Becoming A Master Manager

Becoming a Master Manager
Becoming A Master Manager

Book
2007
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Modified: 2011-07-25
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Preface
A CHANGING WORLD
This text focuses on the paradoxical nature of management. It is designed to help students understand the complex and dynamic nature of the organizational world, as well as to develop their capacity to act in such a world. As we write the preface to the third edition of this book, we are reminded of one of the key paradoxes presented in this text-the simultaneous presence of continuity and change in organizations. In the two previous editions of this text, the prefaces talked about "changing worlds" that were characterized by several interrelated changes that were affecting organizations and schools of management as we were writing those editions. As we finish writing this third edition, we see that while the world continues to change, some of the challenges that were present as we wrote previous versions of the text are still present for most organizational leaders. In the world of work, for example, the emergence of the global economy continues to affect organizations in both the public and private sectors, requiring them to develop new approaches to organization and management. In addition, new developments in the field of computing and telecommunications technology remain key influences in forcing organizations to rethink how they do business. And these changes continue to increase the need to create leaders, at all levels of the organization, and for employees at all levels, regardless of title, to take on responsibilities that were previously reserved only for upper-level managers. In schools of management, faculty continue to experiment with new approaches that focus on helping students develop their capacity to apply knowledge about management and organizations to the work world. In addition, schools of management are experimenting with new modes of delivery. More and more, schools of management are offering courses and other educational experiences that are designed to enhance students' managerial leadership capacities; and leadership is being more broadly defined, recognizing that managers need to be both technically and interpersonally competent. In addition, computing and telecommunications technology have allowed for an increasing number of courses to be conducted outside the traditional classroom setting- in some cases, entire degree programs are available "on-line." While these changes continue to influence how we think about issues in the field of management education and development, our core values remain the same. In particular, we are committed to a view of management education and development that recognizes our potential not only to inform, but also to transform. To inform is to give the student additional information. To transform is to help the student discover and become a new self, to be more capable of understanding and leading change. Our educational systems have traditionally been devoted to informing. Moving from a primary focus on informing to an approach that values both informing and transforming is not easy, but it is necessary. It requires us to shift our thinking away from either/or approaches that have underlying assumptions that lead us to believe that we must choose between opposites, and to begin to recognize the need to use paradoxical thinking to create both/and approaches. The events that have occurred since our second edition have greatly increased the need to both inform and transform our future leaders. Leadership in every arena is under siegefrom the dot.com boom-and-bust to the crisis of confidence in accounting practices and corporate fiduciary principles to the tragedy of September 11, 2001. In the twenty-first century, leaders are being challenged like never before to resolve
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dilemmas around organizational effectiveness, economic viability, and political and military security with solutions that require both/and thinking. This text is built around a framework of leadership competency, the Competing Values Framework, that is grounded in such paradoxical thinking. It is a framework that forces one to think about the competing tensions and demands that are placed on managers in new ways. Since the early 1980s, the framework has been used in management education programs based in academic settings, as well as in organizationally based management and executive development programs across the nation. It has also been used in a number of international settings, all with impressive results.
OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 of the book explains the Competing Values Framework. This theoretical framework integrates four contrasting perspectives on organizing. The four perspectives require managerial leaders to perform eight different managerial roles. To accomplish the productive functions that are necessary in any organization, a managerial leader must play both a director and a producer role, focusing on setting the organization's direction and encouraging productivity and efficiency. On the other hand, to accomplish the human relations functions that are necessary, a managerial leader must play both a mentor and a facilitator role, helping organizational members to grow and develop as individuals, as well as to work together in teams. Although these two sets of roles are highly contrasting, there is another set of contrasts. To accomplish the organizing or stabilizing function that is necessary in any organization, a managerial leader must play both a coordinator and a monitor role, ensuring that workflow is not unnecessarily interrupted and that people have the information they need to do their jobs. In contrast, to accomplish the adaptive function, one must play both an innovator and a broker role, suggesting changes that allow the organization to grow and change and acquire new resources. The framework clarifies the complex nature of managerial work. It also makes clear the bias that most people have for or against the values, assumptions, and theories that are associated with each of the above areas. It makes clear the need to appreciate competing values and the need to master and then to balance and blend competencies from each area. The evolution of the model is traced and developed in Chapter 1. Chapters 2 to 9 of the book are each dedicated to one of the eight roles. Each chapter is broken into three sections, with each section dedicated to a particular competency associated with the role. In the chapter on the mentor role, for example, the three sections respectively cover understanding self and others, communicating effectively, and developing employees. Each section or competency is presented around five-step learning model: Assessment, Learning, Analysis, Practice, and Application. These steps are explained further in the first chapter. In the first edition of this book, we presented the roles in the historical order suggested in Chapter 1. Based on feedback from colleagues, as well as our own experience, we changed the order of the roles in the second edition to one that we saw as more appropriate to the process of developing one's managerial competencies. More specifically, while we believe that all the roles are important to effective managerial leadership, we see knowing yourself and communicating effectively as two of the most basic skills one needs in order to develop as a leader. We therefore moved the mentor role, which includes these competencies, to the beginning of the book. While there are many reasons why an instructor might desire to present the roles in a different order, we see the mentor role as a good place to start. In the Instructional Guide, a number of alternatives are explored.
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In developing the third edition, we have also modified several of the competencies from the first two editions of this book, as well as updated much of the material within the remaining competencies. As noted above, this is a changing world where the nature of managerial work has evolved along with changes in many organizations' external and internal environments. In the paragraphs above we call for greater use of paradoxical thinking, which requires us to recognize that the framework can be simultaneously consistent and changing. That is, while the eight roles remain relevant for managers at all levels of the organizational hierarchy, it is sometimes necessary to reevaluate which competencies are most important for managers in the current organizational environment. We have chosen these competencies based on our understanding of current trends in organizations. As with the order of the chapters, different instructors may very well see other competencies as more important and will decide to focus on different competencies within any one of the roles. As in the first two editions, we have included an integration following each set of two roles. The integration reviews the two roles in a given quadrant (perspective of organizing) in the Competing Values Framework and helps the student to put the roles in the more general perspective. It helps them to see the forest for the trees and to value the trees within the forest. The final chapter of the book returns to the overall model. It provides an integrative perspective and helps the student consider the process of lifelong learning and development. It reminds students that becoming a master manager is a process that will continue as long as they open themselves up to new growth experiences. Our approach has grown out of over 20 years of research and instructional experimentation. All four authors of this text have been involved in doing research that has helped to shape the meta-theory. We have worked with these materials in our university classrooms with undergraduate and graduate students, as well as in management and executive development programs. We have also helped major organizations in both the public and private sectors design large-scale programs to improve the competencies of professional managers. Several thousand professional managers have completed programs that have used the Competing Values Framework as an underlying foundation and integrating theme. The results have been gratifying and instructive-gratifying because both our students and we were transformed in the process. We hope that the use of this textbook will lead to similar outcomes for you.
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

This book may be used in several ways. It can be employed alone as the main text in a course that is specifically designed to develop competencies, or it can be used with a more traditional text to accomplish the same objective. It can accompany more traditional texts in either an organizational behavior or a management principles course. The text has been used in schools of business, as well as in departments and programs of public and nonprofit management. The Instructional Guide includes several papers written by colleagues in these fields that propose alternative uses of this book. The prospective user may find them to be stimulating in considering new approaches. We would like to thank people who have contributed to the Instructional Guide with creative and novel essays on alternative teaching methods: Alan Belasen, Meg Benke and Andrew DiNitto, SUNY-Empire State College; Dan Denison, University of Michigan; David Hart, Brigham Young University; Bill Metheny, Montana State University at Billings; Larry Michaelsen, The University of Oklahoma; and Deborah L. Wells, Creighton University.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many of the ideas for this book were originally developed in 1983, and elaborated in 1985, in conjunction with two professional development programs designed for New York State. Funding for those programs and for the first edition of this book was provided by the negotiated agreements between the state of New York and the Civil Service Employees Association, Inc., and the Public Employees Federation, AFL-CIO, and made available through New York State's Governor's Office of Employee Relations, Program Planning and Employee Development Division (now Division for Development Services). We particularly thank Don Giek, former Director of the Division for Development Services. Don truly is a master manager, and we respect and appreciate the enormous efforts he made for us and for so many people in and outside of New York State. We would also like to thank Laurie Newman DiPadova who co-authored the innovator chapter and is the author of the Instructional Guide. We are most appreciative of her efforts. We would also like to express our sincere thanks to Jeff Marshall, our editor at John Wiley. Jeff has truly been a joy to work with. He has been encouraging and extremely patient. We recognize that working with a team of authors in four different parts of the country is not an easy assignment. Throughout the process, he has maintained his sense of humor and calm demeanor, and has kept his eye on the big picture. We are most grateful for his support. A number of people were asked to review this or earlier versions of the book. They are Meg G. Birdseye, University of Alabama; John D. Bigelow, Boise State University; David E. Blevins, University of Mississippi; Allen Bluedorn, University of Missouri; Kent D. Carter, University of Maine at Orono; Paul D. Collins, Purdue University; Daniel Denison, University of Michigan; Laurie N. DiPadova, University of Utah; Dennis L. Dossett, University of Missouri-St. Louis; Stuart C. Freedman, University of Lowell; Walter Freytag, University of Washington at Bothell; Richard A. Grover, University of Southern Maine; Ester E. Hamilton, Pepperdine University; Steve Inian, California State Polytechnic University; Richard B. Ives, Tarrant County Junior College; Marcia Kassner, University of North Dakota; Kimberlee M. Keef, Alfred University; Gerald D. Klein, Rider University; Mark Lengnick-Hall, Wichita State University; David M. Leuser, Plymouth State College; William E. McClane, Loyola College; Edward J. Morrison, University of Colorado at Boulder; Paula C. Morrow, Iowa State University; Ralph F. Mullin, Central Missouri State University; Joseph Petrick, Wright State University; Gerald Schoenfeld, James Madison University; Tim Schweizer, Luther College; Gregory Stephens, Texas Christian University; William E. Stratton, Idaho State University; David Szczerbacki, Alfred University; Fred Tesch, Western Connecticut State University; Charles N. Toftoy, Golden State University; Barry L. Wisdom, Southwest Missouri State University; Joseph Weiss, Bentley College; and Mark Wellman, Bowling Green State University. We appreciate their many helpful comments and insights. Many others also contributed to the work of this and/or the earlier editions, and we would like to thank Debbi Berg, Bill Bywater, Chris Dammer, Rachel Ebert, Pauline Farmer, Bruce Hamm, Bill LaFleur, Warren Ilchman, Kary Jablonka, Tom Kinney, Chuck Klaer, Katherine Lawrence, Vicki Marrone, David McCaffrey, Ted Peters, Norma Riccucci, Steven Simons, Onnolee Smith, Eugene Thompson, Ben Westery, and John Zanetich. All contributed significantly and we are grateful. Finally we thank our families for their continuous support. Robert E. Quinn, Sue R. Faerman, Michael P. Thompson, Michael R. McGrath
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THE EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT MODELS

LEARNING THE HARD WAY The Case of a Limited Model
We all have beliefs and we all make assumptions about the right way of doing things. This is certainly true when it comes to managerial leadership. Although our beliefs and assumptions can make us effective, they can sometimes make us ineffective (House and Podsakoff, 1994). When they do make us ineffective, it is hard to understand why; We are not usually very experienced at examining our basic beliefs and assumptions. Nor are we very experienced at adopting new assumptions or learning skills and competencies that are associated with those new assumptions. Often it takes a crisis to stimulate such change. Consider the following case.
I have always seen myself as a man who gets things done. After 17 years with a major pharmaceutical company, I was promoted to general manager in the international division. I was put in charge of all Southeast Asian operations. The unit seemed pretty sloppy to me. From the beginning I established myself as a tough, no-nonsense leader. If someone came in with a problem, he or she knew to have the facts straight or risk real trouble. After three months I began to feel like I was working myself to exhaustion, yet I could point to few real improvements. After six months or so, I felt very uneasy but was not sure why. One night I went home and my wife greeted me. She said, "I want a divorce." I was shocked and caught off balance. To make a long story short, we ended up in counseling. Our counselor taught me how to listen and practice empathy. The results were revolutionary. I learned that communication happens at many levels and that it's a two-way process. My marriage became richer than I had ever imagined possible. I tried to apply what I was learning to what was going on at work. I began to realize that there was a lot going on that I didn't know about. People couldn't tell me the truth because I would chop their heads off. I told everyone to come to me with any problem so that we could solve it together. Naturally, no one believed me. But after a year of proving myself, I am now known as one of the most approachable people in the entire organization. The impact on my division's operation has been impressive.
MODELS OF MANAGEMENT
The man in the preceding story had a problem of real significance. The lives of many people, including subordinates, superiors, customers, and even his family members, were being affected by his actions. He was less successful than he might have been because of his beliefs about what a leader is supposed to do. For him, good management meant tight, well-organized operations run by tough-minded, aggressive leaders. His model was not at all wrong, but it was inadequate. It limited his awareness of important alternatives and, thus, kept him from performing as effectively as he might have. It turns out that nearly everyone has beliefs or viewpoints about what a manager should do. In the study of management, these beliefs are sometimes referred to as models. There are many different kinds of models. Although some are formally written or otherwise explicit, others, like the assumptions of the general manager, are informal. Because models affect what happens in organizations, we need to consider them in some depth. Models are representations of a more complex reality. A model airplane, for example, is a physical representation of a real airplane. Models help us to represent,
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communicate ideas about, and better understand more complex phenomena in the real world. In the social world a model often represents a set of assumptions for, or a general way of thinking about or seeing, some phenomenon. It provides a particular perspective about the more complex reality. Although models can help us to see some aspects of a phenomenon, they can also blind us to other aspects. The general manager mentioned before, for example, had such strongly held beliefs about order, authority, and direction that he was unable to see some important aspects of the reality that surrounded him. Unfortunately, our models of management are often so tied to our identity and emotions that we find it, as in the preceding case, very difficult to learn about and appreciate different models. Because of the complexity of life, we often need to call upon more than one model; thus we can see and evaluate more alternatives. Our degree of choice and our potential effectiveness can be increased (Senge, 1990). The models held by individuals often reflect models held by society at large. During the twentieth century a number of management models emerged. Understanding these models and their origins can lead managers to a broader understanding and a wider array of choices.
AN EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
Our models and definitions of management keep evolving. As societal values change, existing viewpoints alter and new models of management emerge (Fabian, 2000). These new models are not driven simply by the writings of academic or popular writers; or by managers who introduce an effective new practice; or by the technical, social, or political forces of the time. These models emerge from a complex interaction among all these factors. In this section, we will look at four major management models and how they evolved from the conditions in each of the first three quarters of the twentieth century. In doing this, we draw on the historical work of Mirvis (1985). Keep in mind as you read that the emergence of each new model did not mean that old models were swept away. Rather, many people held onto the beliefs and assumptions they had developed under the old model and continued to make decisions based on the old models. Note also that the choice of 25-year periods is arbitrary; we use them to simplify the discussion.
1900-1925: THE EMERGENCE OF THE RATIONAL GOAL MODEL AND THE INTERNAL PROCESS MODEL
The first 25 years of the twentieth century were a time of exciting growth and progress that ended in the high prosperity of the Roaring Twenties. As the period began, the economy was characterized by rich resources, cheap labor, and laissezfaire policies. In 1901, oil was discovered in Beaumont, Texas. The age of coal became the age of oil and, soon after, the age of inexpensive energy. Technologically, it was a time of invention and innovation as tremendous advances occurred in both agriculture and industry. The work force was heavily influenced by immigrants from all over the world and by people leaving the shrinking world of agriculture. The average level of education for these people was 8.2 years. Most were confronted by serious financial needs. There was little, at the outset of this period, in terms of unionism or government policy to protect workers from the demanding and primitive conditions they often faced in the factories. One general orientation of the period was social Darwinism: the belief in "survival of the fittest." Given this orientation, it is not surprising that Acres of Diamonds, by Russell Conwell, was a very popular book of the time. The book's thesis was that it
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was every man's Christian duty to be rich. The author amassed a personal fortune from royalties and speaking fees. These years saw the rise of the great individual industrial leaders. Henry Ford, for example, not only implemented his vision of inexpensive transportation for everyone by producing the Model T, but he also applied the principles of Frederick Taylor to the production process. Taylor was the father of scientific management (see Theoretical Perspective 1.1). He introduced a variety of techniques for "rationalizing" work and making it as efficient as possible. Using Taylor's ideas, Henry Ford, in 1914, introduced the assembly line and reduced car assembly time from 728 hours to 93 minutes. In six years Ford's market share went from just under 10% to just under 50%. The wealth generated by the inventions, production methods, and organizations themselves was an entirely new phenomenon. Rational Goal Model. It was in this historical context that the first two models of management began to emerge. The first is the rational goal model. The symbol that best represents this model is the dollar sign, because the ultimate criteria of organization effectiveness are productivity and profit. The basic means-ends assumption in this approach is the belief that clear direction leads to productive outcomes. Hence there is a continuing emphasis on processes such as goal clarification, rational analysis, and action taking. The organizational climate is rational economic, and all decisions are driven by considerations of "the bottom line." If an employee of 20 years is only producing at 80% efficiency, the appropriate decision is clear: Replace the employee with a person who will contribute at 100% efficiency. In the rational goal model the ultimate value is achievement and profit maximization. The manager's job is to be a decisive director and a task-oriented producer. Stories abound about the harsh treatment that supervisors and managers inflicted on employees during this time. In one manufacturing company, for example, they still talk today about the toilet that was once located in the center of the shop floor and was surrounded by glass windows so that the supervisor could see who was inside and how long the person stayed. Internal Process Model. The second model is called the internal process model. While its most basic hierarchical arrangements had been in use for centuries, during the first quarter of the twentieth century it rapidly evolved into what would become known as the "professional bureaucracy." The basic notions of this model would not be fully codified, however, until the writings of Max Weber and Henri Fayol were translated in the middle of the next quarter-century. This model is highly complementary to the rational goal model. Here the symbol is a pyramid, and the criteria of effectiveness are stability and continuity. The means-ends assumption is based on the belief that routinization leads to stability. The emphasis is on processes such as definition of responsibilities, measurement, documentation, and record keeping. The organizational climate is hierarchical, and all decisions are colored by the existing rules, structures, and traditions. If an employee's efficiency falls, control is increased through the application of various policies and procedures. In this model the ultimate value is efficient workflow, and the manager's job is to be a technically expert monitor and dependable coordinator.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE 1.1
TAYLOR'S FOUR PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT 1. Develop a science for every job, which replaces the old rule-of-thumb method. 2. Systematically select workers so that they fit the job, and train them effectively.
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3. Offer incentives so that workers behave in accordance with the principles of the science that has been developed. 4 Support workers by carefully planning their work and smoothing the way as they do their jobs. Adapted from Frederick W. Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1911), p. 44.
1926-1950: THE EMERGENCE OF THE HUMAN RELATIONS MODEL

