Trans Handbk

Transformer Handbook
1
0. FOREWORD
The objective of this Transformer Handbook is to facilitate the physical understanding, selection,
ordering, operation and maintenance of the whole range of power and distribution transformers.
The target readers are personnel involved in the various stages of a transformer’s service life, from
planning the investment to the disposal of the transformer after use.
The handbook is arranged with the sections following the transformer’s life from initial
considerations and planning through ordering, installation, operation, maintenance and scrapping.
Other useful information, including more theoretical topics, is included.
Navigation through the handbook is facilitated through a three level contents list following this
foreword, and the Index Section 19 page 210 at the end. Each section may be read independently
of the other sections.
Some topics or phenomena are deliberately mentioned several places in the text for the purpose
that readers might not read the whole content of this book from the beginning to the end, but only
chapters of particular individual interest.
The first edition, Rev. 01, of this handbook issued at the end of 2003 was limited to distribution
transformers and the “IEC-world”.
Based on feedback from the readers and the fact that ABB has merged all transformer activities
into one Business Unit, Transformers, this second edition of the handbook now covers all
transformer types fulfilling the requirements of IEC and relevant ANSI/IEEE standards.
This handbook is based on ABB’s knowledge and experience, and is meant to be a guide to assist
the readers in handling transformer matters. ABB and the authors of the handbook cannot
however be held responsible for any legal, technical or commercial use of the information herein..
No advice or information contained in this handbook shall create any warranty or binding obligation
not expressly stated in an applicable written contract. Although data, technical drawings,
configurations and catalogue listings are believed to be accurate at the date of publication, the
readers should independently evaluate the accuracy of the information and the usefulness to their
particular needs of any product or service. However, technical data are only approximate figures.
Specifications for products and services are subject to change without notice.
ABB shall in no case be liable under, or in connection with, the handbook towards any person or
entity in view of any damages or losses - irrespective of the legal grounds. In particular ABB shall in
no event be liable for any indirect, consequential or special damages, such as – but not limited to –
loss of profit, loss of revenue, loss of earnings, Cost of capital or cost connected with an
interruption of business.
The standards, IEC, CENELEC and ANSI/IEEE, mentioned in the text refer to the edition given in
the list of standards. For practical use only latest editions of the standards should be used.
ABB Power Technologies Division thanks the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) for
permission to reproduce information from its International Standards. All such extracts are
copyright of IEC, Geneva, Switzerland. All rights reserved. Further information on the IEC is
available from www.iec.ch. IEC has no responsibility for the placement and context in which the
extracts and contents are reproduced by ABB Power Technologies Division; nor is IEC in any way
responsible for the other content or accuracy therein.
Similarly ABB Power Technologies Division thanks The American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) and The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE) for permission to
reprint excerpts from its standards. All such excerpts are copyright of ANSI/IEEE the year
published. All rights reserved. Further information on the ANSI/IEEE is available from www.ansi.org
and www.ieee.org. ANSI/IEEE has no responsibility for the placement and context in which the
excerpts are reproduced by ABB Power Technologies Division. The ANSI/IEEE disclaims any
responsibility or liability resulting from the placement and use in the described manner.
Extracts from the ABB Switchgear Manual are quoted by kind approval by the issuer.
UK English has been selected for this document to comply with the language in IEC standards.
Also the use of “.” and “,” in numbers follows the practice used in IEC standards. There are no real
differences between the vocabulary applied in IEC and IEEE/(ANSI) standards. The only exception
is the use of the words “earth”/”earthed” (according to IEC) and “ground”/”grounded” (according to
IEEE).
Please also observe the Note at the end of the handbook.
Transformer Handbook Page 2

CONTENTS
0. FOREWORD 2
1. INTRODUCTION 6
1.1. ABB-GROUP 6
1.2. ABB POWER TECHNOLOGIES BUSINESS UNIT TRANSFORMERS 6
2. TRANSFORMER TYPES AND THEIR APPLICATION 7

2.1. POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION 7
2.2. COMMON TRANSFORMER CHARACTERISTICS 8
2.3. DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS 10
2.3.1. LARGE DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS, LDT 10
2.3.2. MEDIUM DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS, MDT 11
2.3.3. SMALL DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS, SDT 12
2.3.4. DRY-TYPE DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS 14
2.3.5. OTHER TRANSFORMER TYPES 15
2.4. POWER TRANSFORMERS 17
2.4.1. GENERATOR STEP UP TRANSFORMERS 18
2.4.2. STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMERS 20
2.4.3. SYSTEM INTERTIE TRANSFORMERS 20
2.4.4. INDUSTRIAL TRANSFORMERS 32
2.4.5. TRACTION TRANSFORMERS 35
2.5. REACTORS 37
2.5.1. SHUNT REACTORS 37
2.5.2. CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS 42
2.5.3. NEUTRAL EARTHING REACTORS 44
2.5.4. CAPACITOR DAMPING REACTORS 45
2.5.5. TUNING (FILTER) REACTORS 45
2.5.6. EARTHING TRANSFORMERS (NEUTRAL COUPLERS) 46
2.5.7. ARC SUPPRESSION REACTORS 47
2.5.8. SMOOTHING REACTORS 57
3. QUALITY, INTERNAL CONTROL, SUSTAINABILITY 60

3.1. MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 60
3.1.1. QUALITY 60
3.1.2. INTERNAL CONTROL 60
3.1.3. ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM 60
3.1.4. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 60
3.2. CUSTOMER REVIEW OF MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 60
3.3. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS 60
4. LOSS CAPITALISATION AND OPTIMUM TRANSFORMER DESIGN 62
5. INFORMATION REQUIRED WITH ENQUIRY AND ORDER 73

5.1. NORMAL INFORMATION 73
5.2. SPECIAL INFORMATION 74
5.3. PARALLEL OPERATIONS 76
6. TRANSFORMER DESIGN 77
6.1. CORES 77
6.2. WINDINGS 80
6.3. TANK 90
6.4. EARTH QUAKE WITHSTAND ABILITY 91
7. TRANSFORMER COMPONENTS 92
7.1. TERMINALS 92
7.1.1. BUSHINGS 92
7.1.2. CABLE CONNECTIONS 95
7.1.3. SF6 CONNECTIONS 96
7.2. COOLERS 96
7.2.1. RADIATORS 96
7.2.2. CORRUGATED TANKS 97
7.2.3. FANS 97
7.2.4. FORCED OIL, FORCED AIR HEAT EXCHANGERS 97
7.2.5. OIL-WATER COOLERS 98
7.2.6. OIL PUMPS 98
7.3. VOLTAGE REGULATION EQUIPMENT 99
7.3.1. OFF CIRCUIT TAP CHANGERS 99
7.3.2. ON LOAD TAP CHANGERS 100
7.3.3. AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATION 104
7.4. ACCESSORIES 104
7.4.1. TYPES OF ACCESSORIES 104
7.4.2. POWER TRANSFORMER AND OIL IMMERSED REACTOR ACCESSORIES 107
7.4.3. DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER ACCESSORIES 109
Page 3 Transformer Handbook

8. INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING 110
8.1. GENERAL 110
8.1.1. RESPONSIBILITIES 110
8.1.2. INCOTERMS (TRANSFER OF RESPONSIBILITY) 110
8.2. INSTALLATION 110
8.2.1. POWER- AND LARGE DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS 110
8.2.2. DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS 111
8.3. COMMISSIONING 115
8.3.1. ENERGISING 115
8.3.2. DOCUMENTATION 116
9. OPERATION, MONITORING AND MAINTENANCE 117

9.1. GENERAL PRECAUTIONS 117
9.2. OPERATION 117
9.2.1. LIFETIME 117
9.2.2. TEMPERATURE RISE AND LOAD CAPACITY 120
9.2.3. PARALLEL OPERATION 121
9.2.4. FREQUENCY 121
9.2.5. PROTECTION 121
9.3. MONITORING 122
9.3.1. GENERAL 122
9.3.2. HIGH LEVEL MONITORING 123
9.3.3. LOW LEVEL MONITORING 124
9.3.4. INSPECTION IN ENERGISED CONDITION 125
9.3.5. INSPECTION IN DE-ENERGISED CONDITION 125
9.4. MAINTENANCE 126
9.4.1. GENERAL 126
9.4.2. MAINTENANCE IN ENERGISED CONDITION 126
9.4.3. MAINTENANCE IN DE-ENERGISED CONDITION 126
9.4.4. INVESTIGATION OF TRANSFORMER DISTURBANCES 127
9.4.5. TRANSFORMER LIQUID AND INSULATION 132
9.4.6. BUSHINGS AND JOINTS 132
9.4.7. OFF-CIRCUIT TAP CHANGER 133
9.4.8. ON-LOAD TAP-CHANGER 133
9.4.9. MOTOR DRIVE UNIT 133
9.4.10. OIL FILTERING UNIT 133
9.4.11. COOLERS 133
9.4.12. LIQUID CONSERVATOR WITH RUBBER DIAPHRAGM 133
9.4.13. GASKETS 134
9.4.14. DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS 134
9.4.15. SURFACE PROTECTION 134
10. DISPOSAL AFTER USE 135

