OCR AS Biology F211 Revision Notes

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MICROSCOPY y A light microscope uses lenses to magnify an image y A transmission electron microscope (TEM) passes electron beam through a thin sample 2-D image , y A scanning electron microscope ( SEM) bounces electron beam off the sample, 3-D image y Biological material usually transparent and requires staining to be seenunder a microscope y Magnification: the degree to which the size of an image is larger than the object y Resolution: the degree to which it is possible to distinguish two objects Actual size = image size / magnification must use I Magnification = image size / actual size same units A M CELL ULTRASTRUCTURE Organelle Nucleolus Nuclear envelope Rough E.R. Smooth E.R. Golgi Apparatus Ribosomes Mitochondria Lysosomes Chloroplasts Centrioles Undulipodia Flagella Cilia Function Contains DNA for cell replication Separates nucleus from cytoplasm Contains pores for communication Transports proteins made my attached ribosomes Involved in making fats, cholesterol and phospholipids Processes and packages proteins, may add carbohydrate Makes vesicles and lysosomes Assembles proteins from amino acids Produces ATP from aerobic respiration Contains enzymes for destroying old material Produces ATP from photosynthesis Assembles the cytoskeleton and spindle fibres Eukaryotic Moves cells such as sperm and plant gametes Prokaryotic Moves materials across cell surfaces Prokaryotic X nucleoid Ypeptidoglycan X X X Y smaller X mesosomes X X X X Y some X Eukaryotic Animal Plant Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y some X Y some Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y some X Y some X Y

Y Vesicles Animal Transports material through cell X X Vacuoles Plant Holds water and solutes to aid rigidity X y Prokaryotes do not have a true nucleus. 1 -5m. One cell surface membrane, made from peptidoglycan. Smaller ribosomes. DNA free and naked in nucleoid. y Eukaryotes do have a true nucleus and membrane -bound organelles. 10-100m. Some have cellulose cell wall. Normal r ibosomes. DNA in chromosomes in nucleus. y The cytoskeleton consists of flagella, cilia, microtubules actin filaments etc. Flagella give , cell movement. Actin filaments move chromosomes during mitosis. Microtubules move vesicles and mRNA through the cytoplasm. Cell walls help support the cell, cell turgidity. y Protein synthesis: nucleus copies instructions to make protein onto mRNA which leaves through a pore > mRNA attaches to a ribosome which assembles the protein from amino acids > protein pinched off into a section of E.R/vesicle > vesicle fuses with Golgi apparatus which processes and packages protein into vesicle, may add carbohydrate > vesicle fuses with cell surface membrane and releases protein > exocytosis CELL MEMBRANES y A plasma (cell surface membrane follows the fluid ) Molecule Appearance Headhydrophyllic, phosphate group Phospholipid Tail hydrophobic, fatty acid chains Cholesterol Waxy steroid molecule Carbohydrate attached to protein Glycoprotein Glycolipid Carbohydrate attached to phospholipid

mosaic model and is comprised of: Function Two layers (bilayer) are basic component of cell surface membrane, 7nm across Maintains membrane fluidity Antigens for cell recognition Binding sites (complementary) for chemicals Receptors for cell signalling

TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANES Lipid soluble or Diffusion Across bilayer PASSIVE small No ATP Through channel proteins Down concentration gradient Facilitated Charged ions input diffusion Large substances Through carrier proteins required Osmosis Water Across bilayer Large substances Carrier proteins Active Up concentration gradient ACTIVE Polar substance Channel proteins transport Requires Bulk ATP input Endocytosis movement into cell, Exocytosis movement out of cell transport

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OCR AS Biology F211 Revision Notes

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CELL DIVISION y Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid (46 chromosomes) cells from dividing cell for: o Growth of organism through extra cells o Repair/replacement of cells and tissues o Asexual reproduction INTERPHASE PROPHASE METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE CYTOKINESIS 2 growth DNA supercoils Nuclear Centromeres New nuclear Cytoplasm phases. DNA and condenses envelope gone. split to form envelope forms cleaves to replication into chromosomes. Chromosomes two identical around each set form two new and Nuclear membrane align along the chromosomes. Vof chromosomes. genetically checking breaks down. equator and shaped Spindle fibres identical Centrioles form attach chromatids break down and diploid cells spindle fibres centromere to pulled towards chromosomes spindle fibres poles uncoil y Diploid cells have full 46 chromosomes. Haploid cells have only 23 chromosomes y Homologous chromosomes have the same genes at the same loci y Clones are genetically identical cells/or ganisms derived from one parent y Meiosis only takes place in sex organs to produce gametes. Produces four cells through two divisions. Each cell is haploid and not genetically identical Each cell can fuse with an . opposite gamete to form a zygote with 46 ch romosomes y In plant cells, only special meristem cells are capable of division. At cytokinesis, there is no cleavage of the cytoplasm as th cell wall cannot bend. Instead a new cell wall plate is built e between the two new cells. No centrioles are present; the spindle fibres are made in the cytoplasm. DIFFERENTIATION y Tissues a collection of similar cells that perform a common function y Organs a collection of various tissues that work together to perform a particular function y Systems a number of organs working together to perform an overall life function y Stem cells are undifferentiated cells e.g. bone marrow, umbilical blood, cambium y Cells can differentiate to perform particular functions: NEUTROPHILS (white ERYTHROCYTES (red EPITHELIAL CELLS are SPERM have a flagellum blood cells) defend blood cells) are joined in tissues and to aid swimming towards the body. Contain biconcave to provide cover organs and vessels. the egg. They have Ciliated epithelium has numerous lysosomes a large surface area numerous mitochondria which have for gas exchange and cilia to move particles. to provide the ener gy digestive enzymes have no organelles to Squamous epithelium is to swim. The acrosome to break down hold more flattened and thin, ideal contains enzymes to engulfed particles. haemoglobin. for lining vessels. penetrate the egg. PALISADE MESOPHYLL CELLS have ROOT HAIR CELLS have a large GUARD CELLS line the stomata. numerous chloroplasts to surface area to absorb as much In the day, they take up photosynthesise and thin walls water and minerals fro the m water, become turgid and bend to allow CO2 exchange. soil. outwards to open the stoma and exchange gases.