The second quarter of the century brought two events of enormous proportions. The stock market crash of 1929 and World War II would affect the lives and outlook of generations to come. During this period the economy would boom, crash, recover with the war, and then, once again, offer bright hopes. Technological advances would continue in all areas, but particularly in agriculture, transportation, and consumer goods. The rational goal model continued to flourish. With the writings of Henri Fayol, Max Weber, and others, the internal process model (see Theoretical Perspectives 1.2 and 1.3) would be more clearly articulated. Yet, even while this was being accomplished, it started to become clear that the rational goal and internal process models were not entirely appropriate to the demands of the times. Some fundamental changes began to appear in the fabric of society during the second quarter of the century. Unions, now a significant force, adhered to an economic agenda that brought an ever-larger paycheck into the home of the American worker. Industry placed a heavy emphasis on the production of consumer goods. By the end of this period, new labor-saving machines were beginning to appear in homes. There was a sense of prosperity and a concern with recreation as well as survival. Factory workers were not as eager as their parents had been to accept the opportunity to work overtime. Neither were they as likely to give unquestioning obedience to authority. Hence managers were finding that the rational goal and internal process models were no longer as effective as they once were. Given the shortcomings of the first two models, it is not surprising that one of the most popular books written during this period was Dale Carnegie's How to Win Friends and Influence People. It provided some much-desired advice on how to relate effectively to others. In the academic world, Chester Barnard pointed to the significance of informal organization and the fact that informal relationships, if managed properly, could be powerful tools for the manager. Also during this period Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlis-berger carried out their work in the famous Hawthorne studies. One well-known experiment carried out by these two researchers concerned levels of lighting. Each time they increased the levels of lighting, employee productivity went up. However, when they decreased the lighting, productivity also went up. They eventually concluded that what was really stimulating the workers was the attention being shown them by the researchers. The results of these studies were also interpreted as evidence of a need for an increased focus on the power of relationships and informal processes in the performance of human groups. Human Relations Model. By the end of the second quarter of the century, the emerging orientation was the human relations model. In this model, the key emphasis is on commitment, cohesion, and morale. The means-ends assumption is that involvement results in commitment, and the key values are participation, conflict resolution, and consensus building. Because of an emphasis on equality and openness, the appropriate symbol for this model is a circle. The organization takes on a clanlike, team-oriented climate in which decision making is characterized by deep involvement. Here, if an employee's efficiency declines, managers take a developmental perspective and look at a complex set of motivational factors. They may choose to alter the person's degree of participation or opt for a host of other
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social psychological variables. The manager's job is to be an empathetic mentor and a process-oriented facilitator. In 1949, this model was far from crystallized, and it ran counter to the assumptions in the rational goal and internal process models. Hence it was difficult to understand and certainly difficult to practice. Attempts often resulted in a kind of authoritarian benevolence. It would take well into the next quarter-century for research and popular writings to explore this orientation and for managerial experiments to result in meaningful outcomes in large organizations.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE 1.2 FAYOL'S GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT 1. Division of work. The object of division of work is to produce more and better work with the same effort. It is accomplished through reduction in the number of tasks to which attention and effort must be directed. 2. Authority and responsibility. Authority is the right to give orders, and responsibility is its essential counterpart. Whenever authority is exercised, responsibility arises. 3. Discipline. Discipline implies obedience and respect for the agreements between the firm and its employees. These agreements are arrived at by discussion between an owner or group of owners and worker's associations. The establishment of such agreements should remain one of the chief preoccupations of industrial heads. Discipline also involves sanctions judiciously applied. 4. Unity of command. An employee should receive orders from one superior only. 5. Unity of direction. Each group of activities having one objective should be unified by having one plan and one head. 6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest. The interest of one employee or group of employees should not prevail over that of the company or broader organization. 7. Remuneration of personnel. To maintain their loyalty and support, employees must receive a fair wage for services rendered. 8. Centralization. Like division of work, centralization belongs to the natural order of things. The appropriate degree of centralization, however, will vary with a particular concern, so it becomes a question of the proper proportion. It is a problem of finding the measure that will give the best overall yield. 9. Scalar chain. The scalar chain is the chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to the lowest ranks. It is an error to depart needlessly from the line of authority, but it is an even greater one to adhere to it when detriment to the business could ensue. 10. Order. A place for everything, and everything in its place. 11. Equity. Equity is a combination of kindliness and justice. 12. Stability of tenure of personnel. High turnover increases inefficiency. A mediocre manager who stays is infinitely preferable to an outstanding manager who comes and goes. 13. Initiative. Initiative involves thinking out a plan and ensuring its success. This gives zeal and energy to an organization. 14. Esprit de corps. Union is strength, and it comes from the harmony of the personnel. Abridged from Henri Fayol, General and Industrial Administration (New York: Pitman, 1949), pp. 20-41.
THEORETICAL
PERSPECTIVE 1.3
CHARACTERISTICS OF WEBERIAN BUREAUCRACY Elements of Bureaucracy 1. There is a division of labor with responsibilities that are clearly defined. 2. Positions are organized in a hierarchy of authority. 3. All personnel are objectively selected and promoted based on technical abilities. 4. Administrative decisions are recorded in writing, and records are maintained over time. 5. There are career managers working for a salary. 6. There are standard rules and procedures that are uniformly applied to all.
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1951-1975: THE EMERGENCE OF THE OPEN SYSTEMS MODEL

The period 1951 to 1975 began with the United States as the unquestioned leader of the capitalist world. It ended with the leadership of the United States in serious question. During this period the economy experienced the shock of the oil embargo in 1973. Suddenly assumptions about cheap energy, and all the life patterns upon which they were based, were in danger. By the late 1970s the economy was staggering under the weight of stagnation and huge government debt. At the beginning of this period, "made in Japan" meant cheap, low-quality goods of little significance to Americans. By the end, Japanese quality could not be matched, and Japan was making rapid inroads into sectors of the economy thought to be the sacred domain of American companies. Even such traditionally American manufacturing areas as automobile production were dramatically affected. There was also a marked shift from a clear product economy to the beginnings of a service economy. Technological advances began to occur at an ever-increasing rate. At the outset of the third quarter of the century, the television was a strange device. By the end of this period, television was the primary source of information and the computer was entering the life of every American. At the beginning of the 1960s, NASA worked to accomplish the impossible dream of putting a man on the moon, but then Americans became bored with the seemingly commonplace accomplishments of the space program. Societal values also shifted dramatically. The 1950s were a time of conventional values. Driven by the Vietnam War, the 1960s were a time of cynicism and upheaval. Authority and institutions were everywhere in question. By the 1970s the difficulty of bringing about social change was fully understood. A more individualistic and conservative orientation began to take root. In the work force, average education jumped from the 8.2 years at the beginning of the century to 12.6 years. Spurred by considerable prosperity, workers in the United States were now concerned not only with money and recreation but also with selffulfillment. Women began to move into professions that had been closed to them previously. The agenda of labor expanded to include social and political issues. Organizations became knowledge-intense, and it was no longer possible to expect the boss to know more than every person he or she supervised. By now the first two models were firmly in place, and management vocabulary was filled with rational management terms, such as management by objectives (MBO) and management information system (MIS). The human relations model, however, was also now familiar. Many books about human relations became popular during this period, further sensitizing the world to the complexities of motivation and leadership. Experiments in group dynamics, organizational development, sociotechnical systems, and participative management flourished. In the mid-1960s, spurred by the ever-increasing rate of change and the need to understand how to manage in a fast-changing, knowledge-intense world, a variety of academics began to write about still another model. People such as Katz and Kahn at the University of Michigan, Lawrence and Lorsch at Harvard, as well as a host of others began to develop the open systems model of organization. This model was more dynamic than others. The manager was no longer seen as a rational decision maker controlling a machinelike organization. The research of Mintzberg, for example, showed that in contrast to the highly systematic pictures portrayed in the principles of administration (see Theoretical Perspective 1.2), managers live in highly unpredictable environments and have little time to organize and plan. They are, instead, bombarded by constant stimuli and forced to make rapid decisions. Such
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observations were consistent with the movement to develop contingency theories (see Theoretical Perspective 1.4). These theories recognized the simplicity of earlier approaches. Open Systems Model. In the open systems model, the organization is faced with a need to compete in an ambiguous as well as competitive environment. The key criteria of organizational effectiveness are adaptability and external support. Because of the emphasis on organizational flexibility and responsiveness, the symbol here is the amoeba. The amoeba is a very responsive, fast-changing organism that is able to respond to its environment. The means-ends assumption is that continual adaptation and innovation lead to the acquisition and maintenance of external resources. Key processes are political adaptation, creative problem solving, innovation, and the management of change. The organization has an innovative climate and is more of an "adhocracy" than a bureaucracy. Risk is high, and decisions are made quickly. In this situation common vision and shared values are very important. Here, if an employee's efficiency declines, it may be seen as a result of long periods of intense work, an overload of stress, and perhaps a case of burnout. The manager is expected to be a creative innovator and a politically astute broker (someone who uses power and influence in the organization).
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE 1.4 CONTINGENCY THEORY Appropriateness of Managerial Actions Varies with Key Variables Size. Problems of coordination increase as the size of the organization increases. Appropriate coordination procedures for a large organization will not be efficient in a small organization, and vice versa. Technology. The technology used to produce outputs varies. It may be very routine or very customized. The appropriateness of organizational structures, leadership styles, and control systems will vary with the type of technology. Environment. Organizations exist within larger environments. These may be uncertain and turbulent or predictable and unchanging. Organizational structures, leadership styles, and control systems will vary accordingly. Individuals. People are not the same. They have very different needs. Managers must adjust their styles accordingly.
1976-TODAY: THE EMERGENCE OF "BOTH-AND" ASSUMPTIONS

In the 1980s it became apparent that American organizations were in deep trouble. Innovation, quality, and productivity all slumped badly. Japanese products made astounding advances as talk of U.S. trade deficits became commonplace. Reaganomics and conservative social and economic values fully replaced the visions of the Great Society. In the labor force, knowledge work became commonplace and physical labor, rare. Labor unions experienced major setbacks as organizations struggled to downsize their staffs and increase quality at the same time. The issue of job security became increasingly prominent in labor negotiations. Organizations faced new issues, such as takeovers and downsizing. One middle manager struggled to do the job previously done by two or three. Burnout and stress became hot topics. Peters and Waterman published a book that would have extraordinary popularity. In Search of Excellence attempted to chronicle the story of those few organizations that were seemingly doing it right. It was really the first attempt to provide advice on how to revitalize a stagnant organization and move it into a congruent relationship with an environment turned upside down. Like Carnegie's book, long before, it addressed and, in so doing, made clear the most salient unmet need of the time: how to manage in a world where nothing is stable.
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As the twentieth century drew to a dose, the rate of change rose to new heights. Longstanding political and business institutions began to crumble. The Berlin Wall came tumbling down. A short time later the USSR itself disintegrated. In the United States some of the most powerful and admired corporations seemed strong one day and in deep difficulty the next. In the new global economy nothing seemed predictable. This was exacerbated by the emergence of the Internet and ecommerce. In the meantime, employees with the right mix of competencies and abilities were in short supply. In 2000, a survey of executives' concerns ("Survey of Pressing Problems," 2000) indicated that the most pressing problems were the following: Attracting, keeping, and developing good people Thinking and planning strategically Maintaining a high-performance climate Improving customer satisfaction Managing time and stress Staying ahead of the competition Aligning vision, strategy, and behavior Maintaining work and life balance Improving internal processes Stimulating innovation
These seemingly very different problems are actually all symptoms of a larger problem-the need to achieve organizational effectiveness in a highly dynamic environment. In such a complex and fast-changing world, simple solutions became suspect. None of the four models, discussed earlier and summarized in Table 1.1, offered a sufficient answer. Even the more complex open systems approach was not sufficient. Sometimes we needed stability, sometimes we needed change. Often we needed both at the same time. The key was to stop assuming that it was an either-or decision, to stop thinking about choosing between the two (Quinn, Kahn, and Mandl, 1994). More and more we needed to learn about both-and assumptions, where contrasting behaviors could be needed at the same time. By the mid-1990s it had become clear that no one model was sufficient to guide a manager and that it was in fact necessary to see each of the four models as elements of a larger model. It is around this notion of a larger, integrated model that this book is organized.
TABLE 1.1 Characteristics of the Four Management Models
Rational Goal Criteria of effectiveness Means-ends theory Productivity, profit
Internal Process
Human Relations
Open Systems Adaptability, external support
Stability, continuity Commitment, cohesion, morale
Clear direction leads Routinization leads Involvement results Continual to productive to stability in commitment adaptation and outcomes innovation lead to acquiring and maintaining external resources
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Emphasis
Goal clarification, rational analysis, and action taking
Defining responsibility, measurement, documentation
Participation, conflict resolution, and consensus building
Political adaptation, creative problem solving, innovation, change management Innovative, flexible Innovator and broker
Climate
Rational economic: "the bottom line"
Hierarchical Monitor and coordinator
Team oriented Mentor and facilitator
Role of manager Director and producer
THE FOUR MODELS IN A SINGLE FRAMEWORK

A SINGLE FRAMEWORK
At first, the models discussed earlier seem to be four entirely different perspectives or domains. However, they can be viewed as closely related and interwoven. They are four important subdomains of a larger construct: organizational effectiveness. Each model within the construct of organizational effectiveness is related. Depending on the models and combinations of models we choose to use, we can see organizational effectiveness as simple and logical, as dynamic and synergistic, or as complex and paradoxical. Taken alone, no one of the models allows us the range of perspectives and the increased choice and potential effectiveness provided by considering them all as part of a larger framework. As we'll explain soon, we call this larger framework the competing values framework. The relationships among the models can be seen in terms of two axes. In Figure 1.1 the vertical axis ranges from flexibility at the top to control at the bottom. The horizontal axis ranges from an internal organizational focus at the left to an external focus at the right. Each model fits in one of the four quadrants. The human relations model, for example, stresses the criteria shown in the upperleft quadrant: participation, openness, commitment, and morale. The open systems model stresses the criteria shown in the upper-right quadrant: innovation, adaptation, growth, and resource acquisition. The rational goal model stresses the criteria shown in the lower-right quadrant: direction, goal clarity, productivity, and accomplishment. The internal process model, in the lower-left quadrant, stresses documentation, information management, stability, and control. As can be seen in Figure 1.2, some general values are also reflected in the framework. These appear on the outer perimeter. Expansion and change are in the upper-right corner and contrast with consolidation and continuity in the lower-left corner. On the other hand, they complement the neighboring values focusing on decentralization and differentiation at the top and achieving a competitive position of the overall system to the right. Each general value statement can be seen in the same way.
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FIGURE 1.1. Competing values framework: effectiveness criteria. Each of the four models of organizing in the competing values framework assumes different criteria of effectiveness. Here we see the criteria in each model; the labels on the axes show the qualities that differentiate each model. Source: R. E. Quinn, Beyond Rational Management (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988), p. 48. Used with permission.
Each model has a perceptual opposite. The human relations model, defined by flexibility and internal focus, stands in stark contrast to the rational goal model, which is defined by control and external focus. In the first, for example, people are inherently valued. In the second, people are of value only if they contribute greatly to goal attainment. The open systems model, defined by flexibility and external focus, runs counter to the internal process model, which is defined by control and internal focus. While the open systems model is concerned with adapting to the continuous change in the environment, the internal process model is concerned with maintaining stability and continuity inside the system. Parallels among the models are also important. The human relations and open systems models share an emphasis on flexibility. The open systems and rational goal models share an emphasis on external focus. The rational goal and internal process models emphasize control. And the internal process and human relations models share an emphasis on internal focus.
THE USE OF OPPOSING MODELS

We will use this framework of the four opposing models throughout the book as our management model. We call this framework the competing values framework because the criteria within the four models seem at first to carry a conflicting message. We want our organizations to be adaptable and flexible, but we also want them to be stable and controlled. We want growth, resource acquisition, and external support, but we also want tight information management and formal communication. We want an emphasis on the value of human resources, but we also want an emphasis on planning and goal setting. In any real organization all of these are, to some extent, necessary.
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FIGURE 1.2. Eight general orientations in the competing values framework. The eight general values that operate in the competing values framework are shown in the triangles on the perimeter. Each value both complements the values next to it and contrasts with the one directly opposite it. Some of these values are shared among roles; these are shown in color. Source: R. E. Quinn, Beyond Rational Management (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988), p. 48. Used with permission.
The framework does not suggest that these oppositions cannot mutually exist in a real system. It does suggest, however, that these criteria, values, and assumptions are at opposites in our minds. We tend to think about them as mutually exclusive; that is, we assume we cannot have two opposites at the same time. Moreover, in valuing one over the other we tend to devalue or discount its opposite. As we shall see, however, it is possible-in fact-desirable, to perform effectively in the four opposing models simultaneously. The four models in the framework represent the unseen values over which people, programs, policies, and organizations live and die. Like the pharmaceutical executive at the outset of this chapter, we often blindly pursue values in one of the models without considering the values in the others. As a result, our choices and our potential effectiveness are reduced.
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For managers the world keeps changing. It changes from hour to hour, day to day, and week to week. The strategies that are effective in one situation are not necessarily effective in another. Even worse, the strategies that were effective yesterday may not be effective in the same situation today. Managers tend to become trapped in their own style and in the organization's cultural values. They tend to employ very similar strategies in a wide variety of situations. The overall framework, consisting of the four models described here, can increase effectiveness. Each model in the framework suggests value in different, even opposite, strategies. The framework reflects the complexity confronted by people in real organizations. It therefore provides a tool to broaden thinking and to increase choice and effectiveness. This, however, can only happen as three challenges are met. Challenge 1 models Challenge 2 To appreciate both the values and the weaknesses of each of the four To acquire and use the competencies associated with each model
Challenge 3 To dynamically integrate the competencies from each of the models with the managerial situations that we encounter
BEHAVIORAL COMPLEXITY AND THE EFFECTIVENESSOF MANAGERIAL LEADERS

