— (siete tae System ea : — Sean eURTRyelosbienee SATANVOLUME |! Power-System-Control and Stability P. M. ANDERSON A. A. FOUAD THE IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY PRESS, AMES IOWA, USAP M. Anderson is Program Manager for Research in Power System Planning, Security, and Control with the Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California. Prior to 1975 he was Professor of Electrical Engineering at lowa State University whese he received the Ph.D. degree in 1961 His industrial experience includes six years with the lowa Public Service Company and a university leave for research with the Pacific Gas and Electrie Company, San Francisco. He is author of numerous journal articles and the book Analysis of Faulted Power Systems A.A. Fouad is Professor of Electrical Engineering at lowa State University. He te- ceived the B.Sc. degree from Cairo University and the PhD degree from lowa State University in 1956 and has extensive overseas experience in Egypt, Brazil, and the Philippines He is active in the Power Engineering Society of the Institute of Elec- trical and Electronics Engineers where he serves as a member of the Power System Engineering Committee, System Control Subcommittee, and the working Group on Dy- namic System Performance © 1977 The lowa State University Press Ames, lowa 50010. All rights reserved ‘Composed and printed by Science Press, Ephrata, Pa 17522 t edition, 1977 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Anderson Paul 1926- Power system control and stability Includes bibliographical references 1 Blectric power systems 2 System analysis, 1. Fouad, Abdel-Aziz A joint author I Title TKIOOSAT 6213 76-2602 ISBN 0-8158-1245-3To Our Familiesnee; Contents Preface. xi PartI Introduction Chapter 1. Power System Stability Li Introduction 3 12 Requirements of a Reliable Electrical Power Service 3 13 Statement of the Problem 4 14 Effect of an Impact upon System Components 8 1.5 Methods of Simulation 10 Problems M Chapter 2, The Elementary Mathematical Model 21 Swing Equation B 22 Units 1S 23 Mechanical Torque 16 24 Electrical Torque 20 25 Power-Angle Curve of a Synchronous Machine a 26 Natural Frequencies of Oscillation of a Synchronous Machine 4 2.7 System of One Machine against an Infinite Bus— The Classical Model 26 2.8 Equal Area Criterion 31 29 Classical Model of a Multimachine System 35 210 Classical Stability Study of a Nine-Bus System 37 2.1L Shortcomings of the Classical Model 45 212 Block Diagram of One Machine 47 Problems 48 References. 52 Chapter 3. System Response to Small Disturbances 3.1 Introduction 53 3.2 Types of Problems Studied 54 3.3 The Unregulated Synchronous Machine 55. 3.4 Modes of Oscillation of an Unregulated Multimachine System 59 3.5 Regulated Synchronous Machine 66 3.6 Distribution of Power Impacts 6 Problems 80 References 80Part Contents The Electromagnetic Torque Chapter 4 The Synchronous Machine 44 42 43 44 4s 46 47 48 49 410 aul 412 413 414 4s 416 Introduction Park's Transformation Flux Linkage Equations Voltage Equations Formulation of State-Space Equations Current Formulation Per Unit Conversion ‘Normalizing the Voltage Equations Normalizing the Torque Equations Torque and Power Equivalent Cireuit of a Synchronous Machine The Flux Linkage State-Space Model Load Equations Subtransient and Transient Inductances and Time Constants Simplified Models of the Synchronous Machine Turbine Generator Dynamic Models Problems : : References Chapter 5. The Simulation of Synchronous Machines 51 5.2 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 510 Introduction Steady-State Equations and Phasor Diagrams Machine Connected to an Infinite Bus through a Transmission Line Machine Connected to an Infinite Bus with Local Load at Machine Terminal Determining Steady-State Conditions Examples : Initial Conditions for a Multimachine System Determination of Machine Parameters from Manufacturers’ Data Analog Computer Simulation of the Synchronous Machine Digital Simulation of Synchronous Machines Problems References Chapter 6. Linear Models of the Synchronous Machine 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 Introduction Linearization of the Generator State-Space Current Model Linearization of the Load Equation for the One-Machine Problem Linearization of the Flux Linkage Model Simplified Linear Model Block Diagrams State-Space Representation of Simplified Model Problems References Chapter 7 Excitation Systems a 72 Simplified View of Excitation Control Control Configurations 83 83 85 38 ot on 92 99 103 405 107 109 4 122 127 143 146 148 150 150 153 154 157 159 165 166 170 184 206 206 208 209 213 217 222 231 231 232 232 233, 235Contents 7.3 Typical Excitation Configurations 7.4 Excitation Control System Definitions 75 Voltage Regulator 76 Exciter Buildup 77 Excitation System Response 7.8 State-Space Description of the Excitation System 79 Computer Representation of Excitation Systems 7.10 Typical System Constants 7AL The Effect of Excitation on Generator Performance Problems References Chapter 8 Effect of Excitation on Stability 81 Introduction 82 Effect of Excitation on Generator Power Limits 83. Eflect of the Excitation System on Transient Stability ., 84 _ Effect of Excitation on Dynamic Stability 8.5 Root-Locus Analysis of a Regulated Machine Connected to an Infinite Bus 86 Approximate System Representation 8.7 Supplementary Stabilizing Signals 8.8 Linear Analysis of the Stabilized Generator 8.9 Analog Computer Studies 8.10 Digital Computer Transient Stability Studies 811 Some General Comments on the Effect of Excitation on Stability Problems References Chapter 9. Multimachine Systems with Constant Impedance Loads 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Statement of the Problem 9.3 Matrix Representation of a Passive Network 94 Converting Machine Coordinates to System Reference 95 Relation Between Machine Currents and Voltages. 9.6 System Order 9.7 Machines Represented by Classical Methods 9.8 Linearized Model for the Network 9.9 Hybrid Formulation 910 Network Equations with Flux Linkage Model 911 Total System Equations 9.12 Multimachine System Study Problems References Appendix A. Trigonometric Identities for Three-Phase Systems Appendix B_ Some Computer Methods for Solving Differential Equations Appendix C. Normalization. Appendix D— Typicat System Data Appendix E. Excitation Control System Definitions Index 236 243 250 254 268 285 292 299 304 304 307 309 311 315 321 327 333 338 344 347 353 363 365 366 368 368 369 373 374 377 378 381 386 388 390 392 396 397 398, 400 414 424 451 459copter | A Power System Stability a 1.1 tatreduction Since the industtial revolution man’s demand for and consumption of energy has increased steadily The invention of the induction motor by Nikola Tesla in 1888 si naled the growing importance of electrical energy in the industrial world as well as its use for artificial lighting. A major portion of the energy needs of a modern society is supplied in the form of electrical energy Industrially developed societies need an ever- and the demand on the North American continent has been doubling every ten yeass Very complex power systems have been built to satisfy this increasing demand The trend in electric power production is toward an interconnected network of transmission lines linking generators and loads into large integrated systems, some of which span en- tire continents Indeed, in the United States and Canada, generators located thousands of miles apart operate in parallel This vast enterprise of supplying electrical energy presents many engineering prob- lems that provide the engineer with a variety of challenges The planning, construction, and operation of such systems become exceedingly complex. Some of the problems stimulate the enginect's managerial talents; others tax his knowledge and experience in system design. The entire design must be predicated on automatic control and not on the slow response of human operators To be able to predict the performance of such complex systems, the engineer is forced to seek ever mote powerful tools of analysis and synthesis This book is concerned with some aspects of the design problem, particularly the dynamic performance, of interconnected power systems, Characteristics of the various components of a power system during normal operating conditions and during dis- turbances will be examined, and effects on the overall system performance will be analyzed, Emphasis will be given to the transient behavior in which the system is de- scribed mathematically by ordinary differential equations 1.2. Requirements of a Reliable Electrical Power Service Successful operation of a power system depends largely on the engineer's ability to provide reliable and uninterrupted service to the loads The reliability of the power supply implies much more than merely being available. Ideally, the loads must be fed at constant voltage and frequency at all times. In practical terms this means that both voltage and frequency must be held within close tolerances so that the consumer's 34 Chapter 1 equipment may operate satistactorily. For example, a drop in voltage of 10-15% or a reduction of the system frequency of only a few hertz may lead to stalling of the motor loads on the system. Thus it can be accurately stated that the power system operator must maintain a very high standard of continuous electrical service The first requirement of reliable service is to keep the synchronous generators running in parallel and with adequate capacity to meet the load demand. If at any time generator loses synchronism with the rest of the system, significant voltage and current fluctuations may occur and transmission lines may be automatically tripped by theit relays at undesired locations. Ifa generator is separated from the system, it must be re- synchronized and then loaded, assuming it has not been damaged and its prime mover has not been shut down due to the disturbance that caused the loss of synchronism. Synchronous machines do not easily fall out of step under normal conditions If a machine tends to speed up or slow down, synchronizing forees tend to keep it in step Conditions do arise, however, in which operation is such that the synchronizing forces for one or more machines may not be adequate, and small impacts in the system may cause these machines to lose synchronism A major shock to the system may also lead to a loss of synchronism for one or more machines, A second requitement of reliable electrical service is to maintain the integrity of the power network. The high-voltage transmission system connects the generating stations and the Joad centers Interruptions in this network may hinder the flow of power to the load. This usually requires a study of large geographical areas since almost all power systems are interconnected with neighboring systems Economic power as well as emergency power may flow over interconnecting tie lines to help maintain continuity of service Therefore, successful operation of the system means that these lines must re~ main in setvice if firm power is to be exchanged between the areas of the system While it is frequently convenient to talk about the power sysiem in the “steady state,” such a state never exists in the true sense. Random changes in load are taking place at all times, with subsequent adjustments of generation. Furthermore, major changes do take place at times, e.g., a fault on the network, failure in a piece of equip- ment, sudden application of a major load such as a stee! mill, or loss of a line or gen- erating unit, We may look at any of these as a change from one equilibrium state to another It might be tempting to say that successful operation requires only that the new state be a “stable” state (whatever that means) For example, if a generator is lost, the remaining connected generators must be capable of meeting the load demand; or if a line is lost, the power it was carrying must be obtainable from another source, Unfortunately, this view is erroneous in one important aspect: it neglects the dynamics of the transition from one equilibrium state to another. Synchronism frequently may be lost in that transition period, or growing oscillations may occur over a transmission line, eventually leading to its tripping These problems must be studied by the power sys- tem engineer and fall under the heading “power system stability.” 1.3. Statement of the joblem The stability problem is concerned with the behavior of the synchronous machines after they have been perturbed. If the perturbation does not involve any net change in power, the machines should return to their original state. If an unbalance between the supply and demand is created by a change in load, in generation, or in network condi- tions, a new operating state js necessary. In any case aif interconnected synchronous machines should remain in synchronism if the system is stable; ie , they should all re- main operating in parallel and at the same speedPower System Stability 5 The transient following a system perturbation js oscillatory in nature; but if the sys- tem is stable, these oscillations will be damped toward a new quiescent operating con- dition These oscillations, however, are reflected as fluctuations in the power flow over the transmission lines If a certain line connecting two groups of machines undergoes excessive power fluctuations, it may be tripped out by its protective equipment thereby disconnecting the two groups of machines. This problem is termed the stability of the lie line, even though in reality it reflects the stability of the two groups of machines A statement declaring a power system to be “stable” is rather ambiguous unless the conditions under which this stability has been examined are clearly stated. This in- cludes the operating conditions as well as the type of perturbation given to the system, The same thing can be said about tie-line stability, Since we are concerned here with the tripping of the line, the power fluctuation that can be tolerated depends on the initial operating condition of the system, including the line loading and the nature of the impacts to which it is subjected. These questions have become vitally important with the advent of large-scale interconnections. In fact, a severe (but improbable) distur- bance can always be found that will cause instability. Therefore, the disturbances for which the system should be designed to maintain stability must be deliberately selected 1.3.1 Primitive definition of stability Having introduced the term “stability,” we now propose a simple nonmathematical definition of the term that will be satisfactory for elementary problems Later, we will provide a more rigorous mathematical definition The problem of interest is one where a power system operating under a steady load condition is perturbed, causing the readjustment of the voltage angles of the syn- chronous machines Jf such an occurrence creates an unbalance between the system generation and load, it results in the establishment of a new steady-state operating con- dition, with the subsequent adjustment of the voltage angles. The perturbation could be a majos disturbance such as the loss of a generator, a fault or the loss of a Tine, or a combination of such events. It could also be a small load or random load changes occurring under normal operating conditions. Adjustment to the new operating condition is called the transient period The sys- tem behavior during this time is called the dynamic system performance, which is of concern in defining system stability The main criterion for stability is that the syn- chronous machines maintain synchronism at the end of the transient period Definition If the oscillatory response of a power system during the transient period following a disturbance is damped and the system setiles in a finite time to a new steady operating condition, we say the system is stable If the system is not stable, it is considered unstable This primitive definition of stability requires that the system oscillations be damped This condition is sometimes called asymptotic stability and means that the system con- tains inherent forces that tend to reduce oscillations. This is a desirable feature in many systems and is considered necessary for power systems The definition also excludes continuous oscillation fiom the family of stable sys- tems, although oscillators are stable in a mathematical sense. The reason is practical since a continually oscillating system would be undesirable for both the supplier and the user of electric power Hence the definition describes a practical specification for an ac- ceptable operating condition‘ Chapter 1 1.3.2. Other stal ty problems While the stability of synchronous machines and tie lines is the most important and common problem, other stability problems may exist, particularly in power systems having appreciable capacitances In such cases arrangements must be made to avoid excessive voltages during light load conditions, to avoid damage to equipment, and to prevent self-excitation of machines Some of these problems are discussed in Volume 2, while others are beyond the scope of this book 13.3. Stability of synchronous machines Distinction should be made between sudden and major changes, which we shall call large impacts, and smaller and more normal random impacts A fault on the high- voltage transmission network or the loss of a major generating unit are examples of large impacts. If one of these large impacts occurs, the synchronous machines may lose synchronism This problem is referred to in the literature as the transient stability problem Without detailed discussion, some general comments are in order. First, these impacts have a finite probability of occurring Those that the system should be de- signed to withstand must therefore be selected a priori’ Second, the ability of the sys- tem to survive a certain disturbance depends on its precise operating condition at the time of the occurrence A change in the system loading, generation schedule, network interconnections, or type of circuit protection may give completely different results in a stability study for the same disturbance Thus the transient stability study is a very specific one, from which the engineer concludes that under given system conditions and for a given impact the synchronous machines will or will not remain in synchronism Stability depends strongly upon the magnitude and location of the disturbance and to a lesser extent upon the initial state or operating condition of the system Let us now consider a situation where there are no major shocks or impacts, but rather a random occurrence of small changes in system loading Here we would expect the system operator to have scheduled enough machine capacity to handle the load. We would also expect each synchronous machine to be operating on the stable portion of its power-angle curve, ie, the portion in which the power inereases with incteased angle In the dynamics of the transition from one operating point to another, to adjust for load changes, the stability of the machines will be determined by many factors, including the power-angle curve It is sometimes incorrect to consider a single power-angle curve, since modern exciters will change the operating curve during the petiod under study The problem of studying the stability of synchronous machines under the condition of small load changes has been called “steady-state” stability A more recent and certainly more appropriate name is dynamic stability In contrast to transient stability, dynamic stability tends to be a property of the state of the system Transient stability and dynamic stability are both questions that must be answered to the satisfaction of the engineer tor successful planning and operation of the system This attitude is adopted in spite of the fact that an artificial separation between the two problems has been made in the past. This was simply a convenience to accommo- date the different approximations and assumptions made in the mathematical treat- 1 Inthe United States the regional committees of the National Electric Reliability Council (NERC) specify the contingencies against which the system must be proven stablePower System Stability 7 ments of the two problems n support of this viewpoint the following points are pertinent First, the availability of high-speed digital computers and modern modeling tech- niques makes it possible to represent any component of the power system in almost any degree of complexity required or desired Thus questionable simplifications or assump- tions are no longer needed and are often not justified Second, and perhaps more important, in a large interconnected system the full eflect of a disturbance is felt at the remote parts some time after its occurrence, perhaps a few seconds Thus different parts of the interconnected system will respond to lo- calized disturbances at different times Whether they will act to aid stability is difficult to predict beforehand The problem is aggravated if the initial disturbance causes other disturbances in neighboring areas due to power swings As these conditions spread, a chain reaction may result and large-scale interruptions of service may occur However, in a farge interconnected system, the effect of an impact must be studied over a telatively long period, usually several seconds and in some cases a few minutes. Per- formance of dynamic stability studies for such long periods will require the simulation of system components often neglected in the so-called transient stability studies. 134° Tie-tine oscillations ‘As random power impacts occur during the normal operation of a system, this added power must be supplied by the generators, The portion supplied by the different generators under different conditions depends upon electrical proximity to the posi of impact, energy stored in the rotating masses, governor characteristics, and other factors The machines therefore are never truly at steady state except when at standstill Each machine is in continuous oscillation with respect to the others due to the effect of these random stimuli, These oscillations are reflected in the flow of power in the trans- mission lines, If the power in 4”) line is monitored, periodic oscillations are observed to be superimposed on the steady flow Normally, these oscillations are not large and hence not objectionable. The situation in a tie line is different in one sense since it connects one group of machines to another. These two groups are in continuous oscillation with respect to each other, and this is reflected in the power fiow over the tie line. The situation may be further complicated by the fact that each machine group in turn is connected to other groups Thus the tie line under study may in effect be connecting two huge systems In this case the smallest oscillatory adjustments in the large systems are reflected as sizable power oscillations in the tie line The question then becomes, To what degree can these oscillations be tolerated? The above problem is entirely different from that of maintaining a scheduled power interchange over the tie line; control equipment can be provided to perform this function These controllers are usually too slow to interfere with the dynamic oseilla- tions mentioned above To alter these oscillations, the dynamic response of the com- ponents of the overall interconnected system must be considered. The problem is not only in the tie line itself but also in the two systems it connects and in the sensitivity of control in these systems The electrical strength (admittance) or capacity of the tie cannot be divorced from this problem. For example, a 40-MW oscillation on a 400-MW tie is a much less scrious problem than the same oscillation on a 100-MW tie. The oscillation frequency has an effect on the damping characteristics of prime movers,8 Chapter | exciters, ete Therefore, there is a minimum size of tie that can be effectively made from the viewpoint of stability 1.4 Effect of an Impact upon System Components In this section a survey of the effect of impacts is made to estimate the elements that should be considered in a stability study. A convenient starting point is to relate an im- pact to a change in power somewhere in the network. Our “test” stimulus will be a change in power, and we will use the point of impact as our reference point The follow- ing effects, in whole or in part, may be felt The system frequency will change be- cause, until the input power is adjusted by the machine governors, the power change will go to or come from the energy in the rotating masses The change in frequency will affect the loads, especially the motor loads. A common tule of thumb used among power system engineers is that a decrease in frequency results in a load decrease of equal percentage; ie, load regulation is 100% The network bus voltages will be affected to a lesser degree unless the change in power is accompanied by a change in reactive power Tine, Times Fig 11 Response of # four-machine system during a transient: (a) stable system (b) unstable systemPower System Stability 9 1.4.1. Loss of synchronism Any unbalance between the generation and load initiates a transient that causes the rotors of the synchronous machines to “swing” because net accelerating (or decelerat- ing) torques are exerted on these rotors If these net torques are sufficiently large to cause some of the rotors to swing far enough so that one or more machines “slip a pole,” synchronism is lost. To assure stability, a new equilibrium state must be reached before any of the machines experience this condition. Loss of synchronism can also happen in stages, ¢ g., if the initial transient causes an electrical link in the transmission network to be interrupted during the swing This creates another transient, which when superimposed on the first may cause synchronism to be lost, . Let us now consider a severe impact initiated by a sizable generation unbalance, say excess generation, The major portion of the excess energy will be converted into kinetic energy. Thus most of the machine rotor angular velocities will increase. A lesser part will be consumed in the loads and through various losses in the system However, an appreciable increase in machine speeds may not necessarily mean that synchronism will be lost The important factor here is the angle difference between machines, where the rotor angle is measured with respect to a synchronously rotating reference. This is illustrated in Figure 1 1 in which the rotor angles of the machines in a hypothetical four-machine system are plotted against time during a transient In case (a) all the rotor angles increase beyond w radians but all the angle differences are small, and the system will be stable if it eventually settles to a new angle, In case (b) itis evident that the machines are separated into two groups where the rotor angles continue to drift apart This system is unstable 1.4.2. Synchronous machine during a transient During a transient the system seen by a synchronous machine causes the machine terminal voltage, rotor angle, and frequency to change. The impedance seen “looking into” the network at the machine terminal also may change The field-winding voltage will be affected by: 1, Induced eutrents in the damper windings (or rotor iron) due to sudden changes in armature currents The time constants for these currents are usually on the order of less than 0.1 s and are often referred to as “subtransient” effects 2. Induced currents in the field winding due to sudden changes in armature currents The time constants for this transient are on the order of seconds and are referred to as “transient” effects 3. Change in rotor voltage due to change in exciter voltage if activated by changes at the machine terminal. Both subtransient and transient effects are observed Since the subtransient eflects decay very rapidly, they are usually neglected and only the transient effects are considered important Note also that the behavior discussed above depends upon the network well as the machine parameters The machine output power will be affected by the change in the rotor-winding EMF and the rotor position in addition to any changes in the impedance “seen” by the ma- chine terminals. However, until the speed changes to the point where it is sensed and corrected by the governor, the change in the output power will come from the stored energy in the rotating masses. The important parameters here are the kinetic energy in MW-s per unit MVA (usually called 7) or the machine mechanical time constant 7), which is twice the stored kinetic energy per MVA. pedance as10 Chapter 1 When the impact is large, the speeds of all machines change so that they are sensed by their speed governors. Machines under load frequency control will correct for the power change. Until this correction is made, each machine’s share will depend on its regulation or droop characteristic Thus the controlled machines are the ones re~ sponsible for maintaining the system frequency The dynamics of the transition period, however, are important The key parameters are the governor dynamic characteristics, In addition, the flow of the tie lines may be altered slightly. Thus some machines are assigned the requirement of maintaining scheduled flow in the ties. Supplementary controls are provided to these machines, the basic functions of which are to permit each control area to supply a given load. The responses of these controls are relatively slow and their time constants are on the order of seconds This is appropriate since the scheduled economic loading of machines is secondary in importance to stability 1.8. Methods of Simulation If we look at a large power system with its numerous machines, lines, and loads and consider the complexity of the consequences of any impact, we may tend to think it is hopeless to attempt analysis. Fortunately, however, the time constants of the phenom- ena may be appreciably different, allowing concentration on the key elements affecting the transient and the area under study The first step in a stability study is to make a mathematical model of the system during the transient. The elements included in the model are those affecting the ac- celeration (or deceleration) of the machine rotors The complexity of the model de- pends upon the type of transient and system being investigated Generally, the com- ponents of the power system that influence the electrical and mechanical torques of the machines should be included in the model These components are: The network before, during, and after the transient The loads and their characteristics The parameters of the synchronous machines The excitation systems of the synchronous machines The mechanical turbine and speed governor Other important components of the power plant that influence the mechanical torque 7. Other supplementary controls, such as tie-line controls, deemed necessary in the mathematical description of the system Thus the basic ingredients for solution are the knowledge of the initial conditions of the power system prior to the start of the transient and the mathematical description of the main components of the system that affect the transient behavior of the synchronous machines The number of power system components included in the study and the com- plexity of their mathematical description will depend upon many factors. In general, however, differential equations are used to describe the various components Study of the dynamic behavior of the system depends upon the nature of these differential equations 1.5.1 Linearized system equal ns. If the system equations are linear (or have been linearized), the techniques of linear system analysis are used to study dynamic behavior The most common method is toPower System Stability u simulate each component by its transfer function The various transfer function blocks are connected to represent the system under study. The system performance may then be analyzed by such methods as root-locus plots, frequency domain analysis (Nyquist criteria), and Routh’s criterion. The above methods have been frequently used in studies pertaining to small systems ora small number of machines Fat larger systems the state-space model has been used more frequently in connection with system studies described by linear differential equa- tions Stability characteristics may be determined by examining the eigenvalues of the A matrix, where A is defined by the equation k= Ax +Bu ap where x is an n vector denoting the states of the system and A is a coefficient matrix The system inputs are represented by ther vector u, and these inputs are related mathe- matically to differential equations by ann x 7 matrix B_ This description has the ad- vantage that A may be time varying and u may be used to represent several inputs if necessary 1.5.2 Large system with nenlinear equations The system equations for 4 transient stability study are usually nonlinear Here the system is described by a large set of coupled nonlinear differential equations of the form % = fxn (2) where fis an nm vector of nonlinear functions Determining the dynamic behavior of the system described by (1 2) is a more diffi- cult task than that of the linearized system of (I 1), Usually cime solutions of the non- linear differential equations are obtained by numerical methods with the aid of digital computers, and this is the method usually used in power system stability studies Stability of synchronous machines is usually decided by behavior of their rotor angles, as discussed in Section 141 More recently, modern theories of stability of nonlinear systems have been applied to the study of power system transients to determine the stability of synchronous machines without obtaining time solutions Such efforts, while they seem to offer considerable promise, are still in the research stage and not in common use Both linear and nonlinear equations will be developed in following chapters Problems 1.1 Suggest definitions for the following terms: a Power system reliability b_ Power system security © Power system stability 12 Distinguish between steady-state (dynamic) and transient stability according to a The type of disturbance 2. The nature of the defining equations 13. What is tie line? Is every line a tie line? 14 What is an impact insofar as power system stability is concerned? 15. Consider the system shown in Figure PIS where a mass Mf is pulled by a driving force (1) and is restrained by a linear spring K and an ideal dashpot B12 Chapter 1 Write the differential equation for the system in terms of the displacement variable x and determine the relative values of B and K to provide critical damping when f(z) is a unit step function ea mw Era Fig PLS 16 Repeat Problem 1 5 but convert the equations to the state-space form of (I 1)chapter 2 The Elementary Mathematical Model A stable power system is one in which the synchronous machines, when perturbed, will either return to their original state if there is no net change of power or will acquire a new state asymptotically without losing synchronism Usually the perturbation causes a transient that is oscillatory in nature; but if the system is stable, the oscillations will be damped The question then arises, What quantity or signal, preferably electrical, would enable us to test for stability? One convenient quantity is the machine rotor angle measured with respect to a synchronously rotating reference If the difference in angle between any two machines increases indefinitely or if the oscillatory transient is not sufficiently damped, the system is unstable The principal subject of this chapter is the study of stability based largely on machine-angle behavior 2.1. Swing Equation The swing equation governs the motion of the machine rotor relating the inertia torque to the resultant of the mechanical and electrical torques on the rotor; ie! Jé= 7, Nem QD where J is the moment of inertia in kg-m? of all rotating masses attached to the shaft, Gis the mechanical angle of the shaft in radians with respect to a fixed reference, and T, is the accelerating torque in newton meters (N-m) acting on the shaft (See Kim- bark [1] for an excellent discussion of units and a dimensional analysis of this equa- tion.) Since the machine is a generator, the driving torque Ij, is mechanical and the retarding or load torque 7, is electrical. Thus we write Ty= Te TE Nem (2.2) which establishes a useful sign convention, namely, that in which a positive Ty ac- celerates the shaft, whereas a positive 7, is a decelerating torque The angular refer- ence may be chosen relative to a synchronously rotating reference frame moving with The dot notation is used to signily derivatives with respect to time Thus 814 Chapter 2 constant angular velocity «,,? 