10.1. LOCAL REGULATIONS 135
10.2. REUSE 135
10.3. LANDFILL 135
10.4. LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA) 135
10.5. PCB-CONTAMINATED OIL 135
11. PHYSICAL FUNDAMENTALS 136

11.1. INTRODUCTION 136
11.2. CHOICE OF SYSTEM VOLTAGE 136
11.3. BASIC PHYSICS OF THE TRANSFORMER 136
11.4. EQUIVALENT DIAGRAM 138
11.5. VOLTAGE RATIO AND VOLTAGE DROP (OR RISE) 138
11.6. EFFICIENCY 141
11.7. NO LOAD (MAGNETISING) CURRENT AND NO LOAD LOSSES 141
11.8. LOAD LOSSES 146
11.9. SHORT-CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE 146
11.10. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES 149
11.11. TRANSFORMER SOUND 153
12. THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS 157
13. TRANSFORMER MATERIALS 159

13.1. CORE MATERIALS 159
13.2. CONDUCTOR MATERIALS 159
13.3. INSULATION MATERIALS 160
13.3.1. SOLID INSULATION MATERIALS 160
13.3.2. FLUIDS 161
13.3.3. OTHER FLUIDS 162
14. TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS 163

14.1. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 163
14.2. ROUTINE TESTS 163
14.3. TYPE TESTS 163
14.4. SPECIAL TESTS 163

15. OVERVOLTAGES AND OVERVOLTAGE LIMITATION 164
15.1. LIMITATION OF TEMPORARY OVERVOLTAGES 165
15.1.1. OVERVOLTAGES DUE TO EARTH-FAULT 165
15.1.2. LOAD REJECTION OVERVOLTAGES 166
15.1.3. OVERVOLTAGES DUE TO FERRORESONANCE 166
15.2. LIMITATION OF TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGES 167
15.3. SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS FOR DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS 168
15.3.1. INTERNAL OVERVOLTAGES CAUSED BY HIGH FREQUENCY OSCILLATIONS 168
15.4. TRANSFERRED OVERVOLTAGES IN TRANSFORMERS 169
16. MISCELLANEOUS 170

16.1. CERTIFICATION/APPROVAL/LABELLING 170
16.2. DECLARATION OF CONFORMITY 171
16.3. IP-CLASSIFICATION 171
16.3.1. GENERAL 171
16.3.2. DEGREES OF PROTECTION AGAINST SOLID OBJECTS 172
16.3.3. DEGREES OF PROTECTION AGAINST WATER 172
16.3.4. COMPARISON TO NEMA RATINGS 173
16.4. TERMINAL DESIGNATION, IDENTIFYING TERMINALS 173
16.4.1. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER 173
16.4.2. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER 174
16.5. RATING PLATE 175
16.6. ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC) 177
16.6.1. DEFINITIONS 177
16.6.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC DISTURBANCES ON TRANSFORMERS 177
16.6.3. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD IN THE VICINITY OF TRANSFORMERS 179
16.6.4. EFFECT OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS ON HUMANS 180
16.7. UNITS AND CONVERSION TABLES 180
16.7.1. BASIC SL UNITS 180
16.7.2. MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES OF UNITS 180
16.7.3. ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC QUANTITIES 180
16.7.4. GENERAL ELECTROTECHNICAL SYMBOLS 181
16.8. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 182
16.9. CONTRIBUTORS 184
16.10. FEEDBACK 184
16.11. OBTAINING COPIES OF THE HANDBOOK 184
17. BIBLIOGRAPHY 185

17.1. TRANSFORMER-RELEVANT STANDARDS 185
17.1.1. IEC STANDARDS 185
17.1.2. CENELEC STANDARDS 186
17.1.3. IEEE STANDARDS 186
17.1.4. COMPARISON BETWEEN ANSI/IEEE STANDARDS AND IEC STANDARDS 187
17.1.5. IEC STANDARDS 190
17.1.6. CENELEC STANDARDS 193
17.1.7. ANSI/IEEE STANDARDS 196
17.2. OTHER RELEVANT STANDARDS AND LITTERATURE 200
18. EXTRACTS FROM IEC 61936-1 (2002-10) POWER INSTALLATIONS

EXCEEDING 1 KV A.C. - PART 1: COMMON RULES 201
RE. 4 FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS 201

RE. 4.1 GENERAL 201
RE. 5 INSULATION 201
RE. 6 EQUIPMENT 202

RE. 6.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 202
RE. 7 INSTALLATIONS 202

RE. 7.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 202
RE. 8 SAFETY MEASURES 202

RE. 8. 6 PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE 203
RE. 9 PROTECTION, CONTROL AND AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 208

RE. 9.1 MONITORING AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 208
RE. 10 EARTHING SYSTEMS 208

RE. 10.1 GENERAL 208
RE. 10.2 FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS 208
19. INDEX 210

1. INTRODUCTION
In almost every place where people live and work you will find at least one transformer. But as long
as it keeps working and supplying power to the escalator in the department store, the hotel lift, the
office computer, the oven in the local bakery, the farm machinery or the petrochemical plant
nobody gives it a second thought.
However, transformers are one of the most important units in every production process. Without
them the core activities of nearly every business and factory would come to a standstill – with
serious financial consequences.
After more than 100 years in the development and manufacture of transformers, ABB Transformers
are well aware of this dependence. This is why we never compromise on the performance,
security, quality or reliability of our products, nor on design, materials, manufacturing methods,
environmental protection or recycling.
All over the world, in underground railways, in amusement parks and in every kind of factory you
will find ABB transformers at work.
1.1. ABB-GROUP
ABB is a leader in power and automation technologies that enable utility and industry customers to
improve performance while lowering environmental impact. The ABB Group of companies operates
in around 100 countries and employs around 115,000 people (2004).
ABB Power Technologies serves electric, gas and water utilities as well as industrial and
commercial customers, with a broad range of products, systems and services for power
transmission, distribution and automation.
ABB Automation Technologies blends a robust product and service portfolio with end-user
expertise and global presence to deliver solutions for control, motion, protection, and plant
integration across the full range of process and utility industries.
As a business-to-business supplier ABB knows that value creation grows out of close relationships
with customers. That means the better we know our customers’ business challenges, the better we
can serve them. We strengthen our relationships by building trust as a socially responsible supplier
of environmentally sound products and services.
1.2. ABB Power Technologies Business Unit Transformers

ABB is among the worlds leading suppliers of transformers offering a full range of products
(liquid/dry), tested according to and fulfilling specified requirements in all widely applied standards,
such as IEC, CENELEC, ANSI/IEEE as well as local standards.
ABB Transformers has almost 60 production facilities around the world with 13 000 employees
(2004).
All of this means that with ABB Transformers you have access to a world-wide network of factories
and facilities serving you locally with the most up to date technologies, providing the highest quality
for standard and speciality products as well as solutions. Our warranty provides ABB quality,
service and support. Our production facilities are ISO 9001/14001 certified.
ABB Transformers objective is to support you and to add value to your activities with a low total
cost of ownership.
highest quality for standard and speciality products as well as solutions. Our warranty provides
unified ABB quality, service and support. Our production facilities are ISO 9001/14001certified.
ABB Distribution Transformers objective is to support you and to add value to your activities with a
low total cost of ownership.

2. TRANSFORMER TYPES AND THEIR APPLICATION
2.1. POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
Transmission of energy is generally divided in two parts; first is transmission over long distances at
high voltages, which is supported by Power Transformers. The second part is distribution of the
energy from substations to the various users; this is supported by Distribution Transformers in
various hierarchies.
ABB offers a full range of transformers fulfilling the requirements in IEC, CENELEC, ANSI/IEEE,
other standards and customer-specific requirements.
Power transformers have primary voltages up to 800 kV. Liquid filled distribution transformers have
primary voltages up to 72,5 kV and dry-type transformers with open or encapsulated windings have
primary voltages up to 52 kV.

2.2. COMMON TRANSFORMER CHARACTERISTICS
In IEC Standard 60076-1 Power transformers Part 1: General, a power transformer is defined as a
static piece of apparatus with two or more windings which, by electromagnetic induction,
transforms a system of alternating voltage and current into another system of voltage and current
usually of different values and at the same frequency for the purpose of transmitting electrical
power.
The same definition is found in the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary [IEV 421-01-01].
The scope of this standard includes single-phase transformers with rated power down to 1 kVA and
three-phase transformers down to 5 kVA.
IEC standards do not distinguish between distribution transformers and power transformers. They
are all power transformers in the sense that their purpose is to transmit power from one voltage
level to another.
Traditionally, transformers that transform the voltage down to the domestic consumer voltage
(usually 400 V or less) are called distribution transformers. ABB includes transformers with the
highest voltage up to 72,5 kV and power rating up to a few tens of MVA in the category distribution
transformers. The term power transformer is in everyday language used for transformers with
higher voltage and power rating.
Common for most power transformers regardless of size and application is the basic physics and
the dominant materials, like:
• special types of thin magnetic steel plates in the core, which provides the necessary strong
magnetic field because of the unique magnetic properties of iron. Without iron the widely
spread application of electric energy would be impossible;
• copper or aluminium as conductor materials in the windings;
• cellulose products like high density paper and pressboard as solid insulation materials has
been and with few exceptions still is dominant;
• mineral oil is the dominant insulating fluid, which also has a cooling function.
In practical transformer design the manufacturer has the choice between two different basic
concepts:
• core-type, see Figure 2-1
• shell-type, see Figure 2-2
The one or the other of these concepts has no influence on operational characteristics or the
service reliability of the transformer, but there are essentially differences in the manufacturing
process. Each manufacturer chooses the concept that he finds most convenient from a
manufacturing point of view and tends to use this concept for the whole production volume.
In a nutshell we can say that while the windings of a core-type enclose the core, the core of a shell-
type encloses the windings. Looking at the active part (i.e. the core with the windings) of a core
type, the windings are well visible, but they hide the core limbs. Only the upper and lower yoke of
the core are visible. In shell-type the core hides the major part of the windings.