When a person meets challenge 1 and comes to understand and appreciate each of the four models, it suggests he or she has learned something at the conceptual level and has increased his or her cognitive complexity as it relates to managerial leadership. A person with high cognitive complexity regarding a given phenomenon is a person who can see that phenomenon from many perspectives. The person is able to think about the phenomenon in sophisticated rather than simple ways. Increased complexity at the conceptual level is the primary objective in most traditional management courses. Meeting challenge 1, however, does not mean someone has the ability to be an effective managerial leader. Knowledge is not enough. To increase effectiveness, a managerial leader must meet challenges 2 and 3. Meeting these challenges leads to an increase in behavioral complexity. The term behavioral complexity was coined by Hooijberg and Quinn (1992) to reflect the capacity to draw on and use competencies and behaviors from the different models. Behavioral complexity builds on the notion of cognitive complexity and is defined as "the ability to act out a cognitively complex strategy by playing multiple, even competing, roles in a highly integrated and complementary way" (p. 164). Several studies suggest a link between behavioral complexity and effective performance. In a study of 916 CEOs, Hart and Quinn (1993) found that the ability to play multiple and competing roles produced better firm performance. The CEOs with high behavioral complexity saw themselves as focusing on broad visions for the future (open systems model), while also providing critical evaluation of present plans (internal process model). They also saw themselves attending to relational issues (human relations model), while simultaneously emphasizing the accomplishment of tasks (rational goal model). The firms with CEOs having higher behavioral complexity produced the best firm performance, particularly with respect to business performance (growth and innovation) and organizational effectiveness. The relationships held regardless of firm size or variations in the nature of the organizational environment. In a study of middle managers in a Fortune 100 company, Denison, Hooijberg, and Quinn (1995) found behavioral complexity, as assessed by the superior of the middle
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manager, to be related to the overall managerial effectiveness of the manager, as assessed by subordinates. In a similar study, behavioral complexity was related to managerial performance, charisma, and the likelihood of making process improvements in the organization (Quinn, Spreitzer, and Hart, 1992).
BECOMING A MANAGER: THE NEED FOR NEW COMPETENCIES

The competing values framework integrates opposites. It is not easy to think about opposites. The failure to understand them, however, can hinder the development you need as a managerial leader. We will therefore begin by describing the competing roles managers play in their organization. We will then turn to the specific competencies that are embedded in each role. Finally, we will describe a process for developing each of the competencies at the behavioral level.
EIGHT ROLES
The competing values framework is helpful in pointing out some of the values and criteria of effectiveness by which work units and organizations are judged. It is also useful in thinking about the conflicting roles that are played by managers (Quinn, 1984, 1988). Figure 1.3 shows a second version of the competing values framework. The structure of Figure 1.3 is very similar to the structure of Figure 1.1, but this time the figure focuses on leadership effectiveness, rather than organizational or workunit effectiveness. This framework specifies competing roles or expectations that might be experienced by a manager.
FIGURE 1.3
The competencies and the leadership roles in the competing values framework.
Each of the eight leadership roles in the competing values framework contains three competencies. They, like the values, both complement the ones next to them and contrast with those opposite to them. Modified: 2011-07-25 Page 18 /71
Source: R. E. Quinn, Beyond Rational Management(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988), p. 48. Used with permission.
Rational Goal Model: The Director and Producer Roles. In the lower-right quadrant are the director and the producer roles. As a director, a manager is expected to clarify expectations through processes, such as planning and goal setting, and to be a decisive initiator who defines problems, selects alternatives, establishes objectives, defines roles and tasks, generates rules and policies, and gives instructions. When someone is playing the director role, there is no question about who is in charge. Consider, for example, the following statement made about a particularly directive manager:
She is everywhere. It seems as if she never goes home. But it is not just her energy; she is constantly reminding us why we are here. I have worked in a lot of organizations, but I have never been so clear about purpose. I know what I have to do to satisfy her and what the unit has to do. In some units around here, the employees really don't care; she has caused people to care about getting the job done.
When people think about the director role, they often think of a hard-driving person known for a no-nonsense, take-charge attitude. An excellent example is provided by the opening scene of the movie Patton. When George C. Scott, portraying General George Patton, addresses his soldiers prior to entering battle, they absolutely know what the objective is and how they are to obtain it. People who excel at the director role are often highly competitive, swift-acting decision makers who make their expectations clear. People walk away knowing exactly what they are to do. These people often argue that there are times when people simply must be kicked around or even removed from their jobs. In such situations directors tend to act decisively. Patton, and others like him, also tend to serve as excellent examples of the producer role. Producers are expected to be task oriented and work focused and to have high interest, motivation, energy, and personal drive. They are supposed to accept responsibility, complete assignments, and maintain high personal productivity. This usually involves motivating members to increase production and to accomplish stated goals. Stereotypes of this role often have a fanatic desire to accomplish some objective. Like Captain Ahab in the novel Moby Dick, they drive themselves and their crews unrelentingly toward a stated objective. Internal Process Model: Monitor and Coordinator Roles. In the bottom-left quadrant are the monitor and coordinator roles. As a monitor, a manager is expected to know what is going on in the unit, to determine whether people are complying with the rules, and to see whether the unit is meeting its quotas. The monitor knows all the facts and details and is good at analysis. Characteristic to this role is a zeal for handling data and forms, reviewing and responding to routine information, conducting inspections and tours, and authoring reviews of reports and other documents. Consider, for example, this description of a manager:
She has been here for years. Everyone checks with her before doing anything. She is a walking computer. She remembers every detail, and she tracks every transaction that occurs. From agreements made eight years ago, she knows which unit owes equipment to which other unit. Nothing gets past her. She has a sixth sense for when people are trying to hide something.
A stereotype of the monitor and coordinator roles is the character Radar O'Reilly from the classic TV series M*A*S*H. The monitor role suggests a care for details, control, and analysis. The monitor is constantly checking to find out what is really going on. The monitor has a sense of precision and pays attention to measures, reports, and data. Debby Hopkins, the chief financial officer at Boeing, excels in the
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monitor role, paying attention to every detail. She says she likes "putting my nose into everything," which includes such things as touring factories, changing manufacturing processes, and choosing new advertising agencies. She wants to know every detail. A real-life example of a coordinator is General H. Norman Schwarzkopf, who, as commander of operations of the U.S. forces during Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm, assembled 765,000 troops from 28 countries, hundreds of ships, and thousands of planes and tanks in order to defend Saudi Arabia against possible Iraqi invasion in 1990 and then to drive Iraq from Kuwait in 1991. As a coordinator, a manager is expected to maintain the structure and flow of the system. The person in his role is expected to be dependable and reliable. Behavioral traits include various forms of work facilitation, such as scheduling, organizing, and coordinating staff efforts; handling crises; and attending to technological, logistical, and housekeeping issues. Human Relations Model: The Facilitator and Mentor Roles. The facilitator is expected to foster collective effort, build cohesion and teamwork, and manage interpersonal conflict. In this role the manager is process oriented. Expected behaviors include intervening in interpersonal disputes, using conflict-reduction techniques, developing cohesion and morale, obtaining input and participation, and facilitating group problem solving. Consider, for example, this description of a public manager:
It is like any company. The finance people and the operations people are always at war. He brings people like that into a room, hardly says a word, and walks out with support from both sides. Same with subordinates-he brings us together, asks lots of questions, and we leave committed to get the job done. He has a gift for getting people to see the bigger picture, to trust each other, and to cooperate.
A particularly outstanding example of the facilitator role is Suzanne de Passe, who served as president of Motown Productions. A highly energetic manager, she was recognized as having many skills, yet the one that stands out the most is her incredible ability for team building. With her, no subject was taboo. Her staff felt free and safe in raising any issue, including the shortcomings of the boss herself. She refused to let any conflict stay hidden. All issues were raised and worked on until there was a resolution and consensus. Her people had a sense of involvement and influence. The level of openness and cohesiveness astounded most newcomers. Many commented that the organization was the only one they had ever seen where the truth was always told and potentially divisive political issues were immediately confronted and resolved. The sense of openness and cohesiveness created an exciting and productive organizational context. A mentor is engaged in the development of people through a caring, empathetic orientation. This might be called the concerned human role. In this role the manager is helpful, considerate, sensitive, approachable, open, and fair. In acting out this role, the manager listens, supports legitimate requests, conveys appreciation, and gives compliments and credit. People are resources to be developed. The manager helps with skill building, provides training opportunities, and plans for employees' individual development. Here we think about a man who was the head of finance in a Fortune 100 company. He was known as a master of this role. He would carefully select graduates from the best business schools, bring them into the company, train them, and then watch over every aspect of their career development. To be one of his proteges was to be on the sure track to success. Open Systems Model: The Innovator and Broker Roles. The innovator and broker roles, in the upper-right quadrant of the framework, reflect the values of the open systems model. As an innovator, a manager is expected to facilitate adaptation
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and change. The innovator pays attention to the changing environment, identifies important trends, conceptualizes and projects needed changes, and tolerates uncertainty and risk. In this role, managers must rely on induction, ideas, and intuitive insights. These managers are expected to be creative, clever dreamers who see the future, envision innovations, package them in inviting ways, and convince others that they are necessary and desirable. Consider, for example, this description:
In a big organization like this, most folks do not want to rock the boat. She is always asking why, looking for new ways to do things. We used to be in an old, run-down wing. Everyone accepted it as a given. It took her two years, but she got us moved. She had a vision, and she sold it up the system. She is always open, and if a change or a new idea makes sense, she will go for it.
Innovators are usually people with vision. The stereotype is the entrepreneur, such as Bill Gates, who pursues and dreams and builds a great company. Such a person sees a need and a way to fulfill the need. Innovators are willing to take risks in pursuing their vision. A good example is Joy Covey, chief strategist at Amazon.com. She is a high school dropout who is now worth more than $150 million. At Amazon, Covey exhibits a keen ability to foresee future trends and prepare her organization to move in the appropriate direction. She has a creative mind and the ability to communicate her vision. The broker is particularly concerned with maintaining external legitimacy and obtaining external resources. Mary Meeker, an Internet analyst at Morgan Stanley, is seen as a great illustration of the broker role. She has engineered more than 26 IPOs (initial public offerings). She works with bankers and her clients to pursue new ideas and put together deals that will add value for all concerned parties. Image, appearance, and reputation are important. Managers as brokers are expected to be politically astute, persuasive, influential, and powerful. They meet with people from outside the unit to represent, negotiate, and to acquire resources; they market; and they act as a liaison and spokesperson.
THE EIGHT ROLES AT DIFFERENT ORGANIZATION LEVELS

As you think about the eight managerial leadership roles described above, you may notice that these descriptions are as applicable to first-level supervisors as they are to executive-level managers of large organizations: The descriptions of the eight roles represent general descriptions of managerial behaviors that are not necessarily tied to a particular level of organizational hierarchy. Indeed, researchers and consultants have used the competing values framework to structure management education, development, and training programs for first-, middle-, and upper-level managers in a wide variety of public, private, and not-for-profit organizations in the United States as well as internationally (Ban and Faerman, 1988; Faerman, Quinn, and Thompson, 1987; Giek and Lees, 1993; Quinn, Sendelbach, and Spreitzer, 1991; Sendelbach, 1993). Managerial responsibilities do, however, vary across levels of organizational hierarchy. Common sense will tell you that the specific job tasks and responsibilities associated with the first-level manager in the broker role, for example, will likely be starkly different from those of the upper-level manager performing in this role. In some cases, however, while the specific job tasks and responsibilities vary across levels of organizational hierarchy, some of the required competencies for performing in the various roles will remain the same. For example, all managers need to have good interpersonal skills and to have a high level of self-awareness (Kiechel, 1994). Similarly, all managers need to be able to develop plans and to adapt those plans when circumstances change. In this latter case, however, the scope and time frame of planning will likely differ, as will the steps of the planning process. Thus managers
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may need to learn different competencies to plan at different levels of the organization. As managers are promoted from one level of the organization to the next, they need to identify which behaviors associated with the various role competencies will generally remain the same, as well as which new behaviors need to be learned and which must be unlearned (Faerman and Peters, 1991). They must also understand how the means to balance the various roles and perform in behaviorally complex ways may change from one managerial position to another. Similarly, human resources managers and those who are mentoring managers as they are promoted need to understand what the similarities and differences in managerial jobs across levels of organizational hierarchy are so that they can help these individuals to grow and develop as they make these transitions (DiPadova and Faerman, 1993).
THE NEGATIVE ZONE

Learning to perform well as a managerial leader requires a different approach than does learning to perform well in any one of the leadership roles. In the same way that no one of the models discussed above provides the sole answer to organizational effectiveness, no one of the managerial leadership roles provides the sole answer to managerial leadership performance. While a person may become very strong in a given role, and this strength may carry him or her a long way in his or her career, this does not necessarily mean that he or she will be an effective managerial leader. Effective managerial leaders are behaviorally complex and are able to integrate opposite roles. Sometimes a person becomes so committed to the behavior in one role that he or she loses touch with the opposite. This can make a normally effective person ineffective. General George Patton was, as indicated earlier, an effective director and producer, but he sometimes lost sight of facilitator, mentor, and broker roles, and this led to some major setbacks in his career. Without behavioral complexity, one's strengths can become the source of one's failure. Low behavioral complexity on the part of a manager can lead to unfortunate organizational outcomes. To illustrate this, Faerman and Quinn (1985) developed the concept of the "negative zone," which can be seen in Figures 1.4 and 1.5. The first reflects organizational effectiveness. The second reflects leader effectiveness. In each of the two figures, three circles are divided into four quadrants. In the middle circle are the positively stated values from the competing values framework. The inner and outer circles are considered negative zones. The inner circle is well understood and represents a lack of ability to perform in a given role. The most interesting circle, however, is the outer circle. Here each set of positive values is "pushed" until it becomes negative. In the upper-right quadrant of Figure 1.4, for example, innovation, adaptation, and change become premature responsiveness and disastrous experimentation. External support, resource acquisition, and growth become political expediency and unprincipled opportunism. Here an organization intending to be a responsive adhocracy becomes a tumultuous anarchy. In each quadrant of the outer circle the reader can see what happens if a set of positive values is inflated by ignoring or negating the opposite set of positive values.
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FIGURE 1.4 Negative zone in organizational effectiveness. Source: R. E. Quinn. The University of Michigan. Used with permission.
IDENTIFYING THE CORE COMPETENCIES

The eight roles help us to organize our thoughts about what is expected of a person holding a position of leadership. Although the eight roles are a useful organizing structure, we have not as yet specified what competencies are necessary in order to perform effectively in each of the eight roles. It is to that issue that we now turn. A group of experts, consisting of 11 nationally recognized scholars and 11 prominent administrators and union representatives, were brought together to identify key competencies associated with each role in the competing values framework (Faerman et al., 1987). Participants were chosen based on their experience and expertise as practitioners or scholars in the field of management. More than 250 competencies were identified and given to this group. Their task was to identify the most important competencies in each of the eight roles. Based on the results of this exercise, a framework was developed. This framework was used in the instruction of thousands of people and modified by their feedback. Based on their feedback, the
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model was improved, and this book is organized around the important competencies in each role. These are shown in Table 1.2.
FIGURE 1.5 Negative zone in leader effectiveness. Source: R. E. Quinn. The University of Michigan. Used with permission.
Each of the chapters is divided into three sections, and each section is organized around one of the three competencies in the role. Thus the next eight chapters cover 24 key competencies. The competencies are highly consistent with the existing literature (Belasen, 2000; Bigelow, 1991; Boyatzis, 1982; Flanders, 1981; Ghiselli, 1963; Hart and Quinn, 1993; Katz, 1974; Livingston, 1971; Luthans and Lockwood, 1984; Miner, 1973; Mintzberg, 1975; Whetten and Cameron, 1994; Yukl, 1981). Completion of the next eight chapters is likely to greatly broaden your skills and increase your capacities. As you work through the chapters, however, keep in mind that this is only one of the eight roles and that the ultimate goal is for you to be able to integrate the competencies that will allow you to operate well in a world of competing values. TABLE 1.2 The Eight Managerial Leadership Roles and Their Key Competencies
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Mentor role
1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3.
Understanding self and others Communicating effectively Developing employees Building teams Using participative decision making Managing conflict Monitoring individual performance Managing collective performance and processes Analyzing information with critical thinking Managing projects Designing work Managing across functions Developing and communicating a vision Setting goals and objectives Designing and organizing Working productively Fostering a productive work environment Managing time and stress Building and maintaining a power base Negotiating agreement and commitment Presenting ideas Living with change Thinking creatively Managing change
Facilitator role
Monitor role
Coordinator role
Director role
Producer role
Broker role
Innovator role
ORGANIZING THE LEARNING PROCESS

A competency suggests both the possession of knowledge and the behavioral capacity to act appropriately. To develop competencies you must both be introduced to knowledge and have the opportunity to practice your skills. Many textbooks and classroom lecture methods provide the knowledge but not the opportunity to develop behavioral skills. In this book, we will provide you with both. The structure we will use is based on a five-step model developed by Whetten and Cameron (1994), which takes learning from an instructional approach (an expert giving a lecture) to an instructionaldevelopmental approach (an expert giving a lecture plus students experimenting with new behaviors). We have modified the labels for one of the components in the fivestep model and call it the ALAPA model. The components are as follows. Step 1: Assessment Helps you discover your present level of ability in and awareness of the competency. Any number of tools, such as questionnaires, role-plays, or group discussions, might be used. Step 2: Learning Involves reading and presenting information about the topic using traditional tools, such as lectures and printed material. Here we present information from relevant research and suggest guidelines for practice. Step 3: Analysis
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Explores appropriate and inappropriate behaviors by examining how others behave in a given situation. We will use cases, role-plays, or other examples of behavior. Your professor may also provide examples from popular movies, television shows, or novels for you to analyze. Step 4: Practice Allows you to apply the competency to a work like situation while in the classroom. It is an opportunity for experimentation and feedback. Again, exercises, simulations, and role-plays will be used. Step 5: Application Gives you the opportunity to transfer the process to real-life situations. Usually assignments are made to facilitate short- and long-term experimentation. In working with the model, we discovered that the five components, and the methods normally associated with each component, need not be mutually exclusive. A lecture, for example, does not need to follow an assessment exercise and precede an analysis exercise; a lecture might be appropriately combined with a role-play in some other step. The methods can be varied and even combined in the effective teaching and learning of a given competency. In the following chapters, the presentation of each of the 24 competencies will be organized according to the ALAPA model. Each of the eight roles is presented and illustrated using the competing values framework. Chapters 2 through 9 are each organized around one of the eight roles. In each role there are many competencies. The three sections in each chapter are organized around what we consider to be the three most important competencies in each role. In turn, each competency is presented using the ALAPA model.
CONCLUSIONS
People use models that sensitize them to some things and blind them to others. When we act as a managerial leader in an organizational unit, our models greatly affect our level of effectiveness. In this chapter we have traced the evolution of four basic models in management thinking: rational goal, internal process, human relations, and open systems. Each model is based on assumptions that lead to different sensitivities, decisions, and behaviors. In recent years, world conditions have made it increasingly obvious that there is a need for both-and thinking. As we increase the number of models that we can use to assess a situation, we increase our array of choices and we increase both our cognitive and behavioral complexity. In this chapter we considered the competing values framework. It suggests that the four basic models of organizational effectiveness can be integrated into a comprehensive whole. The model is called the "competing values" framework because we tend to see the oppositions as conflicts. They are not, however, mutually exclusive. In fact, they need to be complementary. We can use the framework to get out of a single mindset and to increase choice. In becoming a master manager, we seek to use, simultaneously, two or more seemingly opposite approaches. Think, for example, of the leader who practices "tough love." This person is effectively integrating, or making complementary, domains that we normally keep separate. The competing values framework suggests three challenges: to use multiple mindsets in viewing the organizational world; to learn to use competencies associated with all four models; and, finally, to integrate the diverse competencies in
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confronting the world of action. People who meet these three challenges are behaviorally complex and are the most effective managerial leaders. We use the ALAPA model in presenting these competencies. Although the book allows the instructor to follow traditional instruction methods, it also allows a second phenomenon to occur. It allows you to develop, grow, and internalize new competencies. The emphasis, then, is not on learning traditional social science theory, but on learning how to apply certain aspects of this literature to learning to perform more effectively as a managerial leader.
ASSIGNMENT
Course Preassessment
There is an instrument that will allow you to do a preassessment of yourself on the eight roles and the 24 skills in the competing values framework. This preassessment is available in two forms: as a software package and as a written questionnaire. Either may be used. If your instructor wants you to do this preassessment, he or she will direct you in how to proceed.
ASSIGNMENT ANALYSIS
Familiarizing Yourself with the Competing Values Framework Select the quadrant with which you feel most comfortable. Find a small object that represents that quadrant and bring it to class. Your instructor may choose to have you join with other people who selected the same quadrant and have you prepare an explanation of the objects that represent the quadrant. This will occur at the discretion of the instructor.
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2. The Mentor Role