4 = (wat + @) + 6, Tad (2.3) where a is a constant, The angle a is needed if 5, is measured from an axis different from the angular reference frame; for example, in Chapter 4 a particular choice of the reference for the rotor angle 4,, gives a = r/2and 8 = wal + #/2 + bn. From (23) we see that # may be replaced by é,, in (2.1), with the result Bea = Jin = T, Nom 24) where J is the moment of inertia in kg-m?, 5, is the mechanical (subscript m) torque angle in rad with respect to a synchronously rotating reference frame, wy is the shaft angular velocity in rad/s, and [, is the accelerating torque in N-m Another form of (2.4) that is sometimes useful is obtained by multiplying both sides by wp, the shaft angular velocity in rad/s. Recalling that the product of torque T and angular velocity w is the shaft power P in watts, we have Tiindm = Pa — Ps W (25) The quantity Jaq is called the inertia constant and is denoted by M. (See Kimbark (1] pp. 22-27 and Stevenson [2], pp. 336-40 for excellent discussions of the inertia constant) It is related to the kinetic energy of the rotating masses W,, where W, = (1/2) Jo} joules Then M is computed as M = Sein = 2Wy om VS 26 It may seem rather strange to call M a constant since it depends upon w, which certainly varies during a transient On the other hand the angular frequency does not change by a large percentage before stability is lost To illustrate: for 60 Hz, w, = 377 rad/s, and a 1% change in w, is equal to 377 rad/s A constant slip of 1% of the value of w, for one second will change the angle of the rotor by 3.77 rad Certainly, this would lead to loss of synchronism The equation of motion of the rotor is called the swing equation. It is given in the literature in the form of (2 4) or in terms of power, Mi, = Midy = Py - Pe W (27) where M is in J-s, 5, is in rad, w,, is in tad/s, and P is in W. In relating the machine inertial performance to the network, it would be more useful to write (2 7) in terms of an electrical angle that can be conveniently related to the position of the rotor Such an angle is the rorque angle 6, which is the angle between the field MMF and the resultant MMF in the air gap, both rotating at syn- chronous speed It is also the electrical angle between the generated EMF and the resultant stator voltage phasors The torque angle 6, which is the same as the electrical angle 4,, is related to the rotor mechanical angle 6,, (measured from a synchronously rotating frame) by 6 = 8, = (p/2)bm (2.8) where p is the number of poles. (In Europe the practice is to write 3, = péy, where p is the number of pole pairs ) 2 “The subscript R is used to mean rated” for ali quantities including speed. which is designated as 61 in ANSI standards ANSI Y 105. 1968 Hence wR =) in every caseThe Elementary Mathematical Model 15 For simplicity we drop the subscript ¢ and write simply 4, which is always under- stood to be the electrical angle defined by (2 8) From (2 7) and (2 8) we write QM/p)é = QM/p)o = P, W (2.9) which relates the accelerating power to the electrical angle @ and to the angular velocity of the revolving magnetic field In most problems of interest there will be a large number of equations like (2.9), one for cach generator shaft (and motor shaft too if the motor is large enough to warrant detailed representation) In such large systems problems we find it convenient to normalize the power equations by dividing all equations by a common three-phase voltampere base quantity Sy; _ Then (2 9) becomes a per unit (pu) equation (2M /pSx)8 = 2M /pSes)o = Pa[Ses = Poy a 2.10) where M, p, 6, and w are in the same units as before; but P is now in pu (noted by the subscript u) 2.2. Units Ithas been the practice in the United States to provide inertial data for rotating machines in English units The machine nameplate usually gives the rated shaft speed in revolutions per minute (r/min). The form of the swing equation we use must be in MKS units (or pu) but the coefficients, particularly the moments of inertia, will usually be derived from a mixture of MKS and English quantities We begin with the swing equation in N-m QU /p)b = QI/p)e = T, Nem QM) Now normalize this equation by dividing by @ base quantity equal to the rated torque at rated speed Ty 3 far = 60S ar /20my (2.12) where Spy is the three-phase VA tating and ng is the tated shaft speed in r/min Dividing (2 11) by (212) and substituting 120 fx /ng for p, we compute (J ?n} /900., 55) = T/Ty = Tay PU (2.13) where we have substituted the base system radian frequency we = 2x fe for the base frequency Note that o in (2 13) is in rad/s and Ty, is in pu The U.S. practice has been to supply /, the moment of inertia, as a quantity usually called WR?, given in units of lbm-ft?, “The consistent English unit for J is slug-ft? or WR?/g where g is the acceleration of gravity (32,17398 ft/s?) We compute the cor- responding MKS quantity as 7 WR? slug-ft? | 1 felbfis? | 746 Ws § 1 slug-ft? | 550 ft Ibe Substituting into (2 13), we write TA6(WR*) 0? 550 gO00)un Ses The coefficient of & can be clarified if we recall the definition of the kinetic energy of a (2.14)16 Chapter 2 rotating body W/,, which we can write as 2 Ly, SUR?) Gam? 330 g 3600 2311525 x 10*(WR7)nk FT Then (2 14) may be written as (QW. /Spswp)e = Tor pu (2.15) ‘We now define the important quantity HE Wy/Ses § (2.16) where S33 = rated three-phase MVA of the system We = (2 311525 x 10°")PR?)a MI Then we write the swing equation in the form most useful in practice: QH/op)o = T,, pu Q17) where # is in s, a is in rad/s, and Z,is in pu. Note that w is the angular velocity of the revolving magnetic field and is thus related directly to the network voltages and currents For this reason it is common to give the units of w as electrical rad/s Note also that the final form of the swing equation has been adapted for machines with any number of poles, since all machines on the same system synchronize to the same wp ‘Another form of the swing equation, sometimes quoted in the literature, involves some approximation It is particularly used with the classical modet of the synchronous machine Recognizing that the angular speed w is nearly constant, the pu accelerating power P, is numerically nearly equal to the accelerating torque T, A modified (and approximate) form of the swing equation becomes (2H/wp)e & P, pu 218) The quantity H is often given for a particular machine normalized to the base VA rating for that machine. This is convenient since these machine-normalized H quantities are usually predictable in size and can be estimated for machines that do not physically exist Curves for estimating H are given in Figures 21 and 22 The quantities taken from these curves must be modified for use in system studies by converting from the machine base VA to the system base VA. Thus we compute Hse = Hesci(Snsmach / S035) $ (2.19) The value Of Hy, is usually in the range of 1-5 Values for Hy vary over a much wider range With Sys, = 100 MVA values of Hy, from a few tenths of a second (for small generators) to 25-30 s (for large generators) will often be used in the same study. Typical values of 7 (in MJ) are given in Appendix D. 2.3. Mechanical Torque The mechanical torques of the prime movers for large generators, both steam and waterwheel turbines, are functions of speed. (See Venikov [6], Sec 1 3, and Crary [7], Vol II, Sec 27) However we should carefully distinguish between the case of the un- regulated machine (not under active governor control) and the regulated (governed) caseThe Elementary Mathematical Model 7 MWe AVA reer o 100 20 30, “a0 co Generator Rating, VA ‘) 45) 4.) < 23 > 1800 r/min eucleor 339 —_— 2 1505 8001005 1200 T46OV800. 1809" 7200 200 Generator Rating, VA 6 Fig 2.1 Inertia constants for large steam turbogenerators: (a) turbogenerators rated 500 MVA and below [B, p. 120}, (b) expected future large turbogenerators (@ IEEE Reprinted from JEEE Trans val PAS-90, Nov /Dec 1971) 2.3.1 Unregulated machines For a fixed gate or valve position (ie, when the machine is not under active gov- ernor control) the torque speed characteristic is nearly linear over a limited range at rated speed, as shown in Figure 2 3(a) No distinction seems to be made in the literature between steady-state and transient characteristics in this respect Figure 2.3(a) shows that the prime-mover speed of a machine operating at a fixed gate or valve position will drop in response to an increase in load. The value of the turbine torque coefficient suggested by Crary [7] is equal to the loading of the machine in pu This can be veri- fied as follows, From the fundamental relationship between the mechanical torque A= 450 514 ¢/min B= 200 400 ¢/min C= 198 100 r/min D= 8 120e/min ‘Generator Rating, MVA, Fig 22 Inertia constants of large vertical-type waterwheel generators, including allowance of 15% for waterwheels (IEEE Reprinted from Elecir Eng vol. 56. Feb. 1937)18 Chapter 2 ° Re Speed mas e Fig 23. Turbine torque speed characteristic: (a) unregulated machine, (b) regulated machine Tq and power Pa, Ty = Pao Nem (220) ‘we compute, using the definition of the differential, ay = FF a, + do Nem (2.21) Near rated load (2.21) becomes Ty = (1/oR)dPq — (Pup (ok )dio Nom (2.22) If'we assume constant mechanical power input, dP, = 0 and Tq = — (Pax fark }deo Nom (2.23) This equation is normalized by dividing through by Tx = Pax /wx with the result Iq = ~deo pu (224) where all values are in pu, This relationship is shown in Figure 2 3(a) 2.3.2 Regulated machines In regulated machines the speed control mechanism is responsible for controlling the throttle valves to the steam turbine or the gate position in hydroturbines, and theThe Elementary Mathematical Mode! 9 mechanical torque is adjusted accordingly This occurs under normal operating condi- tions and during disturbances To bestable under normal conditions, the torque speed characteristic of the turbine speed control system should have a “droop characteristic”; ie, a drop in turbine speed should accompany an increase in load. Such a characteristic is shown in Fig- ure 2 3(b)_ A typical “droop” or “speed regulation” characteristic is 5% in the United States (4% in Europe). This means that a load pickup from no load (power) to full load (power) would correspond to a speed drop of 5% if the speed load characteristic is assumed to be linear The droop (regulation) equation is derived as follows: from Figure 2.3(b), Im = Tyo + Ta, and Tma = ~W,/R, where R is the regulation in rad/ Noms Thus Tm = Tro — (0 ~ @x)/R Nom (2.25) Multiplying (2 25) by og, we can write Pu % Tix = Pao — (ax /R)@s (2.26) Let Py = pu mechanical power on machine VA Pru £ Py /Sq = Pro /Se ~ (@r/SeR)Os or Pg = Prox ~ hes /SeR pu 227) Since P,y = Pa ~ Pros Praw = ~ RO /SpR = —0y,/R, pu (2.28) where the pu regulation R, is derived from (2 28) or Ry 2 SpR/uk pu 2.29) As previously mentioned, R, is usually set at 005 in the United States We also note that the “effective” regulation in a power system could be appreciably different from the value 0.05 if some of the machines are not under active governor control. If Sp is the sum of the ratings of the machines under governor control, and DSip is the sum of the ratings of all machines, then the effective pu regulation is given by Rue = RLS /ESs0) (2.30) Similarly, if @ system base other than that of the machine is used in a stability study, the change in mechanical power in pu on the system base Pmas is given by Paaw = ~(Ss@av/ Sey) pu (2.31) A block diagram representing (2.28) and (2.31) is shown in Figure 2.4 where K = Ss/Sin The droop characteristic shown in Figure 2.3(b) is obtained in the speed control system with the help of feedback. It will be shown in Volume 2 that without feed- back the speed control mechanism is unstable, Finally we should point out that the steady-state regulation characteristic determines the ultimate contribution of each machine to a change in load in the power system and fixes the resulting system fre- quency error20 Chapter 2 1 “oy ale he SS Fig 24 Block diagram representation of the droop equation During transients the discrepancy between the mechanical and electrical torques for the various machines results in speed changes The speed control mechanism for each machine under active governor controt will attempt to adjust its output accord- ing to its regulation characteristic Two points can be made here: 1 For a particular machine the regulation characteristic for a small (and sudden) change in speed may be considerably different in magnitude from its overall average regulation 2. In attempting to adjust the mechanical torque to correspond to the speed change, time lags are introduced by the various delays in the feedback elements of the speed control system and in the steam paths; therefore, the dynamic response of the turbine could be appreciably different from that indicated by the steady-state regulation characteristic This subject will be dealt with in greater detail in Volume 2 2.4 Electrical Torque In general, the electrica] torque is produced by the interaction between the three stator cireuits, the field circuit, and other cireuits such as the damper windings. Since the three stator circuits are connected to the rest of the system, the terminal voltage is determined in part by the external network, the other machines, and the loads. The flux linking each circuit in the machine depends upon the exciter output voltage, the loading of the magnetic circuit (saturation), and the current in the different windings Whether the machine is operating at synchronous speed or asynchronously affects all the above factors. Thus a comprehensive discussion of the electrical torque depends upon the synchronous machine representation If all the circuits of the machine are taken into account, discussion of the electrical torque can become rather involved Such a detailed discussion will be deferred to Chapter 4. For the present we simply note that the electrical torque depends upon the flux linking the stator windings and the cuzrents in these windings. If the instantaneous values of these flux linkages and currents are known, the correct instantaneous value of the electrical torque may be determined. As the rotor moves, the flux linking each stator winding changes since the inductances between that winding and the rotor circuits are functions of the rotor position These flux linkage relations are often simplified by using Park’s transforma- tion A modified form of Park’s transformation will be used here (see Chapter 4) Under this transformation both currents and flux linkages (and hence voltages) are transformed into two fictitious windings located on axes that are 90° apart and fixed with respect to the rotor One axis coincides with the center of the magnetic poles of the rotor and is called the direct axis The other axis lies along the magnetic neutral axis and is called the quadrature axis Expressions for the electrical quantities such as power and torque are developed in terms of the direct and quadrature axis voltages (or flux linkages) and currentsThe Elementary Mathematical Model 21 A simpler mathematical model, which may be used for stability studies, divides the electrical torque into two main components, the synchronous torque and a second com- ponent that includes all other electrical torques We explore this concept briefly as an aid to understanding the generator behavior during transients 2.4.1 Synchronous torque The synchronous torque is the most important component of the electrical torque. It is produced by the interaction of the stator windings with the fundamental com- ponent of the air gap flux. It is dependent upon the machine terminal voltage, the rotor angle, the machine reactances, and the so-called quadrature axis EMF, which may be thought of as an effective rotor EMF that is dependent on the armature and rotor eur rents and is a function of the exciter response Also, the network configuration affects the value of the terminal voltage 242 Other electrical torques During a twansient, other extraneous electrical torques are developed in a syn- chronous machine The most important component is associated with the damper windings. While these asynchronous torques are usually small in magnitude, their effect on stability may not be negligible The most important effects are the following 1 Positive-sequence damping results from the interaction between the positive-sequence air gap flux and the rotor windings, particularly the damper windings. In general, this effect is beneficial since it tends to reduce the magnitude of the machine oscilla- tions, especially after the first swing It is usually assumed to be proportional to the slip frequency, which is nearly the case for small slips Negattve-sequence braking results from the interaction between the negative-sequence air gap flux during asymmetrical faults and the damper windings Since the nega- tive-sequence slip is 2 — s, the torque is always retarding to the rotor Its magnitude is significant only when the rotor damper winding resistance is high 3. The de braking is produced by the de component of the armature current during faults, which induces currents in the rotor winding of fundamental frequency. Their interaction produces 4 torque that is always retarding to the rotor It should be emphasized that if the correct expression for the instantaneous elec- trical torque is used, all the above-mentioned components of the electrical torque will be included In some studies approximate expressions for the torque are used, eg , when considering quasi-steady-state conditions Here we usually make an estimate of the components of the torque other than the synchronous torque 2.5 Power-Angle Curve of a Synchronous Machine Before we leave the subject of electrical torque (or power), we return momentarily to synchronous power to discuss a simplified but very useful expression for the relation between the power output of the machine and the angle of its rotor Consider two sources V = V/Q and E = £/5 connected through a reactance x as shown in Figure 2 S{a)> Note that the source V'is chosen as the reference. A current 3A phasor is indicated with a bur above the symbol for the ems quantity. For example if I is the ris value ofthe current, Tis the current phasor By definition the phasor 7 is given by the transformation @ where? 4 rel ~ I(cos 4 + jsin 8) = PLV7 I cos (wt + 6)],_ A phasor is 7 complex number felated to the ‘corresponding time quamity 12) by i) = Ge (V2 Ie!) = VIIcos(or + 6) = P-'(lel)22 Chapter 2 1a @ ° we © ” Fig, 25. A simple two-machine system: (a) schematic representation, (b) power-angle curve T = 1/0 flows between the two sources We can show that the power P is given by P = (EV/x) sind (232) Since E, V, and x are constant, the relation between P and 6 is a sine curve, as shown in Figure 2 5(b). We note that the same power is delivered by the source F and received by the source V since the network is purely reactive Consider a round rotor machine connected to an infinite bus. At steady state the machine can be represented approximately by the above circuit if V is the terminal voltage of the machine, which is the infinite bus voltage; x is the direct axis synchronous reactance; and £ is the machine excitation voltage, which is the EMF along the quadra- ture axis We say approximately because such factors as magnetic circuit saturation and the difference between direct and quadrature axis reluctances are overlooked in this simple representation But (2.32) is essentially correct for a round rotor machine at steady state Equation (2.32) indicates that if £, V, and x are constant, EV/x is a constant that we may designate as Py to write P = Py sin 6; and the power output of the machine is a function only of the angle 5 associated with E Note that E can be chosen to be any convenient EMF, not necessarily the excitation voltage; but then the appropriate x and 8 must be defined accordingly studies 2.5.1 Classical representation of a synchronous machine in stabi The EMF of the machine (i, the voltage corresponding to the current in the main field winding) can be considered as having two components: a component E’ that cor- responds to the flux linking the main field winding and a component that counteracts the armature reaction, The latter can change instantaneously because it corresponds to currents, but the former (which corresponds to flux linkage) cannot change instantly,The Elementary Mathematical Model 23 ‘When a change in the network occurs suddenly, the flux linkage (and hence E") will not change, but currents will be ptoduced in the armature; hence other currents will be induced in the various rotor circuits to keep this flux linkage constant. Both the arma- ture and rotor currents will usually have ac and de components as required to match the ampere-turns of various coupled coils The flux will decay according to the effective time constant of the field circuit At no load this time constant is on the order of sev- eral seconds, while under load it is reduced considerably but still on the order of one second or higher From the above we can see that for a period of less than a second the natural char- acteristic of the field winding of the synchronous machine tends to maintain constant fiux linkage and hence constant £’. Exciters of the conventional type do not usually respond fast enough and their ceilings are not high enough to appreciably alter this picture. Furthermore, it has been observed that during a disturbance the combined effect of the armature reaction and the excitation system is to help maintain constant flux linkage for a period of a second or two. This period is often considered adequate for determining the stability of the machine. Thus in some stability studies the assump- tion is commonly made that the main field flux linkage of a machine is constant The main field-winding flux is almost the same as a fictitious flux that would create an EMF behind the machine direct axis transient reactance. The model used for the synchronous machine is shown in Figure 2.6, where xj is the direct axis transient reactance Fig 26 Representation of a synchronous machine by # constant voltage behind transient reactance The constant voltage source £/3 is determined from the initial conditions, ic, pretransient conditions, During the transient the magnitude £ is held constant, while the angle 6 is considered as the angle between the rotor position and the terminal voltage V Example 21 For the circuit of Figure 26 let V = 0 pu, xj operating at P = 08 pu at 08PF 02 pu, and the machine initially Solution Using Vas reference, 7 = 1.0/0 fy = 10/-36.9" = 08 ~ j0.6 E = E[s = 1.0 + j0.2008 — jo6) = 112 + j016 = 11314 /8.06° The magnitude of E is 1.1314 This will be held constant during the transient, although émay vary The initial value of 6, called dp, is 8.06"24 Chapter 2 During the transient period, assuming that is held constant, the machine power as a function of the angle @ is also given by a power-angle curve Thus P = (EV/xj)sing = Pysind (233) For the example given above Py = 1.1314/02 = 5 657 25.2 Synchro Consider a synchronous machine the terminal voltage of which is constant. This is the case when the machine is connected to a very large power system (infinite bus). Let us assume that the machine can be represented by a constant voltage magnitude be- hind a constant reactance, as shown in Figure 26 The power is given by (2 32) Let the initial power delivered by the machine be P,, which corresponds to a rotor angle 5) (which is the same as the angle of the EMF £). Let us assume that 6 changes from its initial value 6 by a small amount 8,;i¢, 8 = 4, + 5, From (2 32) P also changes to P= P, + Py Then we may write Py + Py = Pysin(& + 4) = Pu(sin a c0s8, + coséy sin és) (2.34) If 4g is small then, approximately, cos 6, & 1 and sind % 44, or Py + Py % Py sin dy + (Py C08 55)6, ing power coefficients and since Py = Py sin by, Py = (Pig COS bo) by, (235) The quantity in parentheses in (2.35) is defined to be the synchronizing power co- efficient and is sometimes designated P, From (2.35}we also observe that oF P.& Py cosy = on (2:36) Equation (2 35) is sometimes written in one of the forms. Py oP Pibs = Fs (237) (Compare this result with dP, the differential of P.) In the above analysis the appropriate values of x and £ should be used to obtain Py. In dynamic studies xj and the voltage £’ are used, while in steady-state stability analysis a saturated steady-state reactance x, is used. If the control equipment of the machine is slow or inoperative, it is important that the machine be operating such that 0 S 6 S /2 for the operating point to be stable in the static or steady-state sense This is the same as having a positive synchronizing power coefficient This criterion was used in the past to indicate the so-called “steady-state stability limit.” 2.6 Natural Frequencies of Oscillation of a Synchronous Machine A synchronous machine, when perturbed, has several modes of oscillation with re- spect to the rest of the system. There are also cases where coherent groups of machines oscillate with respect to other coherent groups of machines. These oscillations cause fluctuations in bus voltages, system frequencies, and tie-line power flows. It is im- portant that these oscillations should be small in magnitude and should be damped if the system is to be stable in the sense of the definition of stability given in Section 1.2.1The Elementary Mathematical Model 25 In this section we will illustrate the inherent oscillatory nature of @ synchronous machine by the following example Example 22 A bvo-pole synchronous machine is connected to an infinite bus with voltage 7 through a reactance x as in Figure 2 S(a)_ The voltage F remains constant, and a small change in speed is given to the machine {the rotor is given a small twist); ie, © = wy + eu(¢), where u(t) is a unit siep function, Let the resulting angle change be 5, Let the damping be negligible, Compute the change in angle as a function of time and determine its frequency of oscillation. Solution From (2 10) we write Mi/Sg, + P, = P, ButweletS = dy + 6ysuch that é = 3, and P, = Po + Pea; Pm is constant Then Més/Sp + Pig = Pu - Pap = 0 since 5, = 0. From (2 37) for small 6, we write P,, = P,é,, where from (2 36) P, is the synchronizing power coefficient Then the swing equation may be written as Mig /Sp + P.é, = 0 which has the solution of the form 8) = MIP, sin VP,Sq/Mt elect rad (238) Equation (2.38) indicates that the angular frequency of oscillation of the synchronous machine with respect to the rest of the power system is given by VP.3m/M_ This fre- quency is usually referred to as the natural frequency of the synchronous machine it should be noted that P, is a function of the operating point on the power-angle characteristic Different machines, especially different machine types, have different inertia constants Therefore, the different machines in a power system may have some- what different natural frequencies We now estimate the order of magnitude of this frequency From (2.6) and (2 16) we write M/Spy = 2H/oey OF P,Sqs/M = P,o_/2H where P, is in pu, &y is in 1ad/s, and Hisins, Now P, is the synchronizing power coefficient in pu (on a base of the machine three-phase rating). If the initial operating angle 8 is small, P, is approximately equal to the amplitude of the power-angle curve We must also be careful with the units For example, a system having P,/Sp; = 2 pu, H = 8, Woe = VEX STA x 8) = 685 rad/s fox = 685/28 = 109 Hz If MKS units are used, we write fous = (1/28) Vaf(PFSa 1) (239) where f= system frequency in Hz Sgs = three-phase machine rating in MVA H = inertia constant in s P, = synchronizing power coefficient in MW/rad Next, we should point out that a system of two finite machines can be reduced to a single equivalent finite machine against an infinite bus The equivalent inertia is Ih fd, + 42) and the angle is da — 62426 Chapter 2 Thus we conclude that each machine oscillates with respect to other machines, each coherent group of machines oscillates with respect to other groups of machines, and soon. The frequencies of oscillations depend on the synchronizing power coefficients and on the inertia constants. 2.7 System of One Machine against an Infinite Bus—The Classical Model An infinite bus is a source of invariable frequency and voltage (both in magnitude and angle). A major bus of a power system of very large capacity compared to the rating of the machine under consideration is approximately an infinite bus, The inertia of the machines in a large system will make the bus voltage of many high-voltage buses essentially constant for transients occurring outside that system Consider a power system consisting of one machine connected to an infinite bus through a transmission line A schematic representation of this system is shown in Figure 2 7(a) @ * Fig 27 One machine connected to an infinite bus through a transmission line: (a) one-line diagram (b) equivalent circuit The equation of motion of the rotor of the finite machine is given by the swing equation (2.7) ot 2.10) To obtain a time solution for the rotor angle, we need to develop expressions for the mechanical and the electrical powers. In this section the simplest mathematical model is used This model, which will be referred to as the classical model, requires the following assumptions: 1 The mechanical power input remains constant during the period of the transient 2 Damping or asynchronous power is negligible 3. The synchronous machine can be represented (electrically) by a constant voltage source behind a transient reactance (see Section 2.5 1) 4, The mechanical angle of the synchronous machine rotor coincides with the electrical phase angie of the voltage behind transient reactance 5. Ifa local load is fed at the terminal voltage of the machine, it ean be represented by a constant impedance (or admittance) to neutral The period of interest is the first swing of the rotor angle 8 and is usually on the order of one second or less. At the start of the transient, and assuming that the impact initiating the transient creates a positive accelerating power on the machine rotor, the rotor angle increases. If the rotor angle increases indefinitely, the machine loses synchronism and stability is lost If it reaches a maximum and then starts to decrease, the resulting motion will be oscillatory and with constant amplitude Thus according to this model and the assumptions used, stability is decided in the first swing. (If damping is present the amplitude will decrease with time, but in the classical model there is very little damping )The Elementary Mathem a7 Fig 28 Equivalent circuit for a system of one machine against an infinite bus The equivalent electrical circuit for the system is given in Figure 2.7(b) In Fig- ure 2.7 we define 7, = terminal voltage of the synchronous machine V = V/Q = voltage of the infinite bus, which is used as reference xj= direct axis transient reactance of the machine Zy = series impedance of the transmission network (including transformers) Z, = equivalent shunt impedance at the machine terminal, including local loads if any By using a ¥-A transformation, the node representing the terminal voltage V, in Figure 2.7 can be eliminated The nodes to be retained (in addition to the reference node) are the internal voltage behind the transient reactance node and the infinite bus. These are shown in Figure 2.8 as nodes 1 and 2 respectively Also shown in Figure 28 are the admittances obtained by the network reduction. Note that while three admit- tance elements are obtained (viz, yiz, vio, ANd V20), ¥20 is omitted since it is not needed in the analysis The two-port network of Figure 28 is conveniently described by the equation Al Yu Yay |B sltle v (2.40) hl [fa Fal 7 The driving point admittance at node 1 is given by Yi, = Fy (Ou + Pro where we use lower case ys to indicate actual admittances and capital ¥"s for matrix elements, The negative of the transfer admittance j,, between nodes 1 and 2 defines the admittance matrix element (1,2) 0t Fiz = Yo (8 = “Fr From elementary network theory we can show that the power at node | is given by P, = GeElf ot Pi = EY, cos0y + EV¥ 3008 (G2 — 8) Now define G, 2 Yu.cos6,, and y = 6): — 7/2, then Py = E?Gy, + EVYysin(5 ~ y) = Pe + Pysin(6 ~ 7) at) The relation between P, and é in (2.41) is shown in Figure 2.9 Examining Figure 29, we note that the power-angle curve of @ synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus is a sine curve displaced from the origin vertically by an amount P, which represents the power dissipation in the equivalent network, and horizontally by the angle y, which is determined by the real component of the transfer admittance Viz, In the special case where the shunt load at the machine terminal V, is open and where the transmission network is reactive, we can easily prove that Pc = and y =.0. In this case the power-angle curve becomes identical to that given in@33)28 Chapter 2 Fig 29° Power output of a synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus, Example 2.3 A synchronous machine is connected to an infinite bus through a transformer and a double circuit transmission line, as shown in Figure 210. The infinite bus voltage V = 10pu The direct axis transient reactance of the machine is 020 pu, the trans former reactance is 010 pu, and the reactance of each of the transmission lines is 0.40 pu, all to a base of the rating of the synchronous machine, Initially, the machine is delivering 08 pu power with a terminal voltage of 105 pu The inertia constant H = 5MJ/MVA All resistances are neglected The equation of motion of the ma- chine rotor is to be determined Oe veo Fig 210. System of Example 2.3 Solution The equivalent circuit of the system is shown in Figure 2.11. For this system: Fae 1/i0S= -j20 Fy = -j20 Fo = 0 Oy = ~ 7/2 Fy = j20 Oi = w/2 therefore, Pc = Oand y = 0 The electrical power is given by Pow P= Pet EVYusin(@ - ¥) = Since the initial power is Py = 0.8 pu, then sing, = 04 EVY,sin6 = 2E sind D jom® jo WP io” @ Crret Fig 2.11 initial equivalent circuit of the system of Example 23.The Elementary Mathematical Medal 29 To find the initial conditions, we solve the network of Figure 211. We have the terminal condition Vai0/0 pu %=105/% pu P= 08 pu To find the angle of ¥,, we write, since resistance is zero, = 08 4 (VV,/x)sin 6» = (1.05/0.30) sin sin Bq = 08/35 = 02286 Oo = 132° The current is found from V; T= (V- Vy/Z = (105 /13.21" ~ 10 /0y/j03 = (1.022 + j0 240 — 1000)/j0.3 = 0.800 ~ j0.074 = 0,803 /—5.29° Then the internal machine voltage is E [8 = 105 /13.21" + (0.803 /~-$.29°)(0,2 /90") = 1022 + {0 240 + 0.0148 + jo 160 = 1.037 + j0400 = 1.111 /21,09" pu ZI+ Vor is E = 1111 is a constant that will be unchanged during the transient, and the angel is 5) = 2109° = 0 367 rad. We also may write P= (L111 x 10)/0.50|siné = 22228in6 Then the swing equation is given by 2H do 2H ds op _ p. we dt or a6 377 Ge ig O8 — 22228ind) rad/s* From this simple example we observe that the resulting swing equation is non- linear and will be difficult to solve except by numerical methods. We now extend the example to consider a fault on the system Example 24 Develop the equation of motion of the system of Figure 2 11 where a fault is applied at the sending end (node 4) of the transmission line For simplicity we will consider a three-phase fault that presents a balanced impedance of j0 1 to neutral, The network now is as shown in Figure 2 12, where admittances are used for convenience Solution By ¥-A transformation we compute Vir = —j[.333 x $)/18 333] = -j0.909 and since Yip = —Pu2, then Fig = j0 909. The electrical power output of the machine is now (0.909 x L1L1)sind ~ 1010sind30 Chapter 2 saa @ 430 ® “hoo Fig 212. Faulted network for Example 2 4 in terms of admittances From Example 2 3 the equation of motion of the rotor is 2 “ = 37.708 — 1010sin5) rad/s* At the start of the transient sin, = 0 36, and the initia/ rotor acceleration is given by ae 37 7[0 8 ~ (1.010 x 0 368)] = 1645 rad/s? Now let us assume that after some time the circuit breaker at the sending