, altitude, climate and
little away from the main cluster or village. In
availability of water (ii) cultural and ethenic
such cases, generally, the land-owning and
factors – social structure, caste and religion
dominant community occupies the central part
(iii) security factors – defence against thefts and
of the main village, whereas people of lower
robberies. Rural settlements in India can
strata of society and menial workers settle on
broadly be put into four types:
the outer flanks of the village. Such settlements
• Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated,
are widespread in the Gujarat plain and some
• Semi-clustered or fragmented,
parts of Rajasthan.
• Hamleted, and
• Dispersed or isolated.
Clustered Settlements
The clustered rural settlement is a compact or
closely built up area of houses. In this type of
village the general living area is distinct and
separated from the surrounding farms, barns
and pastures. The closely built-up area and its
Hamleted Settlements
Sometimes settlement is fragmented into several
units physically separated from each other
bearing a common name. These units are locally
Fig. 4.1 : Clustered Settlements in the North-eastern states called panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc. in
various parts of the country. This segmentation
intervening streets present some recognisable of a large village is often motivated by social
pattern or geometric shape, such as and ethnic factors. Such villages are more
rectangular, radial, linear, etc. Such settlements frequently found in the middle and lower Ganga
are generally found in fertile alluvial plains and plain, Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of the
in the northeastern states. Sometimes, people Himalayas.
live in compact village for security or defence
reasons, such as in the Bundelkhand region of Dispersed Settlements
central India and in Nagaland. In Rajasthan,
scarcity of water has necessitated compact Dispersed or isolated settlement pattern in India
settlement for maximum utilisation of available appears in the form of isolated huts or hamlets
water resources. of few huts in remote jungles, or on small hills
Human Settlements 33
Ancient Towns
There are number of towns in India having
historical background spanning over 2000
years. Most of them developed as religious and
cultural centres. Varanasi is one of the important
towns among these. Prayag (Allahabad),
Pataliputra (Patna), Madurai are some other
examples of ancient towns in the country.
Medieval Towns
Fig. 4.3 : Dispersed settlements in Nagaland About 100 of the existing towns have their roots
with farms or pasture on the slopes. Extreme in the medieval period. Most of them developed
dispersion of settlement is often caused by as headquarters of principalities and kingdoms.
extremely fragmented nature of the terrain and These are fort towns which came up on the
land resource base of habitable areas. Many ruins of ancient towns. Important among them
areas of Meghalaya, Uttaranchal, Himachal are Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra
Pradesh and Kerala have this type of settlement. and Nagpur.
Human Settlements 35
Table 4.1 : India – Trends of Urbanisation 1901-2001
Year Number of Urban Population % of Total Decennial
Towns/UAs (in Thousands) Population Growth (%)
Urbanisation in India
The level of urbanisation is measured in
terms of percentage of urban population to
total population. The level of urbanisation
in India in 2001 was 28 per cent, which is
quite low in comparison to developed
countries. Total urban population has
increased eleven fold during twentieth
century. Enlargement of urban centres and
emergence of new towns have played a
significant role in the growth of urban
population and urbanisation in the
country. (Table 4.1). But the growth rate of
urbanisation has slowed down during last
Fig. 4.6 : Class-wise Distribution of Urban
two decades. Population of India, 2001
All classes
Total 5161 285.35 100 31.13
I 1,00,000 and more 423 172.04 61.48 23.12
II 50,000 – 99,999 498 34.43 12.3 43.45
III 20,000 – 49,999 1386 41.97 15.0 46.19
IV 10,000 – 9,999 1560 22.6 8.08 32.94
V 5,000 – 9,999 1057 7.98 2.85 41.49
VI Less than 5,000 227 0.8 0.29 21.21
combinations: (i) a town and its adjoining Administrative towns and cities
urban outgrowths, (ii) two or more
Towns supporting administrative headquarters
contiguous towns with or without their
of higher order are administrative towns, such
outgrowths, and (iii) a city and one or more
as Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong,
adjoining towns with their outgrowths
Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar,
together forming a contiguous spread.
Jaipur Chennai, etc.
Examples of urban outgrowth are railway
colonies, university campus, port area, Industrial towns
military cantonment, etc. located within the
revenue limits of a village or villages Industries constitute prime motive force of these
contiguous to the town or city. cities such as Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore,
It is evident from Table 4.2 that more than Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc.
60 per cent of urban population in India lives
in Class I towns. Out of 423 cities, 35 cities/ Transport Cities
urban agglomerations are metropolitan cities They may be ports primarily engaged in export
(Fig.4.6). Six of them are mega cities with and import activities such as Kandla, Kochchi,
population over five million each. More than Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc. or hubs of
one-fifth (21.0%) of urban population lives in inland transport such as Agra, Dhulia, Mughal
these mega cities. Sarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.
Among them, Greater Mumbai is the
largest agglomeration with 16.4 million Commercial towns
people. Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Bangalore
Towns and cities specialising in trade and
and Hyderabad are other mega cities in the
commerce are kept in this class. Kolkata,
country.
Saharanpur, Satna, etc. are some examples.
Functional Classification of Towns Mining towns
Apart from their role as central or nodal places,
These towns have developed in mineral rich
many towns and cities perform specialised areas such as Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi,
services. Some towns and cities specialise in
Ankaleshwar, Singrauli, etc.
certain functions and they are known for
some specific activities, products or services. Garrisson Cantonment towns
However, each town performs a number of
functions. On the basis of dominant or These towns emerged as garrisson towns such
specialised functions, Indian cities and towns as Ambala, Jalandhar, Mhow, Babina,
can be broadly classified as follows: Udhampur, etc.
Human Settlements 37
Table 4.3 : India – Population of Million
plus Cities/Urban Agglomeration, 2001
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.
(i) Which one of the following towns is NOT located on a river bank?
(a) Agra (c) Patna
(b) Bhopal (d) Kolkata
Human Settlements 39
You must have observed that the land around
Unit III you is put to different uses. Some land is
Chapter 5 occupied by rivers, some may have trees and
on some parts roads and buildings have been
built. Different types of lands are suited to
different uses. Human beings thus, use land
as a resource for production as well as residence
and recreation. Thus, the building of your
school, roads on which you travel, parks in
which you play, fields in which crops are grown
and the pastures where animals graze represent
different uses to which land is put.