Another difference is that the axis of the core-type windings is normally vertical while it can be
horizontal or vertical in a shell-type.
Today much more core-type transformers than shell-type power transformers are manufactured in
the world. The common transformer concept in ABB is the core-type.
Core type Shell type
Figure 2-1 Figure 2-2
A wound type of core used in single-phase distribution transformers is shown in Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-3

2.3. DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
2.3.1. Large distribution transformers, LDT

IEC Standard
Power range 5000 kVA and above
Primary voltage Up to 72,5 kV
Available fluids Mineral oil, dimethyl silicone,
esters and synthetic
hydrocarbons
Transformers of this type are used for receiving the

energy from higher voltage levels and to transform and
distribute the energy to lower voltage level substation or
directly to large industrial consumers.
Transformers in this range are three phase and can be manufactured with off-circuit tap changer or
on-load tap changer. Transformers provided with on-load tap changer usually have a separate tap
winding.
The core is constructed of grain oriented steel laminations. The windings are made of paper
insulated rectangular wire in the form of multi-layer disc or helical windings, and the conductor
materials are either copper or aluminium. The tanks typically have radiators, however the smaller
sizes might have corrugated tank walls.
ANSI / IEEE Standard

Substation and Unit Substation
Power range 112,5 kVA - 20 MVA
Primary voltage Up to 69 kV
Secondary voltage Up to 34,5 kV
hydrocarbons
The Substation and Unit Substation Transformer are

three phase and can be manufactured with off-circuit tap
changer or on-load tap changer. The core is made of grain
oriented silicone steel laminations. The coil is made of either
aluminium or copper both in high and low voltage windings. The tank is equipped with radiators.

Substation transformers are supplied with cover mounted
bushings for connection to overhead utility lines and Unit
Substation transformers with wall mounted bushings on either
the primary, secondary or both sides of the transformer for close
connection to associated switchgear.
Padmounted transformers
Power range 75 kVA - 20 MVA
Secondary voltage Up to 25 kV
hydrocarbons
This type of transformers is designed for shopping centres,

apartment and office buildings, schools and industrial locations
etc. They can be UL (Underwriters Laboratory) listed and are
used where power is needed in close proximity to the general
public by commercial, industrial and utility customers.
The design provide a resistant robust construction with no

externally accessible bolts, hinges, screws or fasteners
providing a safe, self-contained unit that prevents entry by un-
authorized personnel. Unsightly fences or other personal safety
protection are not necessary.
2.3.2. Medium distribution transformers, MDT

IEC Standard
Power range 400 – 5 000 kVA
Primary voltage Up to 36kV
hydrocarbons.
Transformers of this type are used to step down three-phase

high voltage to low voltage for energy distribution, mainly in
metropolitan areas and for industrial applications.
The transformers in standard versions are three phase
hermetically sealed. Flexible corrugated tank walls enable
sufficient cooling of the transformer and compensate for changes
in the oil volume due to temperature variations during operation.
An advantage of hermetically sealed transformers is that the oil is not in contact with the
atmosphere thus avoiding absorption of moisture from the environment.
On customer request, the transformer may be equipped with oil conservator.

Network transformer
Power range 300 kVA - 2500 kVA

Primary voltage Up to 34.5 kV
Secondary voltage Up to 600 V
hydrocarbons
Networks transformers are commonly used in a grid-type secondary

system in areas of high load density required for large cities. Network
Transformers are designed for either subway or vault applications.
Network transformers are designed for frequent or continuous
underground operation.
Padmounted transformer
Power range Up to 5000 kVA
Secondary voltage Up to 4,16 kV
hydrocarbons
This type of transformer is designed for shopping centres, apartment and

office buildings, schools and industrial locations etc. They can be UL
(Underwriters Laboratory) listed and are used where safe reliable power is
needed in close proximity to the general public by commercial, industrial
and utility customers.
The design provide a resistant construction with no externally accessible

bolts, hinges, screws or fasteners providing a safe, self-contained unit that
prevents entry by un-authorized personnel. Unsightly fences or other
personal safety protection are not necessary.
2.3.3. Small distribution transformers, SDT

IEC Standard
Power range Up to 315 kVA
Primary voltage Up to 36kV
hydrocarbons.
Transformers of this type are used to step down three-phase high

voltage to low voltage for energy distribution, mainly in the
countryside or low-density populated areas.
The transformers are three phase oil immersed hermetically sealed,
adaptable for pole mounting or assembly in substations.
On customer request, the transformer can be equipped with an oil
conservator.
Hot dip zinc coating is often the preferred surface treatment for
outdoor applications.

Single Phase Polemounted
Power range 5 - 100 kVA
Voltage Up to 36 kV
Applicable fluid Mineral oil
Transformers of this type are generally oil immersed and suitable for pole mounting.
They represent an economical option for certain networks, particularly those with
low population densities. Depending on customer requirements, transformers may
be connected between two phases of a three phase system (two HV bushings) or
from one phase to ground (single HV bushing). They are suitable for residential
overhead distribution loads, as well as light commercial or industrial loads and
diversified power applications.

Padmounted transformers
hydrocarbons
The Mini-Three Phase Padmounted Transformer (MTP) is designed for

the needs of utility customers to reduce costs and improve aesthetics.
This type is easy to handle, install and maintain. The discreet profile of the
MTP is ideal for commercial applications such as banks, stores and
restaurants. The MTP features a hood and removable sill instead of doors.
The design allows easy access for installation and maintenance of the
transformer.
The connection cables are arranged underneath the transformer.
Polemounted transformers
Power range - 1 Phase 5 kVA – 1 000 kVA
Power range - 3 Phase 30 kVA - 500 kVA
Available fluids Mineral oil, synthetic
hydrocarbons
The Polemounted distribution transformers are specifically

designed for servicing residential overhead distribution loads. They
are also suitable for light commercial loads, industrial lighting and
diversified power applications
The Polemounted transformers are available in both single and
three phase designs. ABB also offers triplex designs for
applications where large motors are the loads, e.g. for oil pumping
and irrigation. “T-Connected” (Scott) three phase designs are
available to serve most three-phase applications.

Single Phase Padmounted
hydrocarbons
The Mini-Pak is designed for cross feed (Type 2) loop feed or radial
feed on a grounded wye connection, underground distribution system.
It can be furnished in a complete line of ratings and in a wide range of
configurations to meet the reliability, safety and operating requirements
of any distribution system.
2.3.4. Dry-type distribution transformers

Dry-type transformers are used to minimize fire hazard and other environmental contamination on
surroundings and people, like in large office buildings, hospitals, shopping centres and
warehouses, sea going vessels, oil and gas production facilities and other sites where a fire has
potential for catastrophic consequences.
ABB offers a full range of dry-type transformers with primary voltages up to 52 kV, fulfilling the
requirements in IEC, CENELEC and ANSI/IEEE standards.
Application areas for both types are quite similar; however Resibloc® has an advantage in extreme
climatic conditions.
2.3.4.1. Vacuum cast resin dry-type transformers
Power range 50 kVA up to 30 MVA
Climate class C2 (IEC 60076-11)
Insulation class 220 °C (ANSI/IEEE)
Vacuum cast means that the high voltage windings are cast-in in epoxy and cured in vacuum.
The high voltage windings are typically disc winding.
Typical IEC product Typical ANSI product

2.3.4.2. Resibloc® dry-type transformers
Power range 30 kVA up to 40 MVA
Insulation class 220 °C (ANSI/IEEE)
Resibloc® is an ABB patented process for the high voltage winding. The high voltage winding is
multi layer type with a cross wound glass fibre insulation soaked in epoxy, cured in open
atmosphere.
Typical IEC product Typical ANSI product

VPI (Vacuum pressure impregnated) and
VPE (Vacuum pressure encapsulated) dry type transformers
Power range Up to 15 MVA
Insulation class 220 Degree C
VPI transformers feature a single coat of polyester varnish and VPE transformers feature a multiple
coating of silicone resin for enhanced environmental protection. They always use UL (Underwriters
Laboratory) listed materials for 220°C temperature class.
VPI (Vacuum pressure impregnated) VPE (Vacuum pressure encapsulated)
2.3.5. Other transformer types

2.3.5.1. Drives transformers
Variable Speed Drive (VSD) transformers provide the voltage
transformation as well as electric isolation that is necessary for
motor drives applications. Converter drives are normally fed by
medium voltage networks from 5 kV up to 36 kV and the converter
supply voltage usually ranges from 400 V up to 4 kV. The VSD
transformer transforms the medium network voltage to the
converter supply voltage. A typical application is submersible oil
pump drives and similar equipment where only HV motor
applications are available. VSD transformers are produced in oil
insulated and dry-type configurations up to 6 MVA ratings for
various types of converters and output voltages. Transformers are
individually designed and manufactured according to system requirements.