end of the faulted line clears the fault by opening that line, The network now will have a series reactance of j0.70 pu, and the new network (with fault cleared) will have @ new value of transfer admittance, Fy, = j1 429 pu. The new swing equation will be 4°3 © 477(08 — 1.587sin5) rad/s? a Example 25 Calculate the angle 6 as a function of time for the system of Examples 2.3 and 24 Assume that the fault is cleared in nine cycles (0.15 s) Solution The equations for 6 were obtained in Example 24 for the faulted network and for the system with the fault cleared These equations are nonlinear; therefore, time solu- tions will be obtained by numerical methods A partial survey of these methods is given in Appendix B To illustrate the procedure used in numerical integration, the modified Euler method is used in this example This method is outlined in Appendix B First, the swing equation is replaced by the two first-order differential equations: be ot) op, = ea /2H)P, ~ P.O) (2.42) The time domain is divided into increments called Ar_ With the values of 5 and w and their derivatives known at some time f, an estimate is made of the values of these vari- ables at the end of an interval of time Ar, ie, at time 1+ At These are called the predicted values of the variables and are based only on the values of 5(t), #(/), and their derivatives. From the calculated values of 5(f + A‘) and w(s + 4), values of the derivatives at ¢+ Af are calculated A corsected value of 5(¢ + Az) and w(t + Ad) is obtained using the mean derivative over the interval. The process can be repeated until a desited precision is achieved At the end of this repeated prediction and correction a final value of 6(¢ + At) and w(¢ + Ar) is obtained. The process is then repeated for the next interval The procedure is outlined in detail in Chapter 10 of [8]. From Example 24 the initial value of 4 is sin~'0 368, and the equationThe Elementary Mathematical Model 31 oO oa 08 68 1O 121% Time, Fig 213 Anglestime curve for Example? $ for w is given by © = 37.7(0800 - 1.010sind) 0 51< 015 = 37.7(0.800 — 1587sind) 6 2 015 The results of the numerical integration of the system equations, performed with the aid of a digital computer, are shown in Figure 213. The time solution is carried out for two successive peaks of the angle @ The first peak of 48 2° is reached at ¢ = 0.38 s, after which 6 is decreased until it reaches a minimum value of about 13 2° at ¢ = 082 s, and the oscillation of the rotor angle 6 continues For the system under study and for the given impact, synchronism is not lost (since the angle 5 does not increase indefinitely) and the synchronous machine is stable 2.8 Equal Area Criterion Consider the swing equation for a machine connected to an infinite bus derived previously in the form, 2H dé 2H d’s pps P, 2.43 on di? pe C8) where P, is the accelerating power From (2.43) P oy oo on (2.44) de” 2H"2 Chapter 2 Multiplying each side by 2(d8/dt), (2.45) (2.46) (247) Integrating both sides, (2.48) or s = (3 [ ra)" (2.49) Equation (2 49) gives the relative speed of the machine with respect to a reference frame moving at constant speed (by the definition of the angle 6). For stability this speed must be zero when the acceleration is either zero or is opposing the rotor motion Thus for a rotor that is accelerating, the condition of stability is that a value Bom exists such that P,(Smux) © 0, and San f Pdi = 0 (2.50) If the accelerating power is plotted as a function of 8, equation (2.50) can be inter preted as the area under that curve between 6p and das. This is shown in Fig- Poh Pro") ree o Fig 214 Equal area criteria: (a) for stability for a stable system, (b) lor an unstable systemThe Elementary Mathematical Model 33 ure 2.14(a) where the net area under the P, versus 6 curve adds to zero at the angle Snax Since the two areas A, and A, are equal and opposite Also at daa the accelerating power, and hence the rotor acceleration, is negative, Therefore, the system is stable and Syay is the maximum rotor angle reached during the swing If the accelerating power reverses sign before the two areas 4, and 4, are equal, synchronism is lost This situation is shown in Figure 2.14(b), The area A, is smaller than 4), and as 6 increases beyond the value where P, reverses sign again, the arca Ay is added to A, The limit of stability occurs when the angle 4,,, is such that PByyx) = 0 and the areas Ay and A, are equal. For this case dyn, coincides with the angle 6, on the power-angle curve with the fault cleared such that P = P, and o> x/2 ‘Note that the accelerating power need not be plotted as a function of 6. We can ob- tain the same information if the electrical and mechanical powers are plotted as a func- tion of 6. The former is the power-angle curve discussed in Section 27, and in many studies P, isaconstant The accelerating power curve could have discontinuities due to switching of the network, initiation of faults, and the like 2.81 Critical cleoring ongle Fora system of one machine connected to an infinite bus and for a given fault and switching arrangement, the critical clearing angle is that switching angle {os which the system is at the edge of instability (we will also show that this applies to any two- machine system). The maximum angle 6,,., corresponds to the angle 4,, on the fault- cleared power-angle curve. Conditions for critical clearing are now obtained (see {1] and [2)) Let 7 © peak of the prefault power-angle curve ratio of the peak of the power-angle curve of the faulted network to Py ratio of the peak of the power-angle curve of the network with the fault cleared to Py sin” P,/Py < «/2 iy, = Sit! Bh fry Pye > #/2 Then for A, = A, and for critical clearing, = cos LCs — FIC Pa f Pa Gm = 89) + 726088q — 11 008 By] (2.51) Note that the corresponding clearing time must be obtained from a time solution of the swing equation cd if 282 Application toa one-machine system The equal area criterion is applied to the power network of Examples 2 4-25, and the results are shown in Figure 2.15. The stable system of Examples 2 4-25 is illus- trated in Figure 2.15. The angle at ¢ = 0 is 21.09° and is indicated by the intersection of P, with the prefault curve. The clearing angle 6, is obtained from the time solu- tion (see Figure 2 13) and is about 316° The conditions for 4, = 4, correspond to Bax & 48° This corresponds to the maximum angle obtained in the time solution shown in Figure 2 13 To illustrate the critical clearing angle, a more severe fault is used with the same system and switching arrangement A three-phase fault is applied to the same bus with zero impedance, The faulted power-angle curve has zero amplitude The prefault and34 Chapter 2 Fig. 2 1S Application of the equal area criterion to a stable system postiault networks arc the same as before. For this system n=0 by = 21.09" ry = 1587/2222 = 0714 ob, = 149.73" ‘Calculation of the critical clearing angle, using (2 51), gives a, = cos'0.26848 = 74.43" This situation is illustrated in Figure 2.16 %, oO 8 120 130 190 Fig 216 Application of the equal area criterion to a critically cleared systemThe Elementary Mathematical Model 35 2.83 Equal area terion for a two-machine system It can be shown that the equal area criterion applies to any two-machine system since a two-machine system can be reduced to an equivalent system of one machine connected to an infinite bus (see Problem 2.10) We can show that the expression for the equal area criterion in this case is given by [° . Hy t20 (2.52) whered, = 5, — 6, In the special case where the resistance is neglected, (2 52) becomes. ba Padi, = 0 0 820 whete Hy = HyH,/(H, + Hy) 2.9 Classical Model of a Multimachine System The same assumptions used for a system of one machine connected to an infinite bus are often assumed valid for a multimachine system 1 Mechanical power input is constant 2. Damping or asynchronous power is negligible 3. Constant-voltage-behind-transient-reactance model for the synchronous machines is valid 4 The mechanical rotor angle of a machine coincides with the angle of the voltage behind the transient reactance 5. Loads are represented by passive impedances This model is useful for stability analysis but is limited to the study of transients for only the “first swing” or for periods on the order of one second Assumption 2 is improved upon somewhat by assuming a linear damping character- istic. A damping torque (or power) Dw is frequently added to the inertial torque (or power) in the swing equation The damping coefficient D includes the various damping, torque components, both mechanical and electrical. Values of the damping coefficient usually used in stability studies are in the range of 1-3 pu [9, 10, 11, 12) This repre- sents turbine damping, generator electrical damping, and the damping effect of electrical loads. However, much larger damping coefficients, up to 25 pu, are reported in the literature due to generator damping alone [7, 13] Assumption 5, suggesting foad representation by a constant impedance, is made for convenience in many classical studies Loads have their own dynamic behavior, which is usually not precisely known and varies from constant impedance to constant MVA. This is a subject of considerable speculation, the major point of agreement being that constant impedance is an inadequate representation Load representation can have a marked effect on stability results The electrical network obtained for an n-machine system is as shown in Figure 2.17. Node 0 is the reference node (neutral). Nodes 1, 2,...., are the internal machine buses, or the buses to which the voltages behind transient reactances are applied Passive impedances connect the various nodes and connect the nodes to the reference at load buses. As in the one-machine system, the initial values of Ej, E,.....E, are de- termined from the pretransient conditions. Thus a load-flow study for pretransient36 Chapter 2 in -mochine sytem generators Fig 217 Representation of a multimachine system (classical model) conditions is needed The magnitudes £,, i = 1 ing the transient in classical stability studies The passive electrical network described above has m nodes with active sources. The admittance matrix of the n-port network, looking into the network from the terminals of the generators, is defined by . nate held constant dur- T-YE (253) where ¥ has the diagonal elements ¥;, and the off-diagonal elements ¥, By definition, ¥, ~ ¥,/% = driving point admittance for node i = G+ By ¥,, (4) = negative of the transfer admittance between nodes i and j = Gy + jBe 54) The power into the network at node i, which is the electrical power output of machine i, is given by B = Se EJF P, = ERG, + DEE, ¥,c0s (0, — 848) i= 1,2, yn ray = HG, + 2) F6IB,sin(8, — §) + Gjcost, ~ §)) t= 1,2, nm (2.55)The Elementary Mathematical Model 37 The equations of motion are then given by 2H des Da, = P| EG, + D> E,E,Y, cos(8, ~ 8, + 5) Oe di a 4, a (2.56) It should be noted that prior to the disturbance (tf = O°) Pan = Pao Paio = EP Gyo + Dy EE; Yin 008 (B50 ~ 89 + 8p) 37) The subscript 0 is used to indicate the pretransient conditions This applies to all machine rotor angles and also to the network parameters, since the network changes due to switching during the fault The set of equations (2.56) is a set of n-coupled nonlinear second-order differential equations. These can be written in the form X = (OX, Xo.2) (2.58) where x is a vector of dimension (2n x 1), 1 = [04,502,625 We Be] 259) and fis a set of nonlinear functions of the elements of the state vector x 2.10 Classical Stability Study of a Nine-bus System The classical model of a synchronous machine may be used to study the stability of a power system for a period of time during which the system dynamic response is de- pendent largely on the stored kinetic energy in the rotating masses For many power systems this time is on the ordes of one second or less The classical model is the simplest model used in studies of power system dynamics and requires a minimum. amount of data; hence, such studies can be conducted in a relatively short time and at minimum cost. Furthermore, these studies can provide useful information For ex- ample, they may be used as preliminary studies to identify problem ateas that require further study with more detailed modeling Thus a large number of cases for which the system exhibits a definitely stable dynamic response to the disturbances under study are eliminated from further consideration A classical study will be presented here on a small nine-bus power system that has three generators and three loads. A one-line impedance diagram for the system is given in Figure 2.18 The prefault normal load-flow solution is given in Figure 219 Gen- erator data for the three machines are given in Table 2.1. This system, while small, is large enough to be nontrivial and thus permits the illustration of a number of stability concepts and results. 2.10.1 Data preparation In the performance of a transient stability study, the following data are needed 1 A load-fiow study of the pretransient network to determine the mechanical power P, Of the generators and to calculate the values of £,/0y for all the generators The equivalent impedances of the loads are obtained from the load bus data38 Chopter 2 why 230 lead € 00625 0.0119 +j0.1008 ‘0.010 + 0.065] 0.092 40.161 Fig 218 Nine-bus system impedance diagram: all impedances are in py om a 100-MVA base rokv 13.8kv Fig 219. Nine-bus system load-flow diagram showing prefault conditions; all Rows are in MW and MVAR,The Elementary Mathematical Model 39 Table2.1. Generator Data Generator 1 : 2 3 Rated MVA 2478 192.0 128.0 kv 165 i80 138 Power factor 10 085 0.85 Type hydro steam steam Speed 180 e/enin 3600 fin 3600 r/min Xy 0.1460 0.8958 13125 xy 0.0608 0.1198, 0.1813 yo 0.0969 0.8645 12578 4 0.0969 0.1969 0.25 x; (leakage) 0.0336 0.0521 0.0742 Tio 896 6.00 539 reo 0 0535 0.600 Slored energy atrated speed 2364 MWes, 640 MW: s 301 MW-s. fin. pu on a 100-MVA base, All time constants are ins (Several quantities fined in this Book ‘quantities are derived and justified in Chapter 4 bbut are given here to provide complete data for the sample system } 2. System data as follows: a. The inertia constant H and direct axis transient reactance xj for all generators b_ Transmission network impedances for the initial network conditions and the sub- sequent switchings such as fault clearing and breaker reclosings, 3. The type and location of disturbance, time of switchings, and the maximum time for which a solution is to be obtained 2.10.2 Preliminary calculations To prepare the system data for a stability study, the following preliminary calcula- tions are made: 1. All system data are converted to a common base; a system base of 100 MVA is frequently used 2. The loads are converted to equivalent impedances or admittances. The needed data for this step are obtained from the load-flow study. Thus if a certain load bus has a voltage V,, power P,, reactive power Q,, and current 7, flowing into a Joad ad- mittance ¥, = G, + jB,, then Pr + iQ = Wilf = VUPNG, ~ iB) = ViCG, - iB.) The equivalent shunt admittance at that bus is given by Ye = P/VE ~ (Qi /¥E) (2.60) 3. The internal voltages of the generators F, /djy are calculated from the load-flow data These internal angles may be computed from the pretransient terminal voltages V/a. as follows Let the terminal voltage be used temporarily as a reference, as shown in Figure 220. If we define J = 1, + jl, then from the relation P + jQ = VT* we have 1, + jh = (P ~ jQ)/V. But since £/3 = V+ jx}T, we compute Eb! = (V + Oxi/V) + i(Pxi/V) @61) The initial generator angle 4) is then obtained by adding the pretsansient voltage40 Chopter 2 Fig 220 Generator representation for computing 8y angle @ to 8’, or a= 0 be (2.62) The ¥ matrix for each network condition is calculated. The following steps are usually needed: a. The equivalent load impedances (or admittances) are connected between the load ‘buses and the reference node; additional nodes are provided for the internal gen- erator voltages (nodes 1,2, in Figure 2.17) and the appropriate values of xjare connected between these nodes and the generator terminal nodes. Also, simulation of the fault impedance is added as required, and the admittance matrix is determined for each switching condition b All impedance elements are converted to admittance: c. Elements of the ¥ matrix are identified as follows: Y,, is the sum of all the ad- mittances connected to node i, and Y,, is the negative of the admittance between node i and node j Finally, we eliminate all the nodes except for the internal generator nodes and ob- tain the ¥ matrix for the reduced network The reduction can be achieved by matrix operation if we recall that all the nodes have zero injection currents except for the in- ternal generator nodes This property is used to obtain the network reduction as shown below - Let rs yv (2.63) where I= 0 Now the matrices Y and V ate partitioned accordingly to get Y,,| |V, Yee} [Ve (2.64) where the subscript is used to denote generator nodes and the subscript r is used for the remaining nodes. Thus for the network in Figure 2.17, V,, has the dimension (n x 1) and Y, has the dimension (r x 1) Expanding (2 64), = Y,V,+¥nV, 0=Y,V, + Y,V,The Elementary Mathematical Model 4 from which we eliminate V, to find DA = Wn = Ye¥5!¥ Vy . (2.65) The matrix (¥,, — ¥,,¥;'Yj,) is the desired reduced matrix ¥. It has the dimensions (nw x_n) Where n is the number of the generators The network reduction illustrated by (2 63)-(2 65) is a convenient analytical tech- nique that can be used only when the loads are treated as constant impedances. If the loads are not considered to be constant impedances, the identity of the load buses must, be retained Network reduction can be applied only to those nodes that have zero in- jection current Example 26 The technique of solving a classical transient stability problem is illustrated by con- ducting a study of the nine-bus system, the data for which is given in Figures 2.18 and 219 and Table 2.1 The disturbance initiating the transient is a three-phase fault ‘occurring neat bus 7 at the end of line 5-7. The fault is cleared in five cycles (0 083 s) by opening line 5-7 For the purpose of this study the generators are to be represented by the classical model and the loads by constant impedances. The damping torques are neglected The system base is 100 MVA Make all the preliminary calculations needed for a transient stability study so that all coefficients in (2.56) are known Solution The objective of the study is to obtain time solutions for the rotor angles of the gen- erators after the transient is introduced. These time solutions are called “swing curves * In the classical model the angles of the generator internal voltages behind transient reactances are assumed to correspond to the rotor angles. Therefore, mathematically, ‘we are to obtain a solution for the set of equations (2.56) The initial conditions, de- noted by adding the subscript 0, are given by Gj. = 0 and 59 obtained from (2.57) Preliminary calculations (following the steps outlined in Section 2 10 2) are: 1 The system base is chosen to be 100 MVA. All impedance data are given to this base 2. The equivalent shunt admittances for the loads are given in pu as Toad A: rs = 1.2610 ~ j0 5044 load B: Fz4 = 08777 — j0 2926 load C: Fre = 0.9690 — j0 3391 3. The generator internal voltages and their initial angles are given in pu by Ey/by = 1.0566/2.2717" Ey [by = 10502 /19.7315" Es {839 = 1.0170 /13.1752° 4, The ¥ matrix is obtained as outlined in Section 2,102, step 4. For convenience bus numbers I, 2, and 3 are used to denote the generator internal buses rather than the generator low-voltage terminal buses Values for the generator xj are added to the reactance of the generator transformers For example, for generator 2 bus 2 will be the internal bus for the voltage behind transient reactance; the reactance betweenAz Chapter 2 Table 2.2, Prefauit Network Impedance Admittance Bus 20 R : 3 Generators* No.1 1a 0 o1ss =o -8 4459 No.2 27 0 0.18230 =3 4855, No 3 39 0 023990 ~4 1684 Transmission lines 45 09100 © 0.0850 1.3652 11 604t 4-6 09170 =—-0.0920 1.9422 =10.5107 57 0.0320 0.1610 11876 ~5.9751 69 00390 ©0170 1.2820 5 5882 78 oooss = 0.0720 Lel7i ~13 6980 89 ooits 0. L008 Vissi —9 7843 Shunt admittancest Load 4 50 12610 0.2634 Load B 6-0 08777 0.0346 Load ¢ 80 0.9690 -0 1601 4-0 0.1670 70 0.2275 9.0 0.2835 ‘For each generator the transformer reactance js added to the generator x3 ‘{The line shunt susceptances are added to the loads. bus 2 and bus 7 is the sum of the generator and transformer reactances (0.1198 + 0.0625), The prefault network admittances including the load equivalents are given in Table 2.2, and the corresponding ¥ matrix is given in Table 23 The ¥ matrix for the faulted network and for the network with the fault cleared are similarly obtained The results are shown in Tables 2 4 and 2.5 respectively. 5 Elimination of the network nodes other than the generator internal nodes by net- work reduction as outlined in step 5 is done by digital computer. The resulting re- duced ¥ matrices are shown in Table 2.6 for the prefault network, the faulted net- work, and the network with the fault cleared respectively We now have the values of the constant voltages behind transient reactances for all three generators and the reduced Y matrix for each network. Thus all coefficients of (2.56) are available Example 27 For the system and the transient of Example 2.6 calculate the rotor angles versus time, The fault is cleared in five cycles by opening line 5-7 of Figure 2.18. Plot the angles 5, 8;, and 6, and their difference versus time—- = has Solution The problem is to solve the set of equations (2 56) form = 3 and D = 0. All the coefficients for the faulted network and the network with the fault cleared have been determined in Example 2.6 Since the set (2.56) is nonlinear, the desired time solutions for 6,, 6;, and 8, are obtained by numerical integration, A brief survey of numerical integration of differential equations is given in Appendix B (For hand calculations see [I] for an excellent discussion of a numerical integration method of the swing equa-PLSTIT— leer Z ——CvaL'6! + ISSTT- ceas's! + O78cI- y89r et 6 pa T= pceect ~ ongo'ent + 12191— 8 OB6p'EIE + LIST ~ © ssarst Z zees'st+ ozget~ - 610rP LOLs ol! + zene I 9 © suse it z9ea'e + e99e'1- s OLSON + Zep T— THOTTIT + es9e1— LeBE"Oe! = vLOE"E ostrsl b veorel w891 pt £ ssapst ssapst~ z ostrst oserat- 6 a t 9 5 Y € z PON y POrEaID UNA YUM HOMO JO MUTE A “SZAIORL, evav'el + 1st zaas'st + o7se I= 991 6 woro'ect — cipe't 8 L cwas'st + oesz'1- seersif- 610r'y + cere 9 oces'cit— geus'e zoe t— s LOISOIT + zepGI-~ HO TIF + Z69EI- LEGE OE - PLOT E osrrst pa9r'et sort € soar'st= z osrirat osrysf- 6 8 t 9 5 + € z 1 PON OMPN PoNEA JOXUIEW A “PT IMEL, evav'el + 1sst— ‘caas'st + occ 1 a9 ef 6 + iscri= vees'ert— Repent + 1L19"1- 8 OBEN L191 — 11¢6 Rel LHOR'Z Isto st + 908 ssarst L caas'sf + zee 1- Seergn= story + rene 9 1seo'st + 9080-1 s cous oral op 99r'ef peorrt— € ssapst ssavet— z osreat osrrat— 6 8 L 9 s ’ € t 1 SON MOMON TNEIG FO MEW A “ELE44 Chapter 2 Table2.6, Reduced ¥ Matrices Type ot ode network Nod ' > 5 Prefault 0846 — [2988 0287 + j1S13. 0210 + j1.226 0138 + j0726 0.389 — jt 9530199 4 j1. 229 0.191 + 51.079 0.199 + 1.229 0.273 ~ [2.342 i 2 0.287 4 j1513 0.420 — j2724 0.213 + j1 088 3 0.210 + j1226 ©0213 + 1088 0.277 ~ 52.368 Faulted L 0657 - j3.816 0.000 + j0.000 0.070 + 0.631 2 0.000 + j0.000 0.000 ~ j5.486 9.000 + j0.000 3 0.070 + j0631 0.000 + jo000 0 174 — j2 796 Fault cleared 1 1181 ~ j2229 0.138 4 j0726 0191 + j1.079 2 3 tion, Also see Chapter 10 of [8] for a more detailed discussion of several numerical schemes for solving the swing equation) The so-called transient stability digital com- puter programs available at many computer centers include subroutines for solving non- linear differential equations Discussion of these programs is beyond the scope of this book ‘Numerical integration of the swing equations for the three-generator, nine-bus sys- tem is made by digital computer for 2.0 s of simulated real time, Figure 2.21 shows the rotor angles of the three machines A plot of 8 = 8; — 6, and by, = 5; — 00) STITT Thesis cleared in Seyclen o-oo 100m evel Ld ° O8 10) vs a0 Tine, + Fig 221 Plot of 6,62, and 43 versus timeThe Elementory Mathematical Model 45 "Ee oO a0 em Oa Lo ° OF To Teo Tine, = Fig 222 Plot ofS differences versus time in Figure 2 22 where we can see that the system is stable The maximum angle difference is about 85° This is the value of 6, at ¢ = 0.43 s Note that the solution is carried out for two “swings” to show that the second swing is not greater than the first for cither 8, or 8, To determine whether the system is stable or unstable for the par- ticular transient under study, it is sufficient to carry out the time solution for one swing only If the rotor angles (or the angle differences) reach maximum values and then decrease, the system is stable, If any of the angle differences increase indefinitely, the system is unstable because at least one machine will lose synchronism 2.11 Shortcomings of the Classical Model System stability depends on the characteristics of all the components of the power system. This includes the response characteristics of the control equipment on the turbogenerators, on the dynamic characteristics of the loads, on the supplementary control equipment installed, and on the type and settings of protective equipment used The machine dynamic response to any impact in the system is oscillatory In the past the sizes of the power systems involved were such that the period of these oscilla- tions was not much greater than one second. Furthermore, the equipment used for excitation controls was relatively slow and simple. Thus the classical model was adequate Today large system interconnéctions with the greater system inertias and relatively weaker ties result in longer periods of oscillations during transients. Generator control systems, particularly modern excitation systems, are extremely fast It is therefore46 Chapter 2 questionable whether the effect of the control equipment can be neglected during these longer periods. Indeed there have been recorded transients caused by large impacts, resulting in loss of synchronism after the system machines had undergone several oscil- lations, Another aspect is the dynamic instability problem, where growing oscillations have occurred on tie lines connecting different power pools or systems As this situation has developed, it has also become increasingly important to ensure the security of the bulk power supply. This has made many engineers realize it is time to reexamine the assumptions made in stability studies This view is well stated by Ray and Ship- ley (14): ‘We have reached « time when it is appropriate that we appraise the state of the Art of Dynamic Stability Analysis. In conjunction with this we must: 1. Expand our knowledge of the characteristic time response of our system loads to changes in voltage and frequency—develop new dynamic models of system loads 2. Re-examine old concepts and develop new ideas on changes in system networks to improve system stability 3. Update our knowledge of the response characteristics of the various components of energy systems and their controls (boilers, reactors, turbine governors, generator regulators, field excitation, ete.) 4, Reformulate our analytical techniques to adequately simulate the time variation of all of the foregoing factors in system response and accurately determine dynamic system response. Let us now make a critical appraisal of some of the assumptions made in the classi- cal model: L. Transient stability is deciced in the first swing A latge system having many machines will have numerous natural frequencies of oscillations The capacities of most of the tie lines are comparatively small, with the result that some of these frequencies are quite low (frequencies of periods in the order of 5-6 s are not uncommon) It is quite possible that the worst swing may occur at an instant in time when the peaks of some of these nodes coincide It is therefore necessary in many cases to study the transient for a period longer than one second 2. Constant generator main field-winding flux linkage This assumption is suspect on two. counts, the longer period that must now be considered and the speed of many modern voltage regulators The longer period, which may be comparable to the field-winding time constant, means that the change in the main field-winding flux may be appreciable and should be accounted for so that a correct representation of the system voltage is realized, Furthermore, the voltage regulator tesponse could have a significant effect on the field-winding flux. We conclude from this discussion that the constant voltage behind transient reactance could be very inaccurate 3. Neglecting the damping powers A large system will have relatively weak ties In the spring-mass analogy used above, this is a rather poorly damped system, It is important to account for the various components of the system damping to obtain a correct model that will accurately predict its dynamic performance, especially in loss of generation studies (8} 4 Constant mechanical power If periods on the order of a few seconds or greater are of interest, it is unrealistic to assume that the mechanical power will not change The turbine-governor characteristics, and perhaps boiler characteristics should be in- cluded in the analysis 5. Representing loads by constant passive impedance. Let us illustrate in a qualitative manner the effect of such representation, Consider a bus having a voltage V to which a load P; + jQ, is connected. Let the load be represented by the static ad-The Elementary Mathematical Model 47 v 6 & Fig. 223 A load represented by passive admittance mittances G, = P,/¥? and B, = Q,/V? as shown in Figure 2.23. During a tran- sient the voltage magnitude V and the frequency will change. In the model used in Figure 2.17 the change in voltage is reflected in the power and reactive power of the load, while the change in the bus frequency is not reflected at all in the load power In other words, this model assumes P, « V2, 0, V2, and that both are frequency independent. This assumption is often on the pessimistic side (There are situa- tions, however, where this assumption can lead to optimistic results. This discussion is intended to illustrate the errors implied.) To illustrate this, let us assume that the transient has been initiated by a fault in the transmission network. Initially, a fault causes a reduction of the output power of most of the synchronous generators, Some excess generation results, causing the machines to accelerate, and the area fre- quency tends to increase At the same time, a transmission network fault usually causes a reduction of the bus voltages near the fault location In the passive im- pedance model the load power decreases considerably (since P, « V2), and the in- crease in frequency does not cause an increase in load power. In real systems the decrease in power is not likely to be proportional to V? but rather less than this An increase in system frequency will result in an increase in the load power Thus the model used gives a load power lower than expected during the fault and higher than normal after fault removal From the foregoing discussion we conclude that the classical model is inadequate for system representation beyond the first swing Since the first swing is largely an inertial response to a given accelerating torque, the classical model does provide useful information as to system response during this brief period. 2.12 Block Diagram of One Machine Block diagrams are useful for helping the control engineer visualize a problem. We will be considering the control system for synchronous generators and will do so by analyzing each control function in turn It may be helpful to present 2 general block diagram of the entire system without worrying about mathematical details as to what makes up the various blocks. Then as we proceed to analyze each system, we can fill in the blocks with the appropriate equations or transfer functions. Such a block dia- gram is shown in Figure 2.24 [15] The basic equation of the dynamic system of Figure 2.24 is (2.18); i¢, 1 = P,- P.