It is clear from the above discussion that this season facilitate the cultivation of temperate
the scope for bringing in additional land under and subtropical crops such as wheat, gram and
net sown area in India is limited. There is, thus, mustard. Zaid is a short duration summer
an urgent need to evolve and adopt land-saving cropping season beginning after harvesting of
technologies. Such technologies can be classified rabi crops. The cultivation of watermelons,
under two heads – those which raise the yield cucumbers, vegetables and fodder crops during
of any particular crop per unit area of land and this season is done on irrigated lands. However,
those which increase the total output per unit this type of distinction in the cropping season
area of land from all crops grown over one does not exist in southern parts of the country.
agricultural year by increasing land-use Here, the temperature is high enough to grow
intensity. The advantage of the latter kind of tropical crops during any period in the year
technology is that along with increasing output provided the soil moisture is available.
from limited land, it also increases the demand Therefore, in this region same crops can be
for labour significantly. For a land scarce but grown thrice in an agricultural year provided
labour abundant country like India, a high there is sufficient soil moisture.
cropping intensity is desirable not only for fuller
utilisation of land resource, but also for Types of Farming
reducing unemployment in the rural economy.
On the basis of main source of moisture for
The cropping intensity (CI) is calculated as
crops, the farming can be classified as irrigated
follows :
and rainfed (barani). There is difference in the
GCA nature of irrigated farming as well based on
Cropping Intensity in percentage 100
NSA objective of irrigation, i.e. protective or
productive. The objective of protective irrigation
Cropping Seasons in India is to protect the crops from adverse effects of soil
There are three distinct crop
seasons in the northern and Table 5.2 : Cropping Seasons in India
interior parts of country, namely
kharif, rabi and zaid. The kharif Cropping Season Major Crops Cultivated
season largely coincides with Northern States Southern States
Southwest Monsoon under which
the cultivation of tropical crops Kharif Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Rice, Maize, Ragi,
June-September Maize, Jowar, Tur Jowar, Groundnut
such as rice, cotton, jute, jowar,
bajra and tur is possible. The rabi Rabi Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds Rice, Maize, Ragi,
season begins with the onset of October – March and Mustard, Barley Groundnut, Jowar
winter in October-November and
ends in March-April. The low Zaid Vegetables, Fruits, Rice, Vegetables,
temperature conditions during April–June Fodder Fodder
Other Oilseeds
Differentiate between different foodgrains. Mix grains of Soyabean and sunflower are other important
various kinds and separate cereals from pulses. Also, oilseeds grown in India. Soyabean is mostly
separate fine from coarse cereals. grown in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
Oilseeds
The oilseeds are produced for extracting edible
oils. Drylands of Malwa plateau, Marathwada,
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana and Rayalseema
region of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
plateau are oilseeds growing regions of India.
These crops together occupy about 14 per cent
of total cropped area in the country.
Groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, soyabean
and sunflower are the main oilseed crops grown Fig. 5.5 : Farmers sowing soyabean seeds in Amravati,
in India. Maharashtra
Sugarcane
Sugarcane is a crop of tropical areas. Under
rainfed conditions, it is cultivated in sub-humid
and humid climates. But it is largely an irrigated
crop in India. In Indo-Gangetic plain, its
cultivation is largely concentrated in Uttar
Pradesh. Sugarcane growing area in western India
is spread over Maharashtra and Gujarat. In
Strategy of Development
Indian agricultural economy was largely
subsistence in nature before Independence. It
Fig. 5.10 : Tea Farming
had dismal performance in the first half of
leading producer of tea and accounts for about twentieth century. This period witnessed severe
28 per cent of total production in the world. droughts and famines. During partition about
India’s share in the international market of tea one-third of the irrigated land in undivided
has declined substantially. At present, it ranks India went to Pakistan. This reduced the
third among tea exporting countries in the world proportion of irrigated area in Independent
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.
(i) Which one of the following is NOT a land-use category?
(a) Fallow land (c) Net Area Sown
(b) Marginal land (d) Culturable Wasteland
(ii) What one of the following is the main reason due to which share of forest
has shown an increase in the last forty years?
(a) Extensive and efficient efforts of afforestation
(b) Increase in community forest land
(c) Increase in notified area allocated for forest growth
(d) Better peoples’ participation in managing forest area.
(iii) Which one of the following is the main form of degradation in irrigated
areas?
(a) Gully erosion (c) Salinisation of soils
(b) Wind erosion (d) Siltation of land
Table 6.1 : Basinwise Ground water Potential and Utilisation in India (Cubic Km/Year)
S. Name of Basin Total Replenishable Level of Groundwater
No. Ground Water Resources Utilisation (%)
Water Resources 61
Fig. 6.1 : India – River Basins
Source: Earth Trend 2001, World Resource Institute, as given in Govt. of India (2002) Report
Fig. 6.2 : Sectoral Usage of Surface Water Fig. 6.3 : Sectoral Usage of Groundwater
Water Resources 63
agricultural sector in total water utilisation is rainfall like West Bengal and Bihar, breaks in
much higher than other sectors. However, in monsoon or its failure creates dry spells
future, with development, the shares of detrimental for agriculture. Water need of
industrial and domestic sectors in the country certain crops also makes irrigation necessary.
are likely to increase. For instance, water requirement of rice,
sugarcane, jute, etc. is very high which can
Demand of Water for Irrigation be met only through irrigation.
In agriculture, water is mainly used for Provision of irrigation makes multiple
irrigation. Irrigation is needed because of cropping possible. It has also been found that
spatio-temporal variability in rainfall in the irrigated lands have higher agricultural
country. The large tracts of the country are productivity than unirrigated land. Further, the
deficient in rainfall and are drought prone. high yielding varieties of crops need regular
North-western India and Deccan plateau moisture supply, which is made possible only
constitute such areas. Winter and summer by a developed irrigation systems. In fact, this
seasons are more or less dry in most part of is why that green revolution strategy of
the country. Hence, it is difficult to practise agriculture development in the country has
agriculture without assured irrigation during largely been successful in Punjab, Haryana and
dry seasons. Even in the areas of ample western Uttar Pradesh.
Fig. 6.4 : The Ganga and its Tributaries and Towns Located on them
What are the implications of using ground Water Conservation and Management
water in drought prone area of Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu? Since there is a declining availability of fresh
water and increasing demand, the need has
The over-use of ground water resources arisen to conserve and effectively manage this
has led to decline in ground water table in these precious life giving resource for sustainable
states. In fact, over withdrawals in some states development. Given that water availability from
like Rajasthan, and Maharashtra has increased sea/ocean, due to high cost of desalinisation,
fluoride concentration in ground-water, and this is considered negligible, India has to take quick
practice has led to increase in concentration of steps and make effective policies and laws, and
arsenic in parts of West Bengal and Bihar. adopt effective measures for its conservation.
Besides developing water saving technologies
and methods, attempts are also to be made to
prevent the pollution. There is need to
Intensive irrigation in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar encourage watershed development, rainwater
Pradesh is increasing salinity in the soil and depletion harvesting, water recycling and reuse, and
of ground water irrigation. Discuss its likely impacts on conjunctive use of water for sustaining water
agriculture. supply in long run.
Water Resources 65
Discuss the issues highlighted in the
news items.
