A

SEMINAR REPORT

ON

METHODS OF SUBSOIL INVESTIGATION

BY

UDUEBOR micheal A.

CVE/06/7988

SUBMITTED TO

THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE,

ONDO STATE.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG)

DEGREE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING.

MARCH, 2011.
ABSTRACT

In practice, natural soil deposits are not homogenous, elastic, or isotropic. In some places, the

stratification of soil deposits may even change greatly within a horizontal distance of 15 to 3 metres.

For foundation design and construction work, it is necessary to know the actual soil stratification at a

given site, the laboratory test results of soil samples obtained from various depths, and the

observations made during the construction of other structures built under similar conditions. For

most major structures, adequate subsoil exploration at the construction site must be conducted.

Several methods for carrying out investigation abound depending on the site terrain, type of soil to

be encountered, cost of operation, quality of data and quantity of samples and so many factors. A

brief overview would be given in this compendium of the various methods available for carrying out

investigation into soil and their mode of operation.

1.1 WHAT IS SUBSOIL INVESTIGATION?

Site investigation is a process of site exploration consisting of boring, sampling and testing so as to

obtain geotechnical information for a safe, practical and economical geotechnical evaluation and

design. Generally it is an exploration or discovery of the ground conditions especially on untouched

site.

In other words the main purpose of site subsoil investigation is to determine within practical limits,

the depth, thickness, extent and compositions of each subsoil stratum, the depth and type of rock, the

depth and composition of groundwater, the strength, compressibility and hydraulic characteristics of

soil strata required by geotechnical engineers. Sometimes it is also known as geotechnical

investigation.

1.2 PURPOSES OF SUBSOIL INVESTIGATION

Subsoil investigation provides data on surface and underground conditions at the proposed site.

Samples may be obtained for visual inspection and to determine physical and index properties.

Depending on the site use, relatively undisturbed samples may be obtained to make estimates of

engineering properties for strength, stability and water flow.

According to Das (1990) the purpose of subsoil exploration includes the following;

a. determining the nature of the soil at the site and its stratification

b. obtaining disturbed and undisturbed soil samples for visual identification and appropriate

laboratory tests

c. determining the depth and nature of bedrock, if and when encountered

d. Performing some insitu field tests, such as permeability tests, vane shear tests and standard

penetration tests.
 1.3 PHASES INVOLVED IN SUBSOIL INVESTIGATION

The stages involved in the subsoil investigations include

Surface Investigations:

 Site inspection is carried out to assess general site condition if there are any anticipated

problems that might arise during the construction later on.

 Usually the engineer is required to inspect the site to appreciate actual site and ground

problems with particular reference to terrain, vegetation, swamps, water runoff,

stratigraphical formations where it is exposed.

Sub-surface Investigations:

 Ground or soil investigation by means of boring, sampling, testing, and etc. And also as to

determine the stratigraphy and pertinent properties of soil underlying the project site.

Subsurface Investigations consists of:

 Boring: This refers to drilling or advancing a hole in the ground.

 Sampling: This refers to removing soil from the hole. The samples can be classified as

disturbed or undisturbed samples.

 Testing: This refers to determining the properties from the soil. The test can be performed

either at laboratory or at field.

The direct methods of testing described in this chapter are at the centre of routine ground

investigation. They provide the opportunity to obtain samples for visual description and index

testing, which are the primary ways in which the strata at a site are recognized, and for sampling and

much of the in situ testing needed for parameter determination, as well as allowing the installation of

instrumentation such as Piezometers.

2.1 TRIAL PITTING

Trial pits provide the best method of obtaining very detailed information on strength, stratification,

pre-existing shear surfaces, and discontinuities in soil. Trial pits, trenches and shallow excavations

are often used in site investigations, particularly during investigations for low- and medium-rise

construction, because they provide an economical means of acquiring a very detailed record of the

complex soil conditions which often exist near to the ground surface. Very high quality disturbed,

undisturbed and block samples can only be taken from trial pits and the sides can be photographed

for permanent record.

Trial pits may be excavated by either hand digging or machine excavation. In general, machine

excavation is used for shallow pits, whereas hand excavation is used for deep pits which must be

supported. In the limited space of a trial pit, which is often 1.5m x 3m in plan area and 4-5m depth at

ground level, it is usually impossible to place supports as machine excavation proceeds. Shallow trial

pits provide a cheap method of examining near-surface deposits in situ, but the cost increases

dramatically with depth, because of the need to support.

A large number of methods are available for advancing boreholes to obtain samples or details of soil

strata. The particular methods used any country will tend to be restricted, based on their suitability

for local ground conditions. The principal methods used worldwide are:

• Light percussion drilling;

• Power augering; and

• Washboring.

LIGHT PERCUSSION DRILLING

Often called ‘shell and auger’ drilling, this method is more properly termed light percussion drilling

since the barrel auger is now rarely used with this type of equipment. The drilling rig (Fig. 2.0)

consists of:

• A collapsible ‘A’ frame, with a pulley at its top;

• A diesel engine; connected via a hand-operated friction clutch (based on a brake drum

system) to

• A winch drum which provides pulling power to the rig rope and can be held still with a

friction brake which is foot-operated.