= P, pu (2.66) where § has been replaced by o and J has been replaced by a time constant 1,, the numerical value of which depends on the rotating inertia and the system of units Three separate control systems are associated with the generator of Figure 2.24 The first is the excitation system that controls the terminal voltage Note that the excitation system also plays an important role in the machine’s mechanical oscillations, since it affects the electrical power, P,. The second control system is the speed control or governor that monitors the shaft speed and controls the mechanical power P,,48 Chopter 2 Peciiation 5 ve ly, oa En Tagine -— Se Sate flows | Boiler ca [ET [bq Reece see, Fig 224 Block diagram of a synchronous generator control system Finally, in an interconnected system there is a master controller for each system, This sends a unit dispatch signal (UDS) to each generator and adjusts this signal to meet the load demand or the scheduled tie-line power It is designed to be quite slow so that it is usually not involved in a consideration of mechanical dynamics of the shaft. Thus in most of our work we can consider the speed reference or governor speed changer (GSC) position to be @ constant. In an isolated system the speed reference is the desited system speed and is set mechanically in the governor mechanism, as will be shown later In addition to the three control systems, three transfer functions are of vital im- portance The first of these is the generator transfer function, The generator equations are nonlinear and the transfer function is a linearized approximation of the behavior of the generator terminal voltage V; near a quiescent operating point or equilibrium state The load equations are also nonlinear and refiect changes in the electrical output quanti- ties due to changes in terminal voltage V, Finally, the energy source equations are a desctiption of the boiler and steam turbine or of the penstock and hydraulic turbine behavior as the governor output calls for changes in the energy input These equations are very nonlinear and have several long time constants To visualize the stability problem in terms of Figure 2.24, we recognize immediately that the shaft speed « must be accurately controlled since this machine must operate at precisely the same frequency as all others in the system Ii a sudden change in w occurs, we have two ways of providing controlled responses to this change. One is through the governor that controls the mechanical power P,, but does so through some rather long time constants. A second controlled response acts through the excitation system to con- trol the electrical power P, Time delays are involved here too, but they are smaller than those in the governor loop. Hence much effort has been- devoted to refinements in excitation control Problems 21 Analyze (2 1) dimensionally using a mass, length, time system and specify the units of each quantity (see Kimbark (1) 22. A rotating shaft has zero retarding torque T, = 0 and is supplied a constant full load accelerating torque; ie, Tm = Tr, Let 7, be the accelerating time constant, i.c., the time required to accelerate the machine from rest to rated speed we Solve the swing equation to find +, in terms of the moment of inettia J, we, and Tp, ‘Then show that 7, can also be related to Hf, the pu inertia constant.23 24 25 26 27 28 29 210 2 212 213 214 The Elementary Mathematical Model 49 Solve the swing equation to find the time to reach full load speed ws starting from any initial speed wp with constant gocelerating torque as in Problem 22 Relate this time to rand the slip at speed wp Write the equation of motion of the shaft for the following systems: (2) An electric generator driven by a de motor, where in the region of interest the generator torque is proportional to the shaft angle and the motor torque decreases linearly with increased speed (b) Anclectric motor driving a fan, where in the region of interest the torques are given by Troer = 4-06 Thy = cB? where a, b, and ¢ are constants State any necessary assumptions Will this system have a steady-state operating point? Is the system linear? In (24) assume that 7 is in Nom, 6 is in elec deg, and./is in bm f@ What factor must bbe used to make the units consistent? In (2 T)assume that Pisin W and M in J-s/rad_ What are the units of 6? A.500-MVA two-pole machine is to operate in parallel with othet U.S machines. Compute the regulation R of this machine. What are the units of R? A 60-MVA two-pole generator and a 600-MVA four-pole generator are to operate in paral- lel with other U S. systems and are to share in system governing Compute the pu constant K that must be used with these machines in their governor simulations if the system base is 100 MVA. Repeat problem 2 8 if the constant K is to be computed in MKS units rather than pu In computer simulations it is common to see regulation expressed in two different ways as described below: (8) Py = Peo = SPR where Py, = mechanical power in pu on Sp Pao = initial mechanical power in pti on S.y if = system base frequency in Hz R,, ~ steady-state speed regulation in pu on a system base = R,S,n/Sp $= generator slip = (an — w)/2eHz (b) Pp ~ Pao = Kyo pu where P,, = turbine power in pu on S,p Pap = initial turbine power in pu'on S,y Ai = Sof RyoeSow Aw ~ speed deviation, rad/s Verify the expressions in (a) and (b) ‘A synchronous machine having inertia constant H = 40 MJ/MVA is initially operated in steady state against an infinite bus with angular displacement of 30 elec deg and delivering LO pu power. Find the natural frequency of oscillation for this machine, assuming small perturbations from the operating point A solid-rotor synchronous generator is driven by an unregulated turbine with a torque speed characteristic similar to that of Figure 2.3(a). The machine has the same characteris- tics and operating conditions as given in Problem 2 14 and is connected to an infinite bus. Find the natural frequency of oscillation and the damping coefficient, assuming small perturbations from the operating point. ‘Suppose that (2.33) is written for a salient pole machine to include reluctance torque term; ic., let P= Pysind + ksin23. For this condition find the expression for P, and for the synchronizing power coefficient Derive an expression similat to that of (2 7) for an interconnection of two finite machines that have inertia constants M, and M, and angles 4, and ,. Show that the equations for such a ease are exactly equivalent to that of a single finite machine of inertia M = M,M,/(M, + M,) and angle 6,, = 3, — dy connected to an infinite bus50 Chapter 2 25 Derive linearized expressions (similar to Example 22) that describe an interconnection ofthree finite machines with inertia constants My, M;, and My and angles , 63. and 5) Is there a simple expression for the natural frequency of oscillation in this case? Desig- nate synchronizing power between machines 1 and 2.a8 Py», el¢ 2.16 The system shown in Figure P2 16 has two finite synchronous machines, each represented by a constant voltage behind reactance and connected by a pure reactance. The reactance x includes the transmission line and the machine reactances. Write the swing equation for each machine, and show that this system can be reduced to an equivalent one machine against an infinite bus. Give the inertia constant for the equivalent machine, the mechani cal input power, and the amplitude of its power-angle curve, The inertia constants of the two machines are 17, and Hy s Fig P216 217. Thesystem shown in Figure P2.17 comprises four synchronous machines. Machines 4 and B are 60 Hz, while machines C and D are $0 Hz; B and C are a motor-generator set (frequency changer) Write the equations of motion for thissystem Assume that the trans- mission networks are reactive Fig P217 218 The system shown in Figure P2.18 has two generators and three nodes Generator and transmission line data are given below. The result of a load-flow study is also given. A. three-phase fault occurs near node ? and is cleared in 0 1 s by removing line 5 Fig P218 (a) Perlorm all preliminary calculations for a stability study. Convert the system to a com- mon 100-MVA base, convert the loads to equivalent passive impedances, and calculate the generator internal voltages and initial angles. (b) Calculate the ¥ matrices for prefault, faulted, and postfault conditions (c) Obtain (numerically) time solutions for the internal general angles and determine if the system is stable.The Elementary Mathematical Model 51 Generator Data (in pu to generator MVA base) Generator y Xt 4 Rating ‘number (pu (ow (MW -s/MVA) (MYA) 1 028 008 5 50 3 0.25 0.07 4 120 “FX, = generator transformer reactance Transmission Line Data (resistance neglected) Line number: 3 4 5 6 X puto 008 = 006008013 100-MVA base Load-Flow Data bs Volaze Load Generator no. Magnitude pu Angle Mw MVAR Mw MVAR 1 1030 00 00 00 300 231 2 1.018 10 500 200 00 00 3 1.020 05 80.0 40.0 100.0 378 2.19 Reduce the system in Problem 2 18 to an equivalent one machine connected to an infinite 220 221 222 bus, Write the swing equation for the faulted network and for the network after the fault iscleared Apply the equal arca criterion to the fault discussed in Problem 2.18 What is the critical clearing angle? Repeat the calculations of Example 2 4, but with the following changes in the system of Figure 2 11 (a) Use a fault impedance of Z, = 0.01 + j0 pu. This is more typical of the arcing re- sistance commonly found in'a fault (b) Study the damping effect of adding a resistance to the transmission lines of R, in each fine where R, = 01 and 04 pu. To measure the damping, prepare an analog computer simulation for the system Implementation will require computation of ¥ 1, Yias the initial conditions, and the potentiometer settings. (©) Devise a method of introducing additional damping on the analog computer by adding a term K4é in the swing equation, Estimate the value of Ky by assuming that a slip of 2.5% gives a damping torque of 50% of full load torque (@) Make a parametric study of changes in the analog simulation for various values of FL For example, let H = 25,50,755. Repeat Problem 220 but with transmission line impedance for each line of R, + j0 8, where R, = 02, 05,08 pu Repeat the analog simulation and determine the critical clearing time to the nearest cycle This will sequire a means of systematically changing from the fault condition to the postfault (one ine open) condition after a measured time lapse. This can be accomplished by logical control on some analog computers or by care~ ful hand switching where logical control is not available Let V, = 095 Repeat Problem 2 21 using a line impedance of 0.2 + j08 Consider the effect of adding a “tocal” unity power factor load R,» at bus 3 fos the following conditions: Casel: Pip = 0.4 pu Po + jn = 0.4 + j020 pu Case 2: Pry = value to give the same generated power as Case 1 P. +i. = 0+ 10 pu Cased: Pro = 1.2 pu Po+ iQ, = -04% j02 pu (2) Compute the values of Ry and £ and find the initial condition for 5 for each case52 Chapter 2 (b) Compute the values of F,, and Pip for the prefault, faulted, and postiault condition if the fault impedance is'Z, = 001 + j0. Usethe computer for this, writing the ad- imittance matrices by inspection and reducing to find the two-port admittances (¢) Compute the analog computer settings for the simulation (@) Perform the analog computer simulation and plot the following variables: Ty T.. Tyy 66a) 5,02 ~ 8 Also, make a phase-plane plot of w, versus 6 Compare these re- sillts with similar plots with no local load present (©) Use the computer simulation to determine the critical clearing angle References 1 Kimbark, EW. Power System Stabiliy, Vol 1 Wiley, New York, 1948 2. Stevenson, WD Elentonts of Power System Analysis. nd e6. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962 3 Federal Power Commission. National Power Survey PC 2 USGPO Washington, DC , 1964 4 Lokay HE. and Thoits. P.O. Effects of future turbine-generator characteristics on transient sta- bility. LEEE Frans PAS-90:2427-31, 1971 5 ATE Subcommittee on Interconnection and Stability Factors First report of power system stabil ity Blecir Eng 56:261-82 1937 6 Venikov, VA. Transient Phewonena in Electrical Power Systems Pergamon Press. Macmillan Now York, 1964 1 Crary $B. Power Sy stem Stability Vol 2 Wiley. New York, 1947 & Suge GW. and El-abiad A H Computer Methods in Power System Analysis McGraw-Hill New York, 1968 % Concordia C. Effect of steam turbine reheat on speed-governor performance ASME } Eng Power 81-2016, 1959 10. Kirchmayer, LK. Economic Control of Interconnected Systems Wiley, New York. 1959 11 Young.C C. and Webler, RM. new stability program for predicting the dynamic performance ofeiectric power systems Proc Am Power Conf. 29:1126-38, 1967 12. Byerly RT” Sherman, DE. and Shortley, PB Stability. program data preparation manual Westinghouse Plectrie Corp Rept. 70-736. 1970 (Rev Dee 1971) 13 Concordia, C Synchronous machine damping and synchronizing torques AVE Trans 10:731-31 19st 14 Ray, ) J and Shipley, RB Dynamic system performance Paper 66 CP 709-PWR, presented at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting. New York. 1968 15 Anderson, P_M- and Nanakorn $ An analysis and comparison of certain low-order boiler models 184 Trans 14:17-23.1975chapter 3 System Response to Small Disturbances 3.1. Introduction is chapter reviews the behavior of an electric power system when subjected to small disturbances. It is assumed the system under study has been perturbed from a steady-state condition that prevailed prior to the application of the disturbance. This small disturbance may be temporary or permanent. If the system is stable, we would expect that for a temporary disturbance the system would return to its initial state, while a permanent disturbance would cause the system to acquire a new operating slate after a transient period. In either case synchronism should not be lost. Under normal operating conditions a power system is subjected to small disturbances at ran- dom. Itis important that synchronism not be lost under these conditions Thus system. behavior is a measure of dynamic stability as the system adjusts to small perturbations We now define what is meant by a small disturbance. The criterion is simply that the perturbed system can be linearized about a quiescent operating state An example of this linearization procedure was given in Section 2.5, While the power-angle rela- tionship for a synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus obeys a sine law (2.33), it was shown that for small perturbations the change in power is approximately propor tional to the change in angle (2 35). Typical examples of small disturbances are a small change in the scheduled generation of one machine, which results in a small change in its rotor angle 6, or a small load added to the network (say 1/100 of system capacity cor less) In general, the response of a power system to impacts is oscillatory. If the oscil- lations are damped, so that after sufficient time has elapsed the deviation or the change in the state of the system due to the small impact is small (or less than some prescribed finite amount), the system is stable. If on the other hand the oscillations grow in magni- tude or are sustained indefinitely, the system is unstable For a linear system, modern linear systems theory provides a means of evaluation of its dynamic response once a good mathematical model is developed. The mathe- matical models for the various components of a power network will be developed in greater detail in later chapters Here a brief account is given of the various phenomena experienced in a power system subjected to small impacts, with emphasis on the qualita- tive description of the system behavior 5354 Chapter 3 3.2. Types of Problems Studied The method of small changes, sometimes called the perturbation method [1,2, 3], is very useful in studying two types of problems: system response to small impacts and the distribution of impacts 3.2.1 System response to small impacts If the power system is perturbed, it will acquire a new operating state. If the perturbation is small, the new operating state will not be appreciably different from the initial one. In other words, the state variables or the system parameters will usually not change appreciably Thus the operation is in the neighborhood of a certain quiescent state xo. In this limited range of operation 2 nonlinear system can be de- scribed mathematically by linearized equations This is advantageous, since linear sys- tems are more convenient to work with. This procedure is particularly useful if the system contains control elements The method of analysis used to linearize the differential equations describing the system behavior is to assume small changes in system quantities such as 64, Us. P, (change in angle, voitage, and power respectively). Equations for these variables are found by making a Taylor series expansion about xo and neglecting higher order terms [4,56] The behavior or the motion of these changes is then examined. In ex- amining the dynamie performance of the system, it is important to ascertain not only that growing oscillations do not result during normal operations but also that the oscil- latory response to small impacts is well damped. If the stability of the system is being investigated, it is often convenient to assume that the disturbances causing the changes disappear The motion of the system is then free Stability is then assured if the system returns to its original state Such behavior can be determined in a linear system by examining the characteristic equation of the system. If the mathematical description of the system is in state-space form, ic., if the system is described by a set of first-order differential equations, ke Ax + Bu Gh the free response of the system can be determined {rom the eigenvalues of the A matrix 3.2.2. Distribution of power impacts When a power impact occurs at some bus in the network, an unbalance between the power input to the system and the power output takes place, resulting in a transient. When this transient subsides and a steady-state condition is reached, the power impact, is “shared” by the various synchronous machines according to their steady-state char- acteristics, which are determined by the steady-state droop characteristics of the various governors [5,7] During the transient period, however, the power impact is shared by the machines according to different criteria, If these criteria differ appreciably among groups of machines, each impact is followed by oscillatory power swings among groups of machines to reflect the transition from the initial sharing of the impact to the final adjustment reached at steady state Under normal operating conditions « power system is subjected to numerous ran- dom power impacts from sudden application or removal of loads As explained above, each impact will be followed by power swings among groups of machines that respond to the impact differently at different times. These power swings appear as power oscil-System Response to Small Disturbances 55 lations on the tie lines connecting these groups of machines This gives rise to the term “tie-tine osciltations.” In large interconnected power systems tie-line oscillations can become objectionable if their magnitude reaches a significant fraction of the tie-line loading, since they are superimposed upon the normal flow of power in the line. Furthermore, conditions may exist in which these oscillations grow in amplitude, causing instability, This problem is similar to that discussed in Section 3.21. It can be analyzed if an adequate math- ematical model of the various components of the system is developed and the’ dynamic response of this model is examined If we are interested in seeking an approximate answer for the magnitude of the tie-line oscillations, however, such an answer can be reached by a qualitative discussion of the distribution of power impacts. Such a discus- sion is offered here 3.3. The Unregulated Synchronous Machine. We start with the simplest model possible, ic. the constant-voltage-behind-tran- sient-reactance model. The equation of motion of a synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus and the electrical power output are given by (2 18) and (2.41) re- spectively or 2H #6 Py - Pe on a P= Pe + Pysin( ~ ¥) G2) Letting 6 = &) + 55, P, = Pay + Pa, Py = Paoand using the relationship sin(S ~ 7} = sin (by ~ ¥ + 84) © sin - ¥) + cos(o~ 5, G3) the linearized version of (3.2) becomes 2H Pos, ps. 20 G4) oe dP where ap, =f) Lp, - 3 . =, Pygc08 (65 ~ 1) 65) The system described by (3.4) is marginally stable (ie, oscillatory) for P, > 0. Its response is oscillatory with the frequency of oscillation obtained from the roots of the characteristic equation (2H /wg)s? + P, = 0, which has the roots 3 = ajV Pwo. /2H G.6) If the electrical torque is assumed to have a component proportional to the speed change, a damping term is added to (3 4) and the new characteristic equation becomes (2H/wn)? + (D/wn)s + P, = 0 By where D is the damping power coefficient in pu The roots of (3 7) are given by D . wp [/D\V 8HP)'? 1-7 Bl2)- al G8)56 Chopter 3 Usually (Dwr)? < 8HP,/on, and the roots are complex; ie, the response is oscilla- tory with an angular frequency of oscillation essentially the same as that given by (3.6) The system described by (3.7) is stable for P, > 0 and for D > 0 Lf either one of these quantities is negative, the system is unstable Venikov [4] reports that a situation may occur where the machine described by (3.4) can be unstable under light load conditions if the network is such that # < 7. This would be the case where there is appreciable series resistance (see [4], Sec. 3.2) From Chapter 2 we know that the synchronizing power coefficient P, is negative if the spontancous change in the angle 6 is negative A negative value of P, leads to unstable operation 3.3.1 Demagneti The model of constant main field-winding flux linkage neglects some important effects, among them the demagnetizing influence of a change in the rotor angle 6. To account for this effect, another model of the synchronous machine is used It is not our concern in this introductory discussion to develop the model or even discuss it in detail, as this will be accomplished in Chapter 6. Rather, we will state the assump- tions made in such a model and give some of the pertinent results applicable to this discussion These results ate found in de Mello and Concordia [8] and are based on a model previously used by Heffron and Phillips [9]. To account for the field con- ditions, equations for the direct and quadrature axis quantities are derived (see Chap- ter 4) Major simplifications are then made by neglecting saturation, stator resistance, and the damper windings The transformer voltage terms in the stator voltage equa- tions are considered negligible compared to the speed voltage terms. Linearized rela- tions are then obtained between small changes in the electrical power P.., the rotor angle 4, the field-winding voltage v,,, and the voltage proportional to the main field-winding flux £5 For a machine connected to an infinite bus through a transmission network, the following s domain relations are obtained, Pry = Kiba + ES B9 Ks KsKy So 14 Kyrhs ing effect of armature reaction Ea T + Kyrgs * . G19 where K; is the change in electrical power for a change in rotor angle with constant flux linkage in the direct axis, Kz is the change in electrical power for a change in the direct axis flux linkages with constant rotor angle, re is the direct axis open cir- cuit time constant of the machine, K, is an impedance factor, and K, is the demag- netizing effect of a change in the rotor angle (at steady state). Mathematically, we write Ky = Pra /Baley a0 = Pes/Eblag-0 K, = final value of unit step v, response = lim £,()h,-0 ' - Kew ~ ¢ lim Eis) 311 Kes orane ew en The constants K,, K,, and K, depend on the parameters of the machine, the exter- nal network, and the initial conditions Note that X; is similar to the synchronizing power coefficient P, used in the simpler machine model of constant voltage behind‘System Response to Small Disturbances 37 Fig. 31 Primitive linearized block diagram representation of generator model transient reactance Equations (3.9) and (3.10), with the initial equation (3 2), may be represented by the incremental block diagram of Figure 3 1 KKK K, Pa = (x, Kok: +o, 3.12 ( 1 ee 8 7 TF Bros ee) For the case where ¥,, = 0, KKK Pax = (k, - 22KoKs_) 5, («- ee) 1s) where we can clearly identify both the synchronizing and the demagnetizing compo- nents, Substituting in the linearized swing equation (3.4), we obtain the new characteristic equation, (with D = 0) [at ef — pM, «0 Wp T + Kyti05, or we have the third-order system a4! 2, Kin | eet tee + Ses +e K;KsK,) = 0 G14) Note that all the constants (3 11) are usually positive Thus from Routh's criterion (10] this system is stable if K, - K,K,K, > Oand K,KjK, > 0. The first of the-above criteria states that the synchronizing power coefficient K, must be greater than the demagnetizing component of clectsical power. The second criterion is satisfied if the constamts K;, Ky, and K, ate positive Venikov [4] points out that if the transmission network has an appreciable series capacitive reactance, it is possible that instability may occur This would happen because the impedance factor producing the constant K, would become negative. 3.3.2. Effect of small changes of speed In the linearized version of (3 2) we are interested in terms involving changes of power due to changes of the angle and its derivative. The change in power due to58 Chapter 3 44 was discussed above and was found to include synchronizing power component and a demagnetizing component due the change in £4 with 6, The change in speed, ©, = dé,/dt, causes a change in both electrical and mechanical power. In this case the new differential equation becomes wth. aed) on -(2] a+ Z 4) (3.15) a0 oo ho op a? Go de 36 As in (3.7) the change in electrical power due to small changes in speed is in the form of Pes = (Dioq)os 3.16) From Section 2.3 the change in mechanical power due to small changes in speed is also Jinear Pas = 9Pq/Bed]ogs Gin where dP, /dal,, can be obtained (rom a relation such as the one given in Figure 23 If a transient droop or regulation & is assumed, we may write in pu to the machine base Pax = —(1/Ryes/eq) pu (3.18) which is the equation of an ideal speed droop governor The system block diagram with speed regulation added is shown in Figure 3 2 Fig 32. Block diagram representation of the linearized model with speed regulation added istic equation of the system now becomes 2H ify, 1 Bak Ke a aba +(s TH Res The charact (3.19) (3.20)System Response to Small Disturbances 59 Again Routh's criterion may be applied to determine the conditions for stability This is left as an exercise (see Problem 3 2) 3.4. Modes of Oscillation of an Unregulated Multimachine System The electrical power output of machine / in an n-machine system is, Pay = ERG, +, E/E, Y, cos (4, ~ 8) . tn = B2G, + D> E(B, sin i, + Gy cos 8,) G21 im E, = constant voltage behind transient reactance for machine j ¥, = G, + {By is a diagonal clement of the network short circuit admittance matrix ¥ G,, + jB, is an off-diagonal element of the network short circuit admit- tance matrix Y Using the incremental model so that 4, = dj + djs, We compute sin 6, = sin jp C0 jy + COS dp Sin dyy & SiN Bip + ys COS Djo 608 8 & 608 do ~ Sys SI Oyo Finally. for P.j., Pas = dy E:E,(By 008 by) ~ Gy Sin bg) By (322) m For a given initial condition sin 4,9 and cos 4,9 are known, and the term in parentheses in (3.22) isaconstant. Thus we write Pas = Dy Pa Sia G23) where oP, Py A Ta] £,6,(B, 008 0 ~ Gy sin dp) G24) ‘bao is the change in the electrical power of machine i due to a change in the angle between machines ¢ and j, with all other angles held constant. Its units are W/rad or pu power/rad, Itis a synchronizing power coefficient between nodes i and j and is identical to the coefficient discussed in Section 2.5.2 for one machine connected to an infinite bus We also note that since (3.21) applies to any number of nodes where the voltages are known, the linearized equations (3.22) and (3.23) can be derived for a given machine in terms of the voltages at those nodes and their angles Thus the concept of the syn- chronizing power coefficients can be extended to mean “the change in the electrical power of a given machine due to the change in the angle between its internal EMF and60 Chapter 3 any bus, with all other bus angles held constant.” (An implied assumption is that the voltage at the remote bus is also held constant) This expanded definition of the syn- chronizing power coefficient will be used in Section 3.6. Using the inertial model of the synchronous machines, we get the set of linearized differential equations, . ® 2H dbs YY £.6(B, cos by — GySinBye)iy, =O = 1,2, 2 G25) a dP I fe or 2H, 2, : ede te Patan 0 F=1,2,. 0 (3.26) i fer The set (3.26) is not a set of n-independent second-order equations, since 28, = 0 Thus (3.26) comprises a set of (n — 1)-independent equations. From (3.26) for machine i, Po. ar Bde dys 0 = 1,2. sm B27 Subtracting the nth equation from the ith equation, we compute Pip Poy, Ge Get ay Padia ~ BE ep, Pri dus = 0 G28) ia Hi jet Equation (3.28) can be put in the form, - £ bast EY Py ays ~ BE rates <0 P2122. 2-1 G29 fon Since 85a = Sina ~ Sina (3.30) (3.29) can be further modified as Cas YE ovin O f= 12 wot 3H where the coefficients a, depend on the machine inertias and synchronizing power co- efficients Equation (3 $1) represents a set of n — 1 linear second-order differential equations or a set of 2(n ~ 1) first-order differential equations We will use the latter formula- tion to examine the free response of this system Let xy, x2) Xp be the angles dpa binas--- 14 1yua Tespectively, and let Xp Nanna be the time derivatives of these angles, The system equations are of the formSystem Response to Small Disturbances 61 (333) where U = the identity matrix X, = then — 1 vector of the angle changes 5,,, X, = them — | vector of the speed changes dé, /dt To obtain the free response of the system, we examine the eigenvalues of the charac- teristic matrix [11,12]. This is obtained from the characteristic equation derived from equating the determinant of the matrix to zero, as follows: -M | U det} ----4 = detM A [-.U where ) is the eigenvalue. Since the matrix —AU is nonsingular, we compute the de- terminant of M as iM] = {-AU| |(-AU) - A(-av)-'U | = (GRIT AU = Gayl = [RU - Al (335) (See Lefschetz [12], p 133) The system described by |MJ = 0, or |MU - A/ = 0, has 2(n — 1) imaginary roots, which occur in n — 1 complex conjugate pairs Thus the system has — 1 frequencies of oscillations (3.34) Example 31 Find the modes of oscillation of a three-machine system The machines are unregu- lated and classical model representation is used Solution For an unregulated three-machine system, the system equations are given by 2H, Poa, de + Prdaa + Prrdiss = 0 2h; dbs EGE + Paibna + Pandas = 0 2H d Pb, 228 + Pada + Pndng = 0 oe dt 2183 a baa,62 Chopter 3 Multiplying the above three equations by «/2H, and subtracting the third equation from the first two, we get (noting that 6, = —4,) Pbisy , On cn On Oy Phas 4 am Pasbing + ca a Po ‘se + if Finda = 0 Pose Oe ps, a ina = 0 7 oh, “21d2a + an ; Prvdny + ih Pas ne 70} 8na If we eliminate 4124 by noting that 5;,, + 3:3, + dyia = 0, the following two equations are obtained: p « fon 5 Gir Pay + SE Pay + SR ‘em +( ae 2H; on on Pay — SE Pya\ina = 0 2H, 2H, bn Pony. [ow Wp ) a Set bsg Pet ~ app Patt Ouse Pai +E Pay + SE Pen)Oa = 0 ae * (2H, 2H, ene * oh auton 2H, or 2 2 Fis s aydng + dng = 0 SB + casting + arabe = 0 The state-space representation of the above system is boa 0 O | EF Of bn bag 0 OO 1] i bas Sus) | ay —an | 0 0 \Jwne fra] [-an an | 0 0} [wry To obtain the cigenvalues of this system, the characteristic equation is given by Now by using (3.35), tay ay det -0 ay Mba, OF + a)? + ap) ~ aren = 0 M+ (Qu + An) + (Aye = O24) = 0 = (/2M—Cn + am) # Mey + @P ~ Aen — a2)!"System Response to Small Disturbances 63 Examining the coefficients a,, we can see that both values of X* are negative real quantities. Let these given values beA = + j8, A= jy The free response will be in the form 6, = C, cos (Bt + $1) + C2 008 (yt + #2), where C,, Co, d), and @ ate constants Example 32 Consider the three-machine, nine-bus system of Example 2.6, operating initially in the steady state with system conditions given by Figure 2.18 (load flow) and the com- puted initial values given in Example 26 for E,/%g,i = 1,2, 3. A small 10-MW load (about 3% of the total system load of 315 MW) is suddenly added at bus 8 by adding a three-phase fault to the bus through 10.0 pu impedance ‘The system base is 100 MV. Assume that the system load after 1 = 0 is constant and consists of the original load plus the 10 pu shunt resistance at bus 8 Compute the frequencies of oscillation that will result from this small disturbance Then compare these computed frequencies against those actually observed in a digital computer solution Assume there are no governors active on any of the three turbines ‘Observe the system response for about two seconds. Solution First we compute the frequencies of oscillation From (3 24) Puy = ViVi(By 008 Bip — Gy Sit Bq) SV, VB, COS Byo From Example 2 6 we find the data needed to compute P,, with the results shown in Table3 1 Table 3.1. Synchronizing Power Coefficients of the Network of Example 2.6 ¥ “i % By yo Py 12 10566 1.0502, 1513 174598 16015 23 1.0502 10170 1 O88 6 5563 11544 31 4.0170 1.0566 1.226 10.9035, 1.2936 Note that the 4/9 are the values of the relative rotor angles at ¢ = 0. Since these are rotor angles, they will not change at the time of impact, so these are also the correct, values for r = 0*, Thisis also true of angles at load buses to which appreciable inertia is connected For loads that are essentially constant impedance, however, the voltage angle will exhibit a step change. Also from Example 26 we know H, = 23 64, 6.40, and 301 for = 1, 2, 3 respec- tively, Thus we can compute the values of a, from Example 31 as follows: ay = (wR /2)(Par/Hy + Pys/Hy + Posi /Hs) = 104.096 ez = (@p/2)(Paya/Hy — Pryn/Hy) = 59.524 @, = (we /2)(Po)/Hy — Py /H)) = 68.241 = (we /2)(Pari/Ha + Pars/Ha + Pen/ Hi) 119.065 Then (1/2). (ea: + a) & Wei Fan? = Maxi — 24) —(1/2)[-223.61 & 49860 83 — 33328 85] - —47.409 or — 175.75264 Chapter 3 Now we can compute the frequencies and periods shown in Table 3.2 Table32. Frequencies of Oscillation of a Nine-Bus System Quantity Eigenvalue 1 —_Bigenvalue2 AN +)6 885, #113257 orad/s 6.885 13.257 fiz 1096 2.410 Ts 092 474 Thus two frequencies, about 1.1 Hz and 2.1 Hz, should be observed in the inter- machine oscillations of the system. This can be approximately verified by an actual so- lution of the system by digital computer. The results of such a solution are shown in Figure 3 3, where absolute angles are given in Figure 3 3(a) and angle differences rela- tive to 8, are given in Figure 3.3(b). As might be expected, neither of the computed frequencies is clearly observed since the response is a combination of the two frequen- cies A rough measurement of the peak-to-peak periods in Figure 3.3(b) gives periods in the neighborhood of 0.7 s. Methods have been devised (3, 11] by which a system such as the one in Example 3.2 can be transformed to a new frame of reference called the Jordan canonical form In Jordan form the different frequencies of oscillation are clearly separated. In the form of equations normally used, the variables 6, and 8,, (or other angle differences) contain oo 0m 1000 150 2000 2.500 Fig. 3 3 Unregulated response of the nine-bus system to a sudden load application at bus 8: (a) absolute angles, (b) angles relative to bySystem Response to Small Disturbances 65 “harmonic” terms generally involving all fundamental frequencies of oscillation, Hence we have difficulty observing these frequencies in measured physical variables. Example 3.3 Transform the system of Example 32 into the Jordan canonical form and show that in this form the system frequencies of oscillation are clearly distinguishable Solution The system equations for the three-machine problem are given by % : x & t Xa & t xy : ! . BY] [ean an! or & = Ax, where x is defined by %] Pons - x ay | | ons af Lens and the a coeflicients are computed in Example 3 2. ‘We now compute the eigenvectors of A, using any method [1, 3, 11] and call these vectors Ey, E;, Es, and E,. We then use these eigenvectors to define a matrix E. 0 06266 | —j0 06266 j 0.14523 | ~0.14523 j0.07543 | —j007543 | 0.13831 | 0.13831 083069 | 0.83069) 1.00000 | 1.00000 1.00000 | 1.00000 | -0.95234 | 0.95234 E = (EF, F, E, Bi) = where the numerical values are found by 2 suitable computer library routine We now define the transformation x = Ey tocomputeX = E¥ = Ax = AEy or ¥ = EX ABy = DywhereD = diag(ds.d:,As, Md Performing the indicated numerical work, we compute ~{3.9245 —j3.7008 02659 0.2792 3.5245 j3,7008 0.2659 0.2792 Ets —j1.9221 j1.5967 0.2792 0.2319 1.9221 —j1.5967 0.2792 -0.2319 -j13 2571 0.0 00 0.0 00 = j13.2571 (00 00 D ~ EAE = 00 00 = -j6. 8854 0.0 On) 00 0.0 56 885466 Chapter 3 Substituting into = Dy, we can compute the uncoupled solution y= Ge 7=1,234 where C; depends on the initial conditions. This method of computing the distinct frequencies of oscillation is quite general and may be applied to systems of any size. For very large systems this may not be practical, however, since the cigenvector computation may be too costly Finally, we note that the simple model used here assumes that no damping exists, In physical systems damping is usually present; therefore, the oscillatory response given above is usually damped, The magnitude of the damping, however, is such that the fre~ quencies of oscillation given by the above equations are not appreciably affected 3.5 Regulated Synchronous Machine In this section we examine the effect of voltage and speed control equipment on the dynamic performance of the synchtonous machine. Again we are interested in the free response of the system, We will consider two simple cases of regulation: a simple voltage regulator with one time lag and a simple governor with one time lag 3.5.1 Voltage regulator with one time lag Referring to Figure 2 24, we note that a change in the field voltage Us, is pro- duced by changes in either Vase or ¥;, If we assume that Vareg = Oand the transducer has no time lags, v-, depends only upon V,, modified by the transfer function of the excitation system Analysis of such a system is discussed in Chapter 7. To simplify the analysis, a rather simple model of the voltage regulator and excitation system is as- sumed This gives the following s domain relation between the change in the exciter voltage Ug, and the change in the synchronous machine terminal voltage Vj: Ure = — EK + 29 Ma 3.36) where K, = regulator gain 7, = segulator time constant To examine the effect of the voltage regulator on the system response, we return to the model discussed in Section 3.3 for a machine connected to an infinite bus through a transmission network. These relations are given in (3.9) and (3 10) To use (3 36), a relation between V, 6,,and Ej is needed Such a relation is de- veloped in reference (8) and is in the form Vig = Ks5y + Keka (337) where Ky = Via/Sale, — change in terminal voltage with change in rotor angle for constant E’ = change in terminal voltage with change in £’ for constant 6 Ke = Val Es The system block diagram with voltage regulation added is shown in Figure 3 4 From (3 36) and (3 37) Urs = —1K/L + 7 5)(Ks8s + KeFa) (3.38) Substituting in (3 10), we compute (Ksbg + Kes] - bersSystem Response to Smal Disturbances 67 Fig 3.4 System block diagram with voltage regulation or, rearranging, Ey =|- (3.39) From (3.39) and (3.9) s+ P= [K, - BE th o,/L, 1 ) 1+ KKK, eds(te ct) 4 tee ¢ Kyra) * Kitt. UN (3.40) Substituting in the s domain swing equation and rearranging, we obtain the follow- ing characteristic equation: tee(he a 5 u ( + he Sik) 2H \t.” Kyo tho + ey =0 G41) 4 oe [eit 2H | Ryton, Ker, Equation (3 41) is of the form Sb as + as’ tas +a = 0 (3.42) Analysis of this fourth-order system for stability is left as an exercise (see Problem 3.3)68 ‘Chapter 3 3.5.2 Governor with one time lag Referring to Figure 2 24, we note that a change in the speed w ot in the load or speed reference (governor speed changer (GSC)] produces a change in the mechanical torque J; The amount of change in T,, depends upon the speed droop and upon the transfer functions of the governor and the energy source For the model under consideration it is assumed that GSC, = 0 and that the com- bined effect of the turbine and speed governor systems are such that the change in the mechanical power is in the form Pra, 1K (C+ 7,5) 43) where K, Ts gain constant = 1/R governor time constant ‘The system block diagram with governor regulation is shown in Figure 3.5 Then the linearized swing equation in the s domain is in the form (2H /og)s?5a(s) = =[Ky/( + 745)]85a(5) — Peals) G44) The order of this equation will depend upon the expression used for P..