Water Resources 67
Watershed Development in Ralegan Siddhi, Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra:
A Case Study
Ralegan Siddhi is a small village in the district of Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra. It has become an
example for watershed development throughout the country.
In 1975, this village was caught in a web of poverty and illicit liquor trade. The transformation took place
when a retired army personnel, settled down in the village and took up the task of watershed development.
He convinced villagers about the importance of family planning and voluntary labour; preventing open
grazing, felling trees, and liquor prohibition.
Voluntary labour was necessary to ensure minimum dependence on the government for financial
aids. “It socialised the costs of the projects.” explained the activist. Even those who were working
outside the village contributed to the development by committing a month’s salary every year.
Work began with the percolation tank constructed in the village. In 1975, the tank could not hold
water. The embankment wall leaked. People voluntarily repaired the embankment. The seven wells
below it swelled with water in summer for the first time in the living memory of the people. The people
reposed their faith in him and his visions.
A youth group called Tarun Mandal was formed. The group worked to ban the dowry system, caste
discrimination and untouchability. Liquor distilling units were removed and prohibition imposed. Open
grazing was completely banned with a new emphasis on stall-feeding. The cultivation of water-intensive
crops like sugarcane was banned. Crops such as pulses, oilseeds and certain cash crops with low
water requirements were encouraged.
All elections to local bodies began to be held
on the basis of consensus. “It made the
community leaders complete representatives
of the people.” A system of Nyay Panchayats
(informal courts) were also set up. Since then,
no case has been referred to the police.
A Rs.22 lakh school building was constructed
using only the resources of the village. No
donations were taken. Money, if needed, was
borrowed and paid back. The villagers took pride
in this self-reliance. A new system of sharing
Ralegan Siddhi before mitigation approach
labour grew out of this infusion of pride and
voluntary spirit. People volunteered to help each other in agricultural operation. Landless labourers also
gained employment. Today the village plans to
buy land for them in adjoining villages.
At present, water is adequate; agriculture is
flourishing, though the use of fertilisers and
pesticides is very high. The prosperity also brings
the question of ability of the present generation
to carry on the work after the leader of the
movement who declared that, “The process of
Ralegan’s evolution to an ideal village will not
stop. With changing times, people tend to evolve
new ways. In future, Ralegan might present a
Ralegan Siddhi after mitigation approach
different model to the country. ”
Traditional rain water harvesting in rural areas to understand various ways of rainwater
is done by using surface storage bodies like harvesting).
lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, etc. In Rajasthan, There is a wide scope to use rainwater
rainwater harvesting structures locally known harvesting technique to conserve precious
as Kund or Tanka (a covered underground water resource. It can be done by harvesting
tank) are constructed near or in the house or rainwater on rooftops and open spaces.
village to store harvested rainwater (see Fig. 6.5 Harvesting rainwater also decreases the
Water Resources 69
community dependence on groundwater for Apart from the above mentioned factors,
domestic use. Besides bridging the demand- the issue desalinisation of water particularly
supply gap, it can also save energy to pump in coastal areas and brackish water in arid and
groundwater as recharge leads to rise in semi-arid areas, transfer of water from water
groundwater table. These days rainwater surplus areas to water deficit areas through
harvesting is being taken up on massive scale inter linking of rivers can be important
in many states in the country. Urban areas remedies for solving water problem in India
can specially benefit from rainwater (read more about inter linking of rivers).
harvesting as water demand has already However, the most important issue from the
outstripped supply in most of the cities and point of view of individual users, household
towns. and communities is pricing of water.
Source : Govt. of India (2002), ‘India’s Reform Initiatives in Water Sector’, Ministry for Rural Development, New Delhi
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.
(i) Which one of the following types describes water as a resource?
(a) Abiotic resource (c) Biotic Resource
(b) Non-renewable Resources (d) Cyclic Resource
Water Resources 71
India is endowed with a rich variety of mineral
Unit III resources due to its varied geological structure.
Chapter 7 Bulk of the valuable minerals are products of
pre-palaezoic age (Refer: Chapter 2 of Class XI,
Textbook: “Fundamentals of Physical
Geography” and are mainly associated with
metamorphic and igneous rocks of the
peninsular India. The vast alluvial plain tract
of north India is devoid of minerals of economic
use. The mineral resources provide the country
with the necessary base for industrial
development. In this chapter, we shall discuss
the availability of various types of mineral and
energy resources in the country.
MINERAL AND
ENERGY A mineral is a natural substance of organic
or inorganic origin with definite chemical and
RESOURCES physical properties.
Types of Mineral R
Mineral esour
Resources
esources
On the basis of chemical and physical
properties, minerals may be grouped under two
main categories of metallics and non-metallics
which may further be classified as follows :
Ferrous Mineral
Ferrous minerals such as iron ore, manganese, Can you find out its reason?
chromite, etc., provide a strong base for the
development of metallurgical industries. Our
iron ore mines and most of the iron and steel
country is well-placed in respect of ferrous
minerals both in reserves and production. plants are located around them. Most of the
important mines such as Noamundi and Gua
Iron Ore are located in Poorbi and Pashchimi
Singhbhum districts. This belt further extends
India is endowed with fairly abundant
to Durg, Dantewara and Bailadila. Dalli, and
resources of iron ore. It has the largest reserve
Rajhara in Durg are the important mines of
of iron ore in Asia. The two main types of ore
iron ore in the country. In Karnataka, iron ore
found in our country are haematite and
deposits occur in Sandur-Hospet area of
magnetite. It has great demand in international
Bellary district, Baba Budan hills and
market due to its superior quality. The iron ore
Kudremukh in Chikmagalur district and parts
mines occur in close proximity to the coal fields
of Shimoga, Chitradurg and Tumkur districts.
in the north-eastern plateau region of the
The districts of Chandrapur, Bhandara and
country which adds to their advantage.
Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Karimnagar,
The total reserves of iron ore in the country
Warangal, Kurnool, Cuddapah and Anantapur
were about 20 billion tonnes in the year 2004-
districts of Andhra Pradesh, Salem and Nilgiris
05. About 95 per cent of total reserves of iron
districts of Tamil Nadu are other iron mining
ore is located in the States of Orissa,
regions. Goa has also emerged as an important
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa,
producer of iron ore.
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. In Orissa,
iron ore occurs in a series of hill ranges in
Manganese
Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar. The
important mines are Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Manganese is an important raw material for
Badampahar (Mayurbhaj), Kiruburu smelting of iron ore and also used for
(Kendujhar) and Bonai (Sundergarh). Similar manufacturing ferro alloys. Manganese
hill ranges, Jharkhand has some of the oldest deposits are found in almost all geological
the coast of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. World’s eco-friendly cheaper energy after the initial cost
richest monazite deposits occur in Palakkad is taken care of.
and Kollam districts of Kerala, near
Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh and Solar Energy
Mahanadi river delta in Orissa.