The rope from the winch drum passes over the pulley at the top of the ‘A’ frame and is used to raise

and lower a series of weighted tools on to the soil being drilled. The rig is very light, and can be

readily towed with a four-wheel drive vehicle. It is also very easy to erect, and on a level site can be

ready to drill in about 15 mm. Where access is very limited, it can be dismantled, and rebuilt on the

other side of an obstruction such as a doorway.

In clays, progress is made by dropping a steel tube known as a ‘claycutter’ into the soil (see Fig. 2.1).

This is slowly pulled out of the borehole and is then generally found to have soil wedged inside it.

The claycutter normally has a solid or slotted weight, called a sinker bar, attached to its upper end,
the top of which is connected to the winch rope. When the claycutter is withdrawn from the top of

the hole, the soil is removed with a metal bar which is driven into it through the open slot in the

claycutter side.

In granular materials, such as sands or gravels, a shell is used. At least 2 m of water is put in the

bottom of the borehole, and the shell is then surged, moving about 300mm up and down every

second or so. Surging the shell upwards causes water to be drawn into the bottom of the hole, and

this water loosens the soil at the base of the hole and forces it to go into suspension. As the shell is

dropped on the bottom of the hole the mixture of soil and water passes up the tube of the shell, past

the simple non- return valve (sometimes called a ‘clack’). As the shell is raised, the clack closes and

retains the soil, which precipitates above it. By repeatedly surging the shell up and down at the base

of the hole, soil can be collected and removed from the hole.

Fig 2.0: Light percussion Drilling Rig. Fig 2.1: Light percussion Drilling tools.
AUGERING

Augers may be classified as either bucket augers (Fig. 2.2) or flight augers. Bucket augers consist of

an open-topped cylinder which has a base plate with one or two slots reinforced with cutting teeth,

which break up the soil and allow it to enter the bucket as it is rotated. The top of the bucket is

connected to a rod which transmits the torque and downward pressure from the rig at ground level to

the base of the hole: this rod is termed a ‘Kelly’.

Flight augers may be classified as short-flight augers or continuous- or conveyor-flight augers (Fig.

2.3). Short augers consist of only a few turns of flight above cutting teeth or a hardened steel edge. A

high-spiral auger may contain three or four turns of flight. The hole is made by forcing the auger

downwards at the bottom of the hole, while rotating it. The cutting teeth break up the soil or rock,

which is then transferred up the auger flights. When the flights become full, or when the auger has

been advanced for the height of the flights, the auger is raised to the top of the hole and the soil flung

clear by rapidly rotating it.

Fig 2.2: Bucket Auger Fig 2.3: continuous-flight auger rig.

Washboring is a relatively old method of boring small-diameter exploratory holes in fine-grained cohesive

and non-cohesive soils.

A very light tripod is erected, and a sheave is hung from it (Fig. 2.4). In its simplest form there are no

motorized winches and the drilling water is pumped either by hand, or by a small petrol-driven water pump.

Hollow drilling rods are connected to the pump via a flexible hose, and the drilling crew lift the string of rods

by hand, or using a ‘cathead’ (a continuously rotating steel drum, around which a manilla rope is wound).

Progress is made by jetting water out of a bit at the base of the rods. These are continuously turned using a

tiller, whilst being surged up and down by the drilling crew. Cuttings of soil are carried up the hole by the

drilling water (the ‘flush’) and emerge from a casing T-piece, being deposited in a sump. Routine

identification of the ground conditions at the base of the hole is carried out by the driller placing his hand

under the T-piece to collect a sample of cuttings.

Fig 2.4: Washboring Rig (based on Hvorslev 1949).

Rotary drilling uses a rotary action combined with downward force to grind away the material in

which a hole is being made. Rotary methods may be applied to soil or rock, but are generally easier

to use in strong intact rock than in the weak weathered rocks and soils that are typically encountered

during ground investigations.

Rotary drilling requires a combination of a number of elements (Fig. 2.5):

• A drilling machine or ‘rotary rig’, at the ground surface, which delivers torque and thrust;

• A flush pump, which pumps flush fluid down the hole, in order to cool the mechanical

parts and lift the ‘cuttings’ of rock to the ground surface as drilling proceeds;

• A ‘string’ of hollow drill rods, which transmit the torque and thrust from the rig, and the

flush fluid from the flush pump to the bottom of the hole; and

• A drilling tool, for example a corebarrel, which grinds away the rock, and in addition may

be designed to take a sample.

Fig 2.5: Layout for small-scale rotary core drilling.

Rotary methods may be used to produce a hole in rock, or they may be used to obtain samples of the

rock while the hole is being advanced. The formation of a hole in the subsoil without taking intact

samples is known as ‘open-holing’. It can be carried out in a number of ways, but in site

investigation a commonly used tool is the ‘tricone rock roller bit’ (or roller core bit) (Fig. 2.6).

Fig 2.6: Bits for rotary open holing.