EXCHANGE SURFACES y Single cell and small organisms can exchange substances across their outer surface y Larger organisms with a smaller SA:Vratio require a dedicated exchange surface. Surface area too small, distance too large, diffusion takes too long etc. y Active organisms have a higher demand for O2 and to remove CO2 y The lungs are a pair of inflatable orga ns in the chest cavity. Air flows into the trachea > bronchi > bronchioles and into the alveoli o O2 passes from the air and into the blood in the capillaries o CO2 passes from the blood and into the air CARTILAGE in the trachea SMOOTH ELASTIC FIBRES open the GOBLET CELLS secrete mucus MUSCLE can and bronchi to provide airways after smooth muscle which traps particles. The support. Not a complete closed them. In alveoli they mucus is moved upwards and contract to ring to allow flexibility reduce the are stretched on inhaling and out of the lungs by CILIATED EPITHELIUM in the neck without lumen of the recoil to help fully expel airway constriction the air airway y Lung adaptations: o Large surface area to provide enough space for exchange. Total area up to 70m2 o Thin permeable membranes surrounds the cells of exchange, readily allowing diffusion o The alveoli and capillary walls are each once cell thick and made of squamous cells to reduce the diffusion path o A steep diffusion gradient needs to be maintained
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OCR AS Biology F211 Revision Notes

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Blood is pumped into the lungs with a low O2 and high CO2 content. Ensures O2 diffuses out and CO2 in down diffusion gradients. Blood is subsequently pumped out with a high O2 and low CO2 content  Breathing ventilates the lungs brining in fresh O2 and removing used CO2 This ensures a . high O2 and low CO2 concentration to maintain diffusion gradients INSPIRATION EXPIRATION Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract Diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax Volume of chest cavity increases Volume of chest cavity decreases Pressure drops below atmospheric Pressure rises above atmospheric Air moves into lungs Air moves out of lungs A spirometer measures the amount of O2 a person uses by measuring the amount of CO2 expelled. The overall volume will decrease as CO2 is absorbed by soda lime.Tidal volume is the amount of air moved in and out at rest ~0.5dm3. Vital capacity is the largest amount of air that can be moved in and out in one breath ~5dm3.

TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS y Very small animals do not require a separate transport system as all their cells are surrounded by the environment and diffusion supplies their needs y The larger an animal is the smaller its SA:V ratio and the SA is not large enough to supply the middle cells; the more active an animal is the more they respire, esp warm blooded animals, and require sufficient transport systems y In a single circulatory system blood only passes throug the heart once per circulation around h the body. In a double circulatory system blood passes through twice y The heart is a double pump that propels blood around the body. The right side pumps blood to the lungs, the left side pumps blood around the body. T left sides walls are thicker to create he sufficient pressure to pump blood throughout the body y The heart is supplied with blood by the coronary artery that runs directly on the surface of the muscle y The contractions of the heart are maintained by the cardiac cycle. A cycle out of synchronisation is called fibrillation DIASTOLE ATRIAL SYSTOLE VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE Semilunar valves Sinoatrial node (SAN) sends Atrioventricular node (AVN) is the only closed. Atria and out a wave of excitation conducting tissue between the atria and ventricles relax. across the atrial muscle. ventricles. The AVN delays the wave before Volume increases, blood The atria contract together releasing it down the Purkyne tissue. The flowing in from veins. pushing blood into the wave of excitation starts at the apex and Atrioventricular valves ventricles which stretch. the ventricles contract upwards, push ing open to allow blood Atrioventricular valves snap the blood into the arteries. Semilunar into ventricles shut valves open to allow blood out y Blood flows through a series of vessels, each adapted to its role and function: ARTERY VEIN CAPILLARY Carries oxygenated blood from heart Carries deoxygenated blood to Allows exchange of Relatively narrow to maintain pressure. heart. Relatively narrow to materials between Thick and rigid to maintain and withstand ease blood flow. Thinner and blood and tissue. 7m pressure. Elastic fibres allow the vessel can be flattened. Contains in diameter, same as to stretch and recoil as the heart pumps, valves that ensure blood only blood cell, to squeeze the pulse. The recoil maintains constant travels back to heart and can cells. Single layer to pressure. Smooth muscle can constrict add pressure to force blood reduce diffusion path. vessel. back. y An opencirculatory system the blood is not always in vessels and the tissues are bathed in blood A closed circulatory system the blood remains in the vessels A tissue fluid bathes tissues . Blood Tissue Lymph BLOOD TISSUE FLUID LYMPH fluid Y Consists of Bathes the cells of Held in the Red blood X X red blood individual tissues. lymphatic system. cells cells, Plasma is pushed Consists of Y Y White blood very few white blood out of capillaries tissue fluid that cells cells and due to hydrostatic has not returned Y Platelets X X platelets pressure, but cells to capillaries. Y Proteins very few Antibodies suspended and proteins stay It rejoins the Y Y Y Water in plasma inside blood in the chest cavity Y Y Y Solutes
y