Sun rays tapped in photovoltaic cells can be
Atomic Energy Commission was
converted into energy, known as solar energy.
established in 1948, progress could be made
The two effective processes considered to be
only after the establishment of the Atomic
very effective to tap solar energy are
Energy Institute at Trombay in 1954 which was
photovoltaics and solar thermal technology.
renamed as the Bhabha Atomic Research
Solar thermal technology has some relative
Centre in 1967. The important nuclear power
advantages over all other non-renewable
projects are Tarapur (Maharashtra),
energy sources. It is cost competitive,
Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam
environment friendly and easy to construct.
(Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga
Solar energy is 7 per cent more effective than
(Karnataka) and Kakarapara (Gujarat).
coal or oil based plants and 10 per cent more
Non-Conventional Energy Sources effective than nuclear plants. It is generally
Fossil fuel sources, such as coal, petroleum, used more in appliances like heaters, crop
natural gas and nuclear energy use exhaustible dryers, cookers, etc. The western part of India
raw materials. Sustainable energy resources are has greater potential for the development of
only the renewable energy sources like solar, solar energy in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
wind, hydro-geothermal and biomass. These
Wind Energy
energy sources are more equitably distributed
and environmental friendly. The non-conventional Wind energy is absolutely pollution free,
energy sources will provide more sustained, inexhaustible source of energy. The mechanism
Types of Industries
Manufacturing Industries 87
Fig. 8.1 : India – Iron and Steel Plants
Fig. 8.3
Fig. 8.4
Fig. 8.5
Fig. 8.6
Fig. 8.7
Fig. 8.8
Manufacturing Industries 89
After independence, during the Second Bokaro Steel Plant
Five Year Plan (1956-61), three new integrated
This steel plant was set up in 1964 at Bokaro
steel plants were set up with foreign
with Russian collaboration. This plant was set
collaboration: Rourkela in Orissa, Bhilai in
up on the principle of transportation cost
Chhattisgarh and Durgapur in West Bengal.
minimisation by creating Bokaro-Rourkela
These were public sector plants under
combine. It receives iron ore from the Rourkela
Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL). In 1973, the
region and the wagons on return take coal to
Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) was
Rourkela. Other raw materials come to Bokaro
created to manage these plants.
from within a radius of about 350 km. Water
and Hydel power is supplied by the Damodar
Rourkela Steel Plant Valley Corporation.
The Rourkela Steel plant was set up in 1959 in
the Sundargarh district of Orissa in Other Steel Plants
collaboration with Germany. The plant was
New steel plants which were set up in the
located on the basis of proximity to raw
Fourth Plan period are away from the main
materials, thus, minimising the cost of
raw material sources. All the three plants are
transporting weight losing raw material. This
located in South India. The Vizag Steel Plant,
plant has a unique locational advantage, as it
in Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh is the
receives coal from Jharia (Jharkhand) and iron
first port based plant which started operating
ore from Sundargarh and Kendujhar. The
in 1992. Its port location is of advantage.
Hirakud project supplies power for the electric
The Vijaynagar Steel Plant at Hospet in
furnaces and water is obtained from the Koel
Karnataka was developed using indigenous
and Sankh rivers.
technology. This uses local iron ore and
limestone. The Salem Steel Plant in Tamil Nadu
Bhilai Steel Plant was commissioned in 1982.
The Bhilai Steel Plant was established with
Russian collaboration in Durg District of
Chhattisgarh and started production in 1959.
The iron ore comes from Dalli-Rajhara mine
(Fig. 8.6), coal comes from Korba and Kargali
coal fields. The water comes from the
Tanduladam and the power from the Korba
Themal Power Station. This plant also lies on
the Kolkata-Mumbai railway route. The bulk
of the steel produced goes to the Hindustan
Shipyard at Vishakhapatnam.
Manufacturing Industries 91
Fig. 8.11 : Cotton Textile Industries
Manufacturing Industries 95
Though plastics have become inseparable distortions or weaknesses that have crept in,
items in our daily use and they have affected maintain a sustained growth in productivity
our life style. But due to its non-biodegradable and gainful employment and attain
quality it has emerged as the greatest threat to international competitiveness.
our environment. Hence, use of plastic is being Within this policy, measures initiated are :
discouraged in different states of India. Do you (1) abolition of industrial licensing, (2) free entry
know how does plastic adversely affect our to foreign technology, (3) foreign investment
environment? policy, (4) access to capital market, (5) open
trade, (6) abolition of phased manufacturing
Knowledge based Industries programme, and (7) liberalised industrial
location programme. The policy has three main
The advancement in information technology has dimensions: liberalisation, privatisation and
had a profound influence on the country’s globalisation.
economy. The Information Technology (IT) The industrial licensing system has been
revolution opened up new possibilities of abolished for all except six industries related to
economic and social transformation. The IT and security, strategic or environmental concerns. At
IT enabled business process outsourcing (ITES- the same time, the number of industries reserved
BPO) services continue to be on a robust growth for public sector since 1956 have been reduced
path. Indian software industry has emerged as from 17 to 4. Industries related to atomic energy,
one of the fastest growing sectors in the economy. substances specified in the Schedule of the
Exports of the Indian software and services sector Department of Atomic Energy as well as Railways
were Rs. 78,230 crore in 2004-05 which is have remained under the public sector. The
approximately 30-32 per cent increase from the government also has decided to offer a part of
previous year. The software industry has the shareholdings in the public enterprises to
surpassed electronic hardware production. The financial institutions, general public and
Indian government has created a number of workers. The threshold limits of assets have been
software parks in the country. scrapped and no industry requires prior
The IT software and services industry approval for investing in the delicensed sector.
account for almost 2 per cent of India’s GDP. They only need to submit a memorandum in
India’s software industry has achieved a the prescribed format.
remarkable distinction for providing quality In the new industrial policy, Foreign Direct
products. A large number of Indian software Investment (FDI) has been seen as a supplement
companies have acquired international quality to the domestic investment for achieving a
certification. A majority of the multinational higher level of economic development. FDI
companies operating in the area of information benefits the domestic industry as well as the
technology have either software development consumers by providing technological
centres or research development centres in upgradation, access to global managerial skills
India. However, in the hardware development and practices, optimum use of natural and
sector, India is yet to make any remarkable human resources, etc. Keeping all this in mind,
achievements. foreign investment has been liberalised and the
A major impact of this growth has been on government has permitted access to an
employment creation, which is almost doubled automatic route for Foreign Direct Investment.
every year. The government has also announced changes
in the industrial location policies. Industries are
Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation discouraged in or very close to large cities due
(LPG) and Industrial Development in India to environmental reasons.