CORING

The most common use of rotary coring in ground investigations is to obtain intact samples of the

rock being drilled, at the same time as advancing the borehole. To do this a corebarrel, fitted with a

‘corebit’ at its lower end, is rotated and grinds away an annulus of rock. The stick of rock, the ‘core’,

in the centre of the annulus passes up into the corebarrel, and is subsequently removed from the

borehole when the corebarrel is full. The length of core drilled before it becomes necessary to

remove and empty the corebarrel is termed a ‘run’. In weak rocks or hard clays, better quality cores

are obtained by using larger diameter bits. A further increase in quality can be obtained by the use of

multiple core barrels and special bits which lead the wash-water to the cutting edge without the

forcing it past the core sample, reducing erosion of the sample.

Samplers are generally classified as either drive samplers or rotary samplers. Drive samplers are

pushed into the soil without rotation, displacing the soil as they penetrate. They generally have a

sharp cutting edge at their base while in contrast, rotary samplers (often termed ‘corebarrels’) have a

relatively thick and blunt cutting surface, which has hard inclusions of tungsten or diamond set into

it. The sampler is rotated and pushed (relatively) gently downwards, cutting and grinding the soil

away beneath it.

OPEN DRIVE SAMPLERS

Open-drive samplers consist of a tube which is open at its lower end with a sharp cutting edge; they

will admit soil as soon as they are brought into contact with it, for example, the bottom of a borehole.

PISTON SAMPLERS

Piston drive samplers consist of a movable piston located within the sampler tube. Piston samplers

can be pushed through a soft soil to the desired sampling level.

Fig 2.7:Section of Open drive sampler showing the cutting edge Fig 2.8: Basic Operation of Piston samplers
 2.5 PROBES

The objective of all probing is the same, namely to provide a profile of penetration resistance with

depth, in order to give an assessment of the variability of a site. Probing is carried out rapidly, with

simple equipment.

2.5.1 STANDARD PENETRATION TEST

In this test a thin-walled sampler is driven into the soil by repeated blows of a 65 kg hammer falling

freely through 760 mm, and the number of blows required to drive the sampler a distance of 300mm

is recorded as the SPT N value. The N value is assumed to be dependent on relative density in

granular soils, and undrained shear strength in cohesive soils.

Fig 2.9: Standard Penetration Test (Thin-walled sampler and setup)

2.5.2 STATIC AND DYNAMIC CONES

Like the standard penetration test, dynamic cones are driven into the ground using a standard falling

hammer, friction between the drilling rods and soil which limits the depth is overcome by fixing the

cone to rods of smaller. As the cone is driven into the ground the number of blows required to drive

it each increment (typically 100 mm) is recorded. The blow count is plotted against depth to provide
a more-or-less continuous profile of penetration resistance with depth. For static cones, the cone is

pushed into the ground at a constant rate, strain gauges allow continuous separate measurement of

sleeve friction and cone resistance, respectively and resistance profiles are gotten.

2.6 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYING

Geophysical surveys can be used to explore areas in greater detail and much more rapidly and

economically than is possible by use of borings. Information from geophysical techniques indicates

average conditions over some distance rather than the restricted vertical line of a boring but surveys

need to be carried out in conjunction with traditional borehole and trail pit investigations before

interpretation of geophysical measurements can be carried out.

2.6.1 RESISTIVITY

The technique provides and inexpensive method of investigating simple ground conditions and is

used to detect both vertical and horizontal variations in ground conditions. However, interpretation

of results does not always give a unique solution and results may be rendered invalid by the

unsuspected presence of metal pipes or cables.

A current is passed between electrodes and the potential drop over a measured distance is recorded,

by altering the spacing of the electrodes, the apparent resistivity of the ground will change,

depending on ground conditions, and a plot can be obtained of apparent resistivity against electrode

spacing which is matched against standard curves of idealised conditions.

2.6.2 GRAVIMETRIC

an instruments which is essentially a very delicate spring balance is used to measure small changes in

the earth’s gravity. Because of the minute variations involved, this method is usually restricted to the

location of such features as large faults, ore bodies, or the edges of infilled quarries. With more
accurate instruments now available, gravitometer may be useful for detecting old mine shafts and

other cavities.

2.6.3 MAGNETIC

This technique relies on the detection of small changes in the earth’s magnetic field. In civil

engineering, its use is usually limited to the detection of buried metal objects such as cables and

pipelines.

2.6.4 SEISMIC

Shock waves are produced either by explosive charges or by a hammer striking an anvil, and a line

of geophones on the surfaces records the disturbance at various distances from the source of the

shock. Three kinds of waves are produced: primary waves, secondary waves and Rayleigh waves.

Shock waves travel through rocks in a manner broadly analogous to that of light rays through

transparent materials, being reflection and refracted in a similar manner.

The choices of the various methods to be used for each stage in the investigation of subsurface

conditions allow for the best practice to be engaged at the lowest cost. The best methods for each

procedure should be employed by the engineer on site to ensure that standards are met and the

investigation carried out gives a complete information about the beneath surface characteristics of

the soil in the area within the time limits given.