(s)._ If we as- sume the simplest mode! possible, Pz4(s) = P,6a(3), the elraracteristic equation of the system is given by (QHfon)s? + (Ke f(t + Ty)Is + Pe = 0 3.45) or SiQHr,/on) + 9°(2H/or) + (Ky + Pity)s + P= 0 (3.46) The system is now of third order. Applying Routh’s criterion, the system is stable if K, > Oand P, > 0 Ifanother model is used for P,.(3), such 28 the model given by (39) and (3 10), the system becomes of fourth order, as shown in Figure 3.5 Its dynamic response will change Information on stability can be obtained front the roots of the charactesistic ‘equation or from examining the eigenvalues of its characteristic matrix Ke he T Fig 35 Block diagram of a system with governor speed regulation.System Response to Small Disturbances oo osc, -0 37 Fig 36 Block diagram of a system with a governor and voltage regulator If both speed governor and voltage regulation are added simultaneously, as is usually the case, the system becomes fifth order, as shown in Figure 3.6 3.6. Distribution of Power Impacts In this section we consider the effect of the sudden application of a small load P; at some point in the network. (See also [7,5]) To simplify the analysis, we also as- sume that the load has a negligible reactive component, Since the sudden change in load P,, creates an unbalance between generation and load, an oscillatory transient results before the system settles to a new steady-state condition This kind of impact is continuously occurting during normal operation of power systems The oscillatory transient is in fact a “spectrum” of oscillations resulting from the random change in loads. These oscillations are reflected in power flow in the tie lines. Thus the scheduled tic-line flows will have “random” power oscillations superimposed upon them Our concern here is to make an estimate of the magnitude of these power oscillations Note that the estimates made by the methods outlined below are only approximate, yet they are quite instructive We formulate the problem mathematically using the network configuration of Fig- ure 3.7 and the equations of Sections 2.9 and 34 Referring to the (w+ 1)-port net- work in Figure 37, the power into node i is obtained from (3.21) by adding node k E.G, +L E,E(B, sind, + G,,c086,,) + E,¥e(Bu sind, + Gy C08 54) jak For the case of nearly zero conductance P,& >) EE,B,sind, + E,ViBy sind, (3.47) a70 Chapter 3 Ty (ot Deport netwerk Fy ho \ \ } ye Fig. 37 Network with power impact at node k and the power into node & (the load bus) is, Py y VE, Byjsin 34, (348) jk Here we assume that the power network has a very high X/R ratio such that the conductances are negligible The machines are represented. by the classical model of constant voltage behind transient reactance. We also assume that the network has been reduced to the internal machine nodes (nodes 1,2,.. ., of Figure 2 17) and the node k, where the impact Pr . is applied The immediate effect (assuming the network response to be fast) of the application ‘of Pzq is that the angle of bus k is changed while the magnitude of its voltage %; is unchanged, os V; /dyq becomes V; /dg0 + dgg- Note also that the internal angles of the machine nodes 6), 5;,...,d, do not change instantly because of the rotor inertia, 3.6.1 Linearization ‘The equations for injected power (347) and (3.48) are nonlinear because of the transcendental functions. Since we are concerned only with a small impact P;4, we linearize these equations to find Poe Pot Piso Pr = Pro + Pea and determine only the change variables P,, and Pes The transcendental functions are linearized by the relations sin 5,, = sin (8x0 + dys) © Sin dy0 + (COS4430) 5455 60884; = COS (Bajo + diya) & COS S:;0 ~ (Sindis0)Oaja 3.49) for any k,j Note that the order kf must be carefully observed since 64, = — Bj. Sub- stituting (3 49) into (3.47) and (3 48) and eliminating the initial values, we compute the linear equations Pix = D> (EsE;By C085, bya + (VE: Bu 008840)5x2 = DL. Paydys + PeaBna i at irik Pas © 2 VaE Bry 008 5y0)8usa = Dy Payday (3.50) These equations are valid for any time ¢ following the application of the impactSystem Response to Small Disturbances 7 3.6.2 Aspecial case: # = 0* The instant immediately following the impact is of interest. In particular, we would like to determine exactly how much of the impact P,. is supplied by each generator Pim 12, At the instant ¢ = * we know that 4, = 0 for all generators because of rotor inertias Thus we can compute (with both j and j indicating generator subscripts) Sig = 0 Ba = bia — Bea = — 400°) Syn = Sea — Bya = Sea (O*) Thus (3.50) becomes Pig(0*) = —Pradsa(O*) — Pra") = z Paes (0") G5) £ Comparing the above two equations at 1 = 0*, we note that at node k Pus(0") = ~ D> Pia(0*) (352) oi This is to be expected since we are assuming a nearly reactive network, We also note that at node i Pi, depends upon By cosdy9. In other words, the higher the transfer susceptance By and the lower the initial angle duo, the greater the share of the im- pact “picked up” by machine i, Note also that P,y = —Prs, 0 the foregoing equa- tions can be written in terms of the load impact as. Pra) = => Pusdts(0") = D> Pal") (3.53) From (3.52) and (3 53) we conclude that 445(0*) = —Pra(0") / X Pa (354) PaO") = (ra/ xy a) Pis(*) te 12 355) fH Itis interesting that at the instant of the load impact (ie, at 1 = 0%, the source of energy supplied by the generators is the energy stored in their magnetic fields and is distributed according to the synchronizing power coefficients between i and k. Note that the generator rotor angles cannot move instantly; hence the energy supplied by the generators cannot come instantly from the energy stored in the rotating masses. This is also evident from the first equation of (3.51); Pi depends upon P,x or By, which depends upon the reactance between generator i and node k Later on when the rotor angles change, the stored energy in the rotating masses becomes important, as shown below Equations (3 52) and (3.55) indicate that the load impact P,4 at a network bus k is immediately shared by the synchronous generators according to their synchronizing power coefficients with respect to the bus k Thus the machines electrically close to the point of impact will pick up the greater share of the load regardless of their size Let us consider next the deceleration of machine i due to the sudden increase in its output power P,, The incremental differential equation governing the motion of machine Zs given by72 Chapter 3 2H, de Bede t Pa =O Fa 1,2 ym G56) and using (3.55) 2H; doa : . - Gee (-./ x Pu) y=0 f= 12, yn Then if P;4 is constant for all ¢, we compute the acceleration in pu to be 1 dow _ _ Put fF age (Pio fz ra) Obviously, the shaft decelerates for a positive load Pr,. The pu deceleration of ma- chine i, given by (357), is dependent on the synchronizing power coefficient P,. and inertia H,. This deceleration will be constant until the governor action begins Note that after the initial impact the various synchronous machines will be retarded at differ- ent rates, each according to its size H, and its “electrical location” given by Pa 1,2, 0 (3.57) 3.6.3 Average behavior prior to governor action (t = f:) We now estimate the system behavior during the period 0 < 1 < t,, where f is the time at which governor action begins To designate this period simply, we refer to time as f, although there is no specific instant under consideration but a brief time period of no more than a few seconds Looking at the system as a whole, there will be an overall deceleration of the machines during this period To obtain the mean deceleration, let _us define an “inertial center” that has angle § and angular velocity @, where by definition, SL /LA)EGH, FS (U/LH) Lal, (3.58) ‘Summing the set (3 57) for all values of i, we compute 22 g (Hieia) = Pra = —Pral0*) (3.39) da, + /> Hane Pes |e 2H, G60) Equation (3.60) gives the mean acceleration of all the machines in the system, which is defined here as the acceleration of a fictitious inertial center. ‘We now investigate the way in which the impact Pr, will be shared by the various machines Note that while the system as a whole is retarding at the rate given by (3.60), the individual machines are retarding at different rates. Each machine follows an oscillatory motion governed by its swing equation. Synchronizing forces tend to pull them toward the mean system retardation, and after the initial transient decays they will acquire the same retardation as given by (3.60), In other words, when the transient decays, do,,/dé will be the same as di, /de as given by (3.60). Substituting this value of day,/d¢ in (3.56), at f = , > toy Piatti) = (u/% 1) Pra(0*) G61) Thus at the end of a brief transient the various machines will share the increase in load as a function only of their inertia constants. The time 1, is chosen large enoughSystem Response to Small Disturbances 73 so that all the machines will have acquited the mean system retardation, At the same time ¢, is not so large as to allow other effects such as governor action to take place Equation (3.61) implies that the H constants for all the machines are given to a common base. If they are given for each machine on its own base, the correct powers are ob- tained if H is replaced by HS,;/S,», where Sy; is the machine rating and S,y is the chosen system base. Examining (3.56) and (3.61), we note that immediately after the impact Pra(ie., at 1 = 0*) the machines share the impact according to their electrical proximity to the point of the impact as expressed by the synchronizing power coefficients After a brief transient period the same machines share the same impact according to entirely differ- ent criteria, namely, according to their inertias. Example 3.4 Consider the nine-bus, three-machine system of Example 2.6 with a small 10-MW resistive load added to bus 8 as in Example 3.2. Solve the system differential equations and plot P,, and w,, as functions of time. Compare computed results against the- oretical values of Section 3.6 Paelts) = 1.94 Time, + Fig 38 Pig versus ¢ following application of a 10 pu resistive load at bus 8 Solution ‘A nominal 10-MW (0.1 pu) load is added to bus 8 by applying a three-phase fault through a 10 pu resistance, using a library transient stability program. The resulting power oscillations Ps, i = 1, 2, 3, are shown in Figure 3.8 for the system operating without governor action The prefault conditions at the generators are given in Table 3.1 and in Example 2.6 From the prefault load flow of Figure 2 19 we determine that Vio = 1016 and dj = 0.7°. A matrix reduction of the nine-bus system, retaining only nodes 1, 2, 3, and 8, azives the system data shown on Table 3.314 Chapter 3 Table3.3. Transfer Admittances and Initial Angles of a Nine-Bus System. a Gy ay Bu 1-8 0.01826 2.51242 15717 2-8 003530 3.55697 19 0315 3-8 — 0.00965 2.61601 12.4752 From (3.24) we compute the synchronizing power coefficients Pa = ViVi(By 00S 5uq — Gusin duo) These values are tabulated in Table 34, Note that the error in neglecting the Gx term is small Synchronizing Power Coefficients P, Pri ewoglecting Ga) (ith Gig term) 18 2.6961 26955 28 3 5878 3.6001 38 2.6392 2.6414. DP sn 8.9231 8.9370 The values of P;.(0*) are computed from (3 55) as Pig(0*) = (ea / x ra) Prs(0") i where P,,(0*) = 10.0 MW nominally, The results of these calculations and the actual values determined from the stability study are shown in Table 3.5. Table 3.5. Initial Power Change at Generators Due to 10-MW Load Added to Bus 8 w @ @ 6) © Pia Pig Pia Pie i (withGa) (Computer study) [NOL] —_—191% oF 3] 1 3.016 28 2749 2.745 2 4.028 36 3.659 3.665 3 2.956 27 2.692 2.690 EPs 10.000 on 9.100 9.100 Note that the actual load pickup is only 9.1 MW instead of the desired 10 MW, This is due in part to the assumption of constant voltage Yj at bus 8 (actually, the voltage drops slightly) and to the assumed linearity of the system. If the computed Pia are scaled down by 0.91, the results agree quite well with values measured from the computer study. These values are also shown on the plot of Figure 3.8 at time ¢ = 0* and are due only to the synchronizing power coefficients of the generators with respect to bus 8 The plots of P,, versus time in Figure 3 8 show the oscillatory nature of the power exchange between generators following the impact ‘These oscillations have frequencies that are combinations of the eigenvalues computed in Example 32 The total, labeled Pin, averages about 9 5 MWSystem Response to Small Disturbance 75 Tine, 0.1 0,2 0.3 04 05 0.6 07 0.8 0,9 1,0 1,1 12 1,9 14 1S 16 17 U8 19 20 Net Uy Ne Bocoms Fig 39 Speed deviation fotlowing application of a 10 pu resistive load at bus 8 Another point of interest in Figure 3.8 is the computed values of Pis(t,) that depend entirely on the machine inertia, These calculations are made from Pitts) = (Hi/E Hi) Pea = 10H,/23.64 + 6.40 + 301) = 10H,/33.05 71SMW ied 194MW i= 2 = 091MW pad and the results are plotted in Figure 3.8 as dashed lines [1 is fairly obvious that the Pile) oscillate about these values of Py.(%,) It is also apparent that the system has little damping and the oscillations are likely to persist for some time This is partly due to the inherent nature of this particular system, but the same phenomenon would be present to some extent on any system The second plot of interest is the speed deviation or slip as a function of time, shown in Figure 39. The computer program provides speed deviation data in Hz and these units are used in Figure 39. Note the steady deceleration with all units oscillating about the mean or inertial center This is computed as de Pes ON a ISH, 223.64 + 640 + 301) ~1513 x 107 pu/s = —0 570 rad/s? = —0.0908 H2/s The individual machine speed deviations w,, are plotted in Figure 3.9 and show graphi- cally the intermachine oscillations that occur as the system slowly retards in frequency The mean deceleration of about 0.09 Hz/s is plotted in Figure 3 9 as a straight line If the governors were active, the speed deviation would level off after a few seconds to a constant value and the oscillations would eventually decay Since the governors have a drooping characteristic, the speed would then continue at the reduced value as7 Chopter 3 long as the additional load was present. If the. speed deviation is great, signifying a substantial load increase on the generators, the governors would need to be readjusted to the new load level so that additional prime-mover torque could be provided Example 3.5 Let us examine the effect of the above on the power flow in tie lines Consider a power network composed of two areas connected with @ tic line, as shown in Fig- ure 3.10 The wo areas are of comparable size, say 1000 MW each. They ate con- nected with a tie line having capacity of 100 MW. The tie line is carrying a steady power flow of 80 MW from area I to area 2 as shown in Figure 3.10. Now let a load impact P,, = 10 MW (1% of the capacity of one area) take place at some point in area I, and determine the distribution of this added load immediately after its applica- tion (1 = 0*) and a short time later (1 = 1) after the initial transients have subsided. Because of the proximity of the groups of machines in area I to the point of impact, their synchronizing power coefficients are larger than those of the groups of machines in area 2 If we define 3) Paclaess = Pry EPaelarcaz = Pay then let us assume that P,, = 2Pa Pn 1oMw. Fig 310 Two areas connected with a tie line Solution Since P,, = 2P;2, at the instant of the impact 2/3 of the 10-MW load will be sup- plied by the groups of machines in area 1, while 1/3 or 33 MW will be supplied by the groups of machines in area 2, Thus 33 MW will appear as a reduction in te-line flow In other words, at that instant the tie-line flow becomes 76.7 MW toward area 2 At the end of the initial transient the load power impact P:. will be shared by the machines according to their inertias, Let us assume that the machines of area | are Tie Line Poor Bae MW Tne, ¢ Fig 4.11 Tie-line power osciltations due ta the load impact in area 1System Response to Small Disturbances 7 predominantly hydro units (with relatively small H), while the units of area 2 are of larger inertia constants such that Milena: = 2£Hileras Where all H's are on a com- mon base. Ihe sharing of the load among the groups of machines will now become 6.7 MW contributed from area 2 and 33 MW from area 1. The tie-line flow will now become 73 3 MW (toward area 2) From the above we can see that in the situation discussed in this example a sudden application of 2 10-MW load caused the tie-line flow to drop almost instantly by 3.3 MW, and after a brief transient by 67 MW The transition from 76.7-MW flow to 73.3-MW flow is oscillatory, and power swings of as much as twice the diflerence between these two values may be encountered. This situation is illustrated in Fig- ure 3.11 The time 1, mentioned above is smaller than the time needed by the various con- trollers to adjust the system generation to match the load and the tie-line flow to meet the scheduled flow Example 36 We now consider a slightly more complex and mote realistic case wherein the area equivalents in Figure 3.10 arc represented by their Thevenin equivatents and the tic- line impedance is given. The system data are given in Figure 3.12 in pu on a 1000-MVA base. The capacity of area 1 is 20,000 MW and that of area 2 is 14,000 MW. The inertia constants of the machines in the two areas are about equal (a) Find the equations of power for P, and P, (b) Find the operating condition when P; = 100 MW. This would correspond ap- proximately to a 100-MW tie-line flow from area I to area 2, (©) Find the synchronizing power coefficients (@) Consider a sudden load addition to area 2, represented by the resistive load Pry at bus 4 If this load is 200 MW (1.43% of the capacity of area 2), find the distri- bution of this load at ¢ = 0 andi = 4 ae ‘Area 1 equivalent Te Fine ‘Aveo 2 equivalent Fig 312 Two arcas connected by a tie line Solution Consider the system as a two-port network between nodes 1 and 2 Then we com- pute Zi. = 0.450 + j1 820 = 1.875 /76.112° pu Far = 1/Zq = 0533 /- 76.112" = 0128 ~ j0.518 pu 0 533 /103.888" Bo = g0 = 078 Chapter 3 ~0.128 bn = — 0518 (a) P. = Vigo + Vi ¥a(Gincosd + Brsin dn) — ViGa 0 + 10(-0 128cosd, + 0.518sind,) + 0.128 0.128 + 0.533sin(, ~ 13.796°) = Vigm + WV(Gnc0sby + Bysin’s,) - V3Gn = 0 + 10(-0 128 cos4, - 0 518sind,) + 0.128 = 0.128 — 0.533sin(d, + 13 796°) (b) Given that P; = 01 pu 0.100 = 0.128 + 0.533sin(, — 13796") 6, = 10.784" V,Va(Bi2 608 5329 — Giz sin d,20) = 1,0(0.518 cos 10 784° + 0 128sin 10.784") = 0.533 V, V(Bxs 6088399 ~ Ga, Sin By) . = 1.0[0 518 cos(—~10.784°) + 0.128 sin (—10.784")] = 0.509 (d) Now add the 200-MW load at bus 4; P,, = 200/1000 = 02 pu To complete the problem, we must know the voltage 7, ats = 0° Thus we com- pute (o) 100°) = (Ke - F)/2n = (1 0 £10.784" — 1 0 /0)/1 875 /76.112" = 0.100 /19.280" V0") = EB, + (0 100 + j0.012)f,, = 1.009 + j0.004 = 1.009 /0.252° ba = 0.252 yay = Bi — Su = 10532" yy = B29 — dig = ~ 0.252" From the admittance matrix elements Yn = Die = 1/2 = -O451 + j1 042 Pag = —Jre = 1/2 = -9 858 + j1 183 we compute the synchronizing power coefficients Pau = ViValBysc08 510 — Gu Sin dro) (1. 009)(1,042 cos 10 532° + 0.451 sin 10.532") = L117 Prag = VeVi(Bu C08 5249 — Gre SiN O20) = 1:009[1 183cos(—0.252") + 9.858sin(—0.252")] = 1 150 Then the initial distribution of Py is Pig(0*) = Pre(O.2)/(Pare + Pra) = (0.493)(0.2) = 0.0986 pu Prg(O*) = Pras(02)/(Prin + Pra) = (0.507)(0.2) = 0.1014 pu The power distribution according to inertias is computed as Prat.) = 0.2(20,000H /(20,000H + 14,000H)| = 0.11765 pu Pag(th) = 0.2[14,0004/(20,000H + 14,000/7)} = 0.08235 pu In this example the synchronizing power coefficients P,., and P, are nearly equal, while the inertias of the two areas are not. Thus while the fitial distributions of theSystem Response to Small Disturbances 79 load P,, are about the same, the distributions at a later time ¢ = f, are such that area | picks up about 59% of the load and area 2 picks up the remaining 41%, In general, the initial distribution of a load impact depends on the point of impact. Problem 3.10 gives another example where the point of impact is in area | (bus 3) In the above discussion many factors have been neglected, eg, the effect of the network transfer conductances, the effect of the reactive component of the load impact, the fast primary controllers such as some of the modern exciters, the load frequency and voltage characteristics, and others Thus the conclusions reached above should be considered qualitative and as rough approximations Yet these conclusions are basically sound and give a good “feel” for what happens to the machines atid to the tie-line fiows under the influence of small routine load changes, If the system is made up of groups of machines separated by tie lines, they share the impacts differently under different conditions. Hence they will oscillate with respect to each other during the transient period following the impact The power flow in the connecting ties will reflect these oscillations The analysis given above could be extended to include governor actions Following an impact the synchronous machines will share the change first according to their synchronizing power coefficients, then after @ brief period according to their inertias The speed change will be sensed by the prime-mover governors, which will act to make the load sharing according to an entirely different criterion, namely, the speed governor droop characteristic The transition from the second to the finat stage is oscillatory (see Rudenberg (7|, Ch 23) The angular frequency of these oscillations can be esti- mated as follows From Section 35.2, neglecting P,,, the change in the mechanical power P,,4 is of the form =U/R ws Ps = Ty oa ae (3.62) where R is the regulation and 7, is the servomotor time constant. The swing equation for machine / becomes, in the s domain, Wises, WR wa _ 9 we T+ ras oe The characteristic equation of the system is given by SU /rads + 1/2HRita = 0 (3.63) from which the natural frequeney of oscillation can be estimated Itis interesting to note the order of magnitude of the frequentcy of oscillation in the two different transients discussed in this section, For a given machine (or a group of machines) the frequency of oscillation in the first transient is the natural frequency with respect to the point of impact These frequencies are determined by finding the eigen- values of the A matrix by solving det (A - XU) = 0, where U is the unit matrix and A is defined by (3.1) For the second transient, which occurs during the transition from sharing according to inertia to sharing according to governor characteristic, the {requeney of oscillation is given by vi = [/2H,Rir.. Usually these two frequencies are appreciably different.80 31 32 33 a4 35 36 37 38 39 Chapter 3 Problems A synchronous machine is connected to a large system (an infinite bus) through a long. transmission line The direct axis transient reactance xy = 020 pu The infinite bus voltage is 1.0 pu The transmission line impedance is Zige ~ 0.20 + j060 pu The synchronous machine is to be represented by constant voltage behind transient reactance with £' = 110 pu. Calculate the minimum and maximum steady-state load delivered at the infinite bus (for stability). Repeat when there is a local load of unity power factor having Rigg = 8 0 pu Use Routh’s criterion to determine the conditions of stability for the system where the characteristic equation is given by (3 14) Compute the characteristic equation for the system of Figure 31, including the damping term, and determine the conditions for stability using Routh’s criterion. Compare the results with those of Section 33.1 Using 34 as the output variable in Figure 32, use block diagram algebra to reduce the system block diagram to forward and feedback transfer functions Then determine the system stability and possible system behavior patterns by sketching an approximate root- locus diagram Use block diagram algebra to reduce the system described by (345) Then determine the system behavior by sketching the root loci for variations in Ky Give the conditions for stability of the system described by (3 20) ‘A system described by (3 41) has the following data: H = 4, rip = 50,1, = 010, Ki = 48, Ky = 26K; = 026, Ky = 330, Ks = Ol,and Ke = 05° Find the maximum and minimum values of K, for stability. Repeat for Ks = -020 ‘Write the system described by (3 46) in state-space form Apply Rovth’s criterion to (3 46) The equivalent prefault network is given in Table 2.6 for the three-machine system dis cussed in Section 2 10 and for the given operating conditions. The internal voltages and angles of the generators are given in Example 2 6. (a) Obtain the synchronizing power coefficients Pras Puss Pas. and the corresponding Coefficients «, [see (3 31)] for small perturbations about the given operating point (b) Obtain the natural frequencies of oscillation for the angles 6:35 and 5154 Compare with the periods of the nonlinear oscillations of Example 2 7 310 Repeat Example 3 6 with the impact point shifted to area I and let Pz3 = 100 MW as before. 311 Repeat Problem 3.10 for an initial condition of Pra = 300 MW. References 3 10 u 12. Korn,G A, and Korn, 1 M Mathematical Handbook for Sciemists and Engineers McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968 Hayashi, C Nonlinear Oscillations in Physical Systems McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964 Takahashi, Y , Rabins, M. J, and Auslander, D M_ Conzrol and Dynamic Systems Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass, 1970 Venikov, VA. Transient Phenomena in Electric Power Systems Trans by B Adkins and D Ruten- berg Pergamon Press, New York, 1964 Hote, RA Advanced Studies wy Electrical Power System Design Chapman and Hall, London, 1966. Crary,8 B_ Power System Stabifiry Vols. 1, 2 Wiley, New Yosk, 1945, 1947 Rudenberg, R Transient Performance of Electric Power Systems. Phenomena in Lumped Networks McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950 (MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass 1967) de Mello, F B., and Concordia, C_ Concepts of synchronous machine stability as affected by excita- tion control JEEE Trans. PAS-88;316-29, 1969 Heffron, W.G ,and Phillips, RA” Effect of a modern amplidyne voltage regulator on underercited operation of large turbine generators AEE Trans 71 (Pt 3):692-97. 1952 Routh EJ. Dynamics of a System of Rigid Bodies Macmillan, London, 1877 (Adams Prize Essay ) Ogata. K State-Space Analysis of Control Systems Prentice-Hall, Englewood Clifis, NJ, 1967 Lefschetz, § Stability af Nontinear Controf Systems Academic Press New York, London, 1965PART Il The Electromagnetic Torquechops The Synchronous Machine 4.1 Introduction In this chapter we develop a mathematical model for a synchronous machine for use in stability computations. State-space formulation of the machine equations is used. Two models are developed, one using the currents as state variables and another using the flux linkages. Simplified models, which are often used for stability studies, are dis- cussed This chapter is not intended to provide an exhaustive treatment of synchronous machine theory, The interested readet should consult one of the many excellent refer- ences on this subject (sce (1}-19)) The synchronous machine under consideration is assumed to have three stator windings, one field winding, and two amortisseur or damper windings These six wind- ings are magnetically coupled The magnetic coupling between the windings is a function of the rotor position. Thus the flux linking each winding is also a function of the rotor position The instantaneous terminal voltage v of any winding is in the form, v=4bnedk (4.1) where is the flux linkage, ris the winding resistance, and / is the current, with posi- tive directions of stator currents flowing out of the generator terminals The notation 42 indicates the stimmation of all appropriate terms with due regard to signs The expressions for the winding voltages are complicated because of the variation of \ with the rotor position 4.2 Park's Transformation A great simplification in the mathematical description of the synchronous machine is obtained if a certain transformation of variables is performed The transformation used is usually called Park's transformation [10,11]. It defines a new set of stator variables such as currents, voltages, or flux linkages in terms of the actual winding vari- ables. The new quantities are obtained from the projection of the actual variables on three axes: one along the direct axis of the rotor field winding, called the direct axis; a second along the neutral axis of the field winding, called the quadrature axis; and the third on a stationary axis. Park's transformation is developed mathematically as fol- jows ' 1. The transformation developed and used in this book is not exactly that used by Pack [10,11] but is sore nearly that suggested by Lewis [12] with certain other features suggested by Concordia (discussion 0 [12}) and Krause and Thomas(13} 8384 Chopter 4 aonie aos Fig. 4 1 Pictorial representation of a synchronous machine, We define the d axis of the rotor at some instant of time to be at angle @ rad with respect to a fixed reference position, as shown in Figure 4.1. Let the stator phase cur- rents /,, ig, and /, be the currents leaving the generator terminals. If we “project” these currents along the d and g axes of the rotor, we get the relations ia = (2/3){f.8in@ + i,sin(6 — 2/3) + i,sin(@ + 2"/3)) (2/3){é, cos8 + i,cos(@ — 2x/3) + icos(@ + 2x/3)) 42) We note that for convenience the axis of phase a was chosen to be the reference Position, otherwise some angle of displacement between phase a and the arbitrary reference will appear in all the above terms The effect of Park’s transformation is simply to tansform all stator quantities from phases a, b, and ¢ into new variables the frame of reference of which moves with the rotor We should remember, however, that if we have three variables i,, /,, and i, we need three new variables Park's transformation uses two of the new variables as the d and q axis components The third variable is a stationary current, which is proportional to the zero-sequence current A multiplier is used to simplify the numeri- cal calculations Thus by definition tan (43) where we define the current vectors to lo fag =| fe is (44) iy a and where the Park's transformation P is defined as, . ve vr Vv P = V273) cos# cos(6 — 2/3) cos(# + 2/3) (45) sing sin(@ — 2x/3) sin(@ + 2/3) The main field-winding fiux is along the direction of the d axis of the rotor _It produces an EMF that lags this flux by 90°. Therefore the machine EMF £ is primarily along the rotor q axis. Consider a machine having a constant terminal voltage V For generatorThe Synchronous Machine 85 action the phasor £ should be leading the phasor 7 The angle between £ and V is the machine torque angle é if the phasor V is in the direction of the reference phase (phase a) Att = 0 the phasor V is located at the axis of phase a, ie, at the reference axis in Figure 41 The q axis is located at an angle 4, and the d axis is located at 6 = S64 2/2 At ¢> 0, the reference axis is located at an angle waf with respect to the axis of phase a Thed axis of the rotor is therefore located at Baap thea rad shes 4% (46) where we is the rated (synchronous) angular frequency in rad/s and 6 is the synchronous torque angle in electrical radians Expressions similar to (4,3) may also be written for voltages or flux linkages; ¢ g., Year =P Yate ody = PA (47) If the transformation (4 5) is unique, an inverse transformation also exists wherein we may write ave = Po "oag (48) The inverse of (45) may be computed to be Ww cos 6 sind Po! = VIP3II/V2_cos( — 2x/3) sin (@ - 24/3) 49) I/V2_ cos(@ + 2/3) sin(# + 2x/3) and we note that P-! = P’, which means that the transformation P is orthogonal Having P orthogonal also means that the transformation P is power invariant, and we should expect to use the same power expression in either the a-b-c or the O-d-g frame ofreference Thus P= Vala + Usly +, Uke = Vanedane = (Po '¥oay)' (BP inag) = YbaePo')'P agg = bap PP ay ~ atop = Lalo + Vag + Uyiy (410) 43° Flux Linkage Equations The situation depicted in Figure 4 1 is that of a network consisting of six mutually coupled coils These are the three phase windings sa-fa, sb-fo, and sc-fe; the field winding F-F'; and the two damper windings D-D' and Q-Q' (The damper windings arc often designated by the symbols kd and kg. We prefer the shortet notation used here. Phase-winding designations s and / refer to “start” and “finish” of these coils } We write the flux linkage equation for these six circuits as Ae] [Lea Far Loe Ler Leo Lag] [te stator : is ' ie | -| Wbums 411) : ie rotor 1 ip i86 Chapter 4 where Lx = elf-inductance when j = k = mutual inductance when j = k and where L;, = L,;in all cases Note the subscript convention in (4.11) where lower- case subscripts are used for stator quantities and uppercase subscripts are used for rotor quantities Prentice [14] shows that most of the inductances in (4.11) are functions of the rotor position angle @. These inductances may be written as follows 4.3.1 Stator self-inductances The phase-winding self-inductances are given by Log = Ly + £,.00820 H Ly = Ly + L,c0s2(8 - 27/3) H La = Ly + Lp cos2(0 + 2/3) H (412) where L, > L,, and both L, and L,, are constants, (All inductance quantities such as 1, or M, with single subscripts are constants in our notation.) 