2.3.5.2. Wind turbine applications
Dry-type and liquid-immersed transformers for wind turbine application are special design with low
losses and small outer dimension in the transversal direction, enabling the unit to be transported
through narrow door openings.
Dry-type
Power range 1000 kVA up to 2100 kVA
or higher on request
Special features:
• LV terminals are located at the bottom.
• No bottom frame or wheels.
• Option for a tertiary winding for auxiliaries load.
Liquid immersed
Power range up to 4000 kVA
Primary voltage up to 36 kV
Available fluids Dimethyl silicone or esters
Special features:
• Hermetically sealed
• Hot-dip zinc coated and painted
• Plug-in bushings on HV side
• Protected LV bushings
• Integrated protecting device; gas, oil level, temperature, pressure
2.3.5.3. Sub sea transformers
Power rating On request

Secondary voltage 1 - 12 kV
Maximum depth 2000 m
Available fluids Mineral oil
The challenge with off-shore free flow oil production is the decreasing pressure inside the oil well.
The pressure drop decreases the production lifetime of the well and the production depth.
Sub sea booster pumps makes oil production at larger depth possible caused by an artificial lift to
the oil. The pumps are driven by low voltage electrical motors. The power is supplied by long HV
cables from the production vessels. The main reasons for using HV supply are to reduce the weight
of the cables as well as the voltage drop in the cables. Step-down transformers are installed at the
sea-bed near the booster pumps.

2.3.5.4. Underground transformers
Power range 75 - 1000 kVA
Voltage Up to 30 kV
Applicable fluid Mineral oil, esters and synthetic
hydrocarbons
The Underground Commercial Transformer (UCT) is designed for loop

feed, dead front application and is equipped with bayonet fusing or
drywell current limiting fuse protection interlocked with an LBOR oil
loadbreak rotary switch. There are six welded-in high voltage universal
bushings wells for loop feed connection.
2.4. POWER TRANSFORMERS

Transformer manufacturers face several challenges in the design of large power transformers with
extra high voltages (EHV) that is system voltages up to and including 800 kV.
Transient overvoltages
One of the challenges is to enable the designer to predict
the transient voltage distribution within windings when
transient voltages of certain shapes are applied to the
transformer terminals. The voltage distribution varies,
depending on a number of winding parameters.
Comprehensive measurements with modern measuring
equipment on a large number of windings of various
types have been made in order to develop mathematical
models for calculation of the voltage distribution. This
development has in ABB gone on for many years with
gradually decreasing deviations between calculated and
measured values.
3 phase power
transformer 400 MVA
Figure 2-4
Figure 2-4 shows an example of the voltage distribution in a winding when a standard lightning
impulse (with 1,2 microsecond front time and 50 microseconds time from start to the voltage has
declined to half the peak value) is applied to the winding terminal. The length of the winding is
indicated along the L axis, and the time along the T axis. The measured voltages to earth are
indicated along the U axis.
The figure reminds one of a stony hill. Where the hill is very steep in the L direction, there are large
voltage differences between points in the winding that are nearby each other.

The ability of the insulation to withstand the local dielectric stresses at numerous different spots in
the winding is not only dependent on the peak value of the stress but on its duration as well. ABB
has done in-depth research on basic dielectric phenomena in transformer insulation, and ABB’s
present competence on enabling transformers to withstand transient overvoltages is the result of
several decades of work. However, the service reliability of the transformer is based on the
condition that the transformer is adequately protected against transient overvoltages in compliance
with good insulation co-ordination practice.
Unlike the smaller distribution transformers, which to a considerable degree are standardised, large
power transformers are usually individually designed.
The magnetic leakage field
The magnetic leakage field increases with the power rating and the short circuit impedance of the
transformer. For the largest transformers special precautions must be taken to ensure that the
leakage field does not cause harmful heating in windings and structural parts like core clamps and
tank.
Excessive heating causes gas bubbles, which represent weak points in the oil. If such bubbles rise
through dielectric high-stress areas in the transformer, breakdown may occur. In addition, hot spots
in contact with the oil will deteriorate the oil. For many years ABB has made comprehensive studies
of the leakage field and the temperature distribution in transformers by means of thermocouples
and fibre optics to obtain knowledge on how to avoid hot points that could jeopardise the service
reliability of the transformers.
Mechanical forces
A third important topic is to make large power transformers able to withstand the large mechanical
pulsating forces that arise during short circuit currents through the windings. Large power
transformers are normally installed in systems with very high short circuit power. While thermal or
economic loss considerations usually determine the current density in the winding conductors of
smaller transformers, the mechanical stresses during short circuit currents often determine the
winding conductor cross section in some windings of larger transformers.
The basis of ABB’s design rules and manufacturing practice to achieve transformers with ability to
withstand short circuit currents is theoretical considerations combined with experience from full short
circuit current testing of complete transformers. More than one hundred power transformers of all
sizes up to the highest power ratings manufactured by ABB have been subject to such testing.
A comprehensive treatise on mechanical forces in transformers during short circuit conditions is
given in [6] 17.2 page 200.
All in all, this illustrates that to design and manufacture reliable large power transformers for high
voltages in an economical and competitive way requires considerable resources and long experience.
ABB manufactures large power transformers for system voltages up to and including 800 kV and
with the highest power ratings demanded by the market.
Even a transformer for a UHV test line of 1785 kV system voltage has been delivered.
Power rating limitations
When transporting the transformer from the factory to the site limitations in the transport profile
might be encountered, which restrict the power rating of the transformer. The transformer height is
often the limiting dimension. In that case the transformer designer has the possibility to reduce the
height by choosing a 5-limb core instead of a 3-limb core. See section 6.1 page 77.
2.4.1. Generator step up transformers

These transformers take the voltage from the generator voltage level up to the transmission voltage
level, which may go up to 800 kV system voltage. Such transformers are usually Ynd-connected.
There are several reasons for connecting the low voltage winding in delta instead of star:
• the delta-connected winding keeps the zero sequence impedance of the transformer
reasonably low;
• for large transformers the line current on the low voltage side is very high. In a delta-
connected winding the current through the winding is equal to the line current divided by √3,
which makes the winding work in the factory easier with a correspondingly smaller bundle of
winding conductors.

The high voltage neutral is in most cases solidly earthed and the insulation in the high voltage
winding is graded, that is, the insulation level in the neutral is lower than in the phase end of the
winding.
Full utilisation of the generator’s ability to supply active power to the system, and in addition, its
ability to supply reactive power to the system and absorb reactive power from the system, requires
that four transformer characteristics should be selected on the base of a thorough study. These
four characteristics are:
• The short circuit impedance of the transformer;
• The secondary (high) voltage rating;
• The transformer MVA rating;
• The primary (low) voltage rating.
IEEE C57.116 – 1989 TM, IEEE guide for Transformers Directly Connected to Generators describes
an analysis method for selection of these characteristics.
In order to ensure that the transformer does not restrict the exchange of reactive power between
the generator and the power system it may be necessary to provide tappings in the high voltage
winding of the transformer. These tappings are normally placed at the neutral end of the winding.
In underground hydro power stations the circuit breaker on the high voltage side is often located at
a distance of several hundred metres from the transformer. The transformer and the circuit breaker
are connected to each other by means of a cable. When energising the transformer from the high
voltage side, high frequency oscillations arise on the terminals due to travelling waves that are
reflected back and forth in the cable. See [1] Section 17.2 page 200.
Every transformer winding has a number of resonance frequencies, which can be identified by
means of measurements in the factory. At some of these frequencies high internal overvoltages
may arise if the frequency of the oscillations that occur during energisation coincide with one of the
critical resonance frequencies of the transformer winding. This potentially dangerous situation can
be avoided by energising the transformer from the generator side and then synchronising the
generator with the system by means of the circuit breaker at the high voltage side.
There may be a fixed connection between the transformer and the generator, or a circuit breaker
may be situated in between.
When there is a fixed electrical connection, the generator and the transformer are inseparable and
act as one unit. In case of failure on either side of the transformer, relays may quickly trigger the
circuit breaker on the high voltage side of the transformer to disconnect the unit from the system.
This sudden load rejection may cause higher voltage on the generator terminals and consequently
to overexcitation of the transformer. The magnitude and duration of this overexcitation depend of
the characteristics of the generator and its excitation system. The purchaser should inform the
transformer supplier about the maximum magnitude and duration of this temporary overvoltage as
early as possible in the project process and in any case in due time before the design of the
transformer is finally determined.
Overvoltage protection of the low voltage winding of generator step-up transformers needs special
consideration because of the often large difference in voltage and consequently insulation level on
the two sides and the magnitude of transferred transient and temporary overvoltages from the high
voltage to the low voltage side.
It is recommended that surge arresters be installed between each low voltage terminal and earth
and also between terminals of different phases and, in addition, capacitors between phase
terminals and earth. Typical capacitance that has been used is 0,25 µF.
The transferred overvoltages can be especially critical when the low voltage winding is
disconnected from the generator.
In several cases bus ducts enclose each phase conductor between the transformer and the
generator in order to minimise the risk of short circuits between the phase conductors. For large
generator step-up transformers the current in these conductors are very high with accompanying
strong magnetic fields, which may cause unanticipated circulating currents in transformer tanks and
covers, bushings and in the bus ducts themselves. The losses caused by these unanticipated
currents result in overheating if corrective measures are not included in the design. The
overheating of the transformer components depends upon the method of terminating the bus ducts
at the transformer end. In order to mitigate the heating problem it is suggested that design
coordination meetings be arranged between the bus duct supplier, the transformer manufacturer
and the purchaser prior to the design of the bus duct.