COMPETENCIES Understanding Self and Others Communicating Effectively Developing Employees
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We now turn to the human relations model. In this model the focus is on individuals and groups. Here we recognize that commitment, cohesion, and morale are important indicators of effectiveness. A central belief in this model is that involvement and participation in decision making result in outcomes such as high commitment. The climate emphasized in this model is characterized by teamwork, openness, and strong communication; and the key managerial leadership roles are mentor and facilitator. The task is to establish and maintain effective relationships (Pfeffer, 1994). In Chapter 1 we pointed out that the mentor role might also be called the concerned human role. This role reflects a caring, empathetic orientation. In this role a manager is expected to be helpful, considerate, sensitive, approachable, open, and fair. In acting out the role, the leader listens, supports legitimate requests, conveys appreciation, and gives recognition. Employees are seen as important resources to be understood, valued, and developed. The manager helps them with individual development plans and also sees that they have opportunities for training and skill building. In the mentor role, the manager is also expected to have a high level of self-awareness and to consider how ones actions as a manager influence employees' actions. In Western society, acts of caring and concern are sometimes seen as soft and weak. Many people think a good leader must be strong, powerful, and in control. Likewise, some individuals find that they have great difficulty with feelings and the expression of feelings. Given such societal and individual orientations, it is tempting to
BOX 2.1 THE DERAILED EXECUTIVES Starting in the early 1980s, researchers at the Center for Creative Leadership began to study "derailed" executives, individuals who had experienced great success in their managerial career but who failed to reach their potential. Since then, a series of studies has shown consistent results regarding characteristics of derailed managers. Interestingly, most of these characteristics were originally strengths that, when taken to an extreme, became flaws. 1. Insensitive to others; abrasive and intimidating 2. Overly demanding 3. Not willing to listen to others 4. Intolerant of dissent - not able to get along with people who have different styles 5. Taking credit for success 6. Blaming others for mistakes 7. Cold, aloof, and arrogant 8. Untrustworthy 9. Dictatorial style Source: Morgan W. McCall, Jr., High Flyers: Developing the Next Generation of Leaders, (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1998).
devalue the mentor role. This is a mistake. Great power can derive from attending to the "soft" issues (Nair, 1994). Social science has clearly demonstrated the importance of this role in overall managerial effectiveness (Bass, 1990). People who play the mentor role poorly do not fare well (see Box 2.1). The three competencies in this role are: Competency 1 Competency 2 Competency 3 Understanding Self and Others Communicating Effectively Developing Employees
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Competency 1 Understanding Self and Others

ASSESSMENT
Directions Respond to statements 1a, 1b, and 1c, one at a time. Once you have started on your response to 1b and 1c, do not go back to change any of your previous responses. 1. (a) Write down 10 or more adjectives and nouns that describe who you are now. Examples of nouns that describe you might be son/daughter, student, manager, musician, and so on. Examples of adjectives that describe you might be adventurous, introverted, physically active, well-organized, and so on. Think of as many adjectives and nouns as you can; include phrases if you find this helpful. (b) Now write down 10 or more adjectives and nouns that describe who you were 5 to 10 years ago. Again, write down as many ideas as you have. (c) Now write down 10 or more adjectives and nouns that describe who you expect to be 5 to 10 years from now. Again, write down as many ideas as you have. 2. Note which items have stayed constant across your life. Note which items have changed from 5 to 10 years ago and which you expect to change over the next 5 to 10 years. Interpretation and Discussion Questions Anchors keep a boat steady, while oars propel a boat forward. All individuals have some personal characteristics that remain constant over time and some characteristics that change. Characteristics that remain constant help keep the individuals steady; those that change allow for development over time. 1. How have your anchors helped you? Are there anchors that have kept you from making important changes? 2. How have different situations in your life encouraged you to make changes? 3. How might you use your current characteristics to help you make the changes you expect to see in yourself over the next 5 to 10 years?
Anchors and Oars
LEARNING
Understanding Self and Others
To be a successful mentor, managers must have some understanding of themselves and others. Although all members of a work group have something in common, each individual is also in some way unique. One area where people differ is in their taskrelated abilities. As a mentor you need to learn about employees' abilities and consider how each person contributes to the organization. Another area where people differ is in their feelings, needs, and concerns. People react differently to different situations, and it is important for managers to be able to perceive and understand these reactions. As a manager, you need to understand both the commonalities and differences and how these affect how people relate to one another in various ways. By being aware, you can better understand your own reaction to people and their reactions to each other. This understanding should, in turn, make you more effective (Cotton, 1994).
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In the past decade, many companies have begun to focus on helping managers develop their emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995, 1998), which involves both personal competence (how we manage ourselves) and social competence (how we handle relationships). Research in this area has shown that emotional intelligence plays a particularly crucial role at higher levels of the organization, where managers spend the vast majority of their day interacting with others. UNDERSTANDING YOURSELF We begin this section with a focus on understanding yourself, sometimes referred to as self-awareness. This competency has been shown to be a key factor that differentiates successful managers from those who have derailed (Shipper and Dillard, 2000). There are, of course, many different dimensions of yourself that you could learn about. For example, Peter Drucker (1999), one of world's foremost authorities on management and leadership, argues that in today's economy, given the many choices that people have regarding their work lives, people must manage themselves. He believes that in order to do so, people must be aware of their strengths, their values, and how they best perform. Robert Staub, co-founder and president of Staub-Peterson Leadership Consultants, asserts that "the golden rule of effective leadership [is]: Don't fly blind! Know where you stand with regard to the perceptions of others" (1997, p. 170). Goleman's (2000) work on emotional intelligence provides three dimensions of selfawareness: emotional awareness, self-assessment, and self-confidence. Emotional awareness involves recognizing your emotions and how they affect you and others. Individuals who have emotional awareness know what they are feeling and why, and they also understand the connection between their feelings and their actions. Selfassessment involves knowing your strengths and limits and being open to feedback that can help you to develop. Individuals who develop this competence are able to learn from experience and value self-development and continuous learning. Selfconfidence refers to an awareness of one's self-worth and capabilities. Individuals who possess self-confidence present themselves with a strong sense of self and are willing to stand up for what they believe in, even if this is an unpopular perspective. In addition to knowing about your emotions, your strengths and limits, and how others perceive you, it is important to know what motivates your behaviors, what influences how you will react in different situations. One major influence on your behavior is your personality. While no one always reacts in the same way under all circumstances, people do have a tendency to feel more comfortable with some behaviors than with others. An individual's personality is generally described in terms of those relatively permanent psychological and behavioral attributes that distinguish that individual from others. The notion that personality is relatively permanent stems from the idea that personality is a trait that can change in adulthood but is mostly formed in childhood and adolescence. Thus, "individuals can be characterized in terms of relatively enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and ac-tions . . . [that] show some degree of cross-situational consistency" (McCrae and Costa, 1999, p. 140). TWO APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY While there are many different approaches to understanding personality, two of these approaches stand out as being the most widely used in research and in organizational training and development seminars on individual differences in organizations. These are the Five-Factor Model and the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory, which is based on the work of Carl Jung. As the name would imply, the Five-Factor Model presents five factors, or basic tendencies, that researchers argue encompass most of what has been described as
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personality (McCrae and Costa, 1990). In the model, each factor is named for one of two ends of a continuum. Of course, most individuals do not fall at the ends of the continua, although people are likely to have a tendency toward one end or the other. As you read the description of each of the traits, you might try to place yourself on each of the continua. The first factor is referred to neuroticism. Individuals who score high on this dimension tend to worry a lot and are often anxious, insecure, and emotional. Alternatively, those who score low tend to be calm, relaxed, and self-confident. The second factor, extraversion, has also been referred to as surgency and assertiveness This factor assesses the degree to which individuals are sociable, talkative, and gregarious in their interactions with others versus reserved, quiet, and sometimes even withdrawn and aloof. The third factor, openness to new experiences, also called intellectance, focuses on the degree to which an individual is proactive in seeking out new experiences. Individuals who score high on this measure tend to be curious, imaginative, creative, and nontraditional. Those who score low tend to be more conventional, concrete, arid practical. Agreeableness, the fourth factor, focuses on the degree to which individuals are good-natured, trusting of others, and forgiving of their mistakes, as opposed to cynical, suspicious of others, and antagonistic. Finally, conscientiousness is associated with individuals' degree of organization and persistence. Those who score high on this continuum tend to be more organized, responsible, and self-disciplined; those who score low tend to be more impulsive, careless, and perceived by others as undependable. Research has shown extraversion and agreeableness to be positively, related, and neuroticism negatively related, to some aspects of leadership, particularly emergent leadership in a leaderless group. This implies that when a group is formed with no explicit leader, the individual who is more extraverted, agreeable, and emotionally stable will likely emerge as the informal leader (Hogan, Curphy, and Hogan, 1994). The Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI) is one of several personality assessment instruments based on Carl Jung's theory of psychological types. Jung noticed that people behaved in somewhat predictable patterns, which he labeled types. He noted that types could be described along three dimensions: introversionextraversion, sensing-intuition, and thinking-feeling. Later, Katharine Briggs and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, added a fourth dimension: judging-perceiving (Keirsey, 1998). Their assessment instrument is widely used in organizational workshops to help people understand the different work styles of people in a work unit.
1.
2.
3.
4.
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The first dimension, introversion-extraversion, is similar to McCrae and Costa's extraversion factor. It focuses on the degree to which individuals tend to look inward or outward for ideas about decisions and actions. Individuals who are introverted tend to be reflective and value privacy. Individuals who are extraverted tend to like variety and action and are energized by being with people. The second dimension, sensing-feeling, focuses on what we pay attention to when we gather data. Individuals who are sensing types tend to focus on facts and details; they absorb information in a concrete, literal fashion. Intuitive types, on the other hand, tend to try to see the big picture and focus more on abstract ideas. While sensing-intuition focuses on how we gather data, thinking-feeling focuses on how we use information when making decisions. Thinking types tend to decide with their brains, whereas feeling types tend to decide with their hearts. Thinking types use analytical and objective approaches to decision making. Feeling types tend to base decisions on more subjective criteria, taking into account individual differences. The final dimension focuses on approaches to life and thinking styles. Judging types are task oriented and they tend to prefer closure on issues. They are good at planning and organizing. Perceptive types are more spontaneous and flexible, and they tend to be more comfortable with ambiguity.
The four dimensions of the MBTI can be combined to create different combinations, such as extraverted-sensing-thinking-judging or introverted-sensing-feeling-judging. When you combine all four dimensions, there are 16 different personality types that can be identified. Workshops that focus on people's work styles tend to focus on the combinations because they can help people understand why people approach work tasks in different ways. You might think back to a situation where some people in the group jumped right into the task and others wanted to analyze the nature of the problem first. When you learn about the different styles, you can better understand how to work with others who have different work styles and, if appropriate and necessary, learn to make adjustments in your own work style. INCREASING YOUR SELF-AWARENESS The importance of having a good understanding of yourself and what motivates or influences your behaviors should be obvious. If you do not understand yourself, it is nearly impossible to understand others. Yet people often find it difficult to learn about themselves. One reason that people find it difficult to learn about themselves is because their friends and colleagues fear being honest because they think such honesty will create conflict or embarrass the other person. Jerry Hirshberg, president of Nissan Design International, Inc., notes that people "have mixed feelings about hearing the truth." He states, "it's like a chemical reaction. Your face goes red, your temperature rises, you want to strike back." He labels this reaction "defending and debating" and argues that people need to fight back the tendency to defend and debate by "listening and learning" (Muoio, 1998). One key to being able to fight the tendency to defend and debate by listening and learning is to learn how to learn about yourself. Here we present a simple but helpful framework that can help you think about what you do and do not know about yourself. Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham (1955) developed the framework and named it after themselves, calling it the Johari window. As shown in Figure 2.1, it has four quadrants. In the upper left is the open area, which represents the aspects of who
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you are that are known both to yourself and to others with whom you interact. In the upper right is the blind area. Here are the aspects of you that others see but you do not recognize. In the lower left is the hidden quadrant, sometimes referred to as the facade. These are the things that you know but do not reveal to others. Finally, in the lower right is the unknown quadrant. Here are those aspects of who you are that neither you nor others are yet aware of; they exist but have not been directly observed, and neither you nor those with whom you interact are aware of their impact on the relationship. Later, when they are discovered, it becomes obvious that they existed previously and did have an impact. The sizes of the four quadrants change over time. In a new relationship, quadrant 1 is small. As communication increases, it grows large and quadrant 3 begins to shrink. With growing trust, we feel less need to hide the things we value, feel, and know. It takes longer for quadrant 2 to shrink in size because it requires openness to honest feedback. Not surprisingly, quadrant 4 tends to change most slowly of all because it requires people to be introspective and to explore things about themselves that are generally taken for granted. While it is often a very large quadrant and greatly influences what we do, many people totally close off the possibility of learning about quadrant 4. The Johari window provides a useful tool for increasing self-awareness. Yet many people use a great deal of energy in order to hide, deny, or avoid learning about themselves, particularly their inconsistencies and hypocrisies. As a result, quadrant 1 begins to shrink and the others begin to enlarge. When quadrant 1 increases in size, however, the others shrink; and more energy, skills, and resources can be directed toward the tasks around which the relationship is formed. The more this occurs, the more openness, trust, and learning there is and the more the positive outcomes begin to multiply. Table 2.1 provides some basic guidelines that can help you increase the size of quadrant 1 by asking for feedback. UNDERSTANDING OTHERS The Johari window not only informs us of our own blind, hidden, and unknown areas, but it also makes us aware that these areas exist in others. If we appreciate that others have these three covert areas, then we will realize that they also will likely be defensive about them. And if we point out things in those areas before developing a strong relationship in which feedback is expected, it is likely that they will reject us and that the relationship will grow less trusting. TABLE 2.1 Guidelines for Asking for Feedback Before asking for feedback, make sure you are open to hearing information that may alter your perception. Prepare yourself to hear things that may make you uncomfortable. Be aware that the person giving you the feedback is describing his or her own perception of the situation, but realize that his or her feelings are real. Check your understanding of the feedback: Ask questions or give examples and share your re-action(s). Clarify issues, explain your actions, and correct perceptions people may have of you, but do not defend and debate. Express your appreciation for the person who has given you the feedback. It may have been difficult for that person to be honest with you, and it is important that you show clearly and unequivocally that you welcome the feedback.
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TABLE 2.2 Rules for Practicing Empathy Empathy: The Ability to Experience the Feelings of Others 1. You must first examine yourself. If you do not truly want to understand others, if you are insincere, empathy will not work. 2. Communication is more than words. You must be sensitive to times when expressed thoughts and feelings are not congruent. You must read the nonverbal signals as well as the verbal ones. 3. Do not react too quickly to inaccurate statements of fact; listen carefully for the feelings beneath the statement before rushing in to correct facts. 4. You must allow the person to tell the emotional truth, which may include negative feelings about you. You must be ready to openly explore such negative feedback. 5. Use reflective listening (see Competency 2 in this chapter). How, then, do we help others to learn through feedback? How do we build trust? How do we come to better understand others? The paradoxical problem brings us back to ourselves. A key to positive change lies in focusing not on others but on ourselves. In fact, we need to be sensitive and respectful of others' need for privacy and recognize that their first reaction may be defensiveness. The secret to overcoming defensiveness in others, however, is to overcome defensiveness in ourselves. If we provide a role model of sensitivity, openness, and learning, and ask others for feedback about ourselves, we increase the probability of sensitivity, openness, and learning on the part of others. To provide such a role model, we need to feel secure enough to be open. Security, however, comes only by being open with ourselves. In other words, the key to understanding and helping others is to continuously increase our own awareness of those things we least want to know about ourselves through openness to external feedback and through sensitivity and respect for the defensiveness of others. Integrity, security, and self-acceptance increase the ability to practice empathy, the key skill in helping others to grow. Empathy involves truly putting yourself in the position of others and honestly trying to see the world as they see it. Table 2.2 lists five rules for helping you to practice empathy.
ANALYSIS
Using the Johari Window for Understanding Self
Directions Identify two or three friends or coworkers with whom you have frequent interaction. If you pick a friend, try to pick one with whom you also interact to complete a task, such as someone from a club or team or someone whom you have worked with on a major class assignment. Draw a Johari Window and complete about yourself. In quadrant 1 (Open yourself that your friends/coworkers Area), make a list of what you know not know about you. the two quadrants that focus on what you know Area), make a list of what you know about also know about you. In quadrant 2 (Hidden about yourself that your friends/coworkers do
1. What items on your two lists influence how you interact with people in a work situation?
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2. What items from the list in your Hidden Area might be appropriate to move to the Open Area? What do you know about yourself that would help others work with you more effectively? 3. Choose one friend/coworker and develop a plan for sharing your answers to Question 2 with that person. 4. What have you learned about yourself by thinking about your Hidden Area?
PRACTICE
Practicing Empathy
Directions Think about a difficult situation that you faced in school or at work. For example, you may have had a difficult assignment and needed to ask someone for help, you may have had to confront a team member who was not performing at his or her full potential, or you may have had to give a speech in front of a large group. Write down some details about the situation and then reflect on your feelings about the situation. Working in dyads, each person should in turn share his or her situation and feelings about the situation. When the other person is talking about his or her situation, try to practice empathy by asking questions. Use the reflective listening techniques to try to truly understand how the other person felt in this difficult situation. Discussion Questions 1. What did it feel like to listen carefully to try to understand someone else's feelings? 2. What questions were most effective in getting the other person to open up about his or her feelings? 3. How did it feel to have another person truly try to understand your feelings? 4. What questions were most effective in getting you to open up about your feelings?
APPLICATION
Directions
Soliciting Feedback
1. Choose one of the friends or coworkers that you identified above in the Analysis exercise, using the Johari Window for Understanding Self. Make sure this is not only a person who knows you well but also someone you think will be honest with you. 2. Explain the Johari window to this person and show him or her-what you have in quadrant 1 (Open Area) from the Analysis exercise. Explain that you would like to reduce the size of your Blind Area (quadrant 3) and are looking for feedback about your work behaviors, focusing on information that will help you work better with others. You might even develop some specific questions to ask about how you work with others. Try to assure the person that you will welcome feedback that will help you become more aware of your work behaviors. Make sure to show your appreciation to the person for taking a risk. 3. Reflect on the feedback and write a three- to five-page essay describing the process and what you learned from the feedback. Discuss any actions you might take as a result of receiving this feedback. Also include in your essay your thoughts about how it felt to receive the feedback.
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Competency 2
Directions
Communicating Effectively
ASSESSMENT Communication Skills