The industrial policy has been liberalised
The new Industrial Policy was announced in to attract private investor both domestic and
1991. The major objectives of this policy were multi-nationals. New sectors like, mining,
to build on the gains already made, correct the telecommunications, highway construction and
Manufacturing Industries 97
management have been thrown open to private the first place, and then bringing down the level
companies. In spite of all these concessions, of import duties considerably; and (5) instead
Foreign Direct Investment has not been up to of a set of export incentives, opting for exchange
the expectation. There has been a big gap rate adjustments for promoting export.
between approved and actual foreign direct A breakup of foreign collaboration
investment, even though the numbers of foreign approval reveals that the major share went to
collaborations are increasing. Larger parts of this core, priority sectors while infrastructural sector
investment have gone to domestic appliances, was untouched. Further, gap between
finance, services, electronics and electrical developed and developing states has become
equipment, and food and dairy products. wider. Major share of both domestic investment
Globalisation means integrating the as well as foreign direct investment went to
economy of the country with the world already developed states. For example, out of
economy. Under this process, goods and the total proposed investment by the industrial
services along with capital, labour and entrepreneurs during 1991-2000 nearly one-
resources can move freely from one nation to fourth (23 per cent) was for industrially
another. The thrust of globalisation has been developed Maharashtra, 17 per cent for
to increase the domestic and external Gujarat, 7 per cent for Andhra Pradesh, and
about 6 per cent for Tamil Nadu while Uttar
competition through extensive application of
Pradesh, the state with the largest population
market mechanism and facilitating dynamic
has only 8 per cent. In spite of several
relationship with the foreign investors and
concessions, seven north-eastern states could
suppliers of technology. In Indian context, this get less than 1 per cent of the proposed
implies: (1) opening of the economy to foreign investment. In fact, economically weaker states
direct investment by providing facilities to could not compete with the developed states in
foreign companies to invest in different fields of open market in attracting industrial investment
economies activity in India; (2) removing proposals and hence they are likely to suffer
restrictions and obstacles to the entry of multi- from these processes.
national companies in India; (3) allowing Indian
companies to enter into foreign collaboration
Industrial Regions in India
in India and also encouraging them to set up Industries are not evenly distributed in the
joint ventures abroad; (4) carrying out massive country. They tend to concentrate on certain
import liberalisation programmes by switching locations because of the favourable locational
over from quantitative restrictions to tariffs in factors.
Manufacturing Industries 99
Several indices are used to identify the geographical, economic and political factors
clustering of industries, important among them have contributed much to its development. It
are : (i) the number of industrial units, (ii) developed with the opening of river port on
number of industrial workers, (iii) quantum of Hugli. Kolkata emerged as a leading centre of
power used for industrial purposes, (iv) total the country. Later, Kolkata was connected with
industrial output, and (v) value added by interior parts by railway lines and road routes.
manufacturing, etc. Development of tea plantations in Assam and
Major industrial regions of the country are northern hills of West Bengal, the processing of
given below in some details (Fig. 8.13). indigo earlier and jute later coupled with the
Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region opening of coalfields of the Damodar Valley and
iron ore deposits of the Chotanagpur plateau,
It extends from Mumbai-Thane to Pune and contributed to the industrial development of the
in adjoining districts of Nashik and Solapur. region. Cheap labour available from thickly
Besides, industrial development has been populated part of Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh
rapid in Kolaba, Ahmednagar, Satara, Sangli and Orissa also contributed to its development.
and Jalgaon districts. Development of this Kolkata, being the capital city of British India
region started with the location of cotton (1773-1911), attracted the British capital. The
textile industry in Mumbai. Mumbai, with establishment of first jute mill at Rishra in 1855
cotton hinterland and moist climate favoured ushered in the era of modern industrial
the location of cotton textile industry. clustering in this region.
Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 provided The major concentration of jute industry
impetus to the growth of Mumbai port. is at Haora and Bhatapara. The partition of the
Machineries were imported through this port. country in 1947 adversely affected this
Hydro-electricity was developed in the industrial region. Cotton textile industry also
Western Ghat region to meet the requirements grew along with jute industry, paper,
of this industry. engineering, textile machinery, electrical,
With the development of cotton textile chemical, pharmaceuticals, fertiliser and
industry, chemical industry also developed. petrochemical industries have also developed
Opening of the Mumbai High petroleum field within this region. Factory of the Hindustan
and erection of nuclear energy plants added Motors Limited at Konnagar and diesel engine
additional pull to this region. factory at Chittaranjan are landmarks of this
Besides, engineering goods, petroleum region. Location of petroleum refinery at Haldia
refining, petrochemicals, leather, synthetic has facilitated the development of a variety of
and plastic goods, drugs, fertilisers, industries. Important industrial centres of this
electrical, shipbuilding, electronics, software, region are Kolkata, Haora, Haldia, Serampur,
transport equipments and food industries Rishra, Shibpur, Naihati, Kakinara,
also developed. Important industrial centres Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, Budge Budge,
are Mumbai, Kolaba, Kalyan, Thane, Birlanagar, Bansberia, Belgurriah, Triveni,
Trombay, Pune, Pimpri, Nashik, Manmad, Hugli, Belur, etc. However, industrial growth of
Solapur, Kolhapur, Ahmednagar, Satara and this region has slowed down in comparison to
Sangli. other regions. Decline of the jute industry is one
of the reasons.
Hugli Industrial Region Bangalore-Chennai Industrial Region
Located along the Hugli river, this region This region witnessed most rapid industrial
extends from Bansberia in the north to growth in post-Independence period. Till 1960,
Birlanagar in the south for a distance of about industries were confined to Bangalore, Salem
100 km. Industries also have developed in and Madurai districts but now they have spread
Mednipur in the west. Kolkata-Haora from the over all the districts of Tamil Nadu except
nucleus of this industrial region. Historical, Viluppuram. Since, this region is away from the
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.
(i) Which is not a factor of industrial location?
(a) Market (c) Population Density
(b) Capital (d) Power
(ii) The earliest Iron and Steel Company to be established in India was:
(a) IISCO
(b) TISCO
(c) Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works
(d) Mysore Iron and Steel Works.
(iii) The first modern cotton mill was established in Mumbai because:
(a) Mumbai is a port
(b) It is located near cotton growing area
(c) Mumbai was the financial centre
(d) All of the above.
(iv) The nucleus of the Hugli Industrial Region is:
(a) Kolkata-Haora (c) Kolkata-Medinipur
(b) Kolkata-Rishra (d) Kolkata-Konnagar
Overview of Planning
PLANNING AND Perspective in India
India has centralised planning and the task
SUSTAINABLE of planning in India has been entrusted to
the Planning Commission. It is a statutory
DEVELOPMENT IN body headed by the Prime Minister and has
a Deputy Chairman and members. The
INDIAN CONTEXT planning in the country is largely carried out
through Five Year Plans.