Figure 2-5
Figure 2-5 shows an example of a large three-phase generator step up transformer. The rated
power is 1100 MVA and the voltage ratio 345/19 kV. In this case the transformer is made as a
shell-type.
2.4.2. Step-down transformers

Step-down transformers take the voltage down from the transmission voltage to an appropriate
distribution voltage. The power rating of step-down transformers may range up to power rating of
the transmission line. They frequently are equipped to vary the turn ratio ±15% in steps of 1-1,5%
by means of an on-load tap changer. (See section 7.3.2 page 100).
The electricity supply system often has several different distribution voltage levels as the supply
system branches out before the voltage is finally taken down to the domestic consumption voltage
level, see 2.1 page 7.
Between these different distribution voltage levels there are step-down transformers with
decreasing power rating as the system approaches the consumer. They are mostly regulating
transformers, and their turn ratio is often controlled by means of voltage regulation relays in order
to keep the output voltage constant. However, in mesh networks with relatively strong systems on
both sides of the transformer changing the turn ratio of the transformer may not essentially change
the voltage, only influence the exchange of reactive power between the two sides of the
transformer. Experience shows that the voltage regulation relay in such situations sends the on-
load tap changer to its end position without any noticeable change in the voltage on the secondary
side of the transformer.
2.4.3. System intertie transformers

System intertie transformers connect transmission systems with different voltages together with the
purpose that active as well as reactive power can be exchanged between the systems.
The power rating of such transformers may be quite high, for example 1000 MVA, and they are
sometimes made auto-connected in order facilitate the transport from the factory to the site by the
lower weight and physical dimensions. In addition the manufacturing cost will be lower compared to
a transformer with separate windings.
The turn ratio of such transformers is sometimes fixed, while tappings may be provided in other
cases. The different tappings may not noticeably influence the voltage on either side of the
transformer. However, the tappings provide the ability to influence the exchange of reactive power
between the systems.

The insulation of the windings is normally graded. In separate windings transformers tappings are
placed in the neutral end of one of the windings. In auto-connected transformers tappings are
typically located in the phases of the low voltage side. See Figure 2-6.
I II III N
i ii iii
Figure 2-6
The tappings are sometimes located at the neutral point of auto-connected transformers where
the voltage level to earth and the voltage differences between phases are lower than when the
tappings are situated at the auto tap. A simpler and cheaper tap changer can then be used. On
the other hand tappings at the neutral will need a larger number of turns in the tapping range to
achieve the same variation in the turn ratio as when the tappings are situated at the auto tap or
at the high voltage terminal.
The two main windings in an auto-connected transformer (or simply autotransformer) are called
the common winding and the series winding. The common winding is connected to the neutral and,
as the name indicates, the turns of this winding are common for both sides of the transformer.
The series winding is connected at one end to the common winding and at the other end to the
high voltage terminal.
The high voltage current flows through the series winding. The current flowing in the common
winding is the difference between the low voltage and the high voltage current. The current in
the common winding flows in the opposite direction to the current in the series winding.
The common winding and the series winding are arranged as concentric cylindrical shells,
and the ampere-turns in the two windings are equal in value and opposite in direction.
The advantage of an autotransformer compared to a transformer with separate windings is that the
autotransformer requires less material and consequently has smaller total dimensions, lower mass,
lower manufacturing costs and lower losses.
The equivalent separate two winding power rating of an autotransformer indicates the magnitude of
savings and is given by the following equation:
UrHV − UrLV
Se = Sr ⋅ (2.4.3.1)
UrHV
The terms in this equation are the following:

Se is the equivalent separate two winding power rating of the transformer
Sr is the power rating of the transformer
UrHV is the rated high voltage of the transformer
UrLV is the rated low voltage of the transformer
Equation (2.4.3.1) states that the equivalent separate two winding power rating is proportional to
the difference between the rated high voltage and the rated low voltage of the transformer. The
transformer mass, total dimensions, manufacturing cost and the losses are not directly proportional
to the equivalent separate two winding power rating, but all these properties show a decreasing
trend with decreasing equivalent separate two winding power rating.

The smaller the difference is between the high and the low voltage, the smaller will be Se and
the larger the saving in making the transformer auto-connected instead of a separate winding
transformer.
Also the short circuit impedance of the transformer shows a decreasing trend with decreasing
difference between the high and the low voltage. When this voltage difference is very small, the
short circuit impedance of the transformer becomes also small, which makes the voltage drop in
the transformer low. This is an advantage.
On the other hand, the low short circuit impedance in the transformer may make the short circuit
current of the system so high that the mechanical forces in the transformer exceed its withstand
ability. A solution to this problem could be to install current limiting reactors in series with the
autoconnected transformer.
Another drawback of autotransformers is that due to the metallic connection between the circuits
on both sides of the transformer a disturbance in one of the circuits also involves the other circuit.
If for example a single-phase earth fault occurs in one of the circuits, voltage rise to earth on the
healthy phases will occur in both circuits. If the earth fault occurs in the circuit having the highest
voltage, the voltage rise to earth on the healthy phases of the low voltage circuit may become very
high, dependant on the difference in system voltage of the two circuits. Direct earthing of the
neutral will mitigate this phenomenon.
One of the commonest applications of the auto connection is in large high voltage system intertie
transformers where the system neutral is directly earthed. These transformers are often very large
units with 5-limb cores. A tertiary d-connected winding is normally included to provide low zero
sequence impedance and triple harmonic magnetising currents to avoid triple harmonics in the
magnetic flux and in the induced voltages. If the tertiary winding is not intended for connection to
any power system, one corner of the winding should be solidly earthed to fix the potential of the
winding.
It is important that such autotransformers are protected against transient overvoltages on both
sides by means of surge arresters between phases and earth.
Within certain geographic areas system voltages on several different voltage levels may exist, often
mainly of historical reasons, and there is often a need to connect this systems together by means
of transformers. Due to the large dependence on electric power in the modern society spare
transformers for these system connection points are needed.
In order to avoid a large number of spare transformers, each with one specific voltage ratio suitable
for use at a particular connection point in the power system, a spare transformer with several
different voltage ratios can be made. Such a transformer will then be applicable at several different
connection points.
An example of connection diagram for such a transformer is shown in Figure 2-7. The transformer
is YN-auto-connected with an on-load tap changer in the neutral. The low voltage terminal can be
connected to one of several tappings in off-circuit condition. In this way the following voltage ratios
are achieved: 400kV to 230kV, 400kV to 132kV, 400kV to 110kV, 230kV to 132kV and 230kV to
107kV. By means of the on-load tap changer the turn ratio can be adjusted some percents up or
down, varying somewhat with the particular system voltages the transformer is used for. The
maximum power rating is 450 MVA at voltage ratio 400/230 kV. At other voltage ratios the power
rating is in the range 325 to 200 MVA, dependent on the voltage ratio used.
The transformer has also a delta-connected tertiary winding which limits the zero sequence
impedance of the transformer to a reasonably low value. The voltage and power rating of the
tertiary winding is dependent on the voltage applied at the high voltage terminal, 400 or 230 kV.

Figure 2-7
Figure 2-8 shows a picture of the transformer, which is made as a shell-type.
450 MVA auto-connected system intertie transformer

Figure 2-8

2.4.3.1. Phase-shifting transformers
A phase-shifting transformer is a special type of
system intertie transformers. It provides the
possibility to insert a voltage with an arbitrary phase
angel in the power system. This is used for two main
purposes:
• To control the power flow between two large
independent power systems;
• To balance the loading when power systems
are connected together in more than one
point so that loops exist and the impedances
in parallel paths results in undesired
distribution of power flow in the paths.
We can illustrate this by means of examples.
∆U
Z
G I G
U B
A
Figure 2-9
A and B in Figure 2-9 are two strong power systems connected by a line with impedance Z. To
transmit active power from system A to system B the voltage to the left of Z, U, must be leading in
relation to the voltage to the right of Z. To make the principle illustration simple, the real part of Z is
neglected and the power factor at B is assumed to be 1. The transformer is a phase-shifting
transformer, inserting a voltage ∆U in series with the impedance Z. The transformer is considered
to be ideal, that is, the transformer impedance is neglected.
The voltages at A and B are approximately equal, UA≈UB. ∆U is adjusted so that:
∆U – I•Z = 0
The following vector diagram applies:
I•Z
U UB
Figure 2-10
In another example there are two power systems that are linked together in two points. The power
flow goes then in two branches with impedances ZA and ZB. The value of the two impedances
determines the distribution of power flow through the two branches. This distribution may not
comply with the desired distribution.