Analyze the communication in two of your relationships: one that is very painful and one that is very pleasant. Next, analyze how your communication behavior varies in the two relationships and what areas of communication you might need to work on. Answer the questions by using the following scale. Scale Minimal Problem Painful Other Self 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Great Problem
Pleasant Other Self 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Expresses ideas in unclear ways. Tries to dominate conversations. Often has a hidden agenda. Is formal and impersonal. Does not listen well. Is often boring, uninteresting. Is withdrawn and uncommunicative. Is overly sensitive, too easily hurt. Is too abstract and hard to follow. Is closed to the ideas of the other.
_____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
_____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Total score
Now go back and reexamine your answers. What patterns do you see? Interpretation 1. How do you think your own communication behavior varies in these two relationships? 2. On what specific problems in the painful relationship do you most need to work?
LEARNING
Communicating Effectively
Interpersonal communication is perhaps one of the most important and least understood competencies that a manager can have-and vital to playing the mentor
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role. Knowing when and how to share information requires a very complex understanding of people and situations (Zey, 1990). Communication is the exchange of information, facts, ideas, and meanings. The communication process can be used to inform, coordinate, and motivate people. Unfortunately, being a good communicator is not easy. Nor is it easy to recognize your own problems in communication. In the exercise you just completed, for example, you may well have downplayed your own weaknesses in communicating and rated yourself more favorably than you rated the other person in the painful relationship. Although most people in organizations tend to think of themselves as excellent communicators, they consider communication a major organizational problem, and they see the other people in the organization as the source of the problem. It is very difficult to see and admit the problems in our own communication behavior. Despite this difficulty, analyzing communication behavior is vital. Poor communication skills result in both interpersonal and organizational problems. When interpersonal problems arise, people begin to experience conflict, resist change, and avoid contact with others. Organizationally, poor communication often results in low morale and low productivity. Given that organizing requires that people communicate-to develop goals, channel energy, and identify and solve problemslearning to communicate effectively is key to improving work unit and organizational effectiveness. A BASIC MODEL OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION The information exchanged may take a variety of forms, including ideas, facts, and feelings. Despite these many possible forms, the communication process may be seen in terms of a general model (Shannon and Weaver, 1948), which is shown in Figure 2.2.
The model begins with the communicator encoding a message. Here the person who is going to communicate translates a set of ideas into a system of symbols, such as
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words or numbers. Many things influence the encoding process, including the urgency of the message, the experience and skills of the sender, and the sender's perception of the receiver. The message is transmitted through a medium of some sort. A message, for example, might be written, oral, or even nonverbal. Once it is received, it must be decoded. This means that the person who receives it must interpret the message. Like the encoding process, the decoding process is subject to influence by a wide range of factors. FIGURE 2.2 A basic model of communication. Source: Developed from C. Shannon and M. Weaver, The Mathematical Theory or Communication (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1948). Used with permission. The model includes a feedback loop between the receiver and the communicator. The feedback can take three forms: informational, corrective, or reinforcing. Informational feedback is a nonevaluative response that simply provides additional facts to the sender. Corrective feedback involves a challenge to, or correction of, the original message. Reinforcing feedback is a clear acknowledgment of the message that was sent. It may be positive or negative. The final aspect of the model is noise. Noise is anything that can distort the message in the communication process. As indicated in Figure 2.2, it can occur at any point in the process. A sender may be unable to clearly articulate the ideas to be sent. In the medium, a document may leave out a key word. In the decoding process, the receiver may make wrong assumptions about the motive behind the message. BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION Effective interpersonal communication comprises two elements. First, individuals must be able to express themselves. They need to be able to convey to others what they are feeling, what they are thinking, what they need from others, and so on. Second, individuals must be good listeners. They must be open to truly hearing the thoughts and ideas that other people are expressing (Samovar and Mills, 1998). In organizations, problems can occur in interpersonal communication in either of these elements. They can also occur because the physical environment is not conducive to effective communication. For example, some environments may be too hot or too noisy. Others may provide an inappropriate setting for a particular type of message. Informal messages may be inappropriate in a setting that is highly formal, and formal messages may be inappropriate in settings that are highly informal. Here we list some barriers to effective interpersonal communication that focus on people's abilities to send and receive messages. Inarticulateness. Communication problems may arise because the sender of the message has difficulty expressing the concept. If the receiver is not aware of the problem, completely inaccurate images may arise and result in subsequent misunderstandings. Hidden agendas. Sometimes people have motives that they prefer not to reveal. Because the sender believes that the receiver would not react in the desired way, the sender becomes deceptive. The sender seeks to maintain a competitive advantage by keeping the true purpose hidden. Over time, such behavior results in low trust and cooperation.
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Status. Communication is often distorted by perceptions of position. When communicating with a person in a position of authority, individuals often craft messages so as to impress and not offend. Conversely, when communicating with a person in a lower hierarchical position, individuals may be dismissive or insensitive to that person's needs. Similarly, a person may not be open to listening to the ideas and opinions of persons who are in a lower hierarchical position. Hostility. When the receiver is already angry with the person sending the message, the communication will tend to be perceived in a negative way, whether or not it was intended that way. Hostility makes it very difficult to send and receive accurate information. When trust is low and people are angry, no matter what the sender actually expresses, it is likely to be distorted. Differences in communication styles. People communicate in different ways. For example, some people speak loudly; others speak softly. Some people provide a great deal of context; others get right to the point and are only interested in "the bottom line." Some of the many differences in communication style are attributable to personal characteristics, such as gender or cultural background. Misunderstandings can develop if people listen less carefully because they are distracted by or uncomfortable with another person's style of communication.
Another important barrier to interpersonal communication stems from organizational norms and patterns of communication that prevent individuals from discussing difficult issues. As discussed in Competency 1 of this chapter, people have defenses that prevent them from receiving messages they fear. All people have some amount of insecurity, and there are certain things they simply do not want to know. Because people in organizations know this, they develop defensive routines (Argyris and Schon, 1996) in which they avoid saying things that might make the other person or themselves uncomfortable. Defensive routines are particularly likely to occur when discussing issues that affect values, assumptions, and self-image. Chris Argyris of the Harvard Business School refers to the thoughts and feelings that are relevant to a conversation as "left-hand column issues" because of an exercise he uses to discover what they are (Senge, Roberts, Ross, Smith, and Kleiner, 1994). Left-hand column issues include both the things people are thinking but not saying and the things they think the other person is thinking but not saying. Argyris contends that organizations develop left-hand-column issues that keep important issues from surfacing and being discussed. Instead of surfacing these issues, people work around them, avoid them, make things up, and say things they don't mean or believe. Often they go through these pretenses to avoid offending people or having to deal with a difficult situation. But when the list of "undiscussables" becomes larger than the list of "discussables," the organization begins to suffer. Trust erodes and lots of covering up and avoidance make it difficult for people to improve their performance because they have no idea where they stand with one another. Important information is lost or kept concealed. How does the left-hand-column exercise work? Imagine a conversation you have had or might have with a person at work. The person might be your boss, a coworker, or someone who reports to you. You could probably write down this conversation fairly easily, but before doing so, draw a vertical line down the middle of the paper. Now, in the right-hand column, write down the actual words spoken by you and the other person. In the left-hand column, write down the thoughts, feelings, questions, and concerns that you have but that you would not express out loud. Here's an example of such a conversation:
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Left-Hand Column Terry: I don't want to wait any longer on getting this position filled. We've already waited too long as it is.
Right-Hand Column Terry: Have you had a chance to look at the memo with the list of candidates? If you have any questions or hesitations about who ought to be on the list, just let me know. I want you to be comfortable with the people we bring in to interview. Me: I think it looks pretty good. Have you gotten any feedback from the rest of the team? Terry: I haven't heard from anyone yet, but we've got three people out of town until Friday. They may get back to me before then on e-mail. I'd like to interview these people next week. Do you think that's possible? Me: I don't see why not. Let's move ahead with it. The last thing we want is to get stuck in a hiring freeze before we get someone in the door. Terry: I agree. Thanks, Troy. I think we're making progress.
Me: I knew Terry wasn't going to add Michelle LaFleur to that list. We talked about it, and he knows I wanted her to be interviewed. Terry: I know what he's thinking: "Does anyone else agree with me that LaFleur should be interviewed?" Why doesn't he just say it? That bugs me. Me: Right, another question from the guy who doesn't listen to my suggestions anyway. Terry: I know Troy is miffed about this process. He gets frustrated because we don't follow his proposals, but he keeps putting unqualified people in front of us because he wants to work with them. He's always looking for friends instead of someone to get the work done.
Clearly, these two people are not saying what they are thinking or feeling, but those feelings are influencing the "deep structure" of their behavior. The conversation on the surface is not as powerful as the silent conversation taking place beneath the surface, in the left-hand column. People need to be trained to surface left-hand-column issues in ways that are nonpunishing and positive. They need to develop the skills to express their concerns in a way that helps the other person want to hear what they have to say. In the mentor role, a manager will often encounter issues that may be sensitive or even threatening to another person. Individuals who develop good communication skills are more effective at surfacing left-hand-column issues. Given the number and intensity of these barriers to effective communication, what should you know to help yourself to communicate effectively? First, you need to
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develop a few basic skills to express yourself more effectively. Table 2.3 gives seven basic rules for when you are sharing your ideas with others. TABLE 2.3 Rules for Effective Communication 1. Be clear on who the receiver is. What is the receiver's state of mind? What assumptions does the receiver bring? What is he or she feeling in this situation? 2. Know what your objective is. What do you want to accomplish by sending the message? 3. Analyze the climate. What will be necessary to help the receiver relax and be open to the communication? 4. Review the message in your head before you say it. Think about the message from the point of view of the receiver. Do you need to clarify certain ideas? 5. Communicate using words and terms that are familiar to the other person. Use examples and illustrations that come from the world of the receiver. 6. If the receiver seems not to understand, clarify the message. Ask questions. If repetition is necessary, try different words and illustrations. 7. If the response is seemingly critical, do not react defensively. Try to understand what the receiver is thinking. Why is he or she reacting negatively? The receiver may be misunderstanding your message. Ask clarifying questions. REFLECTIVE LISTENING Of all the skills associated with good communication, perhaps the most important is listening. The Stoic philosopher Epictetus, in The Golden Sayings, reportedly said, "Nature hath given men one tongue but two ears that we may hear from others twice as much as we speak." This is a good thought to keep in mind, but we should remember that listening is more than hearing what others have to say. Listening requires that we truly try to understand what they are saying. Most people fail to realize just how poorly they tend to listen. Reflective listening is a tool that is based on empathy (see Table 2.2), which helps us to experience the thoughts and feelings of the other person. In using empathy and reflective listening, instead of directing and controlling the thoughts of the other person, you become a helper who tries to facilitate his or her expression. Instead of assuming responsibility for another's problem, you help that person explore it on his or her own. Your job is not to talk but to keep the other person talking. You do not evaluate, judge, or advise; you simply reflect on what you hear. In fewer words, you descriptively, not evaluatively, restate the essence of the person's last thought or feeling. If the person's statement is factually inaccurate, you do not immediately point out the inaccuracy. Instead of interrupting, you keep the person's flow of expression moving. You can go back later to correct factual errors. The reflective listener uses open-ended questions, such as "Can you tell me more?" or "How did you feel when that happened?" Evaluative questions and factual, yes-orno questions are avoided. The key is to keep the conceptual and emotional flow of expression. Instead of telling, the reflective listener helps the other person to discover. Here is an example of reflective listening to help illustrate how it works.
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Kathie is the manager of the Training and Development Office in a large public agency. The office has 13 professional employees whose primary job is to conduct training for the agency and 2 secretaries. Allen is a relatively new employee who has been asked to develop new training on "Dealing with Crisis Situations." Kathie is having her first formal meeting with Allen since he was hired two months ago. Kathie: Allen, I was wondering how you're doing on the new training program. I had originally hoped that during your first few months we would meet more often, but things have been very hectic. Are you moving along with the project? Allen: Well, at first I felt like I was making good progress, but now I'm at an impasse. I'm just feeling frustrated. Kathie: Can you tell me why you're feeling frustrated? Is there something about the project that isn't going right? Allen: I guess I'm just frustrated with the assignment. I've gathered lots of information, but when I ask the others about what should be included, some say I'm putting in too much information and others say there isn't enough time to practice the new skills. Kathie: So are you feeling like you're getting different messages from different people? Allen: Yes, and I'm not sure how long the training program is supposed to be. Is it a half-day program, a whole-day program, or a multiday program? Kathie: Based on the information you have gathered, how long do you think it should be? Allen: Well, I think it should be a two-day program, but I didn't think that I was responsible for making that decision. That's part of my frustration! Kathie: I think I understand. Is part of your frustration that you're not sure which decisions you can make on your own and which you need to get approval from others? Allen: Yes, that's exactly it. I'm not sure of what the rules are around here and how decisions are made. To the first-time reader, reflective listening sounds very strange. Experience shows, however, that it can have major payoffs. Trust and concern grow with an everdeepening understanding of interpersonal issues. More effective and lasting problem solving takes place, and people have a greater sense that their ideas are being listened to by others. In short, communication is greatly improved. Reflective listening is not, however, a panacea. It is time-consuming to really listen. It requires confidence in one's interpersonal skills and the courage to possibly hear things about oneself that are less than complimentary. There is also a danger that the sender will get into personal areas of life with which the listener is not comfortable and for which a professional counselor would be more appropriate. It is, nevertheless, a vital tool that is seldom understood or employed.
ANALYSIS Using the Left-Hcmd Column to Develop Your Communication Skills