Oxygen is transported in haemoglobin within the red blood cells. When it combines with O2 it becomes oxyhaemoglobin. Haemoglobin consists of four subunits, each of which contains an Fe2+ atom which can attract and hold one O2 molecule

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OCR AS Biology F211 Revision Notes

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y y

The ability of haemoglobin to take up and release O2 depends on the pressure of O2 in surrounding tissues; this is called the partial pressure (pO2) Haemoglobin takes up oxygen in a way that . produces an s-shaped curve called an oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve. o At low pO2 haemoglobin does not readily take up O2 o As pO2 rises eventually one O2 molecule diffuses into the haemoglobin molecule and associates o This changes the shape of the haemoglobin that allows an additional two O2 molecules to easil y associate o The shape changes again and it is difficult for the fourth O2 molecule to associate o This means it is difficult to achieve 100% saturation, even with very high pO2 Foetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity for O2 as it must absorb O2 where the mohers body t releases it CO2 is releases by respiring tissues and is transported o 5% dissolved directly in plasma o 10% combined directly with haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin o 85% transported as hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO3-)  CO2 enters red blood cells, combines with water and formscarbonic acid catalysed by carbonic anhydrase  Carbonic acid dissociates to release H+ ions and HCO3 , which diffuse into the plasma  The cell charge is maintained by the movement of Cl ions into the cell from the plasma  The H+ ions are taken up by haemoglobin to produce haemoglobinic acid The H+ ions compete with O2 molecules in the haemoglobin. The more respiring a tissue is, the more CO2, the more H+ and therefore more O2 is released. This is theBohr effect that shows more O2 is released near respiring tissues

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS y Plants need transport systems just as animals (see above) XYLEM PHLOEM Xylem vessels are long tubes with no Sieve tube elements are living cells that form a tube for transporting solutes, joined end -to-end. The end walls are end walls. The tissue is dead and sieves that allow solutes through. They have no nucleus, contains no cytoplasm. The cell walls are strengthened with lignin, a thin cytoplasm layerand few organelles. helping to support the vessel. Water Each sieve tube has a companion cell with a nucleus and organelles to carry out the living functions for both and ions move into the vessels through small pits where theres no themselves and the sieve tubes. lignin. ROOT STEM LEAF Xylem and phloem in the Xylem and phloem in bundles around the Xylem and phloem make a centre to provide outside of the stem. Xylem near the network of veins. Xylem support. X-section of centre, phloem on the outside with a towards the top, phloem xylem with phloem in the layer of cambium between. towards the bottom. gaps. y Transpiration is the loss of water by evaporation from the aerial parts of a plant y The loss of water by transpiration is unavoidable as plants need to open stomata to exchange gases o Water enters leaves in the xylem and moves by osmosis into mesophyll cells o Water evaporates from the surface of the cells into the air spaces o Vapour collects, water potential rises and water diffuses out of the leaf, or exits through stomata o As water is lost it is replaced from below, called the transpiration stream y A photometer measures wat er uptake (not transpiration) y Transpiration can be reduced by: o Waxy cuticle, stomata on base of leaf and close at night, lose leaves in winter y Xerophytes are plants adapted to reduce water loss y Translocation is the movement of sucrose through the phloem. It is loaded by an active process , where companion cells pump out H+ ions that return with sucrose attached. Sucrose moves through plasmodesmata into the sieve tube elements. Sucrose moves up the sieve tubesthrough mass flow, where H20 enters at the source and leaves at the sink, creating hydrostatic pressure that carries sucrose up the phloem. Mass flow can occur in either direction o Source is where sucrose is produced and loaded into phloem o Sink is where sucrose is unloaded from phloem and used or stored

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