Figure 2-11
By means of a phase-shifting transformer a voltage ∆U is inserted in system B, which increases the
current IB and decreases IA at a given total load current I. We will illustrate this by means of a
numerical example.
Assume the difference between ZA and ZB is quite large, say ZA = 30Ω and ZB = 300Ω, that is the
relation 1:10. For the sake of simplicity in the demonstration of the principle effect of the use of a
phase-shifting transformer the real part of ZA and ZB is neglected. Assume further that the system
voltage is 800 kV and that the total power that is transmitted from the left to the right side in the
figure is 1000 MVA. The total current I is then 722 A. Let us first assume that ∆U = 0, in other
words there is no phase-shifting transformer in system B. Simple calculations show that IA = 656 A
and IB = 66 A, which is 9 and 91% of the total load current respectively.
Let the desired load current distribution be for example 50% of the total current in each of the two
systems A and B. 361 A causes a voltage drop of 10 830 V across ZA and 108 300 V across ZB. An
additional voltage ∆U inserted in system B to increase the current through ZB from 66 to 361 A
must then compensate the difference of 97 470 V between the two voltage drops. A phase-shifting
transformer can provide this additional voltage.
Assume that the power factor of the load current I is 1. The following vector relationships exist
before and after the insertion of ∆U, see Figure 2-12.
IA·ZA IB·ZB IA·ZA IB·ZB

U1 U2 U1 U2 U2 U2
U1 UT ∆U
U1
∆U = 0 ∆U≠0
Figure 2-12
To achieve ∆U the phase-shifting transformer must at its secondary terminal provide a voltage UT,
which is higher than the primary voltage U1 and, in addition, displaced an angle δ in the positive
direction in relation to U1 (the positive direction defined counter-clockwise). δ can be calculated
from the vector diagram to the right and is in this case 11,9°.
If the total load current is only the half of 722A and the 50/50% distribution between system A and
B still is desired, the voltage drops across ZA and ZB becomes only the half of those in the last
example. The need for additional voltage to drive the desired current through ZB will then also be
only the half, that is 0,5 · 97 470 V = 48 735 V. The displacement angle δ becomes now 6°.
If ZB had been smaller than ZA, the direction of ∆U must the opposite to prevent that the current IB
would be too high in relation to the desired load distribution.
Also the power factor (cos φ) of the load current I influences the required displacement angle.

In the preceding the impedance of the phase-shifting transformer has been ignored. In reality the
transformer impedance will add to the system impedance and may cause need for a larger angle
displacement.
It should be noted that the phase-shifting transformer has an impact on the exchange of both active
and reactive power between systems or branches of systems.
To fulfil the user’s intentions the phase-shifting transformer must be able to vary the displacement
angle in appropriate steps within a certain range.
The basic way to provide variable angle displacement (phase-shifting) between the primary and
secondary voltage in a transformer is to connect the winding of one limb in a three-phase
transformer in series with a winding situated on one of the other limbs.
(U2)
Phase II
U2
U1
δ
Phase I
Winding connection Vector diagram

diagram
Figure 2-13
The angle displacement can be obtained in principle achieved by means of a single core three
phase transformer. However, the application of phase-shifting transformers is mainly in systems
with very high voltage, and the throughput power rating is quite large. In order to fit voltage and
current to available tap-changers, it may be necessary to use two separate transformers, one
magnetising transformer and one booster transformer. In the circuit where the tap-changer is
located the voltage can be chosen independently of the service voltage of the power system.
Figure 2-14
Figure 2-14 shows a principal diagram of how the magnetising transformer and the booster
transformer are connected together. The tap-changer is typically located at the secondary side of
the magnetising transformer.
A more detailed three-phase connection diagram is shownin Figure 2-15. A voltage, which can be
varied in size, from the secondary side of the magnetising transformer is applied to a different
phase of the primary side of the booster transformer. The voltage transferred to the secondary
(high) voltage side of the booster transformer will then be displaced an angle 2π/3 in relation to the
source side voltage. By varying the size of the voltage inserted by the booster transformer, a
variable angle δ is achieved between the voltage on the source side and the total voltage on the
load side of the phase shifting transformer, which is the vectorial sum of the voltage on the source
side and the 2π/3 displaced voltage provided by the booster transformer.

Figure 2-15
The arrangement with magnetising and booster transformer can also be made in many other
different ways.
The phase displacement requires a certain apparent power, which Figure 2-16 illustrates.
δ)
2Ssin(0,5δ
S
S δ
Figure 2-16
From the diagram it appears that Sδ = 2·S·sin(0,5·δ), where Sδ is the phase-shifting power and S the
apparent throughput power. The magnetising transformer as well as the booster transformer must be
rated for the maximum phase-shifting power.
Is for example the maximum angle δ = 30° and the rated apparent throughput power rating 1000
MVA, the rating of the magnetising and the booster transformer will be 520 MVA each
(1000·2·sin(30/2) = 520). The service voltage is in most cases also high.
In other words, the units are quite large. Because of transport limitations the two transformers are
usually placed in separate tanks.
Regarding differential relay protection of phase-shifting transformers it should be noted that a
considerable phase angle difference between the source and the load current causes a much higher
normal current difference than in ordinary power transformers, so a special differential scheme is
required.
A short-circuit in the circuit between the magnetising and booster transformer would be very harmful
to the transformers, and it is recommended that bus ducts are provided around the conductors
connecting the secondary side of the magnetising transformer and to the primary side of the booster
transformer.
In phase-shifting transformers with magnetising and booster transformer (two-core design) there is a
dielectric design question that needs special attention. If a transient voltage occurs at either side of
the series winding of the booster transformer, the connected winding of the magnetising transformer
will also be exposed to a high voltage, and high frequency oscillations may arise on the leads
connecting the two transformers. More comprehensive mathematical models may be required to
calculate the transient voltage distribution in this configuration than in a single core transformer.
A dialogue between the purchaser and the supplier regarding the overvoltage protection is
recommended.

Information to be provided by the purchaser at enquiry
In addition to the information needed regarding ordinary power transformers, is first of all the desired
total angle displacement range. The displacement range should primarily be specified in no load
condition. However, the purchaser must ascertain that the range is sufficiently large also under
relevant load conditions because the impedance of the transformer, which may vary considerably
over the regulating range in phase-shifting transformers, makes the displacement range smaller than
in no load condition. So the purchaser should then specify the desired displacement range under
specific load conditions, or alternatively state acceptable ranges for the transformer impedance.
Further the purchaser should provide information to the supplier regarding
• the power system where the transformer is going to operate
• the purpose of the transformer
• the switching arrangements to be used to take the transformer in and out of operation
• whether a by-pass switch will be installed
• whether the transformer will operate in series with series capacitor banks
• whether the transformer will operate with two or more other phase-shifting transformers in
parallel or in series
The above list of items should not be considered as exhaustive.
Reference is also made to IEEE Std C57.135-2001TM IEEE Guide for the Application, Specification,
and Testing of Phase-Shifting Transformers. A revision of this standard might take place in a co-
operation between IEC and IEEE with the purpose to issue a new edition of the standard, which is
approved by both organisations and with an IEC-IEEE dual logo.
2.4.3.2. HVDC transformers

HVDC means High Voltage Direct Current. The
first HVDC transmission line was established
in Sweden in 1954. Since then many HVDC
transmission systems have been installed around
the world. ABB has delivered more than half
of the convertor stations, which are key
components.
HVDC transmission is sometimes an economical
and technically advantageous alternative to ac
transmission. That applies particularly when large
bulks of power are transmitted over long distances
by overhead line or under the sea by means of
submarine cable.
The basic diagram for a HVDC transmission is
shown in Figure 2-17.
P
~ = ~
Figure 2-17
An HVDC transmission has a convertor station at each end of the line or cable. The main
components of the convertor stations are the transformers and the valves The alternating voltage
of a supply system is transformed to a voltage level suiting the convertor rectifier to transmit the
intended power. It is then rectified in a convertor arrangement with controlled valves consisting of
many thyristors semi conductors. At the receiving end of the line or cable there is another converter
station. This is operated as an inverter that converts the direct current back to alternating current,
which then is transformed to the voltage of the network being supplied. The direction of power flow
can easily be changed without interruption in the operation.

Compared to ac transmission lines dc lines can operate with narrower corridors. Large areas of
farmland or forests may then be saved. Further, stability aspects do not limit the power
transmission capability of the line.
For a given quantity of conductor material in the line the losses in a dc line are lower than the
losses in an ac line.
By means of HVDC non-synchronous ac systems can be linked together. The transformers provide
that there are no galvanic contacts between the dc equipment and the ac systems. This prevents
the direct current from entering the ac systems.
The currents flowing through the windings of convertor transformers contain certain harmonics
whose magnitudes depend of the parameters of the convertor station. The method to determine the
transformer load losses is based upon two load loss measurements, certain assumptions and a
specific calculation scheme. See section 7.4 and 10.3 of IEC 61378-2.
The transformer supplier shall calculate the value of the actual service load loss based on a given
harmonic spectrum for the load current. The purchaser shall provide this spectrum.
Figure 2-18 shows an example of a harmonic current spectrum of a 6-pulse connection.
Example on harmonic current spectrum in p.u. of the fundamental frequency current in a 6-pulse
connection
Figure 2-18
Figure 2-18 shows that the 5th and 7th harmonics are the largest. Higher harmonics decrease with
increasing harmonic number.
6-pulse connection means that there are 6 pulses in the direct voltage per period of the fundamental
ac voltage, as shown in Figure 2-19 below.