43.2 Rotor self-inductances Since saturation and slot effect are neglected, all rotor self-inductances are constants and, according to our subscript convention, we may use a single subscript notation; i¢., Lie Lp Ho Lop = Lp H Log = Le H (413) 4.3.3. Stator mutual inductances The phase-to-phase mutual inductances are functions of @ but are symmetric, Lay = Lig = ~M, - L,cos2(0 + 2/6) H Lie = La = -M, — L,cos 20 - 2/2) H = La = ~M, ~ L,,cos2(0 + Sx/6) H (414) where | M,| > Lq. Note that signs of mutual inductance terms depend upon assumed current directions and coil orientations 4.3.4 Rotor mutual inductances The mutual inductance between windings F and D is constant and does not vary with & The coefficient of coupling between the d and g axes is zero, and all pairs of windings with 90° displacement have zero mutual inductance. Thus Lip = Lop = Mp Ho Lig= Lop = 0H Log = Loo = 0H (415) 43.5 Stator-to-rotor mutual inductances Finally, we consider the mutual inductances between stator and rotor windings, all ‘of which are functions of the rotor angle 8, From the phase windings to the field wind- ing we write Lat = Lee = Mycosd H Lu = La = M,cos(@ 2/3) H Lip = Lp = Mycos(6 + 2x/3) H (4.16) Similarly, from phase windings to damper winding D we haveThe Synchronous Machine 87 Lap = Lng = Mycosé H Lip = Lop = Mpcos(# — 2x/3) H Lip = Lp. = Mpcos(@ + 2x/3) H (417) and finally, from phase windings to damper winding Q we have Lig = Lon = Mosind H Leo = Mgsin(@ - 2x/3) H Lo = Mosin(@ + 2x/3) H (4.18) The signs on mutual terms depend upon assumed current directions and coil orienta- tion 4.3.6 Transformation of inductances: Knowing all inductances in the inductance matrix (4.11), we observe that nearly all terms in the matrix are time varying, since @ is a function of time Only four of the off-diagonal terms vanish, as noted in equation (4.15) Thus in voltage equations such as (4.1) the \ term is nota simple Li but must be computed as \ = Li + Li, We now observe that (4.11) with its time-varying inductances can be simplified by referring all quantities to a rotor frame of reference through a Park’s transformation (45) applied to the a-b-c partition. We compute ede)-F aie ay SEES] oe where Lye = stator-stator inductances Lats Lxe = stator-rotor inductances Lex = rotor-rotor inductances Equation (4 19) is obtained by premuhtiplying (4.11) by et where P is Park’s transformation and U, is thé 3 x 3 unit matrix Performing the operation indicated in (4.19), we compute Ae] flo 0 0 | Al [0 Le 0 1 kMy kM 0 | Jie ' ' I rg} [0 0 Ly | =|---------2--b-------- 2 * “| Wotrns (4.20) dr] [0 kM, 0 ' ' Yo} 0 kMy 0 | Me Lo 0 | fin eo) ' ° re & where we have defined the following new constants, Lg = Ly + M, + B/2Lm Ho Ly = L, + M,~ B3/2)La H Ly = L,- 2M, H k= Vif (4.21)88 Chapter 4 In (4.20) dy is the flux linkage in a cireuit moving with the rotor and centered on the daxis Similarly, ), is centered on the g axis, Flux linkage Ap is completely uncoupled from the other circuits, as the first row and column have only a diagonal term tis important also to observe that the inductance matrix of (4 20) is a matrix of constants This is apparent since all quantities have only one subscript, thus conforming with our notation for constant inductances. The power of Park's transformation is that it removes the time-varying coefficients from this equation. This is very important We also note that the transformed matrix (4.20) is symmetric and therefore is physically realizable by an equivalent circuit This was not true of the transformation used by Park [10, 11], where he let Voie = Qvate With Q defined as 1/2 12 1/2 Q = 2/3 | cos@ —cos(# — 2x/3) cos (0 + 2x/3) (4.22) =sin® ~sin(@ — 2x/3) ~sin(@ + 2/3), Other transformations are found in the literature. The transformation (4.22) is not a power-invariant transformation and does not result in a reciprocal (symmetric) in- ductance matrix. This leads to unnecessary complication when the equations are nor malized , 4.4 Voltage Equations The generator voltage equations are in the form of (41) Schematically, the ci cuits are shown in Figure 4.2, where coils are identified exactly the same as in Fig- ure 4.1 and with coil terminations shown as well Mutual inductances are omitted from the schematic for clarity but are assumed present with the values given in Sec- tion 4 3 Note that the stator currents are assumed to have a positive direction flowing out of the machine terminals, since the machine is a generator For the conditions in- dicated we may write the matrix equation ve -ri-hty, ¥ ar Fig 42. Schematic diagram of a synchronous machineThe Synchronous Machine 89 or v, 0 04 ie] [de us no | 0 0 Olle) [A b on! o 0 offal Jie ---J- -] -------- [onan “|| == v (423) =U, 0 0 0 |r O Offic] | de 0 0 0 0 | 0 tr» 9} fio] | ao 0 0 0.0 '' 0 0 rel Ligh {do 11 fe 1. 11 tfjie}- £a)1 1 Pot ule tu = —Raias — Lyle V (424) Itr, = 15 = 1, = r.asis usually the case, we may also define Ry. =U; @ (4.25) where U; is the 3 x 3 unit matrix, and we may rewrite (4.23) in partitioned form as follows: ee a Dow ally (426) Yeoe 8 Revo} firoo} | Moo] [0 br ip Ae vwoo= | 0 | ino =|iv} Arve =| Xo (427) 0 lie do. Thus (4.26) is complicated by the presence of time-varying coefficients in the \ term, but these terms can be eliminated by applying a Park's transformation to the stator partition. This requires that both sides of (4.26) be premultiplied by (ol EP alte Ee] » an for the left side of (4.26) For the resistance voltage drop term we compute where By definition90 Chapter 4 Bally Jia] b odEy elt cle ee] Pe wlll TS ellis] ye The second term on the right side of (4.26) is transformed as POW ew Phew (4:30) 0 Usl broe|” [Soe We evaluate Pai. by. recalling the definition (47), Aow = PAu, ftom which we com- PULE Row = PRs, + Phe Then Phasc = Boy ~ Paaic = Rou ~ PP“'Mouy V (431) We may show that 0 0 Of ro 0 . PP, = of 0 0 -i]] Vf =]—wr} V (4.32) a) oh which is the speed voltage term Finally, the third term on the right side of (4 26) transforms as follows: 07 fr. 3] __ [oa = © v (433) o uso] Lo 0 where by definition mo, is the voltage drop from neutral to ground in the O-d-g co- ordinate system Using (4.24), we compute Nog = Py, = —PR,P*'Pigs ~ PL,P™'Pius, = —PRqP'iouy ~ PL, P> Bris] [BL aio -=-|oj}-|ojV¥ (434) 0 0 and observe that this voitage drop occurs only in the zero sequence, as it should ‘Summarizing, we substitute (4,28)-(4.31) and (4 33) into (4.26) to write . 2] JHEP BR] Note that all terms in this equation are known. The resistance matrix is diagonal For balanced conditions the zero-sequence voltage is zero. To simplify the nota- tion, letThe Synchronous Machine 2 7% 0 0 a) fers R Re=[0 rm 0] S= Os, Lords. 0 0 49, Then for balanced conditions (4.35) may be written without the zero-sequence equa- tion as R 0 s| |) Mey ia 4 P}-|*] v (4.36) Ye0o 0 Re}l isco} [0] | Arvo] 4,5. Formulation of State-Space Equations Recall that our objective is to derive a set of equations describing the synchronous machine in the form & = f(x,u,) (437) where x = a vector of the state variables u = the system driving functions a set of nonlinear functions If the equations describing the synchronous machine are linear, the set (4.37) is of the well-known form X= Ax + Bu (438) Examining (4 35), we can see that it represents a set of first-order differential equa- tions. We may now put this set in the form of (4.37) or (4 38), ie, in state-space form. Note, however, that (4 35) contains flux linkages and currents as variables Since these two sets of variables are mutually dependent, we can eliminate one set to express (4.35) in terms of one set of variables only Actually, numerous possibilities for the choice of the state variables are available, We will mention only two that are common: (1) a set based on the currents as state variables; ie, x' = [igig/rin ig), which has the advantage of offering simple relations between the voltages v, and v, and the state variables (through the power network connected to the machine terminals) and (2) a set based on flux linkages as the state variables, where the particular set to be chosen depends upon how conveniently they can be expressed in terms of the machine currents and stator voltages. Here we will use the formulation x! = [As\gAr Ao Aol 4.6 Current Formulation Starting with (4.35), we can replace the terms in A and } by terms in é and jas fol- lows The d term has been simplified so that we can compute its value from (4 20), which we rearrange in partitioned form. Let Nowe) Lou Drool | be where Li, is the transpose of L,, But the inductance matrix here is a constant ma- trix, so we may write A = Li V, and the \ term behaves exactly like that of a passive inductance, Substituting this result into (4.35), éxpanding to full 6 x 6 notation, and rearranging,2 Chapter 4 ° L, kMg kMy Lo (439) where k = V/37Zas before A great deal of information is contained in (4.39) First, we note that the zero-sequence voltage is dependent only upon ig and iy. This equation can be solved separately from the others once the initial conditions on ip are given. The remaining five equations are all coupled in a most interesting way. They are similar to those of a passive network except for the presence of the speed voltage terms These terms, consisting of wd of wLi products, appear unsymmetrically and distinguish this equation from that of a passive network Note that the speed voltage terms in the d axis equation are due only to g axis currents, viz ,i, and ig Simi- larly, the g axis speed voltages are due to d axis currents, ig, i, and ip Also observe that all the terms in the coefficient matrices are constants except w, the angular velocity This is a considerable improvement over the description given in (4.23) in the a-b-c frame of reference since nearly all inductances in that equation were time varying The price we have paid to get rid of the time-varying coefficients is the introduction of speed voltage terms in the resistance matrix. Since w is a variable, this causes (4 39) to be nonlinear If the speed is assumed constant, which is usually a good approximation, then (4.39) is linear In any event, the nonlinearity is never great, as w is usually nearly constant 4.7 Per Unit Conversion The voltage equations of the preceding section are not in a convenient form for en- gineering use. One difficulty is the numerically awkward values with stator voltages in the kilovolt range and field voltage at a much lower level. This problem can be solved by normalizing the equations to a convenient base value and expressing all voltages in pu (or percent) of base (See Appendix C ) An examination of the voltage equations reveals the dimensional character shown in Table 4 1, where all dimensions are expressed in terms of a v-i-t (voltage, current, time) system, {These dimensions are convenient here. Other possible systems areThe Synchronous Machine 93 FL1Q (force, length, time, charge) and MZry (mass, length, time, permeability) | Ob- serve that all quantities appearing in (4 39) involve only three dimensions. Thus if we choose three base quantities that involve all three dimensions, all bases are fixed for all quantities For example, if we choose the base voltage, base current, and base time, by combining these quantities according to column 4 of Table 4 1, we may compute base quantities for all other entries Note that exactly three base quantities must be chosen and that these three must involve all three dimensions, v, i, and 1 Table 4.1, Electrical Quantities, Units, and Dimensions Quantity Symbot Units Dinvitions Relationship Voltage bv volts(V) fe) Current i amperes (A) li) Powerot voltamperes por S$ watts (W) [vil pau voltamperes (VA) . Flux linkage A weber turns (Wb turns) (on vai Resistance r ohm (2) (oft) vari, Inductance LorM — henry (H) ery) vedi Time 1 second(s) (") Angular velocity @ radians per second tf (rad/s) Angle Gors radian (rad) dimensionless 4.7.1 Choosing a base for stator quant The variables v2, Up, izy igs Avs ANG Ay are stator quantities because they relate di- rectly to the a-b-c phase quantities through Park’s transformation (Also see Rankin [15], Lewis [12] and Harris et al [9] for a discussion of this topic.) Using the subscript B to indicate “base” and R to indicate “rated,” we choose the following stator base quantities Let Sp = Sq = stator rated VA/phase, VA rms Vy = Va = stator rated ine-to-neutral voltage, V rms sp © we = generator rated speed, elec rad/s (440) Before proceeding further, let us examine the effect of this choice on the d and q axis quantities Fitst note that the three-phase power in pu is three times the pu power per phase (for balanced conditions) To prove this, let the rms phase quantities be V/a V and If. The three-phase power is 3 V/cos(a — y)W The pu power Pj, is given by Pig = BVI Vala)cos (a ~ y) = 3¥L.cos(w — ¥) (440) where the subscript w is used to indicate pu quantities, To obtain the d and q axis quantities, we first write the instantaneous phase voltage and currents. To simplify the expression without any loss of generality, we will assume that v,(1) is in the form, v, = Vy sin(@ +a) = V2Vsin(@ +a) V vy = V2Vsin(6 + a ~ 2x/3) V v, = ViVsin (6 + @ + 22/3) V (4.42) Then from (4.5), ¥oay = P¥y5e OF94 Chapter 4 Ve 0 v, |= |-v3Vsina] Vv (4.43) vo] LVv3V cosa In pu Vg = Ua/Me = V3I(V/Vq)sina = V3V, sine (4.44) Similarly, Up = VIN cosa (445) Obviously, then Uh + Un = VE (4.46) The above results are significant, They indicate that with this particular choice of the base voltage, the pu d and g axis voltages are numerically equal to V3 times the pu phase voltages. Similarly, we can show that if the rms phase current is I/-y A, the corresponding d and q axis currents are given by, ty 0 i |= |v3rsiny| A (4.47) ud) [wa reosy and the pu currents are given by in = V3KsiNY — ig = V3I,co8y (448) To check the validity of the above, the power in the d and q circuits must be the same as the power in the three stator phases, since P is a power-invariant transfor- mation Pry = lade, + lye = 34, V.(Sinasiny + cosecos y) = 31,V,cos(a — 7) pu (4.49) We now develop the relations for the various base quantities From (4.40) and Table 4 1 we compute the following: Ty = SofVq = Sg/Vq A xms fg = Veg = Vfog 5 As = Vola = Valog = Ly ly Whturn Ry = Vo/ly = Va/ly 0 Ly = Vate/ly = Va/lnsoy HL (450) Thus by choosing the three base quantities Sp, Vp, and ig, we can compute base" values for all quantities of interest. To normalize any quantity, it is divided by the base quantity of the same dimension For example, for currents we write i = i(A)/Ig(A) pu (451) where we use the subscript u to indicate pu. Later, when there is no danger of ambiguity in the notation, this subscript is omittedThe Synchronous Machine 95 4.7.2 Choosing a base for rotor quantities Lewis [12) showed that in circuits coupled electromagnetically, which are to be nor- malized, it is essential to select the same voltampere and time base in cach part of the circuit. (See Appendix C for a more detailed treatment of this subject) The choice of equal time base throughout all parts of a circuit with mutual coupling is the impor- tant constraint It can be shown that the choice of a common time base fy forces the VA base to be equal in all circuit parts and also forces the base mutual inductance to be the geometric mean of the base self-inductances if equal pu mutuals are to result; ie., Mug = (Lislos)'”, (See Problem 4 18.) For the synchronous machine the choice of Sy is based on the rating of the stator, and the time base is fixed by the rated radian frequency These base quantities must be the same for the rotor circuits as well. It should be remembered, however, that the stator VA base is much larger than the VA rating of the rotor (field) circuits. Hence some rotor base quantities are bound to be very large, making the corresponding pu rotor quantities appear numerically small, Therefore, care should be exercised in the choice of the remaining free rotor base term, since all other rotor base quantities will then be automatically determined. There is a choice of quantities, but the question is, Which is more convenient? To illustrate the above, consider a machine having a stator rating of 100 x 10° VA/ phase. Assume that its exciter has a rating of 250 V and 1000 A If, for example, we choose Tgp = 1000 A, Vg will then be 100,000 V; and if we choose Vea = 250 V, then Jag will be 400,000 A. Is one choice more convenient than the other? Are there other more desirable choices? The answer lies in the nature of the coupling between the rotor and the stator circuits. It would seem desirable to choose some base quantity in the rotor to give the correct base quantity in the stator For example, we can choose the base rotor current to give, through the magnetic coupling, the correct base stator flux linkage or open circuit voltage. Even then there is some latitude in the choice of the base rotor current, depending on the condition of the magnetic circuit The choice made here for the free rotor base quantity is based on the concept of equal mutual flux linkages This means that base field current ot base d axis amortisscur current will produce the same space fundamental of air gap flux as produced by base stator current acting in the fictitious d winding Referring to the flux linkage equations (4.20) let iy = Ia, ig = Ire, and ip = Ipy be applied one by one with other currents set to zero If we denote the magnetizing inductances (= leakage inductances) as Ing 2Ly- 2a Ho bmg £ Ey ~ 2, H Imp & lp-2¢ Ho Lng #@ Lo -4to o-foH (4.52) Luo * and equate the mutual flux linkages in each winding, Yt = Lats = KM lip = KMplyp WO ng = Lng ly = KMgIgp WD Qne = KMely = Lne len = Mploy Wo np = kKMgly ~ Lyolon Wb Ano = KMply = Mylex = Lo lop WO (453) Then we can show that76 Chapter 4 Lnals = Lnelig = Luolbe = kMrlolen = KMolalon = Mylralon Lngli = KMolelon = Lnolbs (454) and this is the fundamental constraint among base currents From (4 54) and the requirement for equal S,, we compute Vee/Va = Soflew = Lne{Lms)'” = KMe/Lng = LmefkMy = Ma/kMy > ky Von! Ve = mol Ema)? = KMpfLng = EmofKMp = Mg/kM, © kp You/Ms Col Lng? = KMfo/Lng = LnolkMg * ky (455) These basic constraints permit us to compute Ris = KFRy 2 Ron = kbRa QD — Ron = kRRy D Lig = KiLy Ho Lop = kbLg H Lop = kelp H (456) and since the base mutuals must be the geometric mean of the base self-inductances (see Problem 4.18), Mig =kelg H Mop =kolp H Mon=kolp H Mg = kekpLy H (457) 4.7.3 Comparison with other per unit systems . The subject of the pu system used with synchronous machines has been contro- versial over the years. While the use of pu quantities is common in the literature, it is not always clear which base quantities are used by the authors Furthermore, synchro- nous machine data is usually furnished by the manufacturer in pu, Therefore it is important to understand any major difference in the pu systems adopted Part of the problem lies in the nature of the original Park's transformation Q given in (4.22) This transformation is not power invariant; ie., the three-phase power in watts is given by pac = 15 (igby + i,04) Also, the mutual coupling between the field and the stator d axis is not reciprocal When the Q transformation is used, the pu system is chosen carefully to overcome this difficulty. Note that the modified Park’s transformation P defined by (4.5) was chosen specifically to overcome these problems. The system most commonly used in the literature is based on the following base quantities: = three-phase rated VA Ve = peak rated voltage to neutral Ip = peak rated current and with rotor base quantities chosen to give equal pu mutual inductances This leads to the relations Ten = V2 (Lal Melby Vew = 3/V2)(Me/Lma) Vo This choice of base quantities, which is commonly used, gives the same numerical values in pu for synchronous machine stator and rotor impedances and self-inductances as the system used in this book. The pu mutual inductances differ by a factor of 3/2. Therefore, the terms kM; used in this book are numerically equal to M, in pu as found in the literature. The major differences lie in the following: 1. Since the power in the d and g stator circuits is the three-phase power, one pu cur- tent and voltage gives three pu power in the system used here and gives one pu power in the other systemThe Synchronous Machine 7 2 Im the system used here v3, + v3, = 33, while in the other system v3, + uh, = V3, where V, is the pu terminal voltage. The system used here is more appealing to some engineers than that used by the manufacturers [9, 12]. However, since the manufacturers’ base system is so common, there is merit in studying both Example 41 Find the pu values of the parameters of the synchronous machine for which the fol- lowing data are given (values are for an actual machine with some quantities, denoted by an astetisk, being estimated for academic study): Rated MVA = 160 MVA Lo = 1423 x 107 H* Rated voltage = 15kV, Y connected £, = f ,(unsaturated) = 05595 x 10° H Excitation voltage = 375 V kMp = 5782 x 10 H* Stator current = 6158.40 A kMg = 2779 x 10? H* Field current = 926 A 1(125°C) = 1542 x 107 2 Power factor = 085 7,(125°C) = 0371 @ Ly = 6341 x 10° HE Tp = 18.421 x 107 OF Lp = 2.189 H ro = 18.969 x 10> O* Lp = 5989 x 10? H* Inertia constant = 1.765 kW: s/bp 6118 x 10° H From the no-load magnetization curve, the value of field current corresponding to the rated voltage on the air gap line is 365 A Solution Stator Base Quantities: Sy = 160/3 = 53.3333 MVA/phase 1300/73 = 866025 V Jy = 6158.40 A ty = 26526 x 107 s Ay = 8660 x 265 x 10°? = 22972 Wb turn/phase Rs ~ 8660 25/6158.40 = 1.406 2 Ly = 8660/(377 x 6158) = 3.730 x 107 H Lind ~ Log ~ 4g = (6.341 = 0.5595)10" = 5.79 x 10> H To obtain Mf;, we use (4.11), (4.16), and (423) At open circuit the mutual in- ductance 14, and the flux linkage in phase a are given by Typ = Mp Cos Xy = ip My cos 8 The instantaneous voltage of phase a is v, = {pep M; sind, where wp is the rated syn- chronous speed Thus the peak phase voltage corresponds to the product ipapM, From the air gap line of the no-load saturation curve, the value of the field current at rated voltage is 365 A. Therefore, M, ~ 8660-V2/(377 x 365) = 89.006 x 10°? H kM, = W372 x 89006 x 10° = 10901 x 10" H Then ky = KMy/Lugg = 18 854 Then we compute, from (4 55}-(4.57), Ing = 6158.4/18.854 = 326.64 A Mz, = 18.854 x 3.73 x 107? = 70329 x 107° H x n8 Chapter 4 Ven, = (53.33 x 10°)/326 64 = 163280 68 V Res = 163280 68/326.64 = 49989 @ Lyy = (18 845) x 3.73 x 10? = 1326 H Amortisseur Base Quantities (estimated for this example): kMp/Lj = 5.781/5.781 = 1.00 Low = Ly H Moy = Ly H Ron = Re & kMo/Lng = 2779/5 782 = 05 Rop = Re/4 = 0352 2 Log = Ly/4 = 0933 x 10° H Inertia Constant; H = 1.763(1 0/0746) = 237 kW-s/kVA The pu parameters are thus given by: 6 34/373 = 1.70 2.189/1 326 = 1.651 5,989/3 730 = 1.605 Aq = 05595/3.73 = 0.15 - = 6118/3.73 = 164 = 1423/0933 = 1526 = KMp = kKMy = Mg = 1.70 - 0.15 = 1.55 = kMg = 164-015 = 1.49 0.001542/1 406 = 0.001096 0.371 /499.9 = 0.000742 0.018/1.406 = 00131 rq = 18.969 x 1077/0351 = 0.0540 The quantities Ly» and Ligo are defined in Section 4.11 1 4.7.4 The correspondence of per unit stator EMF to rotor quantities ‘We have seen that the particular choice of base quantities used here’gives pu values of dand q axis stator currents and voltages that are «/3 times the tms values. We also note that the coupling between the d axis rotor and stator involves the factor k = 3/2, and similarly for the q axis. For example, the contribution to the d axis stator flux link- age A, due to the field current i, is kMyi, and so on In synchronous machine equations it is often desirable to convert a rotor current, flux linkage, ot voltage to an equivalent stator EMF. These expressions are developed in this section . The basis for converting a field quantity to an equivalent stator EMF is that at open circuit a field cusrent i; A corresponds to an EMF of igo,M, V peak If the rms value of this EMF is £, then i,wgM, = W/2E and ipwgkM, = V/3E in MKS units? 2. The choice of symbol for the EMF due to ipis not clearly desided The American National Stan- dards Institute (ANSI) uses the symbol E, {16]. A new proposed standard uses Ey[17), The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in 4 discussion of [17], favors E, for this voltage The authors leave this voltage unsubscripted until a new standard is adoptedThe Synchronous Machine 99 Since M, and wp are known constants for a given machine, the field current corresponds toa given EMF by a simple scaling factor Thus & is the stator air gap rms voltage in pu corresponding to the field current i, in pu We can also convert a field flux linkage A, to a corresponding stator EMF. At steady-state open circuit conditions Ay = Lyi;, and this value of field current i,, when multiplied by @_Mz, gives a peak stator voltage the rms value of which is denoted by Ei, Wecan show that the d axis stator EMF corresponding to the field flux linkage \, is given by Alok M;/[Le) = V3Es (4.58) By the same reasoning a field voltage v, corresponds (at steady state) to a field cur- rent U;/r, This in turn corresponds to a peak stator EMF (vp/r,) oe Mp. If the rms value of this EMF is denoted by Esp, the d axis stator EMF corresponds to a field volt- age U; or (s/7)onkMy = V3 Eso (4.59) 4.8 Normalizing the Voltage Equations Having chosen appropriate base values, we may normalize the voltage equations (4.39), Having done this, the stator equations should be numerically easier to deal with, as all values of voltage and current will normally be in the neighborhood of unity. For the following computations we add the subscript u to all pu quantities to emphasize their dimensionless character, Later this subscript will be omitted when all values have been normalized The normalization process is based on (4.51) and a similar relation for the rotor, which may be substituted into (4.39) to give voVe r+, 0 0 0 0 0 vaVe 0 rr) 0 kM vaVs 0 -wly 7 -wkM, -ekM, 0 -onVm| | 0 0 0 & 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ty 0 0 0 a) 0 0 'o io+3L, 0 0 0 0 Toute 0 Ly 0 kM, kMy ile 0 OL, 0 0 kMol dete (4.60) 0 kM, 0 Ly Mp inden 0 kM, 0 Mg Ly inatow 0 0 kM, 0 0 jowtow where the first three equations are on a stator base and the last three are on a rotor base Examine the second equation more closely. Dividing through by Yq and setting © = wytog, We have100 Chapter 4 Fein pu (461) inn PU (4.62) We now recognize the following pu quantities nea Ry by = Lally My = Mporlea/Yo Lee Lolly Mov = Mpwnlon/Vy May = Moor on/Y 463) Incorporating (4 63), the d axis equation (4 62) may be rewritten with all values except time in pusie, Pag © Falan ~ WyLelys ~ Key M tes ~ HH ay — k i, — kK MO in, (468) The third equation of (4.60) may be analyzed in a similar way to write Leu: M, Dye = Liason — Nelge + OKMeviy + OkKMosing — — iy — iow pu 465) &n K where all pu coefficients have been previously defined. The first equation is uncoupled from the others and may be written as Ve = = — (+ Baba dow — Bz (Lo + FL y)y fon PU (4 66) Uf the currents are balanced, it is easy to show that this equation vanishes. The fourth equation is normalized on a rotor basis and may be written from (4 60) as Le eaten; , Me onlon ; Oe Ving Voy OY ee We now incorporate the base rotor inductance to normalize the last two terms as Lig = Le/Lep May = Ma /Men (4.68) The normalized field circuit equation becomes . : kMy: Lee; | Maw: = raj 4 Eee jg Mw 4. Ore = Trvlte tan + tre + oy (4.69) The damper winding equations can be normalized by a similar procedure The following equations are then obtained, KMow j. 4 Mao i, 4 Lo j,, (4.70) OR @R OR be Ve = 0 = toute +The Synchronous Machine 101 kM, ; qe = 0 = Fouigu + oe fy + —& iy (471) These normalized equations are in a form suitable for solution in the time domain with time in seconds However, some engineers prefer to rid the equations of the awkward /ax that accompanies every term containing a time derivative This may be done by normalizing time, We do this by setting Ld_d oy dt” dr 7) where T= wl (473) is the normalized time in rad Incorporating all normalized equations in a matrix expression and dropping the subscript u since all values are in pu, we write u% r 0 0 el, okMel[ -Y 0 n o |} 0 0 hy 0 0 0 my | 0 0 uy 0 Ly kM; kM | 0 0 [li kM, Ly Mg 0 0 We =| kM, My Lp 0 0 |fi|pu 4.74) ‘ 1 kMg Le |lig where we have omitted the v, equation, since we are interested in balanced system con- ditions in stability studies, and have rearranged the equations to show the d and q cou- pling more clearly. It is important to notice that (4.74) is identical in notation to (4 39) This is always possible if base quantities are carefully chosen and is highly desirable, as the same equation symbolically serves both as a pu and a “system quantity” equation Using matrix notation, we write (4.74) as y= -(R + eN)i- Li po (475) where R is the resistance matrix and is a diagonal matrix of constants, N is the matrix of speed voltage inductance coefficients, and L is a symmetric matrix of constant ductances. If we assume that the inverse of the inductance matrix exists, we may write i= -L"(R + eN)i- Lv pu (476) This equation has the desired state-space form It does not express the entire system be- havior, however, so we have additional equations to write Equation (4.76) may be depicted schematically by the equivalent circuit shown in102 Chapter 4 Fig 43 Synchronous generator d-g equivalent circuit Figure 43, Note that all self and mutual inductances in the equivalent circuit are con stants, and pu quantities are implied for all quantities, including time. Note also the presence of controlled sources in the equivalent These are due to speed voltage terms in the equations Equation (4.74) and the circuit in Figure 4.3 differ from similar equations found in the literature in two important ways. In this chapter we use the symbols L and M for self and mutual inductances respectively. Some authors and most manufacturers refer to these same quantities by the symbol x or XY This is sometimes confusing to one learning synchronous machine theory because a term XJ that appears to be a voltage may bea flux linkage The use of ¥ for L or M is based on the rationale that w is nearly constant at 1.0 pu so that, in pu, ¥ = o£ & Z However, as we shall indicate in the sections to follow, w is certainly not a constant; it is a state variable in our equations, and we must treat it as a variable Later, in a linearized model we will let w be ap- proximated as a constant and will simplify other terms in the equations as well For convenience of those acquainted with other references we list a comparison of these inductances in Table 42. Here the subscript notation kd and kq for D and Q re- spectively is seen, These symbols are quite common in the literature in reference to the damper windings Table 4. Comparison of Per Unit Inductance Symbols Chapter 4 Za Ly Le by Lg kMp Mg KMp Mg Kimbark(2] Ly Ly Leg Leg Me M, Concordia(t] x, Xe Nha Bigg Fer Xd Sak aig Example 4.2 Consider a 60-Hz synchronous machine with the following pu parameters: : L,= 170 kMy = 1.49 Ly = 164 7 = 0.001096 L, = 165 ry = 0.000742 Ly = 1.605 r= 0.0131 Lg = 1.526 rq = 00540 kM, = My = kMy = 155 H 237s fen ty = O15The Synchronous Mochine 103 Solution From (4.75) we have numerically 0.0011 0 0 | 1640 1490 0 000% 0 | oO o R+one| 0 0 oo | 0 0 | pw =1 70% =155e -1.55« 100011 0 0 0 0 ! 0 00540, [ 170 «155455 | 0 0 155165155 | 0 0 Le | 155 155 1605 ‘ 0 0 pu 0 0 o | 1.64 1.49 0 0 0 | 149 1526 from which we compute by digital computer 5405-1869 -3414' 0 -1869 7.110 -5060! 0 L-t. |-3414 -s060 8804; 0 pu 5.406 5.280 0 0 ' ° 0 0 1 -5280 58I1 Then we may compute 5.9269 1.3878, 447198 | ~88649e 8504.10 2.0498 5.2785 66 2818 | 30659 2785 dw -L-'(R EWN) = 10?) 37433 3.7564 115.3200 55989e 5086.86 | pu 9190.90 8379.9 8379 9w 1 -59279 284.857 =8975.2w ~81833@ -B8183.3w | 5.7888 ~313 534 and the coeflicient matrix is seen to contain w in 12 of its 25 terms. This gives some idea of the complexity of the equations 4.9 Normalizing the Torque Equations In Chapter 2 the swing equation JO = 21 /p)a = T, Nm (4.77) is normalized by dividing both sides of the equation by a shaft torque that corresponds to the rated three-phase power at rated speed (base three-phase torque), The result of this normalization was found to be104 Chapter 4 QH/eg)o = T, pui¢) (4.78) where = angular velocity of the revolving magnetic field in elec rad/s T, = accelerating torque in pu on a three-phase base Wr/ Sass A and the derivative is with respect to time in seconds This normalization takes into account the change in angular measurements from mechanical to electrical radians and divides the equations by the base three-phase torque. Equation (4 78) is the swing equa- tion used to determine the speed of the stator revolving MMF wave as a function of time. We need to couple the electromagnetic torque T,, determined by the generator equations, to the form of (4 78) Since (4.78) is normalized to a three-phase base torque and our chosen generator VA base is a per phase basis, we must use care in combining, the pu swing equation and the pu generator torque equation Rewriting (4 78) as (2H/w)@ = Ty ~ T, puQdo) (4.79) the expression used for 7, must be in pu on a three-phase VA base Suppose we define T,, = pu generator electromagnetic torque defined on a per phase VA base = TAN m)/(Sp/#5) pu (4.80) Then T, = T.,/3 puG¢) (481) (A similar definition could be used for the mechanical torque; viz, Tye = 37m. Usu- ally, 7, is normalized on a three-phase basis ) The procedure that must be used is clear. We compute the generator electromag- netic torque in Nom. This torque is normalized along with other generator quantities on a basis of Sp, %, Ip, and fy to give T., Thus for a fully loaded machine at rated speed, we would expect to compute 7,, = 30 Equation (481) transforms this pu torque to the new value 7,, which is the pu torque on a three-phase basis. 4.9.1. The normalized swing equation In (4 79), while the torque is normalized, the angular speed w and the time are given in MKS units. Thus the equation is not completely normalized The normalized swing equation is of the form given in (2,66) Te — Toy = Toy DU (4.82) 1a where all the terms in the swing equation, including time and angular speed, are in pu Beginning with (4 79) and substituting = eet 0, = Ofay (483) we have for the normalized swing equation de, 2H, = 1, 4 84) Hoy Ge = Taw (484) thus, when time is in pu, a - 2Hey (485)The Synchronous Machine 105 4.9.2. Forms of the swing equation There are many forms of the swing equation appearing in the literature of power system dynamics, While the torque is almost always given in pu, it is often not clear which units of w and r are being used, To avoid confusion, a summary of the different forms of the swing equation is given in this section. We begin with w in rad/s and fins, 2H/ws)o = T., Iftand 7, are in pu (and © in rad/s), by substituting 4, = «atin (479), 2H da dw a dF as, If wand 7, are in pu (and 1 in s), by substituting in (4.79), = Tey PB (486) (487) It, , and 7, are all in pu, (4.88) fq is given in elec deg/s, (4.79) and (4.86) are modified as follows: mae Toy pu (4.89) ae =T. pu (490) It would be tempting to normalize the swing equation on a per phase basis such that all terms in (4.79) are in pu based on Sy rather than Sy). This could indeed be done with the result that all values in the swing equation would be multiplied by three This is not done here because it is common to express both T,, and 7, in pu on a three- phase base Therefore, even though S, is a convenient base to use in normalizing the generator circuits. it is considered wise to convert the generator terminal power and torque to a three-phase base Sy, to match the basis normally used in computing the machine terminal conditions from the viewpoint of the network (eg , in load-flow stud- ies). Note there is not a similar problem with the voltage being based on V4, the phase-to-neutral voltage, since a phase voltage of k pu means that the line-to-line volt- age is also k pu on a line-to-line basis 4.10 Torque and Power The total three-phase power output of a synchronous machine is given by Pow = ala + Usiy + Velo = Yoschane PU 49l where the superscript 1 indicates the transpose of v4, But from (48) we may write jute = Ploy with a similar expression for the voltage vector Then (4.91) becomes Pou = Wag(P*Y Pig Performing the indicated operation and recalling that P is orthogonal, we find that106 Chapter 4 the power output of a synchronous generator is invariant under the transformation P; ie, Pou = Vala + Ugly + rio (4.92) For simplicity we will assume balanced but not necessarily steady-state conditions. Thus vy = i = Oand Pou = Usis + U,i, (balanced condition) (493) Substituting for v, and v, trom (4.36), ida + phy) + (ipdg — Wyle — AZ + 2) (4.94) Concordia (1] observes that the three terms ate identifiable as the rate of change of stator magnetic field energy, the power transferred across the air gap, and the stator ‘ohmic losses respectively. The machine torque is obtained from the second term, Tog = 8Wag/00 = Ppa dio = 8/80 ((igAy — WA)JOl = iy — UA, PU (4.95) Poo = The same result can be obtained from a mote rigorous derivation, Starting with the three armature circuits and the three rotor circuits, the energy in the field is given by Moa D5 Gaited (496) m which is @ function of @. Then using 7 = 4444/90 and simplifying, we can obtain the above relation (see Appendix B of [1)). ‘Now, recalling that the flux linkages can be expressed in terms of the currents, we write from (4.20), expressed in pu, Ng = Lgig + KMpip + KMpip = Lyiy + KM gig (497) Then (4.95) can be written as iy is Tog © (Lely KMily KMoiy | —Lyig — kMgit] | '0 | pu (4.98) which we recognize to be a bilinear term Suppose we express the total accelerating torque in the swing equation as T.