Directions 1. Think back to a conversation you had with a friend or work colleague involving a problem that you tried to resolve. This may be a problem that
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has since been solved or one that still does not have a usable solution. Try to identify a difficult problem that involves interpersonal difficulties, such as a conflict about how to do an assignment or a disagreement about who should perform different parts of a task. Write down the approach that you took to resolve the problem. What did you talk about? What ideas did you have? Did you consider involving others in your problem-solving process? Using a fresh piece of paper, divide the paper in half and write down the conversation that occurred on the right-hand side of the page. If you cannot remember the conversation verbatim, try to remember the key issues that were raised. On the left-hand side of the page, write down your thoughts and feelings that were unexpressed during the conversation. 2. Reflect on what you have in your left-hand column. What led you to feel that way? What kept you from expressing your thoughts and feelings? What assumptions did you make about the other person? What do you lose from keeping certain thoughts and feelings to yourself? 3. Think about how you might move some of your thoughts and feelings from the left-hand column to the right-hand column.
PRACTICE Lord
Working in the Left-hand Column: Stacy Brock and Terry
This practice exercise is designed to help you enhance your ability to surface lefthand column issues and clarify roles and expectations with another person-a boss, peer, or direct report. The two people in this case, Stacy Brock and Terry Lord, have gotten themselves into a box in their working relationship. They have already had one blowup, and they may have another if they cannot handle themselves effectively. Both need some feedback, and both have things they need to say. Directions 1. Read the case carefully, and be prepared to act in either role. 2. Your instructor may ask you to work in dyads to role-play the situation or may have some people role-play the situation in front of the class. 3. Respond to the questions at the end of the role-play. Rolf for Stacy Brock (Mnmiffer). You are the manager of a unit of 15 people in a human services agency in a large county government in the southeastern United States. The unit has been downsized during the past year from 18 people, but you are not complaining; many of the units in your agency, the Department of Human Services, took a much worse hit during the budget crisis. You also feel you have a pretty good group of employees to work with. Many of the people in your unit are top-notch; most others are good, solid workers who perform well but tend not to take as much initiative as you would like; a few are just "not motivated" in your opinion. Terry Lord is a person you have classified as a good, solid worker, but you feel Terry has not been working up to her potential over the past year. For example, several months ago you handed Terry a project that you think should have taken a couple of weeks to complete, but Terry took more than a month. Moreover, every time you asked Terry about the project, her response was, "It's coming along." When the project was finally completed, you were disappointed with
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the results, although you said nothing to Terry about it. Instead, you tried to give Terry a little closer supervision on the next project and encouraged her to come to you with any problems or frustrations she might have. This strategy backfired, however, and the situation just seemed to get worse. Terry seemed to take even less initiative than before, and you sensed she was avoiding even talking about the project. Last week you did a performance review with Terry, and most of the ratings you gave her fell at average. At the one-on-one meeting in which you planned to discuss the performance review, you tried to discuss these issues with Terry, but the conversation got out of hand. Terry insisted that the ratings should have been higher and that you were biased in your evaluation. About halfway through the things you wanted to discuss, Terry ended the meeting by saying that there was no point in discussing the matter further because you really did not understand her or how to mentor employees. "You either ignore people and let them drift without any support, or you watch over them like a hawk and drive them nuts," Terry said. At that point, you suggested that both of you take some time to cool off. It is now time to have your follow-up meeting with Terry. Role for Terry Lord (Employee). You are in a unit of 15 people, some of whom work pretty hard and some of whom slack off. Up until last year, you put in a great deal of effort and always tried your hardest. At some times your efforts seemed to pay off, and at other times you felt your efforts were not fully appreciated, but overall you were pleased with the work environment. Last year some of that changed. As a result of cutbacks, you were asked on several occasions to carry what you thought was far more than your fair share of the workload. To make things worse, there was no recognition given for all this extra effort. The last straw was last week when you received your performance review. Almost all of the ratings fell at average, and there was no recognition or expressions of appreciation for your extra work. Your manager did not even mention one project that you had carried completely on your own. To some extent the evaluation did not surprise you. You have been feeling for several months that your supervisor, Stacy Brock, has been under a lot of stress this year and has not been providing the type of mentoring you have been used to. You have felt that Stacy has gone from one extreme to the other-first providing no guidance, and then at times micromanaging everything you do. You really lost it at the review discussion, and everything just stopped. You now feel that it was a mistake to show so much anger, but you still believe that Stacy needs to know that you have been unhappy with her leadership this past year. Stacy was shocked with your outburst and suggested you take time to cool off. Now you have to meet with Stacy again. Discussion Questions 1. How well were you and your partner (or the individuals who did the roleplay in the front of the class) able to communicate? 2. Was it difficult to surface the real issues? Which issues were carefully discussed? 3. Which issues, if any, were undiscussable? 4. What did each person do to make the issues more discussable?
APPLICATION
Directions
Developing Your Reflective Listening Skills
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1. Over the next week, practice your reflective listening skills. Whenever you are involved in a conversation, try to gain a better understanding of what the other person is thinking and feeling by asking questions. 2. Keep a journal of your experiences using reflective listening. In your journal note what you said and how the person responded. Note what types of statements elicited strong responses from the other person. 3. Write a three- to five-page paper describing your experiences. In your essay talk about what you learned about your own communication style. Also write a brief plan for how you will continue to develop your reflective listening skills.
Competency 3
ASSESSMENT
Directions
Developing Employees
Assumptions About Performance Evaluations
Check off the statement in each of the following pairs of statements that best reflects your assumptions about performance evaluation. Performance evaluation is: ____ 1a. ____ 1b. ____ 2a. ____ 2b. ____ 3a. ____ 3b. ____ 4a. ____ 4b. ____ 5a. ____ 5b. ____ 6a. ____ 6b. ____ 7a. ____ 7b. ____ 8a. ____ 8b. a formal process that is done annually. an informal process that is done continuously. a process that is planned for employees. a process that is planned with employees. a required organizational procedure. a process done regardless of requirements. a time to evaluate employee performance. a time for employees to evaluate the manager. a time to clarify standards. a time to clarify the employee's career needs. a time to confront poor performance. a time to express appreciation. an opportunity to clarify issues and provide direction and control. an opportunity to increase enthusiasm and commitment. only as good as the organization's forms. only as good as the manager's coaching skills.
Interpretation 1. As you review your eight answers, do you see any patterns in your assumptions or in the assumptions you did not choose? 2. As you review the statements, can you explain why the performance evaluation process is disliked by most employees in the United States? 3. How would you design an effective process?
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LEARNING
Developing Employees
In a literal sense, mentor means a trusted counselor or guide-a coach. The term derives from a character in The Odyssey, the Greek epic poem written by Homer (Bell, 1996). In the poem, Odysseus asks a family friend, Mentor, to serve as a tutor and coach to his son, Telemachus, while he is off at war. In this section we turn to this particular aspect of the mentor role and explore two approaches to developing employees. The first, delegation, focuses on how to develop employees' competencies and abilities by providing them opportunities to take on more responsibility. The second, performance evaluation, focuses on giving employees feedback on their performance. Both of these approaches rely on competencies presented in the two previous sections of this chapter-understanding self and others and communicating effectively. DELEGATING EFFECTIVELY One of the best ways for employees to develop their skills and abilities is to work on challenging assignments that push them to go beyond their current level of functioning. As such, delegating tasks and responsibilities to employees provides an excellent opportunity for their growth and development. Nevertheless, some managers resist delegation, using arguments such as "I tried that once and the employee fouled things up royally" or "Delegate my authority? Why? I'm the manager-that's my job-I can do it better myself." Managers who learn to delegate effectively, however, find that it results in a variety of important benefits for themselves and the organization, as well as for employees. Of course, many managers realize that by delegating some of their work, they provide themselves with additional time and thus are able to focus attention on more significant issues. More important for the discussion here, however, is the fact that in delegating tasks and responsibilities to employees, managers give their employees opportunities to develop new skills and abilities, as well as to learn more about the work unit and how it functions. This not only helps employees to be more effective in their work but also strengthens the work unit, thus allowing for a better allocation of organizational resources. Given the potential benefits of delegation, why do some managers resist delegating tasks to employees? There are several reasons for not delegating. First, many associate delegation with negative managerial behaviors, such as abdicating responsibility for a task or letting someone else-typically those "lower" in the organization-do the dirty work. Some think employees will be offended if their manager asks them to take on a task previously performed by the manager. Second, many managers fear that they will lose control. They are concerned that employees will not do the job as well or exercise the same level of judgment as they would if they did the job themselves. Finally, and perhaps most important, is the fact that many managers have not learned how to delegate effectively; they have not learned that delegation is more than simply giving assignments to employees. Rather, it is the entrusting of a particular assignment, project, task, or process by one individual to another (Schwartz, 1992). As such, it requires a good understanding of what can and cannot be delegated, careful attention to employees' current skill levels, and a good communication process that allows for questions and feedback for both the manager and the employees. It also requires managers to do more than simply tell employees what they want them to do; managers need to share with employees the reasons for the assignment, that is, why the task needs to be done (Klein, 2000). Navy Commander D. Michael Abrashoff, who commanded the USS Benfold, a ship that is known for getting tough assignments, argues that it is important for managers in all situations to communicate purpose. He states "getting [crew
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members] to contribute in a meaningful way to each life-or-death mission isn't just a matter of training and discipline. It's a matter of knowing who they are and where they are coming from-and linking that knowledge to our purpose" (quoted in LaBarre, 1999). Delegation involves three core elements: responsibility, authority, and accountability. Before delegating, the manager should be aware that he or she is still ultimately responsible for the successful execution of the assignment, project, task, or process. The manager also has the final say, and so should supervise and monitor as appropriate. In delegating, however, the manager must also give the employee certain responsibilities. In particular, the employee should be responsible for achieving intermediate and specific goals and milestones along the way. It is important that managers use the delegation process to clarify the difference between their responsibilities and the employees'. Managers should also make sure that sufficient authority has been transferred to those individuals to whom assignments are delegated to allow them to carry out the task and obtain the resources and cooperation required for its successful completion. Finally, individuals who are delegated assignments should be held accountable for meeting established goals and objectives. Periodic reports and evaluations may be critical here. Here we provide some guidelines for effective delegation. Keys to Effective Delegation 1. Clarify, in your own mind, what it is that you want done. Make sure that you can explain to employees what is to be done, as well as why this assignment is important for the work unit. Writing it down can be helpful. 2. Match the desired task with the most appropriate employee. Especially if you are using delegation for the purpose of developing employees, you will want to make sure that this assignment is at the proper level of difficulty, providing the employee some challenge but not so much that he or she becomes frustrated with the assignment. 3. In assigning the task, be sure you communicate clearly. Again, it is important that you communicate not only the nature of the task but also your intent. Ask questions to ensure the task is fully understood. Be sure that deadlines and time horizons are clear. To be absolutely certain that employees fully understand the assignment, you might ask them to repeat or feed back their understanding of the delegated assignment. 4. Make sure that the employee has the time to do the assignment. If the employee is working on several tasks, make sure that you have clarified the priority of the new task. 5. Keep the communication channels open. Make it clear that you are available for consultation and discussion. 6. Allow employees to do the task the way they feel comfortable doing it. Show some trust in their abilities. Do not hold such high expectations that they can only fail. 7. Check on the progress of the assignment, but do not rush to the rescue at the first sign of failure. Give employees a chance to try solving the problem on their own. Also keep in mind that employees may have initially felt that the assignment surpasses their ability; they may fear being embarrassed by failure but also feel uncomfortable raising this issue. When you show confidence in employees, they often gain the selfconfidence necessary to solve the problem. You may be able to avoid this
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problem at the start by explicitly asking employees how confident they are in their ability to complete the assigned task. 8. Hold the person responsible for the work and any difficulties that may emerge. Keep in mind, however, that you are delegating to give the employee an opportunity to develop his or her own knowledge and abilities. Explore what is going wrong, and help the individual to develop his or her own solutions. 9. Make sure that the person has appropriate authority to carry out the task and obtain the resources and cooperation required for its successful completion. A classic reason for failed delegation is being given the responsibility for an assignment without being given the authority to complete it or the appropriate discretion in choosing the manner of completion. 10. Recognize the employee's accomplishments. Ignoring an employee's efforts can be devastating to motivation. Acknowledge what has been done, and show appropriate appreciation. THE MANY USES AND PROBLEMS OF PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS Now we turn more specifically to coaching, or the notion of developing people by providing performance evaluation and feedback. Feedback on performance is one of the most potentially helpful kinds of information that a person can get. It is critical to improvement, growth, and development. Yet, as implied in Question 2 of the Assessment exercise, performance evaluation is one of the most uniformly disliked processes in organizational America. In fact, a survey of human resources professionals conducted in 1997 by Aon Consulting and the Society for Human Resources Management found that only 5% of the respondents were very satisfied with their performance-management systems (Imperato, 1998). Given the importance of performance evaluation for employee development, it is important to understand why performance evaluation systems so often fail. In the mentor role, performance evaluation is seen as a tool to facilitate the development of employees, to clarify expectations, and to improve performance. Yet in many organizations, performance evaluations are used for many other purposes. Rather than being used solely as a developmental tool for the individual, it is also an organizational tool (Swanson, 1994). Most often, it is used to make system wide decisions about rewards such as compensation and promotion. These evaluations generally focus on completing a form rather than on making plans for employee growth and development. Moreover, in many organizations that claim to have annual reviews, performance evaluation is not seen as an important part of the manager's job, and so evaluations are not always completed on a timely basis (Staub, 1997). These conditions do not create an organizational climate that is conducive to constructive feedback and learning. Performance evaluations may also be used to document negative behaviors in cases of discharge and/or as a data source for developing training and development strategies and staffing plans. Because of the importance of these formal functions, the organization is open to legal challenge. An employee, for example, may sue because of a given promotion decision. Hence issues of accuracy and fairness become increasingly critical, and much of the literature focuses on methods of form design, statistical techniques, and sources of error. The objective, with good reason, is to build a generalized system that fits every situation in the organization and that is fair and defensible. This, of course, is a tall order, and in many organizations,
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performance evaluation becomes more of a source of high frustration or meaningless game playing than an opportunity to give employees meaningful feedback. In addition to the organizational problems, many personal pressures make performance evaluation difficult. The process often makes both managers and employees very uncomfortable. How well a person has performed over the past year is seldom as clear as the human resources staff would like to believe it is, and the form is seldom able to capture the complexity of real life. In some cases, employees sense that the quantitative evaluations are really a cover for subjective judgments and challenge what they are told. In other cases, managers and employees may have different views of what a rating means. Darcy Hitchcock, president of AXIS Performance Advisors, talks about of one of her first performance evaluations as one of the most painful experiences of her career; she had received a rating of 4 on a 5point scale. When her boss could not explain why he had not rated her at the highest level, she found herself completely unmotivated (Imperato, 1998). Not surprisingly, many managers feel uncomfortable admitting that the evaluation process often reduces to subjective judgment, and they usually feel uncomfortable in the role of a "judge." And both managers and employees tend to fear being challenged with questions that they may not be able to answer. Managers often become frustrated when an angry employee becomes hostile or passive. In cases like this, managers may lack the skills to know how to handle the problem. Because conducting effective performance evaluations requires constant observation, recording, and feedback, many managers argue that they simply do not have the time to devote to this activity. CONDUCTING EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS In the Assessment exercise at the beginning of this competency, you chose between two options in eight pairs of assumptions about performance evaluation. In each pair of statements, answer a reflected traditional control values-those normally associated with the evaluation process. Answer b, on the other hand, reflected values rooted in involvement, communication, and trust. In this section we will consider performance evaluation as a two-step process, one that mixes the a and b views of the world. Although the mixed view presented here differs from what is designed and practiced in most organizations, you may find it to be of some value. Performance evaluation should start long before the actual evaluation session. If you have the organizational freedom to do so, and if it is situationally appropriate, you might even invite employees to join you in designing a program that will work. Their wisdom may surprise you. You might begin the planning session by discussing what program, if any, is currently in place and what is positive and negative about the system. You might review the value of feedback to individuals and the group and then consider the reasons that most programs fail. With these things in mind, you might as a group specify some guidelines that will work in your situation. Whether or not you have the opportunity to design a new program, you should consider performance evaluation from the perspective of employee growth and development. Consider employees' need for feedback. During the time period from one performance evaluation to another, you should engage in frequent conversations with employees. Clearly, feedback should not be a one-time experience. Rather, these conversations should take place at regular intervals and should include specific feedback on employee performance and suggestions for improving performance. Table 2.4 provides some guidelines for giving feedback. These guidelines are useful for both informal conversations and formal performance evaluation sessions.
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Giving and receiving feedback requires some self-confidence and trust in employees. As noted in the introduction to this section, many of the skills and competencies discussed in the first two sections of this chapter, especially self-awareness and effective communication, are essential to providing effective feedback. In addition, giving effective feedback requires managers to be aware that they need to regularly observe the performance of employees and make notes of concrete incidents that can provide specific examples of both positive and negative behaviors. If you do conduct a formal evaluation, you may want to try another unique twist. At some specified time before the evaluation, prepare a written evaluation of yourself to give the employee. Ask the employee to prepare a written evaluation of his or her performance for you. Spend some time reading this self-evaluation and use empathy to put yourself in the person's place. Use this process to prepare yourself for the evaluation session. In scheduling the session, be sure to set aside enough time to fully discuss the employees self-evaluation. Approach this session as a learning opportunity for both yourself and the employee. Make sure that you have a private setting where you will not be interrupted. TABLE 2.4 Guidelines for Giving Feedback Before giving feedback, examine your motivation and make sure the receiver is ready and open to hear you. Ask the person whether or not this is a good time to receive feedback. Make sure to give the person feedback in a private place that allows for further dialogue. While giving feedback, use "I" statements rather than "you" statements to indicate that these are your perceptions, thoughts, and feelings. Provide feedback on both positive and negative behaviors. No one is either all bad or all good. Managers who present only one side lose their credibility for being honest. Describe the other person's behavior and your perceptions of it. Present specific examples of behavior that you have observed, rather than generalized statements that describe a demeanor or an attitude. Make sure your examples are timely. Giving feedback on a behavior that has long passed is both annoying and difficult to discuss. Ask the other person to clarify, explain, change, or correct. After giving feedback, give the receiver time to respond.
In the actual evaluation, be sure that your own objective is clear. Know what you want to accomplish. Get into an appropriate frame of mind (Krieff, 1996). Ask yourself how you really feel about the person and, most importantly, how you can really help the person. Few managers enter the process in such a frame of mind. Begin by making sure that the employee is also in an appropriate frame of mind. Remember that the performance evaluation will be most effective if the employee is ready to hear your feedback (Silberman, 2000). Focus first on the positive behaviors. If you have not already asked the employee to write a self-evaluation, ask him or her to list the things that he or she has done well; contribute to the list as much as possible. When you turn to areas that might need improvement, again ask the person to begin; in a supportive way, continue together until you agree on a list. At
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this point, if you have the skills discussed in the last two sections, you might ask how you as a manager are contributing to this person's problems. For example, you might suggest going through the list and asking what you could do differently. As the person responds, use reflective listening to explore the person's claim in an honest way. Make commitments to change your behavior where possible. In doing so, you are modeling the behavior you would like the employee to practice and develop. After doing this, you might again go through the list and ask the employee what changes he or she might make. Next, discuss the person's career development plan. Review what progress has been made and what each of you can do to speed progress in the next period. If there is no such plan, one of the assignments should be to write a plan. You may need to help the person here. At the conclusion of the session, summarize what each of you might do differently during the next few months. After this, do an overall review, checking the employee's understanding of each action step. Do a final summary, and set a time for future reviews. ANALYSIS Directions This exercise gives you a chance to analyze the principles of supportive communication and supportive listening you have read about in this chapter. Read the case and then answer the questions that follow. The United Chemical Company is a large producer and distributor of commodity chemicals with five chemical production plants in the United States. The operations at the main plant in Baytown, Texas, include not only production equipment but also the company's research and engineering center. The process design group consists of eight male engineers and the manager, Max Kane. The group has worked together steadily for a number of years, and good relationships have developed among all members. When the workload began to increase, Max hired a new design engineer, Sue Davis, a recent master's degree graduate from one of the foremost engineering schools in the country. Sue was assigned to a project involving expansion of the capacity of one of the existing plant facilities. Three other design engineers were assigned to the project along with Sue: Jack Keller (age 38, with 15 years with the company), Sam Sims (age 40, with 10 years with the company), and Lance Madison (age 32, with 8 years with the company). As a new employee, Sue was enthusiastic about the opportunity to work at United. She liked her work very much because it was challenging and offered her a chance to apply much of the knowledge she had gained in her university studies. On the job, Sue kept to herself and her design work. Her relations with her fellow project members were friendly, but she did not go out of her way to have informal conversations during or after working hours. Sue was a diligent employee who took her work seriously. On occasions when a difficult problem arose, she would stay after hours in order to come up with a solution. Because of her persistence, coupled with her more current education, Sue usually completed her portion of the various project stages a number of days before her colleagues. This was somewhat irritating to her, and on these occasions she went to Max to ask for additional work to keep her busy until her fellow workers caught up to her. Initially, she had offered to help Jack, Sam, and Lance with their parts of the project, but each time she was turned down tersely. United Chemical Company
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About five months after Sue had joined the design group, Jack asked to see Max about a problem the group was having. The conversation between Max and Jack was as follows. Max: Jack, I understand you wanted to discuss a problem with me. Jack: Yes, Max. I didn't want to waste your time, but some of the other design engineers wanted me to discuss Sue with you. She's irritating everyone with her know-it-all, pompous attitude. She just isn't the kind of person that we want to work with. Max: I can't understand that, Jack. She's an excellent worker whose design work is always well done and usually flawless. She's doing everything the company wants her to do. Jack: The company never asked her to disturb the morale of the group or to tell us how to do our work. The animosity of the group can eventually result in lower-quality work for the whole unit. Max: I'll tell you what I'll do. Sue has a meeting with me next week to discuss her six-month performance. I'll keep your thoughts in mind, but I can't promise an improvement in what you and the others believe is a pompous attitude. Jack: Immediate improvement in her behavior isn't the problem-it's her coaching others when she has no right to engage in publicly showing others what to do. You'd think she was lecturing an advanced class in design with all her high-power, useless equations and formulas. She'd better back off soon, or some of us will quit or transfer. During the next week, Max thought carefully about his meeting with Jack. He knew that Jack was the informal leader of the design engineers and generally spoke for the other group members. On Thursday of the following week, Max called Sue into his office for her midyear review. One portion of the conversation was as follows: Max: There is one other aspect I'd like to discuss with you about your performance. As I just related to you, your technical performance has been excellent; however, there are some questions about your relationships with the other workers. Sue: I don't understand-what questions are you talking about? Max: Well, to be specific, certain members of the design group have complained about your apparent "know-it-all attitude" and the manner in which you try to tell them how to do their job. You're going to have to be patient with them and not publicly call them out about their performance. This is a good group of engineers, and their work over the years has been more than acceptable. I don't want any problems that will cause the group to produce less effectively. Sue: Let me make a few comments. First of all, I have never publicly criticized their performance to them or to you. Initially, when I was finished ahead of them, I offered to help them with their work but was bluntly told to mind my own business. I took the hint and concentrated only on my part of the work. What you don't understand is that after five months of working in this group I have come to the conclusion that what is going on is a "rip-off" of the company. The other engineers are "goldbricking" and setting a work pace much slower than they're capable of. They're more interested in the music from Sam's radio, the local football team, and the bar they're going to go to for TGIF. I'm sorry, but this is just not the way I was raised or trained. And,
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finally, they've never looked on me as a qualified engineer, but as a woman who has broken their professional barrier. Discussion questions 1. What are the key problems? 2. How would you use the information in this chapter to redesign the meeting between Max and Sue?
PRACTICE
What Would You Include in the Performance Evaluation?
Directions Review the guidelines for giving and receiving feedback that have been presented in this chapter. Then think about the suggestions you had for redesigning Max's midyear review of Sue. 1. Develop a performance evaluation review of Sue. What kind of feedback are you going to give her? What skills will you suggest that she develop? 2. In dyads, role-play Max's midyear performance evaluation review. Discussion questions 1. At the conclusion of the role-play, discuss how the performance evaluation went. Did you follow the guidelines for giving and receiving feedback? 2. What did you learn from this role-play?
APPLICATION
The Mentor at Work
1. Select a parent, friend, teacher, or other associate with whom you spend time. 2. Think about the areas of life in which this person has been a mentor to you. How well did he or she receive and give feedback? How did he or she help you set personal or work-related goals for developing your skills and abilities? Did he or she delegate work or responsibilities to you in a way that would help you develop a skill or other ability? What were his or her strengths and weaknesses as a mentor? 3. In a group of four to six students, make two lists. The first list should describe the most important attributes of a mentor. The second list should describe common mentoring mistakes made by people. 4. From the lists you have made, identify difficulties you might have being a mentor as a manager. 5. Develop a personal plan to develop your own mentoring skills so that you can avoid such mistakes.
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The Facilitator Role