The First Five Year Plan was launched in
1951 and covered the period, 1951-52 to
1955-56. Second and Third Five Year Plans
covered the period from 1956-57 to 1960-61
and 1961-62 to 1965-66 respectively. Two
successive droughts during mid-sixties
(1965-66 and 1966-67) and war with
Pakistan in 1965 forced plan holiday in 1966-
67 and 1968-69. This period was covered
by annual plans, which are also termed as
rolling plans. The Fourth Five Year Plan
began in 1969-70 and ended in 1973-74.
Following this the Fifth Five Year Plan began
in 1974-75 but it was terminated by the then
government one year earlier i.e. in 1977-78.
The Sixth Five Year Plan took off in 1980.
The Seventh Five Year Plan covered the
period between 1985 and 1990. Once again
due to the political instability and initiation
of liberalisation policy, the Eighth Five Year
Plan got delayed. It covered the period, 1992
to 1997. The Ninth Five Year Plan covered
the period from 1997 to 2002. The Tenth Plan
began in 2002 and it is still in progress. It
will come to an end on 31.3.2007. The
approach paper of the Eleventh Plan entitled.
“Towards Faster and More Inclusive Growth”
has already been approved.
reforms and reconstruction are often Hill Area Development Programme
undertaken. Generally, there are two
Hill Area Development Programmes were
approaches to planning, i.e. sectoral planning
initiated during Fifth Five Year Plan covering 15
and regional planning. The sectoral planning
districts comprising all the hilly districts of Uttar
means formulation and implementation of the
Pradesh (present Uttaranchal), Mikir Hill and
sets of schemes or programmes aimed at
North Cachar hills of Assam, Darjiling district of
development of various sectors of the economy
West Bengal and Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu.
such as agriculture, irrigation, manufacturing,
The National Committee on the Development of
power, construction, transport, communication,
Backward Area in 1981 recommended that all
social infrastructure and services.
the hill areas in the country having height above
There is no uniform economic development
600 m and not covered under tribal sub-plan
over space in any country. Some areas are more
be treated as backward hill areas.
developed and some lag behind. This uneven
The detailed plans for the development of hill
pattern of development over space necessitates
that the planners have a spatial perspective areas were drawn keeping in view their
and draw the plans to reduce regional topographical, ecological, social and economic
imbalance in development. This type of conditions. These programmes aimed at
planning is termed as regional planning. harnessing the indigenous resources of the hill
areas through development of horticulture,
plantation agriculture, animal husbandry, poultry,
Target Area Planning
forestry and small-scale and village industry.
The planning process has to take special care
of those areas which have remained Drought Prone Area Programme
economically backward. As you know, the This programme was initiated during the
economic development of a region depends Fourth Five Year Plan with the objectives of
upon its resource base. But sometimes providing employment to the people in
resource-rich region also remain backward. drought-prone areas and creating productive
The economic development also requires assets. Initially this programme laid emphasis
technology as well as investment besides the on the construction of labour-intensive civil
resource. With the planning experience of works. But later on, it emphasised on irrigation
about one and half decades, it was realised projects, land development programmes,
that regional imbalances in economic afforestation, grassland development and
development were getting accentuated. In creation of basic rural infrastructure such as
order to arrest the accentuation of regional and electricity, roads, market, credit and services.
social disparties, the Planning Commission National Committee on Development of
introduced the ‘target area’ and target group Backward Areas, reviewed the performance of
approaches to planning. Some of the examples this programme. It has been observed that this
of programmes directed towards the programme is largely confined to the
development of target areas are Command development of agriculture and allied sectors
Area Development Programme, Drought Prone with major focus on restoration of ecological
Area Development Programme, Desert balance. Since growing population pressure is
Development Programme, Hill Area forcing the society to utilise the marginal lands
Development Programme. The Small Farmers for agriculture, and, thereby causing ecological
Development Agency (SFDA) and Marginal degradation, there is a need to create alternative
Farmers Development Agency (MFDA) which employment opportunities in the drought-
are the examples of target group programme. prone areas. The other strategies of
In the 8th Five year Plan special area development of these areas include adoption of
programmes were designed to develop integrated watershed development approach at
infrastructure in hill areas, north-eastern the micro-level. The restoration of ecological
states, tribal areas and backward areas. balance between water, soil, plants, and human
Fig. 9.1
Concerned with the growing opinion of the United Nations established a World
world community on the environmental issues, Commission on Environment and Development
Project
(i) Find out the area development programmes being implemented in your
region. Assess the impact of such programmes on the society and economy
in your locality.
(ii) Select your own area or identify an area facing severe environmental
and socio-economic problems. Make an assessment of its resources and
prepare their inventory. Suggest the measures for its sustainable
development as it has been done in the case of Indira Gandhi Canal
Command Area.
Land T
Trranspor
ansportt
The pathways and unmetalled roads have been
used for transportation in India since ancient
times. With the economic and technological
development, metalled roads and railways were
developed to move large volume of goods and
people from one place to another. Ropeways, (1961) was introduced to improve the
cableways and pipelines were devised to cater conditions of roads in India. However, roads
to the demands of transporting specific goods continue to concentrate in and around urban
under special circumstances. centres. Rural and remote areas had the least
connectivity by road.
Road Transport For the purpose of construction and
India has one of the largest road networks in maintenance, roads are classified as National
the world with a total length of 33.1 lakh km Highways (NH), State Highways(SH), Major
(2005). About 85 per cent of passenger and 70 District Roads and Rural Roads.
Fig. 10.1
Rural Roads
National Highways These roads are vital for providing links in the
Development Projects rural areas. About 80 per cent of the total road
length in India are categorised as rural roads.
NHAI has taken up some major projects in There is regional variation in the density of rural
the country under different phases : road because these are influenced by the nature
of the terrain?
Golden Quadrilateral : It comprises
construction of 5,846 km long 4/6 lane, high
density traffic corridor, to connect India’s four
big metro cities of Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-
Kolkata. With the construction of Golden
Quadrilateral, the time- distance and cost
of movement among the mega cities of India
will be considerably minimised.
North-South and East-West Corridors :
North-South corridor aims a
t connecting
Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir with
Kaniyakumari in Tamil Nadu (including
Kochchi-Salem Spur) with 4,076 km long
road. The East-West Corridor has been planned
to connect Silchar in Assam with the port town Fig. 10.2 : Road constructed under the Pradhan
Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna
of Porbandar in Gujarat with 3,640 km o f
road length.
Delhi-Lahore Bus
Konkan Railway
One of the important achievements of Indian
Railways has been the construction of
Konkan Railway in 1998. It is 760 km long
rail route connecting Roha in Maharashtra
to Mangalore in Karnataka. It is considered
an engineering marvel. It crosses 146 rivers,
streams, nearly 2000 bridges and 91
tunnels. Asia’s largest tunnel which is nearly
6.5 km long, also lies on this route. The
states of Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka
are partners in this undertaking.