Figure 2-19
Figure 2-19 shows how the direct voltage varies during one period of the ac system voltage. The
direct voltage consists of 6 pulses during one period. It is not an ideal straight line, the pulses
appear as a ripple on the direct voltage.
The ripple can be reduced by combining two 6-pulse valve bridges to a 12-pulse connection as
shown in Figure 2-20. Then the 5th and the 7th harmonics disappear from the current supplied from
the ac network. However, the 5th and 7th harmonics still circulate between the two transformers of
the 12-pulse group and may give considerable contributions to the total load losses in the
transformers. The 5th harmonic may amount to nearly 20% of the fundamental frequency current.
In the station where the dc current is converted to an ac current, the current can in principle be
converted to any frequency. The frequency can be given by the ac system itself or by a separate
synchronous machine. So an HVDC-link is suitable for connecting together ac systems with different
frequencies, for example 50 and 60 Hz.
Figure 2-20

The voltages at the valve sides of the two transformers in Figure 2-20 are displaced 30 electrical
degrees in relation to each other by connecting one of the windings in star and the other one in
delta. Notice that the phase-to-phase voltages of the two transformers are the same on the valve
side as well as on the ac network side.
Figure 2-21
Figure 2-21 illustrates the reduced ripple on the direct voltage of a 12-pulse connection compared to
the 6-pulse connection in Figure 2-19.
The relation between the ideal dc-voltage across the two bridges in Figure 2-20 and the phase-to-
phase voltage on the valve side of the transformers can in no load condition be written as:
6⋅ 3
UD = Uac ⋅ cos α (2-1)
π
In this equation
UD is the dc voltage across the two series-connected valve bridges in Figure 2-20
Uac is the phase-to-phase voltage on the valve side of the transformer
α is the valve delay angle (control angle)
For α = 0 the voltage UD becomes 2,7Uac. In loaded condition voltage drop in the transformer and
the valves reduces the conversion factor from 2,7 to the range 2,4 – 2,5 normally.
The losses in a converter bridge are around half a percent of the throughput power while the
inductive drop is 5 – 10%.
The valve-side winding for the lower bridge (the bridge closest to earth) in Figure 2-20 is exposed to
a dc-potential of around one fourth of the dc-line potential and the valve-side winding for the upper
bridge of three fourth of the same potential.
The voltage distribution between solid and fluid transformer insulation is capacitive when exposed to
ac. This means that the voltage distribution and dielectric stresses are determined by the permittivity
of the materials.
In contrast when exposed to dc-potential the voltage distribution and dielectric stresses are
determined by the resistivity of the materials. The insulation materials are basically the same,
mineral oil and cellulose products. Because the resistivity of the solid insulation materials is
considerably higher than the resistivity of the transformer oil, almost all the dc-voltage lies across
the solid insulation. Consequently HVDC transformers contain a much higher share of solid
insulation than in ac transformers, around three times as much.

Transmission systems with dc voltages up to ±600 kV are in operation. To demonstrate the ability to
withstand dc voltage the valve windings of HVDC transformers are in the delivery test subject to:
• dc separate source voltage withstand test. See section 8.2.3 and 10.4.3 of IEC 61378-2;
• polarity reversal test. See section 8.2.4 and 10.4.4 of IEC 61378-2.
To control the service voltage HVDC transformers are equipped with a fairly large tapping range on
the line side. Further there is a need for strict control of the short circuit impedance of the
transformers. The deviation in impedance between individual phases must be kept small.
IEC 61378-2 specifies that the impedance variation at the principal tapping and the variation of the
impedance over the tapping range for transformers of duplicate or similar design for the purpose of
identical application in service or interchange ability shall not exceed ±3% of the mean test values.
The reason for this requirement is to a great extent the need for efficient cancelling of harmonics in
a 12-pulse bridge connection. Large variations between phases, units and star and delta connected
windings will increase the size of the filters.
Alternatively to the transformers shown in Figure 2-20 with two 3-phase transformers, one with delta
and one with star connected winding at the valve side, three single-phase transformers could be
used. In that case each transformer has two valve-side windings, one for d-connection and one for
y-connection in a bank with the two other single-phase transformers.
If a spare transformer is desired, the single-phase transformer solution has the advantage that just
one single-phase transformer can cover the need. The choice of solution, 3-phase or single-phase
transformers may also depend on restrictions in unit dimensions and weight.
The modern high voltage and high capacity converter is a sophisticated product requiring
experience and high skill in design and specific quality control in production.
2.4.4. Industrial transformers

2.4.4.1. Furnace transformers
Transformers of this type are used in the steel melting and
metallurgical industry. They are characterised by high
secondary current, for steel up to 90 kA and for ferroalloy
up to 160 kA electrode current, and a wide secondary
voltage range. The secondary voltage is normally regulated
by an on-load tap changer (OLTC) located in the high
voltage winding or in an intermediate circuit of a two-core
design (booster regulation) within the transformer tank.
Furnace transformers have secondary voltages up to 1500
V. Furnace transformers can roughly be divided into two
groups:
• AC Furnaces
o Arc furnaces
o Reduction furnaces
o Furnaces for special purposes 160 MVA steel EAF Transformer.
• DC Furnaces Internal closure.
Arc furnace transformers are used for melting scrap metal. Usually in combination with an arc
furnace, there is a ladle furnace The ladle furnace is used in the process of refining the metal
melted by the arc furnace. Arc furnace transformers are normally designed as three phase units.
Reduction furnace transformers are mainly used in the metallurgical industry. Production of ferro-
alloys is an important application. The major alloys are ferro-silicon, silicon metal and ferro-
manganese. Other significant alloys are ferro-nickel and ferro-chrome. Reduction furnaces are also
used in the production of non ferrous metals such as copper, nickel, tin, lead and zinc. Reduction
furnaces are also used in the production of calcium carbide. The most common design for
reduction furnace transformers is single phase.
Examples on furnace transformers for special purposes can be for production of electrode material
and electro slag refining, where the latter is production of very high quality steel.

AC furnace transformers are made both as single- and three-phase. In many installations around
the world, furnace transformers have been designed as shell type. All other transformers for this
purpose are made as core type. Manufacturing of new AC furnace transformers are made as core
type with a few exceptions.
DC furnace transformers are also used to melt scrap metal (steel). Three-phase is the most
common design. Since direct current is used in the melting process the transformer is installed in
combination with a rectifier, which feeds the furnace.
2.4.4.2. Convertor transformers
One of the main differences from other types of transformers
is that the load currents contain higher harmonics due to the
distorted waveform. The distorted current waveform is
caused by the convertor connected to the transformer.
Currents with multiple frequencies of the net frequency flow
from the convertor to the transformer. This has to be
considered when the transformer is designed because
harmonic current leads to higher losses and temperatures in
the transformer. Network regulations also require reduction of
harmonic distortion.
The most common use for convertor transformers is found in
applications such as:
• Variable speed drives - VSD
• Aluminium electrolysis
79 MVA Rectifier Transformer.
Common tank.
Other applications can be chemical electrolysis, DC arc furnace (see section 2.4.4.1), graphitizing
furnaces, traction substations (see section 2.3.5), copper refining etc.
VSD transformers are used in applications where a variable speed is required on the motor shaft.
VSD are used in a wide variety of applications such as rolling mill drives, ship propulsion systems,
mine hoist drives, wind tunnels drives etc. Figure 2-22 shows a basic circuit diagram for a VSD
system configuration for a wind tunnel. The transformer is a 12-pulse unit that feeds two 6-pulse
rectifiers, which are coupled via a dc-link containing two
smoothing reactors that are connected to two inverters, which
in turn is connected to a synchronous motor. The transformer is
also equipped with a tertiary winding, which is connected to a
filter. The purpose of the filter is to reduce the harmonic voltage
distortion in the HV supply system as well as increasing the
power factor of the load.
64 MVA Drives Converter

Transformer. 12 pulse

Figure 2-22
One major convertor transformer application is aluminium electrolysis. Such convertor
transformers are characterised by high secondary currents, secondary voltages up to 1500 V and a
large voltage regulating range. Due to the convertor valves the currents in the transformer windings
will not be sinusoidal but contain harmonics which must be considered when designing the
transformer. Integrated transformer and convertor units for DC currents up to more than 100 kA
have been manufactured.
Usually, four, five or six convertor transformers are connected in parallel to feed one aluminium
pot-line. Depending on the degree of disturbance tolerated on the network and/or on the DC
current output, the transformers can be connected as (6-), 12-, 24-, 36- or 48-pulse system. The
disturbance on the network and on the output DC current decreases with increasing pulse number.
A 12-pulse system is made by two 6-pulse systems with 30 degrees phase shift between the two
systems. This is achieved by connecting one 6-pulse system in delta and the other in star (wye).
A diagram for a typical unit for this purpose is a 12-pulse transformer with phase shift winding as
shown in Figure 2-23.
Primary Secondary
Figure 2-23