COMPETENCIES Building Teams Using Participative Decision Making Managing Conflict
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We have all spent a great deal of time working (and playing) in groups. Some of these groups seem to work very well together, and we sense that the group is able to accomplish something that none of the individuals could have accomplished on his or her own. In these cases, group members tend to identify with the group and may even surprise themselves in what they are able to accomplish individually when working with the group. Other groups, however, seem to function less effectively. In these cases, group members may dread spending time in the group and often feel that they could accomplish the task, or at least their part of the task, much more efficiently if they were left on their own. Regardless of our past experiences working in groups, the expectation is that we can all expect to be spending a lot more time in groups. Organizational improvement processes, such as total quality management and process reengineering, rely heavily on work teams. In addition, organizations are relying more and more on project teams and task forces, as well as other types of ad hoc, informal work groups, to help solve organizational problems. Increasingly, people from different areas of the organization are being brought together to deal with issues with the expectation that by sharing their differing perspectives they will be able to develop a solution or an approach that none of the individuals could have imagined on their own. The message is clear: Regardless of our job title, whether or not we are labeled as a managerial leader, we must all learn how to increase our skills as members of groups. In this chapter we will focus on the role of the facilitator. The facilitator role, which falls in the human relations model of the competing values framework, focuses on the relationship between a managerial leader and his or her work group. In this role, the manager fosters collective effort, builds cohesion and morale, and manages interpersonal conflict. The facilitator uses some of the same competencies as the mentor, such as listening and being empathetic and sensitive to the needs of others. The role of facilitator, however, centers around the manager's work with groups. In this chapter we will focus on three key competencies of the facilitator: Competency 1 Competency 2 Competency 3 Building Teams Using Participative Decision Making Managing Conflict
Each of these competencies requires the manager to balance individual needs with group needs in order to create and maintain a positive climate in the work group. As you work through this chapter, however, you will see that these competencies are relevant to all group members, not just the individual who is given the title of leader.
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Competency 1
ASSESSMENT
Directions
Building Teams
Are You a Team Player?
The following assessment instrument asks you to examine your behavior as a team member in organizational settings. For each pair of items, place a checkmark in the space in the column that best identifies how you behave in a working group at school, in student or community groups, or on your job.
Very Like Me Somewhat like me Both describe me Somewhat like me Very like me
Flexible in own ideas Open to new ideas Listen well to others Trusting of others Prefer to raise differences and discuss them Readily contribute in group meetings Concerned with what happens to others Fully committed to tasks Share leadership with group Willing to help others to get the job
Set in my own ideas Avoid new ideas Tune out others Not trusting of others Prefer to avoid discussing differences
Hold back from contribute in group meetings Not concerned with what happens to others Have little committed to tasks Maintain full control of group Prefer to stick my own task or job description
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done Encourage others to participate Group needs come before my own needs Expect others to participate without encouragement Group needs come after my own needs
Interpretation In each pair of items, the item on the left is associated more with team behaviors than is the item on the right. 1. In what ways do these team behaviors agree with your concept of team membership? How do they differ? 2. What strengths do you think you have working on a team? Weaknesses? 3. Are there times when you have performed more effectively as a team member? Alternatively, have there been times when you did not fully contribute as a team member? If so, what events or circumstances made you behave differently in the different situations?
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LEARNING
Building Teams
Bill Dyer, an expert on teams, often tells a story about an exchange with an audience of managers. At a conference, he asked approximately 300 managers whether they felt that teamwork and cooperation were essential in their organization and in their work unit. Without exception, managers reported that teamwork was essential. Dyer then asked how many were currently conducting programs to ensure that their team was functioning effectively-fewer than 25 percent responded positively. Finally, Dyer asked how many of their bosses were currently working on developing their team. At the third question, the response fell to below 10 percent. If teamwork is so essential to the proper functioning of the work unit, why do so few managers actively engage in team-building programs? There are many reasons why managers do not do team building. In some cases, they simply do not understand the potential benefits that can occur from having the work unit function as a team. In other cases, they do not have the knowledge and skills required to turn a work group into a team or may even believe that it is something that "just happens" without any effort. Toward the end of this section, we will look again at barriers to team building and how they can be overcome. First, we will take a closer look at work groups and work teams to see how they function and identify some team building approaches.
WORK GROUPS AND WORK TEAMS

We have all experienced times when we felt that we were working on a "team." That team may have been a sports team, a work-related group, or a group within a community organization. What were the characteristics of that group that made it a team? Probably, the group was well coordinated, everyone had a role to play, and there was a commitment to a common goal. While there is no commonly accepted definition of team, and there are probably as many definitions of teams as there are researchers who study how teams function, there is some consistency in the characteristics generally used to differentiate teams from other types of groups. First, the group must be committed to a common goal or purpose. In The Wisdom of Teams, Katzenbach and Smith (1993) focus on having a meaningful purpose as part of the glue that holds the team together. It is the motivation that makes people want to contribute at their maximum ability. Just as important as having a common purpose, these authors assert, is that teams must have specific performance goals that are centered on the team work-product, the results. For example, teams at NASA had to quickly identify and agree to the materials and the design of the space capsules that would be used to bring rock and soil samples from Mars. Even though the conditions the capsule would encounter were uncertain, the engineers had to eventually settle on some final choice. Having an overarching sense of the goals of the project is what allowed the teams to agree on technical specifications without becoming bogged down in personal opinions and disputes (Dahle, 1999). Second, members of the group must have clear roles and responsibilities that are interdependent. One of the key reasons for having people work together in a team is to be able to draw on the different knowledge, skills, and abilities that people bring to the workplace. In building a team, members must understand how they can draw on each other's experience, ability, and commitment in order to arrive at mutual goals. Moreover, task and outcome interdependence can benefit personal work outcomes and motivation (van der Vegt, Emans, and van de Vliert, 1998). Imagination Ltd., a British company that designs customer experiences, brings
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together teams with skills as diverse as choreography, architecture, and graphic design. These workers know that the most important task is to share information about how they are doing their individual jobs (Fishman, 2000). Everyone does not have to know how to do all the jobs, but everyone should be clear about who is being asked to do what. Perhaps more important, people need to fully understand how their personal efforts contribute to the team work product. Third, there is a communication structure that fosters the sharing of information. The second characteristic indicated that one advantage of bringing people together to work in a team is that they can share the different, and sometimes unique, knowledge, skills, and abilities that they bring to the team. This can only happen, however, if people are willing to share their own ideas and listen carefully to the ideas of others. Larson and La Fasto (1989, p. 56) identify four characteristics of an effective communication structure: (1) The information is easily accessible; (2) the information that is available must be seen as coming from credible sources, (3) in meetings, people must be able to raise issues of concern that may not have been on the formal agenda, and (4) there must be a system for documenting issues that have been discussed and decisions that have been made. A corollary to these four characteristics is that the communication structure must be supported by a climate of trust. People must feel that it is safe to raise controversial or difficult issues without being accused of attacking the other team members. Again, the team cannot benefit from the diversity of ideas if there is no opportunity to openly discuss the different perspectives. Consolidated Diesel has created a communications structure that embodies these characteristics. When holding quarterly meetings with plant employees, one manager decided to switch from two 700-person meetings to fifteen smaller meetings. Such an arrangement encouraged people to ask many more questions, no matter how sensitive (Sittenfeld, 1999). Finally, the group must have a sense of mutual accountability. In many ways, this characteristic flows from the first three. If the team has common goals and members have clear roles and responsibilities, team members will have a sense of commitment to one another. They will see themselves as integral parts of the whole, with each person performing in order for the whole to excel. Moreover, when one member of the team needs help, others are ready to provide that help so that the team can accomplish the goal. An extreme form of this integration is what LipmanBlumen and Leavitt (1999) call "hot groups." These groups care about the work and center their efforts around the accomplishment of their goals. To that end, they protect the members of the group through thick and thin, in success and failure. In this fourth characteristic, it is easy to see one of the paradoxes inherent in team functioning-that while each individual must have clear roles and responsibilities, each member must also be willing to take on the tasks of other team members in order to achieve the common performance goals. Thus, when team members are mutually accountable, they do not need to keep an "accounting system" of who has done what for whom. Individuals do not try to take personal credit for their efforts. Rather, they see their efforts as benefiting the team and, by definition, benefiting themselves. When all members understand what it means to be mutually accountable, no one takes advantage of other team members or becomes a free rider, and yet everyone reaps the benefits of the others' efforts. Each of these four characteristics is essential to the effective functioning of the work team. The question that a managerial leader must ask, however, is: Does my work unit need to function as a team? That is, is it necessary for all members of the work unit to share a common goal or purpose? Does the nature of the work require people to be interdependent? In some sports teams, such as golf teams or gymnastics teams, individuals function quite independently. Although they may practice together and give each other pointers on how to improve their performance, there is no real
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need for coordination of effort. Other sports teams, such as basketball teams or volleyball teams, require a great deal of interaction and coordination among team members. Players must be in constant communication with each other; each player must be able to "predict" the next player's moves. The same is true of work teams. In some settings, individuals function independently and the work unit would not likely benefit from attempts to turn the work group into a work team. In many settings, however, the work depends on individuals working together and using one another's experiences, abilities, and commitments. In these cases, the managerial leader, in the role of facilitator, must make special efforts to help the work group develop into a work team. In this chapter we will focus primarily on team-building efforts that help team members clarify their roles, responsibilities, and expectations.
ROLES OF TEAM MEMBERS

As was noted above in the discussion of the team characteristics, team members usually have specific, and sometimes very specialized, roles. A role is a set of expectations held by the individual and relevant others about how that individual should act in a given situation. For example, in basketball, the point guard is expected to bring the ball down the court and set up the play; the center is expected to get under the basket and to rebound. In the workplace, an employee's role is defined by the specific tasks he or she is expected to perform. For example, in a factory there are production managers, machine operatives, and repair persons. In addition, there are health and personnel specialists, accountants and financial managers, maintenance staff, secretaries, and office clerks. Each of these individuals has a specialized role. In pulling a new team together, people are usually expected to perform somewhat different roles on the team. Therefore, it important to think about the specific competencies that people can bring to the task. These may be technical competencies, referring to substantive knowledge, skills, and abilities; or they may be personal competencies, referring to qualities, skills, and abilities to help the team work together. Some organizations, such as Context Integration, have developed a Web-based knowledge-management system to help employees identify who can be a resource for solving a technical problem (Salter, 1999). In addition to the specific or unique competencies that can be used to select team members, team leaders might also consider general characteristics that all team members should possess. For example, the Mayo Center centers their patient care around teams that are guided by the motto "The best interest of the patient is the only interest to be considered" (Roberts, 1999, p. 156). Teams are assembled and disassembled to achieve this goal, and doctors are paid a set salary to avoid incentives or penalties for referrals or consulting with colleagues. Thus, the team is composed of specialists who know why they are there and what to do. Such an example suggests that whether we focus on technical or personal competencies, unique abilities or general characteristics that everyone on the team should possess, one of the important responsibilities of the manager, as facilitator, is to provide role clarity for his or her employees-to make clear what is expected of each individual performing on the team. ROLE CLARITY AND ROLE AMBIGUITY Role clarity implies the absence of two stressful conditions: role ambiguity and role conflict. Role ambiguity occurs when an individual does not have enough information about what he or she should be doing, what are appropriate ways of interacting with
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others, or what are appropriate behaviors and attitudes. Consider the following story about four people: Everybody, Somebody, Anybody, and Nobody.
There was an important job to be done and Everybody was asked to do it. Anybody could have done it, but Nobody did it. Somebody got angry about that because it was Everybody's job. Everybody thought Anybody could do it, but Nobody realized that Everybody wouldn't do it. It ended up that Everybody blamed Somebody when actually Nobody asked Anybody.
New employees, who are not familiar with the work unit's norms and procedures, often experience role ambiguity if their manager does not clarify for them what is expected in their job. New managers, making the transition from worker to manager, also often experience role ambiguity because their role expectations have changed. Role conflict occurs when an individual perceives information regarding his or her job to be inconsistent or contradictory. For example, if manager X tells employee Y to perform task A, and then manager X's boss tells employee Y to stop what he or she is doing and to perform task B, the employee is likely to experience role conflict. There are several potential sources of role conflict. Role conflict may occur when one or more individuals with whom an employee interact sends conflicting messages about what is expected. It can occur when an individual plays multiple roles that have conflicting expectations. For example, first-line managers represent their organization to their employees, informing them of rules and regulations as well new policies and procedures. Managers, however, are also employees. In the employee role they may disagree with an organizational policy or directive. Role conflict can also occur when an individual's own morals and values conflict with the organization's mission or policies and procedures. For example, an environmentally minded advertising executive might find it difficult to accept a contract with a company that produces toxic or nuclear wastes as a side effect of its primary production of goods. Role conflict may also occur when the expectations for a given role exceed the available time to complete those tasks. This is also sometimes referred to as role overload (Coverman, 1989; Katz and Kahn, 1978). Team leaders sometimes feel role conflict because they have not yet learned the new skills required of team leaders and think they are supposed to behave as "the boss." In traditional organizations, managers were given both authority and responsibility for making decisions. But, as discussed above, the value of using teams results from the team's ability to use the unique knowledge and skills that people bring to the team. Team leaders need to learn how to share power, how to decide when they should be "in charge" and when they should let others take charge (see Competency 2, Using Participative Decision Making, later in this chapter), and that it is reasonable for them to not know everything. Put another way, team leaders need to learn the new set o expectations that employees and the organization have for managers (Dumaine, 1991). Team-building efforts that focus on clarifying roles help everyone in the work unit or work team understand what others expect. Later in this chapter we will present specific team-building techniques that focus on the clarification of roles. First, however, we discuss three general types of roles that employees play in teams: two that help the team to accomplish its objective and one that hinders the team. TASK AND GROUP MAINTENANCE ROLES VS. SELF-ORIENTED ROLES Task and group maintenance roles focus on two necessary components of effective team functioning (Benne and Sheats, 1948; Dyer, 1995). In a task role, one's behaviors are focused on what the team is to accomplish. Performing in a task role is sometimes referred to as having a task orientation, or being task oriented. In a group maintenance role, one's behaviors are focused on how the team will
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accomplish its task. Performing in a group maintenance role is sometimes referred to as having a group maintenance, or process, orientation, or being process oriented. A person may perform several different types of activities when taking on a task role. For example, a person may get the group moving by offering new ideas and suggesting ways to approach a task or a problem, or by simply reminding others that there is a task to be performed. In meetings, persons in the task role may raise or clarify important facts and opinions based on personal knowledge and experiences; encourage others to raise or clarify important facts and opinions based on their knowledge and experiences; pull together the range of ideas discussed in the group and restate them concisely, offering a decision or conclusion for the group to consider; or help the group to assess the quality of its suggestions or solutions, testing to see if the ideas will work in reality. A person in a task role also often brings together, schedules, and combines the activities of others. Likewise, we can identify different types of activities associated with a group maintenance orientation. People in this role tend to support team members, building cohesiveness and trust among them, alleviating tension, and helping members find ways to see past their differences so that they can continue to work together. They also try to maintain open discussion and encourage others to pursue their ideas and suggestions. People who play this role in a team also often provide the group with feedback on how the group is functioning and suggest processes to ensure that all group members have sufficient opportunities to share their ideas and feelings. Clearly these types of behaviors are consistent with the four characteristics of teams described above. There is, however, another type of role that some people may try to play in the team that is inconsistent with these team characteristics. This is a selfor individual-oriented role. This role tends to be counterproductive to effective group functioning, drawing attention away from the team to personal needs that are not germane to the team's task or process. People in this role may oppose other members' ideas and suggestions, using hidden agendas to hinder group movement, or try to take over the group by manipulating the group or individual members and by interrupting others. They may also try to draw attention to themselves, either boasting of personal accomplishments, or acting in ways that indicate a feeling of superiority over other team members, or separating themselves from the group and maintaining a distance from other group members. Sometimes, people take on these roles naturally. You may find that one person consistently tries to bring the group back to its task. Another may be good at making sure that everyone has had an opportunity for input. Yet another may make sure that everyone knows what is to be accomplished by the next meeting and who has specific tasks to perform. The key is to make sure that task and group maintenance roles are appropriately balanced and that self-oriented roles are minimized. If the group tends to find itself completely focused on completing the task, but only a few team members are contributing, team members must ask themselves how they can get one or more people to play the group maintenance role. Alternatively, if the group is always focused on making sure that everyone is getting along, but work is not getting done in a timely manner, the group must think about how it can increase its task behaviors without sacrificing people's commitment to the team. Finally, if the group is not able to accomplish its tasks because it is constantly hindered by one or more individuals who are more concerned about their personal gains or accomplishments, rather than the team's work product, the team must work with these individuals to get them to see how they are hindering the team (see Competency 3, Managing Conflict) as well as to try to get them to accept the team's goals and purpose as their own. In the next section we look at how the appropriate balance between task and group maintenance behaviors may depend on how long the team has worked together in general or on a particular task or problem.
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TEAM DEVELOPMENT AND TEAM BUILDING