Project
Find out the facilities that Indian Railways provide to the passengers.
Source : Foreign Trade and Balance of Payments, Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy.
As has already been mentioned, the competitors. Gems and jewellery contributes a
composition of commodities in India’s larger share of India’s foreign trade.
international trade has been undergoing a
change over the years. The share of agriculture
and allied products has declined whereas
shares of petroleum and crude products and Study table 11.3 and select 8 major commodities
other commodities have increased. The shares exported in 2004-05 and draw bar diagram.
of ore minerals and manufactured goods have
largely remained constant over the years from
Changing Patterns of the Composition of
1997-98 to 2003-04. The increase in the share
India’s Import
of petroleum products is due to a rise in
petroleum prices as well as increase in India’s India faced serious food shortage during 1950s
refining capacity. and 1960s. The major item of import at that
Source : Foreign Trade and Balance of Payments, Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy.
Direction of Trade
India has trade relations with most of the
countries and major trading blocks of the
world. Fig. 11.2
Region-wise and sub-region-wise trade
during the period 2004-05 has been given in
table 11.6. The U.S.A. is India’s largest trading
partner and the most important destination of
India’s export. Other countries in order of
Table 11.6 Direction of India’s Import trade
significance include the U.K., Belgium,
(in million rupees)
Germany, Japan, Switzerland, Hong Kong, the
Region Imports U.A.E., China, Singapore and Malaysia.
2003-04 2004-05
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.
(i) Trade between two countries is termed as
(a) Internal trade (c) International trade
(b) External trade (d) Local trade
(ii) Which one of the following is a land locked harbour?
(a) Vishakhapatnam (c) Ennor
(b) Mumbai (d) Haldia
(iii) Most of India’s foreign trade is carried through
(a) Land and sea (c) Sea and air
(b) Land and air (d) Sea
(iv) Which one of the following is India’s largest trading partner (2004-05)
(a) U.K. (c) Germany
(b) China (d) U.S.A.
Water Pollution
Indiscriminate use of water by increasing
GEOGRAPHICAL population and industrial expansion has led
degradation of the quality of water considerably.
PERSPECTIVE ON Surface water available from rivers, canals,
lakes, etc. is never pure. It contains small
SELECTED ISSUES quantities of suspended particles, organic and
inorganic substances. When concentration of
AND PROBLEMS these substances increases, the water becomes
polluted, and hence becomes unfit for use. In
such a situation, the self-purifying capacity of
water is unable to purify the water.
Air Pollution Oxides of sulphur (SO 2 , SO 3 ), Oxides of Combustion of coal, petrol and diesel,
nitrogen, carbon monoxide, hydro-carbon, industrial processes, solid waste disposal,
ammonia, lead, aldehydes asbestos and beryllium. sewage disposal, etc.
Water Pollution Odour, dissolved and suspended solids, Sewage disposal, urban run-off, toxic
ammonia and urea, nitrate and nitrites, effluents from industries, run-off over
chloride, fluoride, carbonates, oil and grease, cultivated lands and nuclear power plants.
insecticide and pesticide residue, tannin,
coliform MPM (bacterial count) sulphates and
sulphides, heavy metals e.g. lead, aresenic,
mercury, manganese, etc., radioactive
substances.
Land Pollution Human and animal excreta viruses and Improper human activities, disposal of
bacteria, garbage and vectors therein, untreated industrial waste, use of pesticides
pesticides and fertiliser-residue alkalinity, and fertilisers.
fluorides, radio-active substances.
Noise Pollution High level of noise above tolerance level. Aircrafts, automobiles, trains, industrial
processing and advertising media.
Table 12.2 : Sources of Pollution in the Ganga and the Yamuna Rivers
Ganga (a) Downstream of Kanpur 1. Industrial pollution from Cities of Kanpur, Allahabad,
(Uttar Pradesh) (b) Downstream of Varanasi towns like Kanpur Varanasi, Patna and Kolkata
Bihar (c) Farrakka Barrage 2. Domestic wastes from release domestic waste into the
and urban centres river
West Bengal 3. Dumping of carcasses in
the river
Yamuna (a) Delhi to confluence with 1. Extraction of water by Delhi dumping its domestic
(Delhi) Chambal Haryana and Uttar waste
and (b) Mathura and Agra Pradesh for irrigation
(Uttar Pradesh) 2. Agricultural run off
resulting in high levels of
micro-pollutants in the
Yamuna
3. Domestic and industrial
waste of Delhi flowing
into the river
Smog in Mumbai
At present, 47 per cent of the world’s six billion population lives in cities and more will join them in
near future. This proportion is estimated to go up to 50 per cent by 2008. That will put pressure on
governments to make urban areas better places to live with optimum infrastructure facilities for
desirable quality of life.
By 2050, an estimated two-thirds of the world’s population will live in urban areas, imposing even
more pressure on the space infrastructure and resources of cities, which are manifested in terms of
sanitary, health, crime problems and urban poverty.
Urban population grows as a result of natural increase (when birth rate exceeds death rate), net in-
migration (when people move in than out), and sometimes reclassification of urban areas to encompass
formerly rural population settlements. In India, it is estimated that after 1961 around 60 per cent of the
urban growth has been attributed and 29 per cent of them from rural areas to urban migration.
even a bicycle can pass. The whole neighbourhood consists of temporary buildings, two or three
storeyed high with rusty iron stairways to the upper part, where a single room is rented by a whole
family, sometimes accommodating twelve or more people; it is a kind of tropical version of the
industrial dwelling of Victorian London’s East End.
But Dharavi is a keeper of more sombre secrets than the revulsion it inspires in the rich; a revulsion,
moreover, that is, in direct proportion to the role it serves in the creation of the wealth of Bombay. In
this place of shadowless, treeless sunlight, uncollected garbage, stagnant pools of foul water, where
the only non-human creatures are the shining black crows and long grey rats, some of the most
beautiful, valuable and useful articles in India are made. From Dharavi come delicate ceramics and
pottery, exquisite embroidery and zari work, sophisticated leather goods, high-fashion garments,
finely-wrought metalwork, delicate jewellery settings, wood carvings and furniture that would find its
way into the richest houses, both in India and abroad…
Dharavi was an arm of the sea, that was filled by waste, largely produced by the people who have
come to live there: Scheduled Castes and poor Muslims. It comprises rambling buildings of corrugated
metal, 20 metres high in places, used for the treatment of hides and tanning. There are pleasant
parts, but rotting garbage is everywhere…”
(Seabrook, 1996, pp. 50, 51-52)
the “Rural” about which you have learnt in complementing each other. Apart from these, rural
some previous chapters of this book. You have and urban areas have also emerged into two
also learnt in the book entitled “Fundamentals separate cultural, social, political, economic and
of Human Geography” that this concept is technological divide.