-T, (4.99) where Ty is the mechanical torque, T, is the electrical torque, and T, is the damping torque. It is often convenient to write the damping torque as T, = Ty — Tyo} — Te = Tm Ty= Dw pu (4.100) where D is a damping constant. Then by using (4 81) and (4,98), the swing equation may be written asThe Synchronous Machine 107 101) where 1; is defined by (4.85) and depends on the units used for w and ¢ Finally, the following relation between 6 and w may be derived from (4.6) baw-1 (4 102) Incorporating (4.101) and (4, 102) into (4.76), we obtain ‘| : in| [obey -L-4R + oN) on) by i - : + ' fo ; ' . I, e 3 é 6 =I (4.103) This matrix equation is in the desired state-space form x = f(x,u,1) as given by (4.37). Itis clear from (4.101) that the system is nonlinear. Note that the “inputs” are vand Ty, 4.11 Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Machine For balanced conditions the normalized flux linkage equations are obtained from (4.20) with the row for \y omitted & hy I, 0 kM, kMp 0 Vly yy Oo L 0 0 kM li, Ml=|kKMp 0 Ly My 0 | lie (4.104) Xp kMp 0 Ma Ly 0 |lip do. 0 kM 0 0 Lolli We may rewrite the d axis flux linkages as108 Chapter 4 he = (Le = £4) + tabi + KMeie + KMoly Ap = KMpig + (Le — 25) + Celie + Main Xp = KMpig + Mai + (Lp — 20) + Polip (4.108) where £4, Zp, and Lp are the leakage inductances of the d, F, and D circuits respec- tively. Let ip = i, = 0, and the flux linkage that will be mutually coupled to the other circuits is My ~ Lyig or (Ly — €u)ip As stated in Section 47.2, Ly — £4 is the magnetizing inductance Lg. The flux linkage mutually coupled to the other d axis circuits is then Lygig, The flux linkages in the F and D circuits, 4; and Xp, are given in this particular case by Ay = kMi,, and Ay = KMpiy From the choice of the base rotor current, to give equal mutual flux, we can see that the pu values of Zyig, hy, and Ap must be equal. Therefore, the pu values of Lng, kM, and kM) are equal This can be verified by using (4 57) and (4 55), kM, kM, Lng yn (Myla) Ty” G09) kMn = In pu, we usually call this quantity L495 i€., Lap * Ly - by = kM; = kKMp pu (4.107) We can also prove that, in pu, Lap = Ly ~ Xn = Ly - bp = bg — dy = KMp = KMy = Mg (4-108) Similarly, for the g axis we define Lag * Ly — ty = Lg - 29 = kKMo pu (4 109) If in cach circuit the pu leakage flux linkage is subtracted, the remaining flux linkage is the same as for all other circuits coupled to it_ Thus Ns ~ tele = Ae Cele = dy — Lolo ® May pu (4110) where Raw = tally ~ La) + KMyie + KMoig = Leolis + ie + ty) pu @an Similarly, the pu g axis mutual flux linkage is given by dao = (La — dally + KMoto = Laoli, + to) (4112) Following the procedure used in developing the equivalent circuit of transformers, we can represent the above relations by the circuits shown in Figure 44, where we note that the currents add in the mutual branch. To complete the equivalent circuit, we Fig 4.4 Flux linkage inductances of a synchronous machineThe Synchronous Machine 109 Fig 4$ Direct axis equivalent circuit consider the voltage equations vy = —rig - Ay = wd, a rig — bag ~ La ~ Lads + KMplp + KMpin] — wh, or vg = rig — Lig — Lavlls + ip + ip) — wry (4.113) Similarly, we can show that mop = tye = bale = Laplis + ip + in) (4.114) vp = 0 = =ryip — Foip - Lanlly + ip + ty) (4.115) The above voltage equations are satisfied by the equivalent circuit shown in Fig ure4.5 The three d axis circuits (d, F, and D) ate coupled through the common mag- netizing inductance £4», which carries the sum of the currents iy. ip, and ip Thed axis circuit contains a controlled voltage source wA, with the polarity as shown. Similarly, for the q axis circuits vy = rig — tee — Laglly + fg) + ory (4.116) 0 = ~rei9 — Lalo - Laaliy + fo) (4.117) These two equations are satisfied by the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 46, Note the presence of the controlled source wAyin the stator g circuit & 4.12 The Flux Linkage State-Space Model We now develop an alternate state-space model where the state variables chosen are Yas Aes Aas Ay aN Ag. From (4.110) ig = (/4a)s - Avo) te = U/EDOAr- Mav) tp = (UE d)Ap ~ Mav) (4 118) but from (4.111) Ag = (iy + ip + fy) Lap, which we can incorporate into (4 118) to get Fig 4.6 Quadrature axis equivalent circuit10 Chapter 4 Maoll/Lav + Vda + W/be + 1/f0) = Malta + Mf te + do/ to Now define YL & VLav + Vda + Abe + M20 then Yao = Euv/ta)rv + Luv/ beds + Lavi to) do Similarly, we can show that Mo = (Laoltadd + Luolo)ro where we define H/Luo * Whig + Wey + Veto and the @ axis currents are given by i, = (1/Eq) A, — Mao) ig = (/29)(Ao — ug) Writing (4.118) and (4 123) in matrix form, uj [ve 0 0 -uA | x ip 0 Wee 0 =1/t, | 0 XL bb 0 0 Wey =1/y i ” - ‘ Mao | Ne 4 0 Me Oo -1/t, he io 19 Wee -Wto)| Mo 4.121 The voltage equations The voltage equations are derived as follows from (4.36) For the d equation bg = ~riy— Ay - od, Using (4 124) and rearranging, By = —1Qe/2a— Mola) ~ od = 04 on Ky = -C/£a) da + P/E a) Aan — hy ~ By Also from (4 36) 0p = “tle - Sy Substituting for iy Ae = —reOs/Er ~ Mol£e) + Ue or Ay = (s/f eds + Ur/€e)dav — (UF) (4119) (4120) (12 (4122) (4123), 104) (4.128) (4129 (4.127) (4.128)The Synchronous Machine m Repeating the procedure for the D circuit, ‘0 = —Va/20)do + (ro/ Lo) av (4.129) The procedure is repeated for the q axis circuits. For the v, equations we compute Ry = —U/E DN + (1/2) dag + OAs — U4 (4.130) and from the g axis damper-winding equation, Ro = —(roldeddo + (ral to) do (CoEDD) Note that Xyp OF Aso appears in the above equations This form is convenient if satura tion is to be included in the model since the mutual inductances Lyp and L4g are the only inductances that saturate. If saturation can be neglected the Ay and Xyg terms can be eliminated (see Section 4.12 3) 4.12.2. The torque equation From (495) Z,, = ighy — A, Using (4 124), we substitute for the currents to com- pute T= ag hag + t Aad (x - ze (4.132) We may also take advantage of the relation 2, = 2, (called £, in many references) The new electromechanical equation is given by B= —Cue/4adry + Oso/Le3—)de ~ D/ ne + Tals 133) Finally the equation for 6 1s given by (4.102). Equations (4.126)-(4.131), (4.133), and (4.102) are in state-space form. The auxiliary equations (4.120) and (4.121) are needed to relate Ayp and Ayo to the state variables The state variables are Ay, Xey Apy Ags Age w, and 6 The forcing functions, ase Ug, U,V, and T,, This form of the equations is particularly convenient for solution where saturation is required, since saturation affects only Ayp and Aug Dry at) ty 4.12.3 Machine equations with saturation neglected Hi saturation is neglected, Lyp and yg ate constant. Therefore, Lyp and Lug are also constant. The magnetizing flux linkages A,» and A,g will have constant re~ lationships to the state variables as given by (4 120) and (4121). We can therefore climinate Azo and Ayo from the machine equations Substituting for A,p, as given in (4.120), in (4.118) and rearranging, ig (1 — hue) de — Lao Me _ Leo Yo. . Tafa te te Fa bo inn Hada (1 Bas) he — bye tp ts te Ai] ts Ee To iy = — Leo Xa. Euro de (-4e)e on Ete bn de® eneM2 Chopter 4 These currents are substituted in the d axis voltage equations of (4 36) to get, Ye gp Lue Me, Luo Xo Lae = (i) ~ Se! — wry - ¥, ( a te te te vot s Lup Ly Ay Lyp ¥, Sohal Be wo Aw. y OEE Ty ( Ey, a, + 5 Lup Luo L, Xx Ng = ry SMO ME a ry SMO AE, (- igo) 2 (4.135 oO tT hy ey to » Similarly, the q axis equations are a) da, , Luo de — Et Et wy — te to . L, X rel - EN (4.136) and the equation for the electrical torque is given by Lu Lu Le = AsA St dp Me + AAA, (4.137) Rte Ra Ta » The state-space model now becomes » he h he wo + Lys thay 1 a | x) |-eb-4#) Le ° ool) bw ve be ois (4138) The system described by (4.138) is in the form x = f(x,u,4) Again the description of the system is not complete since vy and v, are functions of the currents and will de- pend on the external load connections. The 7 x 7 matrix on the right side of (4.138) contains state variables in several terms, and this mat form of the equation is nor an appropriate form for solution. It does, however, serve to illustrate the nonlinear nature of the system Example 43 Repeat Example 4.2 for the flux linkage model Solution From the data of Example 4 1:The Synchronous Machir v3 fe= 4,= 0150 pu z(- 2p = 1651 = 1550 = 0.101 pu 4, 2p = 1.605 — 1.550 = 0.055 pu te Luo. 9.991387 2g = 1526 - 1490 = 0036 pu te ta toi ,t a cc ( - = 0.005278 Lo” 135 * 015 * O10 tr oa Zr Luo. 9 003756 + ggg 7 382381 pu qt Lyo = 0.028378 pu he ~ 0.008789 Poa yt yt a Fo Tyo 149 * 015 * 036 fo Luo 42 SMe _. 0 286058 = 352381 pu to 2, Lyo = 0.028378 pu Jo ( _ ta) 0 308485 , L te to + (1 - 54) — 0005927 ta ( #2) Luo _ 9.000706 Eun ~ 9.002049 344 tet Luo - 9.001046 5 Lue ~ 9.003743 Sata te ub Lup. 0.001910 to Lu _ 9.944720 31,4445 fot hue = 0.0029 wo 34 Sp Se 0 0s0ns2 352, lo pte Luo e( ~ 2) - onssss0 35,45” (9.000705 to to and we get for the state-space equation NV -$927 2.050 3.743 -« 0 de -¥4 Ne 1388 3.278 «3.756 0 0 Me Up No 10” 44720 66.282 -115 330 0 0 Ao 0 «| = 10" + 5 © 0 0 5928 5.789 |], -Y he 0 0 6 284.854 313.530} | Ao| 0 e -07062, -1046, -1910A, 0.7052, 2954r,}|e} | 0.000567, 4.12.4 Treatment of saturation The flux linkage state-space model is convenient for considering the effect of satura- tion because all the terms in the state equations (4 126)-(4.133) are linear except for the magnetizing flux linkages Ap and dag ‘These are affected by saturation of the mutual inductances Lp and L4g, and only these terms need to be corrected for saturation. In the simulation of the machine, either by digital or analog computer, this can be accom-114 Chapter 4 jar fo ins i Fig 47 Saturation curve for Map plished by computing a saturation function to adjust (4 120) and (4.121) at all times to reflect the state of the mutual inductances As a practical matter, the q axis inductance Lg seldom saturates, so it is usually necessary to adjust only X4p for saturation. The procedure for including the magnetic circuit saturation is given below [18]. Let the unsaturated values of the magnetizing inductances be Lane and L4gq. The compu- tations for saturated values of these inductances follow For salient pole machines, Lin = KLav0 Lag = Lago Ky = f(a) @ 139) where K, isa saturation factor determined {rom the magnetization curve of the machine For a round-rotor machine, we compute, according to [16] Lan = Khao Lag = KL ago K, =f) d= io + Nig)? (4 140) To determine K, for the d axis in (4 139), the following procedure is suggested. Let the magnetizing current, which is the sum of ig + ig + ip, be iy. The relation be- tween \qo and iy is given by the saturation curve shown in Figure 47 For a given value of Ap the unsaturated magnetizing cuttent is iyo, corresponding to Lavo while the saturated value is iys The saturation function K, is a function of this mag- netizing current, which in turn isa function of \4p To calculate the saturated magnetizing current iys, the current increment needed to satisfy saturation, iva = ius ~ lwo, is first calculated Note that saturation be- gins at the threshold value Aypr corresponding to a magnetizing current yr. For flux linkages greater than Xypr the current iya increases monotonically in an almost expo- nential way. Thus we may write approximately ius = 4,€xp[B.(Xao — Mor) Aan > avr 4141) where A, and B, are constants to be determined from the actual saturation curve. Knowing iva for a given value of Azo, the value of iys is calculated, and hence K, is determined The solution is obtained by an iterative process so that the relation DapK.Oran) = Lavoixs is satisfied 4.13 toad Equations From (4 103) and (4.138) we have a set of equations for each machine in the form % = 0,1 7p) 142)The Synchronous Machine ns where x is a vector of order seven (five currents, w and 6 for the current model, or five flux linkages, w and 6 for the flux linkage model), and v is a vector of voltages that includes vj, U4, and v, Assuming that uy and 7, are known, the set (4.142) does not completely describe the synchronous machine since there are two additional variables vy and v, appeat- ing in the equations. Therefore two additional equations are needed to relate v, and v, 0 the state variables, These are auxiliary equations, which may or may not increase the order of the system depending upon whether the relations obtained are algebraic equations or differential equations and whether new variables are introduced To ob- tain equations for v, and v, in terms of the state variables, the terminal conditions of the machine must be known In other words, equations describing the load are required There are a number of ways of representing the electrical load on a synchronous generator For example, we could consider the load to be constant impedance, con- stant power, constant current, or some composite of all three For the present we re quire a load representation that will illustrate the constraints between the generator voltages, currents, and angula: velocity These constraints are found by solving the net- work, including loads, given the machine terminal voltages For illustrative purposes here, the load constraint is satisfied by the simple one machine-infinite bus problem illustrated below. 4.13.1 Synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus Consider the system of Figure 4.8 where a synchronous machine is connected to an infinite bus through a transmission line having resistance R, and inductance L,. The voltages and current for phase a only are shown, assuming no mutual coupling between phases, By inspection of Figure 4.8 we can write vy = Ves + Reig + Lyi, or . iy ofa] v..| + RUA] + LU (4143) ve] | Bae ie i In matrix notation (4 143) becomes Vato > Veate + ReUinte + LeUhane (4.144) which we transform to the O-d-q frame of reference by Park’s transformation: You = Pratc = Precte + Reloay + LePigs. Vor pu (4.145) The first term on the right side we may call v.94 and may determine its value by as- suming that ¥...5. i8 a set of balanced three-phase voltages, or Fig 48 Synchronous generator loaded by an infinite bus116 Chapter 4 cos(ugt + a) Vout: = V2V. | cos (wet + a ~ 120°) (4 146) cos(wR! + a + 120°) where V. is the magnitude of the rms phase voltage. Using the identities in Appendix A. and using @ = wat + 6 + /2, we can show that 0 V3 |-sin(6 - ) (4.147) cos(é — a) Yaad = PYecte The last term on the right side of (4 145) may be computed as follows. From the definition of Park’s transformation jn = Pi, We compute the derivative ing, = Piste + Plage Thus Prine = iggy ~ Phase = dogg — PPioug (4.148) where the quantity PP-! is known from (4 32), Thus (4.145) may be written as 0 0 Voag = Va V3 |—sin(6 ~ a)) + Reiog + Lelong — ol. |-i,; Vorpu (4.149) cos(5 — a) ig which gives the constraint between the generator terminal voltage voy and the gen- erator current igy for a given torque angle § Note that (4.149) is exactly the same whether in MKS units or pu due to our choice of P and base quantities Note also that there are two nonlinearities in (4 149) The first is due to the speed voltage term, the wL,i product. There is also a nonlinearity in the trigonometric functions of the first term . The angle é is related to the speed by 5 = © ~ I pu or, in radians, 5+ fw onda (4.150) Thus even this simple load representation introduces new nonlinearities, but the order of the system remains at seven 4.13.2 Current model Incorporating (4.149) into system (4.75), we may write —Ksiny + Reig + Leis + wl, -o (R + wN)i + 0 (4.151) Keosy + Rig + Lely — wheig 0The Synchronous Machine Ww where K = VV. aud y = 6 ~ a. Nowlet ReartR Lew Qth, be ltk (4.152) Using (4.152), we may replace the », Le, and L, terms in L,R, and N by &, 2,, and £, to obtain the new matrices Land (R + oN). Thus [se -o -fi- (+ oNi+) 0 (4.153) Koosy 0 Premultiplying by —L~' and adding the equations for & and é, -L(R + oN) a a) 4 fle i fo o ' Ty 3) -3 NE e tof & of ssl oo 6 ho ap - (4.154) The system described by (4 154) is now in the form of (4.37), namely, X = f(x, wD, where x! = [iziripi, in wd] The function f is @ nonlinear function of the state variables and 1, and u contains the system driving functions, which are, Ue and Ty. The loading effect of the transmis- sion line is incorporated in the matrices R, L,and N- The infinite bus voltage V_ appears in the terms K sin y and K cos y Note also that these latter terms are not driving functions, but rather nonlinear functions of the state variable 6 Because the system (4 154) is nonlinear, determination of its stability depends upon finding a suitable Liapunov function or some equivalent method This is explored in greater depth in Volume 2 4.13.3 The flux linkage model From (4 149) and substituting for i, and i, in terms of flux linkages (see Sec- tion 4.12.3), _ ReLwo v= -V3Ve snG a) + FEI Ea), — Relate ny - 1 pte ho _ obeLuo be - be) — belo y _ Leluo Jn Spat no $e (1 Girlie - Seine a, tei (4.155)118 Chapter 4 = V3V.cos(é - a) + z(-4 ee) 7 ~ FG de - oe ~ tn the 4, 4 Ley — Lue) 5, — Lebo 3, 4.156) Tt * ths wer Be) he FE be ano Combining (4.155) with (4.135), Sef — Lae), — le, Lelie 5, Bf baw RLuo y p+ #6 tal Take bat © Bat edt Tate Ay + Seta ng + VV. sin(@ — @) vee (4.157) Lu), , Blame La) s+ FEN ~ Ghetu y, — VIV, 005 (6 - a) «to (4.158) Equations (4 157) and (4 158) replace the first and fourth rows in (4 138) to give the complete state-space model. The resulting equation is of the form Tx=Cx+D (4.159) where x’ = [Ay Me Ap Ay Ag we 6), als ( _ a) _Lebun _Lebup ta\ a) "Fade ~ Beko ° ° e eThe Synchronous Machine ug and the matrix C is given by ° and VIV. sin(6 — a) uo 0 D = |~V3V, cos(s — a) (4 162) 9 Taft) -1 If I! exists, premultiply (4.159) by I~! to get ke Tx + I'D (4163) Equation (4 163) is in the desired form, ie. in the form of x = f(x,u,1) and completely describes the system It contains two types of nonlinearities, product nonlinearities and trigonometric functions Example 4.4 Extend Examples 42 and 43 to include the effect of the transmission line and torque equations The line constants are R, = 0, L, = 0.4 pu, tj = 2Hwg = 1786.94 tad. The infinite bus voltage constant K and the damping torque coefficient D are left unspecified Solution R=r4R,= 000106 i, = 1.4L, = 210 Ly +L, = 204120 Chopter 4 Then ooo. 0 0 | 2040 1.490 0 000072 0} 8 ° R+oN=| 0 6 oot | 0 0 2100 -1 550 0 0 0 | 0 cos 2.400 1.550 1550 | 0 0 1550 1651 1550} 0 0 L=|iss0 1550 1605 | 0 0 0 0 0} 2.040 1490 0 0 0 | 1490 1,526 By digital computer we find 1709-0591 —1.080 |} —0.591 6.668 —5 867 1 0 i-=|-1080 -5867 —7.330 1) 11 = 1669 ° 1 1669 2.286 Then 000187 -0.00044 -00141 | 34870 2.5470 ~0.00065 0.00495 —0.0769 LR + oN) =|—0.00118 0.00436 0.0960 ~1206e 088le 359 = -2 6500 = 2.650 3-506. 2588e 2.588 | -0.00183 0.12332 and we compute HKsiny] [=171Ksiny + 0589v, ~u 0 589K sin y ~ 6 69uy L') 0 |=} 108Ksiny + 5.89uy Koosy 171K cosy 0 = 167K cosy Therefore the state-space current model is given byThe Synchronous Machine 121 -0000559D 0] & 1 olla @ ~0.00095i, -0.00087i, —0.00087i, 0.00092i, 0.000833, é 0 0 0 0 0 fs 000193 -000037 00143 -349%% = 255e@ | 0 0] | te ip 0.00067 0.00496 0.0778. 1.20w = 0878 0 04) ar ip 000122 © 000837 = 0071 22w ele | 0} | te |=] 3590 2650 2656 00019 0091 ° oll a te -3:500 =2590 -259@ 00018-01234 | 0 olf ig 171K sin y — 0.58905] 0 589K sin-y — 6 69, = 108K siny — 5.980, + LT Keosy 167K cosy 0.000559 7, “1 The flux linkage model is of the form 1 = CA + D, where T, C, and D are given by (4 159)-(4 162). Substituting, 31622 0.7478 -13656 1 0 10 0 0 10 nr) 109 0 0 0 i ) | 0 0 T Oo oO oO 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 03162 0.2365 04319 0 10 o ° 03162 0.6678 0 1.0 1 0 ' The matrix C is mostly the same as that given in Example 4.3 except that the w terms are modified122 Chapter 4 3927 2050 3.743 3162e 21120 i : 1388 5.278 3.756 FO o + 0 44720 66282 115330) 0 o 4 an = a fo 3620-747 Tw 13660 | 5928 $789 | - ! io 10 0 0 0 — | 284.854 313.530} t 4 -07058X, 1.046A, -1.910A,/ 0705, 2954A, '-05596D 0 I ' 0 0 o 1 0 ort ® hw), 17766 28024 47.733 | 10000 667 Bu | | he 1388-5278 3.756 | 0 o 1 0 »' ho 44.720 66 282, 115.330; 0 o | dy 3, | = 10° | 1000e — -236 dw = 431 Bw + 188.337 -207.529 ' ° Ny he 0 0 0 |284.854 ~313 530) de - 3 - o 0.706, -10464, -1910,0705A, 2954A, | -0.5596D 0] | w 0 0 an) oi o4 0} Ls 0316 Ksin-y + 02290, + 0 0.000559 T,, -l 4.14 Subtransient and Transient Inductances and Time Constants If all the rotor ciscuits are short circuited and balanced three-phase voltages are suddenly impressed upon the stator terminals, the ux linking the d axis circuit will de- pend initially on the subtransient inductances, and after a few cycles on the transient inductances. Let the phase voltages suddenly applied to the stator be given by Ug cos 6 vy | = WEP cos(# ~ 120) | ule) (4 164) % 0s (0 + 120) where u(t) is a unit step function and V is the rms phase voltage Then from (47) weThe Synchronous Machine 123 can show that by 0 v, b= | V5 Vu) 4.165) v, oO d Immediately after the voltage is applied, the flux linkages \, and Ap are still zero, since they cannot change instantly. Thus aty = 0* Ae 0 kMpiy + Lele + Maino kMpig + Mais + Lyin (4 166) Therefore KMpLy — kMoM, kM, kMpM, ~ - KM foMs = — EM Me (4.167) * os Lilp= My 416) Substituting in (4 20) for d,, we get (att = 0°) Ne (: _ RM iLo + LekeMi - 2kMekMoM, « LyLp — Mi The subtransient inductance is defined as the initial stator flux linkage per unit of stator current, with all the rotor circuits shorted (and previously unenergized) Thus by definition ) ia (4.168) Ns Lia (4 169) subtransient reactance. From (4.168) and (4.169) KM) Lo + (kKMp) Ly — 2KMeKMoMx Thy — MR _ Ly + bp ~ 2Lay (LeLo/Lin) -3 where L 4p is defined in (4.108) If the balanced voltages described by (4.164) are suddenly applied to a machine with no damper winding, the same procedure will yield (att = 0°) ip kM y/E dia (in) Dem Ua — Mp? /Lelig = Lota 173) where £3 is the d a Ly a (4.170) =, (4171) where L}is the d axis transient inductance; ic, Ly = Ly = KM P/Ly = by Lolly (aim) Ina machine with damper windings, after a few cycles {rom the start of the transient described in this section, the damper winding current decays rapidly to zero and the effective stator inductance is the transient inductance If the phase of the impressed voltages in (4 164) is changed by 90° (v, = V2 ¥ sin @), vs becomes zero and v, will have a magnitude of V3 V. Before we examine the q axis inductances, some clarification of the circuits that may exist in the axis is needed. For a salient pole machine with amortisseur windings a q axis damper circuit exists, but there is no other q axis rotor winding. For such a ma- chine the stator flux linkage after the initial subtransient dies out is determined by ¢s-124 Chopter 4 sentially the same circuit as that of the steady-state q axis flux linkage, Thus for a salient pole machine jt is customary to consider the q axis transient inductance to be the same as the q axis synchronous inductance. The situation for a round rotor machine is different “Here the solid iron rotor pro- vides multiple paths for circulating eddy currents, which act as equivalent windings during both transient and subtransient periods. Such a machine will have effective q axis rotor citcuits that will determine the q axis transient and subtransient inductances, Thus for such a machine it is important to recognize that a g axis transient inductance (much smaller in magnitude than L,) exists. Repeating the previous procedure for the q axis citcuits of a salient pole machine, dg = 0 = kMoi, + Lolg (4175) or ig = KMo/Lo)ig (4.176) Substituting in the equation for \y, Lyi + kKMoig (4.177) or Ay = [Le - KMo/Loli, 4 L where £7 is the g axis subtransient inductance Ly = Ly ~ (kMo}/Lg = Ly ~ Bolko (4.179) We can also see that when ig decays to zero alter a few cycles, the q axis effective in- ductance in the “transient period” is the same as L,, Thus for this type of machine (4.178) Loa Ly 4180) Since the reactance is the product of the rated angular speed and the inductance and since in pu a = 1, the subtransient and transient reactances ate numerically equal to the corresponding values of inductances in pu We should again point out that for a round rotor machine Lf < Lj > re, while Ly and L, are of similar magnitude Therefore we can write, approximately, . Mais ip + 4 —Malts 4.186 OT Milly? Lp — MiJ Ly @ 189) Equation (4 186) shows that ip decays with a time constant 2 hy = SOS Mahe (4.187) This is the d axis open circuit subrransient time constant It is denoted open circuit because by definition the stator circuits are open When the damper winding is not available or after the decay of the subtransient current, we can show that the field current is affected only by the parameters of the field circuit; ie, rely + Lois = Veult) (4 188) The time constant of this transient is the d axis transient open circuit time constant ion where tle = Le/re (4.189) Kimbark [2] and Anderson [8] show that when the stator is short circuited, the cor- responding d axis time constants are given by ri = rhLt/Ls (4 190) Ta = TaolalLe (4.191) A similar analysis of the transient in the g axis circuits of a salient pole machine shows that the time constants are given by a = Loto 4192) af = ribLi'/Ly (4.193) For a round rotor machine both transient and subtransient time constants are present Another time constant is associated with the rate of change of direct current in the stator or with the envelope of alternating currents in the field winding, when the ma- chine is subjected to a three-phase short circuit This time constant is 7, and is given by (see {8],Ch 6) te = Lalr (4.194) where L, is the negative-sequence inductance, which is given by Ly = (Lh + £,)/2 (4.195) Typical values for the synchronous machine constants are shown in Tables 43, 4.4, and 45126 Chapter 4 Table 4.3. Iypical Synchronous Machine Time Constants in Seconds Time ‘Turbogenerators Waterwheel generators Synchronous condensers constant Low Avg. ‘High Low Avg. ‘High Low Avg. High rio 28 56 92 15 (56 95 60 90 us th o4 1h 18 05 18 3300 12020 28 rg = ry 0.02 0035 00S 001 0035 005 002 0035 00s te 0.06 0.16 0.35 0.03.5 0.25 DONT 0.30, Source: Reprinted by permission from Power System Stability vol. 3, by EW Kimbark @ Wiley, 1956 Table 4.4. Typical Turbogenerator and Synchronous Condenser Characteristics Generators Synchronous condensers Parameter Recom- Recom- Range mended == Range mended average average ‘Nominal rating 300-1000 MW 50-100 MVA Power factor 0.80-0.95 0.90 Direct axis synchronous reactance xg 140-180 160 170-270 220 Transient reactance x4 23.35 25 45-65 55 Subtransient reactance xf 15-23 20 35.45 40 ‘Quadrature axis synchronous reactance xy 150-160 155 100-130 us Negative-sequence reactance x2 18-20 19 35-45 40 Zero-sequence reactance x» i214 B 15-25, 20 Short circuit ratio 050-0 72 064 035-065 050 Inertia constant #2, (EW=8) {3600r/min 30-50 40 (kVA) [1800r/min _5.0-8.0 60 : . ‘Source: From the 1964 National Power Survey made by the U.S Federal Power Commission USGPO. Note: All reactances in percent on rated voltage and KVA base. kW losses for typical synchronous condensers in the range of sizes shown, excluding losses associated with step-up transformers, are in the order of I 2-1 5% on rated kVA base. No attempt has been made to show EW losses associated with gen- ferators, since generating plants are generally rated on a net power output basis and losses vary widely de- pendent on the generator plant design Table 4.5. Typical Hydrogenerator Characteristics Smal Lage Parameter tints ri Nominal rating (MVA) 0-40 40-200 Power factor 0 80-0.95 0180-095 Speed (1/min) 70-350 70-200 Inertia constant H, “W-8). 15-40 30-55 (kVA) Dircot axis synchronous reactance x4 90-110 80-100 Transient reactance x3 25-45 20-40 Subtransient reactance x 20-35 15-30 Quadrature axis synchronous reactance xy Negative-sequence reactance 20-45 20-35 Zero-sequence veactanice Yo 10-35 10-25 Short cieuit ratio 1.0-2.0 1.0-2.0 Source: From the 1964 National Power Survey made by the U $ Federal Power Commission. USGPO. ‘Note: All reactances in percent on rated voltage and kVA base. No attempt has been made to show KW losses associated with generators, since generating plants are generally rated on a net power output basis and losses vary widely dependent on the generator plant design '*These power factors cover conditions for generators installed either close to or remote from load cen- tersThe Synchronous Machine 127 4.15 Simplified Models of the Synchronous Machine In previous sections we have dealt with a mathematical model of the synchtonous machine, taking into account the various effects introduced by different rotor citcuits, i.e., both field effects and damper-winding effects. The model includes seven nonlinear differential equations for each machine In addition to these, other equations describing the load (or network) constraints, the excitation system, and the mechanical torque must, be included in the mathematical model, Thus the complete mathematical description of a large power system is exceedingly complex, and simplifications are often used in modeling the system Ina stability study the response of a large number of synchronous machines to a given disturbance is investigated. The complete mathematical description of the system would therefore be very complicated unless some simplifications were used, Often only a few machines are modeled in detail, usually those nearest the disturbance, while others are described by simpler models The simplifications adopted depend upon the location of the machine with respect to the disturbance causing the transient and upon the type of disturbance being investigated Some of the more commonly used simplified models are given in this section The underlying assumptions as well as the justifica- tions for their use are briefly outlined In general, they are presented in the order of their complexity Some simplified models have already been presented. In Chapter 2 the classical representation was introduced In this chapter, when the saturation is neglected as tacitly assumed in the current model, the model is also somewhat simplified An ex- cellent reference on simplified models is Young [19] 4.15.1 Neglecting damper windings—the E, model The mathematical models given in Sections 4 10 and 4 12 assume the presence of three rotor circuits Situations arise in which some of these circuits or theit effects can be neglected Machine with solid round rotor {2} The solid round rotor acts as a q axis damper winding, even with the d axis damper winding omitted. The mathematical model for this type of machine will be the same as given in Sections 4 10 and 4.12 with ip or Ap omitted For example, in (4.103) and (4 138) the third row and column are omitted. Amonisseur effects neglected This assumption assumes that the effect of the damper windings on the transient under study is small enough to be negligible. This is particularly true in system studies where the damping between closely coupled machines is not of interest In this case the effect of the amortisseur windings may be included in the damping torque, i e , by increasing the damping coefficient D in the torque equa- tion Neglecting the amortisseur windings can be simulated by omitting ip and ig in (4 103) or Ap and Ag in (4.138). Another model using familiar machine param- eters is given below From (4.118), (4.123), (4.120), and (4.121) with the D and Q cir- cuits omitted, ja} | Cam Luo ti —Lwo/tabe i uoltate (he ~ Luo Lt i 0 (4.196)128 Chapter 4 or = |=] ----+---|] -- (4.197) iy 0) uel, We can show that £5' is given by ° ep al te hand bite ss) -Leo [Lily LafLile Therefore, the currents are given by ie vin ~Lavf/Lil, 0 | Ay in|=|—Lao/Lale La/Eile 0 IL (4.199) i 0 0 T/L, || dy The above equations may be in pu or in MKS units This follows, since the choice of the rotor base quantities is based upon equal flux linkages for base rotor and stator currents. From the stator equation (4 36) and rearranging, Ay = -rig ~ why — 04 pu (4.200) or from (4.199) and (4 200) Ay = wp, and Lj! = 1,’ Note that while some simplifying as- sumptions are used in this model, the field effects and the effects of the damper cixcuits are included in the machine representation Stator subtransient flux linkages are defined by the equations Made Lig Mo =A, - Lil, (4.230) where Lj and LY’ are defined by (4170) and (4179) respectively Note that (4,230) represents the more general case of (4 169), which represents a special case of zero initial flux linkage. These flux linkages produce EMF’s that Jag 90° behind them. These EMF’ ate defined by er RON = ogdf ef & uM = — a dy (4.231) (See [8] for a complete derivation.) From (4.36) the stator voltage equations, under the assumptions stated above, are given by Ug = —rig — Rdg Uy = Ty + ORY (4.232) Combining (4 230) and (4.232), Uy = mtg ~ wei Le — onde Now from (4 231) and (4.233), vgs mrig ix" tel vy = mri, + ig” + ef (4.234) sri, + opighd + ogdf (4.233)The Synchronous Machine 133 Fig 412. Voltage behind subtransient reactance equivalent where, under the assumptions used in this model, x" 2 gl? = ol} (4235) The voltages ef and ef are the d and g axis components of the EMF e” produced by the subtransient flux linkage, the d and g axis components of which are given by (4230) This EMF is called the voltage behind the subtransient reactance Equations (4.234) when transformed to the a-b-c frame of reference may be repre- sented by the equivalent circuit of Figure 412. If quasi-steady-state conditions are assumed to apply at any instant, the relations expressed in (4.234) may be tepresented by the phasor diagram shown in Figure 4 13. In this diagram the q and d axes represent the real and imaginary axes respectively. “Projections” of the different phasors on these axes give the q and d components of these phasors. For example the voltage £" is repre- sented by the phasor F” shown Its components are £7 and Ej respectively From the above we can see that if at any instant the terminal voltage and current of the ma- chine are known, the voltage E” can be determined, Also if Ey and £/ are knowa, E” can be calculated; and if the current is also known, the terminal voltage can be deter- mined We now develop the dynamic model for the subtransient case. Substituting (4 230) into (4.134), we compute If) Law Li |b aye [ abe ( - wah + Bekt 4, » Bett y, (4236) We can show that _ fp Hines + to) sir ; - [- Tite t Flt +09) 7 4 Gan Fig 413 Phasor diagram for the quasi-static subtcansient case134 Chapter 4 since by definition » Lio(tr + F0' Wo ba AT Therefore we may write (4.236) as Mo= (LE Luo/ 2a te)de + (LE Luo! tao) do Using (4 203), we can rewrite in terms of E; as Mo = (Li Lwole/ te PeLan) V3 Ey + (Li Luo/ ta fo)do Now we can compute the constants 2 Likwols, Li ~ 44 Xd = Xe aE Fy xy =x =1-M%=*% 1k xi x Substituting in (4.240) and using (4.231), we compute in pu ef = OF — 1 fg — XUV TE, ~ Ay) +o Similatly from (4 230) and (4.104), Mi = (Lyig + Lago) ~ Lyi = (Ly - Li Vig + Lagi which can be substituted into (4 231) to compute ef = 0, 2), = ee where we define the voltage €y = @RLagig We can also show that Mom A = Lyi = (Lag/Lo)e (4.238) (4.239) (4.240) (4241) (4.242) (4.243) (4.244) (4 245) (4 246) (4.247) Now from the field flux linkage equation (4.104) in pu, we incorporate (4.203) and (4.226) to compute Ew By (xp ~ xViy + io) V3 From the definition of Lj (4.174) we can show that Lg ~ ha = Lolly We can also show that (Ly ~ LOIS ~ 46¥ = bef php ~L30) Then from (4 104) in pu Xo = Lats + Lavin + Loin Xe = Lavig + Le in + Lavin Eliminating i, from (4 251), (4.248) (4.249) (4.250) (4251) (4.252)The Synchronous Machine 135 Now substituting (4.203), (4 249), and (4.250) into (4 252), VIE, = dy = (La ~ Ls = Landis ~ § by (4253) which can be put in the form ip = 2224 In, — VIE) — x) - uid) (4.254) Gs In addition to the above auxiliary equations, the following differential equations are obtained From (4.36) we write — ay roip + hp = 0 (4.255) Substituting (4.187) and (4 250) in (4.255), (xg = xe ho = - aoe ip (4256) Similarly, from (4.36) we have rolg + which may be written as lop rolLuo/Lollio + Wer Lagh{Lolho = 0 4257) Now from (4.246), (4.247), (4.231), (4.192), and (4.257) we get the differential equation ef = eafth (4258) The voltage equation for the field circuit comes from (4.36) Up = Trip +e (4.259) which can be put in the same form as (4 228) thE, = Ep — E (4.260) where E is given by (4.248) Equations (4 256), (4 258), and (4.260) give the time rate of change Ap, ef, and Ez in terms of ip, e,. and £ The auxiliary equations (4 245), (4.248), and (4 254) re- late these quantities to i, and i,, which in turn depend upon the load configuration The voltage ey’ is calculated from (4 243). To complete the model, the torque equation is needed From (4.95), Teg = tga — tahy By using (4 230) and recalling that in this model it is assumed that L} = 22, Tyg = ig - WN (4261) and if @ in pu is approximately equal to the synchronous speed, (4.261) becomes Teg = Cd iy + ef ig (4.262) If saturation is neglected, the system equations can be reduced to the following: ~te¢-4Le,- xy, (4.263) Ta 770136 Chapter 4 ho- bv3e-4tay+to- iy (4.264) Ta Tao Ta0, + SERGE =), VE f) Ga = dG Tass — 5) Tie @- x) Dod =) Teo(Xg — Xe)? Now from (4.243) and using K, and K, as defined in (4.241) and (4 242) respectively, we may write + (4 265) ey = WOK, Ey + Kzo (4.266) To complete the description of the system, we add the inertial equations & = (fn) Ta ~ eblg/34 ~ fe Br, - Dory (4267) bew-1 (4.268) The currents i, and i, are determined from the load equations. The block diagrams for the system may be obtained by rearranging the above equa- tions In doing so, we eliminate the ¥/3 from all equations by using the rms equivalents, similar to (4 212), Ap = dof VIE" = ef VF = Ef + jEY 4.269) Then (4 263)-(4.266) become (+ THEE =~, XL, (4 rhs) Ay = Eh + Oh — xe (+ ro Ey = Exp — Kak + %ssly + Kohn EX = KE, + Kydp (4.270) r 7 b—fgny [ig 5 be Si tt oe — % ete Ty Fig. 414 Block diagram for the £" modelThe Synchronous Machine 137 Fig 415 Block diagram for computation of torque and speed in the £" model where we have defined Ke xf — x, K xy Moy @y — Kel RK, oxy = Get AGE = x4) (4271) x x The block diagram for (4.270) is shown in Figure 4 14 The remaining equations are given by (D + a)o = Ty — (Eth, + Ef) sb = w — 1 (4272) The block diagram for equation (4.272) is given in Figure 4 15. Also the block diagram of the complete system can be obtained by combining Figures 4.14 and 4.15 If saturation is to be included, a voltage increment £4, corresponding to the in- crease in the field current due io saturation, is to be added to (4 248), E = El + Ey ~ (e — xlig + ip)/V3_ (4273) Example 46 Use the machine data from Examples 4.1-4 $ to derive the time constants and gains for the £” model Solution The time constant rf = 003046 s = 72 149 rad is already known from Exam- ple 4.5. For the £” model we also need the following additional time constants From (4.192) the q axis subtransient open circuit time constant is rly = Lofro = 1.423 x 109/18 969 x 10°? = 0075s = 28.279 rad which is about twice the d axis subtransient open circuit time constant We also need the d axis transient open circuit time constant. It is computed from (4.189). Ty = Le[ts = 2189/0371 = 990s = 222425 rad Note that this time constant is about 30 times the subtransient time constant in the d138 Chapter 4 axis This means that the integration associated with jp will be accomplished very fast. compared to that associated with Tp To compute the gains, the constant xj or Lj is needed It is computed from (4.174): Li = Ly — Lip/Ly = 1.10 ~ (155)/1.651 = 0.245 pu We can now compute from (4 271) = aXe, 0.185 ~ O15 _ 9 368 K xj~ x, 0245 — 015 K, = 1 ~ K, = 0.632 (ge = xy)(xi — xf) _ (1,70 — 0.245)(0.245 — 0.185) K, = Sea a — a) | O70 OOO) = 9.673 “ Ga ~ xy (0.245 — 0.150" , = (a= NGG = 24) _ (1.70 — 0.245)(0.185 = 0.150) _ 4 55, Xe yak 0.245 ~ 0150 0536 From (4.179) we compute Ly = L, ~ Lig/Le = 1.64 ~ (1499/1526 = 0.189 pu Then, from (4.270), we compute the gain, x, ~ x7 = 1.64 - 0185 = 1455 pu ing iy and X, for a cylindrical rotor machine—the two-axis model In the two-axis model the transient effects are accounted for, while the subtransient effects are neglected [18] The transient effects are dominated by the sotor circuits, which are the field circuit in the d axis and an equivalent circuit in the q axis formed by the solid rotor An additional assumption made in this model is that in the stator voltage equations the terms A, and }, are negligible compared to the speed voltage terms and that o> &, = 1 pu The machine will thus have two stator circuits and two rotor circuits. However, the number of differential equations describing these circuits is reduced by two since hy and }, ate neglected in the stator voltage equations (the stator voltage equations are now algebraic equations) The stator transient flux linkages are defined by MEAN bhi NE (4274) and the corresponding stator voltages are defined by ey 8 -wh, = —ogd; 1S why = wry (4.275) Following a procedure similar to that used in Section 4 15.2, Ug = rig — welt, + ef Ug = —ri, + whi + &} (4 276) or ep = Uy + rig + Hei, + (x, — XDA, (4277) f= Dy riy — by (4.278) Since the term (x; — 4})é, is usually small, we can write, approximately, eS Uy + re + xy (4279)The Synchronous Machine 139 + 5? Fig 416 Transient equivalent circuit of a generator The voltages ¢; and e are the g and d components of a voltage e' behind transient re- actance Equations (4.279) and (4 278) indicate that during the transient the machine can be represented by the circuit diagram shown in Figure 4.16 It is interesting to note that since e) and ef are d and q axis stator voltages, they represent times the equiva- lent stator rms voltages For example, we can verify that e; = V3Ej, as given by (4.203) Also, in this model the voltage e’, which corresponds to the transient flux link- ages in the machine, is not a constant Rather, it will change due to the changes in the flux linkage of thed and g axis rotor circuits We now develop the differential equations for the voltages ¢} and ef The d axis flux linkage equations for this model are Na Leia + Laois PY Me = Lavla + Lely pu (4.280) By eliminating i, and using (4.174) and (4 203), Ne — VEE, = Lily pu and by using (4275), = VE; pu (4.281) Similarly, for the g axis Ay = Lele + Lagig PU Ng = Lagi, + Loig pu (4.282) Eliminating ip, we compute Ay — Cao/ Lodo = (La - Hro/Lodiy pu (4.283) by defining Ly = Lg/ke pu (4284) and by using (4.284) and (4.275) we get ey 8 VIE, = —(Lig/La)dy pu (4.285) We also define VIE = Levis pu VI Eg = eg = Lagig pu (4.286) We can show that [8], 4 y+ tl, (4.287) From the Q circuit voltage equation rig + dAg/dt = 0, and by using (4282) with (4.286), Bt wily = Bet ile Eat xd tphs = Ey - (% - x) (4.288) where, for uniformity, we adopt the notation140 Chanter 4 Fig 417 Block diagram representation of the two-axis model Ho = th = Lolto (4.289) ‘Similarly, from the field voltage equation we get a relation similar to (4.228) b= | Ey - BD (4.290) Too Equations (4 288), (4 290), and (4 287) can be represented by the block diagram shown in Figure 417. To complete the description of the system, the electrical torque is ob- tained from (4.95), Tig = Adg ~ Ayla» Which is combined with (4.274) and (4275) to compute 1. =. le + Bil, ~ (Ly — Lid lily (4291) Example 4.7 Determine the time constants and gains for the two-axis model of Figure 4.17, based on the machine data of Examples 4 1-46 In addition we obtain from the manu- facturer’s data the constant xj = 0380 pu Solution Both time constants are known from Example 4.7. The gains are simply the pu re- actances x, — x) = 164-0380 = 1260 pu x, ~ x = 170 = 0245 = 1455 pu The remaining system equations are given by Ty — Deo ~ [Bly + Ej, ~ (Lh - LOL) b-w-1 (4292) The block diagram for (4 292) is shown in Figure 4.18 By combining Figures 4.17 and 4 18, the block diagram for the complete model is, obtained Again saturation can be accounted for by modifying (4.287), Ew Ey a lat Es (4.293) where E, is a voltage increment that corresponds to the increase in the field current due to saturation (see Young [19]) The procedure for incorporating this modification in the block diagram lar to that discussed in Section 4 15.2The Synchronous Machine 141 Fig 418 Block diagram reprasentation of (4 292) 4.15.4 Neglecting amortisseur effects and 1, and i, terms—the one-axis model This model is sometimes referred to in the literature as the one-axis model. It is similar to the model presented in the previous section except that the absence of the Q cirouit eliminates the differential equation for £5 or ¢) (which is a function of the current ig). The voltage behind transient reactance e” shown in Figure 4 16 has only the component e; changing by the field effects according to (4 290) and (4.293) The component ¢ is completely determined from the currents and vy. Thus, the system equations are tok = Ey -E pu E = Ej ~ (xe - xi)ly pu (4294) ‘The voltage E} is obtained from (4 36) with dy = 0, and using (4.274) and (4 275), Ey Vet yl try pu (4.295) The torque equation is derived from (4.95), T,, = Aig — Agi Substituting (4 274) and Fig 419 Block diagram representation of the one-axis model142 Chapter 4 noting that, in the absence of the Q circuit, A, = Lyiy, Ty = Ful, Ug ~ Lilly Pu (4.296) Thus the remaining system equations are 7 = Ty ~ Deo ~ (Eig ~ (Ly ~ Lila} pu b= @-1 pu (4.297) The block diagram representation of the system is given in Figure 4.19. 4.15.5 Assuming constant flux linkage in the main field winding From (4.228) we note that the voltage £{, which corresponds to the d axis field flux linkage, changes at a rate that depends upon ry This time constant is on the order of several seconds The voltage E,, depends on the excitation system characteristics. If Ey does not change very fast and if the impact initiating the transient is short, in some cases the assumption that the voltage E; (or e?) remains constant during the transient can be justified Under this assumption the voltage behind transient reactance £' or e" has a q axis component £; or e/ that is always constant, The system equation to be solved is (4.296) with the network constraints (to determine the currents) and the condi- tion that £; is constant The next step in simplifying the mathematical model of the machine is to assume that £; and £' are approximately equal in magnitude and that their angles with respect to the reference voltage are approximately equal (or differ by a small angle that is con- stant). Under these assumptions E' is considered constant. This is the constant voltage behind transient reactance representation used in the classical model of the synchronous machine Example 4.8 The simplified model used in Section 4 15.2 (voltage behind subtransient reactance) is to be used in the system of one machine connected to an infinite bus through a trans- mission line discussed previously in Section 4.13. The system equations neglecting saturation are to be developed Solution For the case where saturation is neglected, the system equations are given by (4 263)-(4 268), This set of differential equations is a function of the state variables ef, Yo» Ey, w, and 6 and the currents i and 4, Equation (4.266) expresses ef as a linear combination of the variables Ey and Ap For the mathematical description of the system to be complete, equations for i, and i, in terms of the state variables are needed. These equations are obtained from the load constraints From the assumptions used in the model, ie, by neglecting the terms in A, and \, in the stator voltage equations (compared to the speed voltage terms) and also by as- Fig 4.20 Network representation of the system in Example 48The Synchronous Machine 143 suming that © 2 ea, the system reduces to the equivalent network shown in Fig- ure 4.20, By following a procedure similar to that in Section 4 15 2, equations (4 234) are given by Vig = Ri, + kh, + EF (4.298) where RareR kh axe x, (4299) and Vig = ~V3V,sin(6 — a) v, 4 = V3Vcos(é ~ a) (4.300) From (4.298) I, and J, are determined —_—_!_ (RY + 'P 1 (RF + ry Equations (4 147) and (4.301) along with the set (4.263)-(4 268) complete the mathe- matical description of the system [-RW ag = BA) + P"aq = EY) ey — BD + RW, -— ED (4301) 4.16 Turbine Generator Dynamic Models The synchronous machine models used in this chapter, which are in common use by power system engineers, ate based on a classical machine with discrete physical windings on the stator and rotor, As mentioned in Section 4.14, the solid iron rotor used in large steam turbine generators provides multiple paths for circulating eddy cur rents that act as equivalent damper windings under dynamic conditions The represen- tation of these paths by one discrete circuit on each axis has been questioned for some time. Another source of concern to the power engineer is that the value of the machine constants (such as Lj, LJ, ete.) used in dynamic studies are derived from data ob- tained from ANSI Standard C42.10 [16] This implicitly assumes two rotor circuits in each axis—the field, one d axis amortisseur, and two g axis amortisseurs This in turn implies the existence of inductances Ly, Lj Lf, Ly Lf, and L,! and time constants 7%, Ths Ty and 1%, all of which are intended to define fault current magnitudes and decte- ments, In some stability studies, discrepancies between computer simulation and field data have been observed. It is now suspected that the reason for these discrepancies is the inadequate definition of machine inductances in the frequency ranges encountered in stability studies Studies have been made to ascertain the accuracy of available dynamic models and data for turbine generators [21-25]. These studies show that a detailed representation of the rotor circuits can be more accurately simulated by up to three discrete rotor circuits om thed axis and three on the g axis Data for these circuits can be obtained from fre- quency tests conducted with the machine at standstill To fit the “conventional” view of rotor circuits that influence the so-called subtransient and transient dynamic behavior of the machine, it is found that two rotor circuits (on each axis) are sometimes adequate but the inductances and time constants are not exactly the same as those defined in IEEE Standatd No. 115 ‘The procedure for determining the constants for these circuits is to assume equiva-144 Chapter 4 lent circuits on each axis made up of a number of circuits in parallel, The wansfer func- tion for each is called an operational inductance of the form L(s) = ING)/DONL (4.302) where Z is the synchronous reactance, and N(s) and D(s) are polynomials ins Thus for the d axis we write C+ ays) + bys) + es) LEGO AS + €18) 4.303) C+ as) + bys) + es) i ) and the constants £4, a), @2, b,, 6, ¢, and ¢, are determined from the frequency do- main response If the operational inductance is to be approximated by quadratic polynomials, the constants can be identified approximately with the transient and subtransient param- eters, Thus, for the d axis, £,(s) becomes pt Calta rigs + (Li [Livros (4304 (1 + rYos)l + Tas) The time constants in (4.304) are different {rom those associated with the exponential decay of d or q axis open citcuit voltages, hence the discrepancy with [EEE Standard No. 115, An example of the data obtained by standstill frequency tests is given in [24] and is reproduced in Figure 4.21, Both third-order and second-order polynomial representa tions are given Machine data thus obtained differ {rom standard data previously ob- tained by the manufacturer from short circuit tests Reference (24) gives a comparison’ between the two sets of data for a 555-MVA turbogenerator, This comparison is given in Table 4.6 LAs) = L, 1,6) = Speed, pu ,90001___0.0001, 0.001 9.01 9.10 1.0 39 & Sg 3 Pa teyang 9008 So arahrsas od : 3 04 ! BO gy team +009 4 +o. ode eee sagas + O0TEY om Frequency response plots 555 5-MVA unit ee ore TE ied ots for sinlton of Avid ass a ‘S008 0 08 0.08 08 6 0 Frequency, He Fig 421 Frequency response plot for a 555-MVA turboalternator (@ IEEE Reprinted {rom IEEE Trans vol PAS-93, May/June 1974 )The Synchronous Machine 145 Table 4.6. Comparison of Standard Data with Data Obtained from Frequency Tests for a 555-MVA turboalternator Constants Standard data Adjusted @ Za pu 197 Ly pu 027 Lj pu 0175 Ly pu 1.867 iy pu 0.473 Ly pu 0213 Ly pu 016 th 8 43 th oS 0031 oS 056 ro S 0.061 Source:o IEEE Reprinted from JEBE Trans vol PASS 1974 The inductance versus frequency plot given in Figure 4.21 is nothing more than the amplitude portion of the familiar Bode plot with the amplitude given in pu rather than in decibels. The transfer functions plotted in Figure 421 can be approximated by the superposition of multiple first-order asymptotic approximations, If this is done, the break frequencies should give the constants of (4 304). The machine constants thus ob- tained are given in the third column of Table 46 If, however, the machine constants obtained from the standard data are used to obtain the breakpoints for the straight-line approximation of the amplitude-frequency plots, the approximated curve does not pro- vide a good fit to the experimental data For example, the d axis time constant 7% of the machine, as obtained by standard methods, is 4.3 s If this is used to obtain the first break frequency for log |1/(1 + 7493)J, the computed break frequency is \fthy = 1/43 = 02326 rad/s = 0.00062 pu (4305) The break point that gives a better fit of the experimental data corresponds to a frequency of 0 1282 rad/s or 0.00034 pu. Since the amplitude at this frequency is the reciprocal of the d axis transient time constant, this corresponds to an adjusted value, denoted by zy, given by rif = 1/0.1282 = 78 s (4306) Reference {24] notes that the proper ajustment of ria, 7jo. and Ly are all particu- larly important in stability stu ‘A study conducted by the Northeast Power Coordinating Council (26] concludes that, in general, it is more important in stability studies to use accurate mackine data than to use more elaborate machine models Also, the accuracy of any dynamic ma- chine model is greatly improved when the so-called standard machine data are modified to match the results of a frequency analysis of the solid iron rotor equivalent circuit At the time of this writing no extensive studies have been reported in the literature to support or dispute these results Finally, a comparison of these results and the machine models presented in this chapter are in order. The full model presented here is one of the models investigated in the NPCC study [26] for solid rotor machines. It was found to be inferior to the more146 Chapter 4 elaborate model based on two rotor windings in each axis This is not surprising since the added detail duc to the extra g axis amortisseur should result in an improved simula- tion, Perhaps more surprising is the fact that the model developed here with F, D, and Q windings provided practically no improvement over a simplet model with only F and Qwindings Furthermore, with the F-Q model based on time constants tj and r/o, larger digital integration time steps are possible than with models that use the much shorter time constants 7% and 7/5, as done in this chapter Asa general conclusion itis apparent that additional studies are needed to identify the best machine data for stability studies and the proper means for testing ot estimating these data This is not to imply that the work of the past is without merit. The tra~ ditional models, including those developed in this chapter, are often acceptable But, as in many technical areas, improvements can and are constantly being made to pro- vide mathematical formulations that better describe the physical apparatus Problems. 41 Park's transformation P as defined by (4.5) is an orthogonal transformation Why? But the transformation Q suggested originally by Park (10, 11] is that given by (4.22) and is not orthogonal. Use the transformation Q to find voltage equations similar to (4 39) 42. Verify (4 9) by finding the inverse of (4 5) 43 Verify (4.12) by sketching the stator coils as in Figure 4.1 and observing how th tance changes with rotor position 44 Verily the following equations: (a) Equation (4 13) Can you explain why these inductances are constant? (b) Equation (4 14) Why isthe sign of M, negative? Why is |_M,|_ > Z,? (©) Explain (4.15) in terms of the coefficient of coupling of these coils. 45 Verify (4.16)-(4 18) Explain the signs on these equations by referring to the currents given on Figures 411 and 4 2 46 Verify (4.20) 47 Explain the signs on all terms of (4 23). Why is the A term negative? 48 Consider a machine consisting only of the phase winding sa-fa shown in Figure 4.1 and the field winding F Sketch @ new physical arrangement where the field flux is stationary and coil sa-fa turns elockwise Are these two physical arrangements equivalent? Explain 49 For the new physical machine proposed in Problem 4 8 we wish to compute the induced EMP in coil sa-fa Do this by two methods and compare your results, including the polarity of the induced voltage {a) Use the rate of change of flux linkages A (b) Compute the Blv or speed voltage and the transformer-induced voltage. Do the results agree? They should! 410 Verify (4 24) for the neutral voltage drop 411 Check the computation of PP~! given in (4.32) 412 The quantities hy and 2, are given in (4 20) Substitute these quantities into (4.32) and compute the speed voltage terms Check your result against (4 39) 413. Verify (4.34) and explain its meaning 414 Extend Table 4.1 by including the actual dimensions of the voltage equations in an MLye system Repeat for an FL2Q system AIS Let a(t) = Vy COS (wont + &) ¥,,cos (wat + « ~2/3) pcos (ugt + a + 2x/3) (a) For the pu system used in this book find the pu voltages vj and v, as related to the sms voltage (©) Repeat part (a) using a pu system based on the following base quantities: Sy = three- phase voltampere and Vy = line-to-line voltage (©) For part (b) find the pu power in the d and q circuits and igand jin pu416 47 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 426 427 4.28 4.29 430 The Synchronous Machine 147 Using the transformation Q of (4.22) (originally used by Patk) and the MKS system of units (volt, ampere, ete ), find: (a) Thed and g axis voltages and currents in relation to the rms quantities, (b) Thed and g axis circuit power in relation to the three-phase power ‘Normalize the voltage equations as in Section 4.8 but where the equations are those found from the Q transformation of Problem 4.1 Show that the choice of a common time base in any coupled circuit automatically forces the equality of VA base in all circuit parts and requires that the base mutual inductance be. the geometric mean of the self-inductance bases of the coupled windings; ie Si = Sp Mon = (LypLap)'? Show that the constraint among base currents (4 54) based upon equal mutual flux linkages is the same as equal MMF"s in cach winding, Show that the I/wg factors may be eliminated from (4.62) by choosing a pu timer ~ wpe rad Develop the voltage equations for a cylindrical rotor machine, ie, a machine in which the inductances are not a function of rotor angle except for totor-stator inductances that are as given in (4 16)-(4 18) Consider a synchronous generator for which the following data are given: 2 poles, 2 slots/pole/phase, 3 phases, 6 slots/pole, 12 slots, 5/6 pitch. Sketch the slots and show two coils of the phase a winding, coil | beginning in slot 1 (0°) and coil 2 beginning in slot 7 (180°), Label coil | saj-fa, (start a and finish a,) and coil 2 s@s-fay Show the position of Nand S salient poles and indicate the direction of pole motion, Now assume the machine is operating at | 0 PF (internal PF) and note by + and notation, looking in at the coil ends, the direction of currents at time fo, where at fo fy = tmx ty = —(/2Minox ie = = (1/2 nae Plot the MMF as positive when radially outward +4, enters sa, and +i, enters sb, but +4, enters fe, Assume the MME changes abruptly at the center line of the slot | The MMF wave should be a stepwise sine wave Is it radially outward along dor q? Verify (4 138) Derive formulas for computing the saturation function parameters A, and B, defined in (4.141), given two different values of the variables Xap faro, and fas Compute the saturation funetion parameters 4, and B, given that when Aap = V3, (ines — iao)/ino = 0.13 Map = 123, (tus — 1 2iwo)/} Zin = 0.40 where vs and Io correspond to Ayy = V3 and sis is the saturated current at Ayo = 12Vv8 Compute the saturation function K, at Xo = 1.8, using the data and results of the previous problem Let yor = 08 V3 The synchronous machine described in Examples 4 2 and 4 3 is connected to a resistive load Of R, = 10 pu Derive the equations for the state-space current model using v, and Tyas forcing functions. Use the current model Repeat Problem 4 27 using the flux linkage model Derive the state-space model for a synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus with a focal load at the machine terminal The load is to be simulated by a passive resistance Repeat Problem 4 29 for a focal toad simulated by a passive impedance The load has a reactive component Obtain the state-space model for a synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus through a series resistance, inductance, and capacitance. Hint: Add two state variables related to the voltage (or charge) across the capacitance, Incorporate the load equations for the system of one machine against an infinite bus (shown in Figure 4 8) in the simplified models giver in Section 4 15: (a) Neglecting damper effects.148 Chapter 4 (b) Neglecting Ay and i, for « machine with solid round rotor (G) Neglecting damper effects and the terms Xyand ky. 433. Show that the voltage-behind-subtransient-reactance model of Figure 4 14 can be tear- ranged to give the model of Schulz [20] given in Figure P4 33 %,-% a ro [Fam 0% Tg) Fig P433 434 Using the third-order transfer functions for £4(s) and £,(3) given in Figure 4.21, sketch Bode diagrams by making straight-line asymptotic approximations and compare with the given test results, 435 Repeat Problem 4 34 using the second-order transfer functions for £4(s) and L,(s) 436 Repeat Problem 4 35 using the second-order transfer functions of (4.304) and substituting the standard data rather than the adjusted data References 1 Concordia, ©. Synchronous Machines. Wiley New York, 1951 2. Kimbark, E,W Power Spstem Stability, Vols 1,3 Wiley, New York. 1956 3 Adkins. B The General Theory of Blectrical Machines Chapman and Hall, London 1964The Synchronous Machine 149 4 Craty $B, Power System Stability Vols 1,2. Wiley New York, 1945. 1947 5 Lynn, T Wand Walshay, MH Tensor Anaivsis of @ Synchronous Two-Machine System IEE (British) Monograph Cambridge Univ Press. London, 1961 6 Taylor,G D Analysis of Synchronous Machines Connected to Power Network EE (British) Mono- graph Cambridge Univ. Press London, 1962 7 Westinghouse Electric Corp Electrical Transmission and Distribution Keference Book Pittsburgh Pa, 1980. 8 Anderson PM. Anabsis of Faulted Power Systems. ow State Univ. Press Ames, 1973 9 Harris M_R. Lawrenson. PJ and Stephenson, 1M. Per Unit Systems With Special Reference to Electrical Machines VEE (British) Monograph Cambridge Univ. Press, London, 1970. 10 Park. RH Two reaction theory of synchronous machines PUI. AVE Trans. 48:716-30 1929 11 Park, RH, Two teaction theory of synchronous machines, Pt 2 AZEE Trans. 52:382-58. 1933 12 Lewis, W.A, A basic analysis of synchronous machines, Pt 1. ATER Trans PAS-77:436-55, 1958 13, Krause P.C. and Thomas CH” Simblation of symmetrical induction machinery IEEE Trans PAS- 84:1036-52, 1965 14 Prentice, B. R- Fundamental concepts of synchronous machine reactances. AEE Trans $6(Suppl 1) 76-20 1939 Is Rankin, A.W. Per unit impedances of synchronous machines AVEE Trans, 64:569-72, 839-41, 1945, 16 IEEE. Test procedures for synchronous machines. Standard No 115, March, 1965 17 IEEE Committee Report Recommended phasor diagram lor sychronous machines EEE Trans PAS-86:1593-1610 1969 18 Prubuaskankat K.. and Janischewskyj W. Digital simulation of multimachine power systems for stability studies. ZEEE Tram PAS7.73-80, 1968 19 Young, CC. Equipment and system modeling for large-scale stability studies IEEE Trans PAS~ 91:99-109 1972 20 Schule RP Synchronous machine modeling Symposium on Adequacy and Philosophy of Modeling System Dysamic Pesformance IEEE Publ 78 CH O970- PWR. 1975, 21 Jackson, W. Band Winchester. RL. Direct and quadrature axis equivalent circuits for solid-roter tur- bine generators TEBE Trans PAS-88:1121. 36, 1969 22. Schulz R P., Jones. WD. and Ewart DN. Dynamic models of turbine generators derived from solid rotor equivslent cicuits, ZEEE Trans PAS-92926-35. 1973 28 Wetson, Wand Manchu G_ Synchronous ouachine operational impedunces from low voltage sca urements atthe stator terminals. [EEE Trans PAS-93:777-84, 1974 24 Kundur Pend Dandeno. P-L Stability peviormance of 353 MVA turboalternators-Digital com parisons with system operating tests IEEE Trans. PAS-93767-16. 1974 25 Dandeno, PL, Hauth. RL. and Schulz, RP Effects of synchronous machine modeling in large- scale system studies JELE Trans PAS-92:374-82. 1973 26 Northeast Power Coordinating Council. Elects of synchronous machine modeling in large-scale sys- {em studies Final Report, NPCC-10 Task Force on System Studies System Dynamic. Simulation Techniques Working Group 1971chopter The Simulation of Synchronous Machines 5.1, Introduction This chapter covers some practical considerations in the use of the mathematical models of synchronous machines in stability studies Among these considerations are the determination of initial conditions, determination of the parameters of the machine from available data, and construction of simulation models for the machine In all dynamic studies the initial conditions of the system are required This in- cludes all the currents, flux linkages, and EMF’s for the different machine circuits. The number of these circuits depends upon the model of the machine adopted for the study The initial position of the rotor with respect to the system reference axis must also be known. These quantities will be determined from the data available at the terminals of the machine The machine models used in Chapter 4 require some data not usually supplied by the manufacturer. Here we show how to obtain the required machine parameters from typical manufacturer's data The remainder of the chapter is devoted to the construc tion of simulation models for the synchronous machine, Both analog and digital simulations are discussed 5.2. Steady-State Equations and Phasor Diagrams The equations of the synchronous machine derived in Chapter 4 are differential equations that describe machine behavior as a function of time When the machine operates in a steady-state condition, differential equations are not necessary since all variables are either constants or sinusoidal variations with time. For this situation phasor equations are appropriate, and these will be derived. It is common to tacitly assume all machines to be in a steady-state condition prior to a disturbance, The so- galled “stability study” examines the system behavior following the disturbance The phasor equations derived here permit the solution of the initial conditions that exist prior to the application of the disturbance, This is a necessary part of any stability investigation From (4.74) at steady state all currents are constant or, mathematically, isis 61) Then from (4 74) 0 = ior 0 igre 62Simulation of Synchronous Machines 151 or at steady state ip = ig = 0 (53) Using (5.1) we may write the stator voltage equation from (4 74) as Oy = —Fig — Wl gig Vy = rig + OL gig + KM wiz G4) From (4.5) with balanced conditions, ») = 0 Therefore, from (4 9) we may compute v4 = VIP(vicosO + v, sind) (55) where by definition @ = wa! + 6 + +/2, Then from (5.4) and (5 5) VIP (ria + @Ly1,) COS (wnt + 6 + 4/2) +(-riy + WL yig + kMpwig)sin (wat + 6 + #/2)) = V273[-(is + wLgi,)cos (wat + 6 + x/2) + (rig + OL gig + kMpwiz) 008 (wR! + 8) (6.6) At steady state the angular speed is constant, w = wg, and wl. products may be de- noted as reactances, or ol, els =X (5.7) From (4.226) we also identify won Myig = VBE (58) where £ is the stator equivalent EMF corresponding to is Using phasor notation,! the ¥/2 multiplier of (5.6) is conveniently used to define the rms voltage phasor “Jb + EB (5.9) where the superior bar indicates a total phasor quantity in magnitude and angle (a com- plex number) By using the relation j = 1 /x/2in (59), ve (best Hi) Gy bean xe Rea -(pbtisg ling Bt wig Bt Eb (5.10) Note that in this equation ¥, and £ are stator rms phase voltages in pu, while i and i, are de currents obtained trom the modified Park transformation. The choice of this particular transformation introduced the factor 1/3 in the equation To simplify the notation we define the rms equivalent d and g axis currents as let ifV3 yb tiVF 61D The stator current i, expressed as a phasor will have the two rectangular components J, and 1, Thus if the phasor reference is the q axis, T= 1, + ila (5.12) 1 We define the phasor 4 = Ae!" as 3. complex umber dg Felted fo the socesponsing time do- main quantity a(1) by the relation a(t) = Re (VFde") = VTA cos (w! +a)152 Chapter 5 gon Fig 51 Phasor diagram representing (5 14) Substituting (5 12) and (5.11) in (5 10) and rearranging, El = Va + rhe + ix ly (B ~ xabe lB (513) and by using E = £/8,1, = 1,/8, and Ty = jal, BaV, +00, + ix, + jxle (5.14) The phasor diagram representing (5 14) is shown in Figure 51 [1] Note that the phasor jx,J, leads the g axis by 90° The phasor jx,I, makes a 90° angle with the nega- tive d axis since [, is numerically negative for the case illustrated in Figure 51 To ob- tain v, and v, from (5.4), we compute the rms stator equivalent voltages Vz % vy/V3 = ~rly — thy VY, & vJV9 =~, + Xale +E (S18) Note that V, and V, are the projection of ¥, along the q and d axes respectively ‘Also note that in the phasor diagram in Figure 5.1 both Vj and J, are illustrated as negative quantities. Thus the magnitude of ri, is subtracted from x,J, to obtain the magnitude of Vy This situation is shown in Figure 5 1 since lagging current (nega- tive J,) is commonly encountered in practice Examining Figure 5.1 and (5.15), we note that if the angle 6 is known the phasor diagram can be constructed quite readily If the position of the g axis is not known but the terminal conditions of the machine Fig 52. Location of the g axis from a known terminal cutrent and voltage‘Simulation of Synchronous Machines 153 are given (ic., if ¥, %, and the angle between them are known), construction of the phasor diagram requires some manipulation of (5 15) However, an alternate pro- cedure for locating the position of the g axis is illustrated in Figure 5.2, where it is assumed that ¥,, J,, and the power factor angle are known, Starting with V, (used here as reference) the voltage drop 7/, is drawn parallel to T,. Then the voltage drop jx,J, is added (this is a phasor perpendicular to 7,). The end of that phasor (Ey, in Figure 5 2) is located on the g axis, This can be verified by noting that the d axis component of the phasor jx,T, is x,J,, which is similar to that shown in Figure $1 Its q axis component however is x,[,, Which is different from that shown in Figure 5.1 Thus to locate the phasor F in Figure 5 2, we add the phasor (xy — x,)Iy to the phasor E, 5.3 Machine Connected to an Infinite Bus through a Transmission Line To illustrate more fully the procedure for finding the machine steady-state condi- tions, we solve the simple problem of one machine connected to an infinite bus through a transmission line Although this one-machine problem is far simpler than actual systems, it serves well to illustrate the procedure of finding initial conditions for any machine As we shall see later, this simple problem helps us concentrate on concepts without becoming engulfed in details The differential equations for one machine connected to an infinite bus through a transmission line with impedance Z, = R, + joel, is given by (4 149) Under bal- anced steady-state conditions with zero derivatives, (4 149) becomes vg = — V3Vasin(8 — a) + Reig + oheiy by = V3V, 008 (6 = a) + Reig — wLeie (5.16) Substituting for v, and v, from (5 4) into (5.16), mrig — wlgig = — V3, sin(5 — a) + Reig + Lei, mri, + wlsig + KMywis = V3V. cos — a) + Reiy — wh cig By using (5 7) and (5 11) and rearranging the above equations, we compute Ea Vicos(5 - a) +0 + Rly ~ (es + XM 0 = —V.sin(S — @) + + Ry + Oy + XO 617) where X, = wl, Equations (5 17) represent the components of the voltages along the g and d axes respectively The phasor diagram described by these equations is shown in Figure $3, where the phasot representing the infinite bus voltage V., with the g axis as reference, is given by Vi, = Vag + Vou = Vo cos (5 = a) — jV2sin(5 — a) (5.18) Note that Figures 5 1 and 5.2 can be combined since the same q and d axes, the same EMF £, and the same current J, are applicable to both Thus in Figure 5.3 the machine terminal voltage components V, and V, can be obtained using (5.15) An alternate procedure would be to start with the phasor V, in Figure 5.3, then add the voltage drop RI, - X,lq in the g axis direction and the voltage drop Rely + Xely in the d axis direction to obtain the phasor F, ‘Again remember that in Figure 5.3 both I, and Vj are shown as negative quanti- ties. The remarks concerning the focation of the q axis starting from V. and [, are also applicable here