When a new work group forms, or an established work group undertakes a new task or problem, the group needs to be designed, staffed, structured, and trained before it can transform into a high performance team (Sundstrom, 1999). For example, if team members do not know one another well or have never worked together before, it is important for them to get acquainted and to discuss what competencies each person brings to the team and what types of preferences people have regarding how to approach the task. Alternatively, when an established team takes on a new project, team members are likely to have a good sense of the different competencies people have but still need to discuss various unique perspectives they have on the problem or different approaches that different team members may think are appropriate for the particular project. As you will see, we can identify four stages of team development, each of which requires team members to give different emphasis to the various task and maintenance behaviors discussed above. The leader of a team (and also the team members) must be aware of how the team's needs evolve during these stages of development and encourage group members to perform different aspects of the task and group maintenance behaviors at the different stages. STAGE 1: TESTING At stage 1 the goals of the group are established and the task is defined. Group members ask themselves what the purpose of this team is and whether they want to be a member. (Of course, in most work-related situations, group members do not have a choice about their membership.) To create a climate where people can share ideas and feelings and begin to identify and align with a common goal, the group leader should encourage members to offer new ideas and suggest ways to approach the task (task role) and should also make sure everyone's opinion is heard, creating a climate where people feel safe to offer opposing views (group maintenance role). STAGE 2: ORGANIZING At stage 2 the group establishes a structure. The group leader must emphasize the common purpose (task role) and establish norms and standards. In addition, the group must clarify issues regarding the sharing of information-how members will communicate with one another and what types of information need to be shared. If the group has no appointed leader, one of the group members will often emerge as an informal leader in this stage. Sometimes several people are identified as leaders, some focusing more on tasks and others on group maintenance. So that group members may ask more specific questions about what the group will do and how they will do it, the leader should encourage group members to continually question and assess the quality of suggestions and potential solutions (task role) and to resolve differences by helping others understand the differing perspectives that people bring (group maintenance role). STAGE 3: ESTABLISHING INTERDEPENDENCE Individual talents are drawn out and used and attention is focused on how to coordinate individual efforts in stage 3. The group leader should focus on member interdependence, discourage competition, and encourage individuals to take on informal leadership roles. The key question group members ask themselves concerns how they can coordinate their individual actions to accomplish the team's goals more effectively. At this stage, focusing on the task, the team needs members to raise and/or clarify important points and differences in perspective, and then to pull together and summarize or synthesize the range of ideas that have been expressed (task roles). Similarly, group maintenance behaviors that help the team to succeed focus on helping members see how the differing perspectives can potentially lead to
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a more creative or more productive proposal for action, and then encouraging others to pursue different ideas and suggestions. STAGE 4: PRODUCING AND EVALUATING If the group has successfully managed the first three stages, by stage 4 it should have transformed into a team and should be working together smoothly. Team members should be committed to a common goal or purpose, have a clear understanding of the different roles and responsibilities of individual team members, have a communication structure that allows for an open sharing of different perspectives, and have a sense of mutual accountability. At this stage, team members begin to evaluate the product of the team effort and also how well the individuals are working together as a team. To solicit input from all group members in evaluating goals, task output, productivity, and team process, the leader should encourage team members to ask questions regarding how it has approached its task and offer suggestions for improving team performance (task role) as well as feedback and observations on the team process (group maintenance role). Again, one can see how the role that the team leader plays in helping the team develop is both critical and paradoxical. On the one hand, the team leader sets the climate and must be seen as someone with a strong personal vision. On the other hand, the leader must clearly demonstrate a belief in the team's purpose and in the notion that each person's contribution to the team is equally valuable. Thus, team leaders must simultaneously lead and give team members the opportunity to take a leadership role, suggest directions and listen to others' suggestions, and be appropriately involved in the day-to-day work while not micromanaging. In addition, they must find ways to value differences and reward successes, while never allowing some individuals to shine at the expense of the other team members. In the next two sections, we suggest some specific approaches to team building, approaches that build on the notion of maintaining a balance between task and group maintenance focus in the team. FORMAL APPROACHES TO TEAM BUILDING Although a team may eventually reach the producing and evaluating stage of its development, it will likely cycle back through the various previous stages as it meets new challenges. Indeed, most work groups experience frequent, if not constant, change. Sometimes these changes are associated with new group members; sometimes they are associated with new tasks and responsibilities. Sometimes the changes are the result of changes in the group's external environment, in which case the group must adjust in order to adapt to a new focus of the organization or new trends in the industry. At this point it is often important to "stop the action" and involve the group in formal team-building activities. You may have heard the expression, "When you are up to your hips in alligators, you forget that you came to drain the swamp." Sometimes it is important to step out of the swamp and think about what you are doing. Formal team-building activities allow the group to put aside the work of the day, evaluate how well the group is performing as a team, and make any necessary changes. But team-building activities should not be seen as isolated experiences or events. Rather, they should be part of an integrated approach to team building that involves regularly scheduled sessions to allow the team to address whatever issues it is currently facing (Dyer, 1995). At Whole Foods Market, a natural foods grocery chain, teams have clear performance goals and meet at least once a month to share information and solve problems (Fishman, 1996). When team members are interdependent, there is a need for effective communication among them. Periodic meetings that focus on information exchange
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may be the most effective way to enhance communication among team members. Many managers hold periodic off-site meetings to help keep employees enthusiastic and energized. The key is to encourage input from everyone regarding problems they are experiencing and questions or concerns they might have. Managers can also bring information about anticipated changes to these meetings. Sometimes it is important to clarify how much and what types of information individuals need in order to perform their jobs effectively. A group meeting to examine current information flows, and whether these flows meet each individual's needs, can enhance team functioning. (The section on Using Participative Decision Making later in this chapter will provide more information on how to conduct effective meetings.) A fairly simple, but effective, team-building technique involves setting aside a day or two, away from the worksite if possible, to examine three questions: (1) What do we do well? (2) What areas need improvement? (3) What are the barriers to improvement? Starting with an examination of what the team does well reminds the group that while there may be some problems or issues to deal with, the team also has strengths upon which to build. This establishes a positive climate for the teambuilding session and gets people involved in the discussion. Depending on how much time there is between team-building sessions, the list of areas for improvement may be short or long. This is a good reason to schedule regular team-building sessions. If the list is too long, the team may need to set priorities regarding which issues should be handled first. The last question reminds the team that team building is more than short-term problem solving. It involves taking a larger look at the system and examining specific problems to determine whether they are isolated events or the result of an underlying structural issue. If there is an underlying structural issue, it will likely need to be dealt with before the improvement can be made. The final team product of such a session should be an action plan to deal with whatever problems or issues are raised in the session. The action plan should include a statement of objectives (what the team wants to accomplish with this improvement effort), a time frame for addressing the issue, and a clear assignment of who is responsible for organizing the improvement effort (remember Anybody, Everybody, Nobody, and Somebody!). As mentioned earlier, one key to effective team functioning is having each team member know his or her role and how that role fits into the larger team effort. Several techniques are available. Role analysis technique (RAT) focuses one by one on the various roles in the group. This technique was first used by KP Engineering Corporation, a manufacturer of welding electronics, and is useful when team members are performing different functions (Dayal and Thomas, 1968). In this activity, the person performing in the role to be analyzed states his or her job as he or she sees it. Other group members then comment on and make suggestions for changes in this job description. The individual in that role then lists expectations of other members who affect how the job is performed. There is open discussion until agreement is reached on a job description and the associated expectations of others. This process is then repeated until everyone has had his or her job analyzed. A similar technique is role negotiation (Harrison, 1972). Here all members simultaneously list what expectations they have of others in the work group, focusing on what they feel others should do more of or better, do less of or stop doing, and maintain as is. Lists are exchanged, and individuals negotiate with one another until all team members agree on those behaviors that should be changed and those that should be maintained. A master list of agreements is later circulated to the group. Responsibility charting (Beckhard and Harris, 1977) involves creating a large chart that lists the group's decisions and activities along the left side of the chart and each
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employee's name along the top of the chart (see Figure 3.1). Codes indicate whether the individual has the responsibility for the activity or decision (R), has the right to approve or veto a decision (A-V), provides support or resources for the activity or decision (S), or needs to be informed of the activity or decision (I). The chart allows the group to see explicitly whether some members of the group are overloaded and some could be given additional tasks and responsibilities. INFORMAL APPROACHES TO TEAM BUILDING As indicated, team building is not an event, but an ongoing process. In between formal team-building sessions, the team can use informal techniques to encourage team development. Often when people think about team building they assume that it has to do with getting people to like each other, but as Dyer (1995) notes, "The fundamental emotional condition in a team is not liking but trusting. People do not need to like one another as friends to be able to work together, but they do need to trust one another" (p. 53, emphasis added). They need to trust that other team members are equally invested in accomplishing the team's goals; they need to trust that other team members will share information appropriately; and they need to trust that other team members will be willing to work out disagreements in a professional manner. How do you establish trust among team members? First and foremost, team members need to understand that each person's willingness to trust other team members will likely be influenced by that person's observations of the other team members' actions. If team members consistently produce and are willing to help others when they need assistance, trust is likely to develop among the team members. One key element here is ensuring that each person believes in the common goals and so is willing to "go the extra mile" when necessary. Second, a managerial leader must work to create an atmosphere in which it is safe to trust others. Trust is a behavior that re-creates itself. That is, team members are more likely to trust other team members when they themselves feel trusted-when they feel that others are being open and honest in their communications. In the previous chapter you used the Johari window as a tool for thinking about selfawareness. The Johari window also tells you something about how you relate to others. When an individual has a large facade (information that is known to the self but unknown to others), others have a hard time trusting that individual because they do not feel trusted by the person. Alternatively, when an individual has been candid and sincere with others, that person will more likely be seen as approachable and trustworthy. Thus a managerial leader must begin by trusting the team members and set an example by sharing key information with the team. Finally, although we indicated that the purpose of team building is not to create a situation in which everyone likes everyone else, we do believe that social interaction can create opportunities for people to get to know each other, thereby creating greater potential for trust among team members. For example, a manager may encourage group interaction by suggesting that the group meet for a meal after work, or during a meal break, where possible. Annual picnics and holiday celebrations, as well as celebrations of personal events, such as birthdays or parenthood, communicate to employees that they as individuals are important to the organization. Christine Rochester, "Ambassador" at Play, a marketing firm, uses small gestures to help her employees feel energized-perhaps giving an employee a car wash or buying milkshakes for a team. Celebrations of people's accomplishments let team members know that their work is appreciated. Play also uses rituals, such as opening every meeting with a drum roll, to create a sense of "magic" among the creative workers (Dahle, 2000). BARRIERS TO TEAM BUILDING
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When we began this section, we noted that team building is not as regularly practiced in many organizations as one might expect, given what we know about the potential for team performance. What we need to ask here is: What are the barriers to team building? How do we overcome them? Of course, one important reason why team-building programs are not more widely used in work organizations is time. Often the need to get the job done leads work groups to focus on specific tasks rather than on planning and coordination. Further, when group members focus on their own parts, they sometimes find it difficult to see the whole picture or to recognize that they are not currently seeing that picture. There is no way to give people more time. Team members and organizational leaders must see the value of team building and recognize that this is a long-term investment. A day or two spent away from the worksite may save the team much more in both time and money in the long run. A second reason may be a lack of knowledge about how to build a team. Some people assume that "team" is something that does or does not happen. They may not realize the many and varied techniques that can enhance team functioning. It is a manager's responsibility to examine the need for team building in his or her work unit and, if such a need exists, to determine which formal or informal approaches would be most effective. A final reason-but perhaps the most important one-is organizational culture. Effective team building requires an environment that values differing opinions and open resolution of conflict (see the last competency in this chapter, Managing Conflict). In an organization in which there is mistrust or negative feelings among coworkers, it is difficult to establish a team spirit. In cases such as these, one should consider bringing in an objective outside consultant to do formal team-building or organization development activities. Similarly, the organization may not reward team behaviors or team-building activities. An organization may prescribe team building for its employees, but if managers are not evaluated on the implementation of such activities, there may be little incentive to take the time to do team building. In a similar fashion, some organizations will hold team-building sessions but then reward employees for their individual performance. If a sales representative is compensated based on individual sales, there is little incentive to share "best practices" with others in the work unit. Here, organizations need to examine their performance and reward systems to ensure that they do not run counter to team-building efforts. Further, upper-level managers need to demonstrate by their own actions their commitment to and support for team-building activities (Dyer, 1995).
ANALYSIS
Stay-Alive Inc.
Directions Read the case study and respond to the questions that follow. Stay-Alive Inc., a small not-for-profit social service agency, hired Jean Smith to design, implement, and coordinate halfway house living programs for young adults. When Jean arrived, the agency had an informal organization with little hierarchical structure and extensive participative decision making. The prevailing ideology that shaped virtually all decisions and interpersonal relationships was that a democratic system would be most effective and would lead to a higher level of job satisfaction for workers than would a more rigid hierarchical structure. The staff members attended at least five meetings weekly. Incredibly, the group devoted the majority of time at each one to exploring interpersonal problems.
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Most staff were young and had recently finished college. They often remarked that they sought a place to belong and feel accepted. Stay-Alive met that need in many ways: The group acted as a surrogate family for many employees. Even their life outside of work revolved heavily around activities with other Stay-Alive members. Salaries were low, and so the agency hired inexperienced people. Although the employees were bright, enthusiastic, and motivated, some were just beginning to develop the skills needed for effective performance in their jobs. Organizational leaders, therefore, defined success on the job primarily in terms of the employees' ability to relate well to others at work and only secondarily in terms of their ability to work with clients. Within three months of her arrival, Jean submitted her plan for implementing the program. Her manager praised it, calling it a remarkable piece of work. Soon after the program was implemented, however, it became clear that it was not working. Still, the agency members responded by patting her on the back and telling her what a great job she was doing. Jean soon became frustrated and angry and left the agency. Discussion Questions 1. Was Stay-Alive Inc. an effective team? Why or why not? 2. How were task and maintenance behaviors being performed in this agency? 3. Rather than leaving, how might Jean have helped Stay-Alive to become a more effective organization? 4. What other suggestions would you give to the management team at Stay-Alive to help them to improve? 5. If you were the director of Stay-Alive, what issues would you want to see addressed in a team-building session?
PRACTICE
"Students-as-Customers" Task Force
Direction Divide into groups of approximately six people. Each group will compose a new university task force that is part of the university's total quality management effort. Read the memo from the university president and begin your first meeting according to the suggested agenda provided below. Respond to the agenda questions as if you yourself were attending the meeting. When your task force has completed the two tasks on the agenda, each person should individually respond to the discussion questions. Your instructor will then lead a large group discussion. Task Force Meeting Agenda 1. 2. (a) (b) (c) Briefly discuss the president's charge. Discuss the following questions: What unique skills or abilities does each person bring to the task force? What skills do members share in common? What specific team or organizational strengths does each person possess?
(d) What team or organizational weaknesses or areas of discomfort does each person possess? (e) (f)
How can the team make best use of each individual's skills and abilities? How can team members benefit from theit time on the task force?
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1. How satisfied were you with the group's discussion? Did you feel comfortable discussing your team and organizational strengths and weaknesses in this first meeting of the group? 2. How well did the task force do at discussing how it could make best use of each person's abilities? Did everyone participate in the discussion? 3. Think about the stages of team development. What elements of stage 1 (testing) did you accomplish in your task force? What elements of stage 2 (organizing) or stage 3 (establishing interdependence) were accomplished? What member behaviors provided support for the team's development? 4. What issues still need to be dealt with to allow this task force to develop as a team? 5. Did a leader emerge? If so, what specific events identified that person as a leader? Who in the group might have emerged as a team leader at a later time?
MEMORANDUM
FROM: TO: SUBJECT: DATE: President Adams "Students as Customers" Task Force Task Force Charge January 22, 2002
First, I want to welcome you back to a new semester and thank you for agreeing to sit on this exciting new task force. I think you will find this task force rewarding, and the university will certainly benefit from your input. As you know, our university has been working since the fall semester with a team of management consultants to develop a total quality management (TQM) program on this campus. As part of this effort, we are beginning to look at "customer satisfaction," recognizing students as our customers. We believe that the best people to help us decide how to gather customer satisfaction data are the students themselves. The members of this task force have been carefully chosen from among our best students. Your charge is to make a recommendation, by the end of this semester, regarding how we might gather such data. You are, of course, free to choose from among many available data-gathering approaches, for example, surveys, interviews, focus groups, and use of existing course evaluation data. You should make your recommendations based on your assessment of how we can get the best information. I look forward to seeing your recommendations.
APPLICATION Team-Building Action Plan

Think about a student group, a work unit, a task force, or a committee of which you are currently a member, where you could do some informal or formal team building. 1. Consider carefully which team-building activities are most appropriate. For example, you may feel that the roles and responsibilities of group members are not clear and that you would like to try one of the role clarification techniques. Or you may decide you need to personally practice using task and maintenance roles in group meetings. If you are a group leader, think about whether it is appropriate to meet privately with individuals who have been exhibiting selforiented behaviors. Wherever possible, try your team-building effort.
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2. Write a three- to five-page report describing the design for your team-building effort. Include a description of the group, as well as what you would do. In your report you should carefully explain why you have chosen this team-building approach. If you are describing an ongoing group, discuss also the stage of the group's development and how this would affect your team-building effort.
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