defined differently in different countries. India, which has a predominance of rural
Both urban and rural settlements are population (approximately 72 per cent of the
different in their functions, sometimes, total population in 2001) and where villages
Andaman/Nicobar
Islands 8249 0.24 356152 0.03 43 26.9
Andhra Pradesh 275045 8.37 76210007 7.37 275 14.49
Arunachal Pradesh 83743 2.55 1097968 0.11 13 27.0
Assam1 78438 2.39 26655528 2.59 340 18.92
Chhattisgarh 135191 4.11 20833803 20.25 154 18.27
Bihar 94163 9.86 82998509 8.07 880 28.62
Chandigarh 114 0.003 900635 0.09 7900 40.28
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 491 0.01 220490 0.02 449 59.22
Daman & Diu 112 0.003 158204 0.02 1413 55.73
Delhi 1483 0.05 13850507 1.34 9340 47.02
Goa 3702 0.11 1347668 0.13 363 15.21
Gujarat 196024 5.96 50671017 4.93 258 22.66
Haryana 44212 1.34 21144564 2.05 477 28.43
Himachal Pradesh 55673 1.69 6077900 0.59 109 17.54
Jammu & Kashmir 1
222236 6.76 10143700 0.98 99 29.43
Jharkhand 79714 2.42 26945829 2.62 338 23.36
Karnataka 191791 5.83 52850562 5.13 275 17.51
Kerala 38863 1.18 31841374 3.1 819 9.43
Lakshadweep 32 0.0009 60650 0.01 1895 17.3
Madhya Pradesh 308245 9.38 60348023 5.88 196 24.26
Maharashtra 307713 9.36 96878627 9.42 314 22.73
Manipur2 22327 0.68 2293896 0.23 103 24.86
Mizoram 21081 0.64 888573 0.09 42 28.82
Meghalaya 22429 0.68 2318822 0.22 103 30.65
Nagaland 16579 0.5 1990036 0.19 120 64.53
Orissa 155707 4.74 36804660 3.57 236 16.25
Pondicherry 479 0.14 974345 0.09 2030 20.62
Punjab 50362 1.53 24358999 2.37 484 20.1
Rajasthan 342239 10.41 56507188 5.5 165 28.41
Sikkim 7096 0.21 540851 0.05 76 33.06
Tamil Nadu 130058 3.96 62405679 6.07 480 11.72
Tripura 10486 0.32 3199203 0.31 305 16.03
Uttar Pradesh 240928 7.33 166197921 16.17 690 25.85
Uttaranchal 53483 1.63 8489349 0.83 159 20.41
West Bengal 88752 5.7 80176197 7.81 903 17.77
INDIA 3287240 100 1028737436 100 325 21.54
1
including Jharkhand
2
including Chhattisgarh
3
including Uttaranchal
# For Union Territories data of net sown area of indicidual units were not available
* Data of 1993-94,
Appendices 147
Appendix (iii)
India : Decadel Birth Rate, Death Rate and Rate of Natural Increase, 1901 - 1999
Migrants by place of last residence indicating migration streams (duration 0-9 years) INDIA 2001
1991 2001
States/UTs Rural Urban % of Urban Rural Urban % of Urban
Population Population
Appendices 149
Appendix (v)
Jammu & Kashmir 29.6 66.9 0.2 2.04 1.12 0.02 0.001 0.001
Himachal Pradesh 95.4 2 0.1 1.2 1.2 0.02 0.006 0.007
Punjab 36.9 1.6 1.2 59.9 0.2 0.2 0.03 0.02
Chandigarh 78.6 3.9 0.8 16.1 0.1 0.3 0.03 0.01
Uttaranchal 84.9 11.9 0.3 2.5 0.2 0.1 0.01 0.04
Haryana 88.2 5.8 0.1 5.5 0.03 0.3 0.01 0.01
Delhi 82 11.7 0.9 4 5.2 1.1 0.01 0.0001
Rajasthan 88.7 8.5 0.1 1.4 0.02 1.2 0.01 0.01
Uttar Pradesh 80.6 18.5 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.09 0.3 0.2
Bihar 83.2 16.5 0.1 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.04
Sikkim 60.9 1.4 6.7 0.2 26.4 0.04 2.4 0.2
Arunachal Pradesh 34.6 1.9 18.7 0.2 13 0.02 30.7 0.8
Nagaland 7.7 1.8 90 0.06 0.07 0.1 0.3 0.04
Manipur 43.5 8.3 32.2 0.07 0.08 0 10.3 0.04
Mizoram 3.6 1.1 87 0.03 7.9 0.02 0.3 0.07
Tripura 85.6 8 3.2 0.04 3.1 0.01 0.04 0.03
Meghalaya 13.3 4.3 70.3 0.1 0.2 0.03 11.5 0.3
Assam 64.9 30.9 3.7 0.08 0.2 0.09 0.08 0.04
West Bengal 72.5 25.2 0.6 0.08 0.3 0.06 1.1 0.06
Jharkhand 68.6 13.8 4.1 0.3 0.02 0.06 13 0.09
Orissa 94.4 2.1 2.4 0.04 0.03 0.02 1 0.05
Chhattisgarh 94.7 2 1.9 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.04
Madhya Pradesh 91.1 6.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.9 0.7 0.03
Gujarat 89.1 9.1 0.6 0.1 0.04 1 0.06 0.07
Daman & Diuu 89.7 7.8 2.1 0.09 0.07 0.2 0.06 0.01
Dadra & Nagar
Haveli 93.5 3 2.7 0.06 0.2 0.4 0.04 0.07
Maharashtra 80.4 10.6 1.1 0.2 6 1.3 0.2 0.1
Andhra Pradesh 89 9.2 1.6 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.1
Karnataka 83.8 12.2 1.9 0.02 0.7 0.8 0.2 0.2
Goa 65.8 6.8 26.7 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.03 0.5
Lakshadweep 3.7 95.5 0.8 0.01 0.001 —— —— 0.02
Kerala 56.2 24.7 19 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.08
Tamil Nadu 88.1 5.6 6.1 0.01 0.01 0.1 0.02 0.09
Pondicherry 86.8 6.1 6.9 0.01 0.01 0.09 0.02 0.06
Andaman &
Nicobar 69.2 8.2 21.7 0.4 0.1 0.01 0.06 0.2
Source : Census of India, 2001
Appendices 151
Appendix (vii)
Appendices 153
Table 4 : Area, Production and Yield of Main Crops in Five Leading Producer States of India
Appendices 155
Appendix (viii)
India : Density of Roads-2001
Glossary 157
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NOTES