A typical aluminium pot-line is built as a 48-pulse system with four rectifier transformers connected
in parallel. In this case, the system is built up by four 12-pulse units with different phase shift
windings. A 48-pulse system can be achieved by the following phase shift angles, +11,25°, +3,75°,
-3,75° and –11,25°.
As mentioned, one of the characteristics of rectifier transformers for aluminium plants is a very
large regulating voltage range, from zero volts up to several hundred volts. The magnitude of the
secondary voltage depends on how many pots that are connected in series.
When diodes are used, it is necessary to make a separate regulating transformer equipped with
on-load tap changer in series with the rectifier transformer to regulate the secondary voltage. The
regulating transformer is often auto-connected. In combination with diode rectifiers, transductors
are normally used to regulate the voltage between the steps of the on-load tap changer. The
regulating transformer that is feeding the rectifier transformer may be built in the same tank as the
rectifier transformer or it may be made as a separate unit. Another possibility to regulate the
secondary voltage is to use thyristor rectifiers, which may replace the regulating transformer and
the transductors. When thyristor rectifiers are used it may be sufficient to equip the rectifier
transformer with an off-circuit tap changer (OCTC).
At inquiry and order the technical specification for the convertor transformer needs some additional
information compared to power transformer specifications. This information should be provided by
the system designer or the purchaser. Such information is valve winding current waveform, i.e.
harmonic current spectrum. “The harmonic content influences the transformer losses in general
but, more importantly localised winding loss and hence potential hot spot temperatures” [Draft IEC
61378-3 convertor transformers - Part 3: Application guide, Section 11.8.2].
When this information is known, the windings can be designed to avoid unacceptable
temperatures. The distortion of the power system voltage caused by the harmonic current is
another aspect to consider. Disturbance due the harmonic content of the currents can be reduced
by increasing the pulse number, as mentioned above.
There may also be special requirements regarding tolerances on the transformer short circuit
impedance because this impedance influences the efficiency of the electrolysis process.
2.4.5. Traction transformers
Traction systems can broadly be divided into two major groups, those who use alternating current
(AC) and those who use direct current (DC). In Europe the following systems are found:
• 15 kV AC 16 2/3 Hz
• 25 kV AC 50 Hz
• 1,5 kV DC
• 3 kV DC
• 1,2 kV DC
2.4.5.1. Stationary transformers (line-feeder transformers)
Regarding stationary transformers (supply-, feeding transformers) for AC distribution there are
mainly three different systems in use
1. Single phase feeding system with return conductor
2. Single phase feeding system with booster transformer
3. Two phase feeding system with auto transformer
Figure 2-24 shows system number 1, single phase feeding system with return conductor.
System number 1: Single phase feeding system with return conductor

Figure 2-24

This is the simplest way of feeding the trains, using only one phase connected to the contact wire,
with the return current through the rails, avoiding return earth currents by means of draining
transformers. This is a simple and cost effective system, but has the disadvantages of high system
impedance and high losses. This system is applied in 50/(60) Hz/ 16 2/3 Hz applications and is
particularly suitable for medium distance/speed routes.
Figure 2-25 shows system number 2, single phase feeding system with booster transformer.
System number 2: Single phase feeding system with booster transformer

Figure 2-25
A major improvement is found in this system where a booster transformer (unity ratio) is
implemented. The primary circuit is connected across a gap in the contact wire and the secondary
across an insulated rail section. In linear mode (when the booster transformer is not saturated), the
traction return current flowing through the secondary circuit is forced to be equal to the current
flowing through the overhead line and in the primary circuit. This system is commonly used.
Figure 2-26 shows system number 3, two phase feeding system with autotransformer.
System number 3: Two phase feeding system with autotransformer

Figure 2-26
In the third system, the secondary winding of the supply transformer provide two equal voltages
with 180° phase displacement by dividing the secondary winding into two equal parts. One phase is
connected to the contact wire and the other phase is connected to a separate overhead line called
the negative feeder. The intermediate point of the secondary winding is connected to the rail. At
Auto Transformer Station (ATS) location, the winding is connected to the contact wire, the negative
feeder and the rail is connected to an intermediate point of the autotransformer winding. The
advantage with this system is that the spacing between feeder stations is increased. The system is
extensively used in France for the French high speed train TGV. Many countries with high speed
projects have adopted the concept.
In systems, where the locomotive is fed by DC current a three phase rectifier transformer is
required to feed the rectifier.

2.4.5.2. Locomotive transformers
This transformer is installed on the locomotive. Factors
of importance for such transformers are size and weight.
To achieve low weight and volume, less material is used
which in turn increases losses and temperatures in the
transformer. To deal with the high temperatures,
insulation which can withstand high temperatures are
used, such as aramid, polyimide or polyester glass and
various high temperature insulating liquids.
2.5. REACTORS
This section describes reactors for a number of different applications.
Supplementary information can be found in IEC 60076-6 Part 6: Reactors (At present in process).
2.5.1. Shunt reactors

The need for large shunt reactors appeared when long power
transmission lines for system voltage 220 kV and higher were
built. The characteristic parameters of a line are the series
inductance (due to the magnetic field around the conductors)
and the shunt capacitance (due to the electrostatic field to earth).
An equivalent diagram for a line is shown in Figure 2-25.
Both the inductance and the capacitance are distributed along
the length of the line. So are the series resistance and the
admittance to earth.
When the line is loaded, there is a voltage drop along the line
due to the series inductance and the series resistance. When the
line is energised but not loaded or only loaded with a small
current, there is a voltage rise along the line (the Ferranti-effect). Shunt reactor, 400 kV, 150 MVAr
Figure 2-27
In this situation the capacitance to earth draws a current through the line, which may be capacitive.
When a capacitive current flows through the line inductance there will be a voltage rise along the
line.
To stabilise the line voltage the line inductance can be compensated by means of series
capacitors, and the line capacitance to earth by shunt reactors. Series capacitors are placed at
different places along the line while shunt reactors are often installed in the stations at the ends of
line. In this way the voltage difference between the ends of the line is reduced both in amplitude
and in phase angle.
Shunt reactors may also be connected to the power system at junctures where several lines meet
or to tertiary windings of transformers.
Transmission cables have much higher capacitance to earth than overhead lines. Long submarine
cables for system voltages of 100 kV and more need shunt reactors. The same goes for large
urban networks to prevent excessive voltage rise when a high load suddenly falls out due to a
failure.

Shunt reactors for system voltages up to 765 kV have now been in service for several tens of
years. At present still more shunt reactors are being installed.
Shunt reactors contain the same components as power transformers, like windings, core, tank,
bushings and insulating oil and are suitable for manufacturing in transformer factories. The main
difference is the reactor core limbs, which have non-magnetic gaps inserted between packets of
core steel.
Figure 2-28 shows a design of a single-phase shunt reactor. The half to the right is a picture of the
magnetic field. The winding encloses the mid-limb with the non-magnetic gaps. A frame of core
steel encloses the winding and provides the return path for the magnetic field.
3-phase reactors can also be made. These may have 3- or 5-limbed cores. See Figure 2-29. In a
3-limbed core there is strong magnetic coupling between the three phases, while in a 5-limbed core
the phases are magnetically independent due to the enclosing magnetic frame formed by the two
yokes and the two unwound side-limbs.
The neutral of shunt reactors may be directly earthed, earthed through an earthing-reactor or
unearthed.
Figure 2-28
When the reactor neutral is directly earthed, the winding are normally designed with graded
insulation in the earthed end. The main terminal is at the middle of the limb height, and the winding
consists of two parallel-connected halves, one below and one above the main terminal. The
insulation distance to the yokes can then be made relatively small. Sometimes a small extra
winding for local electricity supply is inserted between the main winding and yoke.

Figure 2-29
When energised the gaps are exposed to large pulsating compressive forces with a frequency of
twice the frequency of the system voltage. The peak value of these forces may easily amount to
106 N/m2 (100 ton/m2). For this reason the design of the core must be very solid, and the modulus
of elasticity of the non-magnetic (and non-metallic) material used in the gaps must be high (small
compression) in order to avoid large vibration amplitudes with high sound level as a consequence.
The material in the gaps must also be stable to avoid escalating vibration amplitudes in the long
run.
Testing of reactors requires capacitive power in the test field equal to the nominal power of the
reactor while a transformer can be tested with a reactive power equal to 10 – 20% of the
transformer power rating by feeding the transformer with nominal current in short-circuit condition.
Dielectric testing with ac voltage performed at increased frequency requires still more capacitive
power in the test field. A large shunt reactor with rating 100 – 200 MVA requires at least the same
amount of capacitive power as power transformer of 500 – 1000 MVA.
Since the power factor of shunt reactors is very low, loss measurements using conventional
wattmeter methods may be subject to considerable errors. A bridge method may be used to
advantage.
The loss in the various parts of the reactor (I2R, iron loss and additional loss) cannot be separated
by measurement. It is thus preferable, in order to avoid corrections to reference temperature, to
perform the loss measurement when the average temperature of the windings is practically equal
to the reference temperature.
When specifying shunt reactors for enquiry, the following data should be given:
• Reactive power, Q
• Rated voltage, U
• Maximum continuous operating voltage
• Insulation level LI, SI
• Frequency, Hz
• AC test voltages
• Permissible temperature rise for oil and winding
• Sound level and linearity criteria, if required
• Type of cooling, fan, pump, radiators
• Peripheral features, if required
• Safety and monitoring equipment
• Loss capitalisation
Shunt reactors with on-load tap changers (OLTC)

Reactors equipped with an OLTC are intended to allow adjustment of the reactive compensation
depending on the load condition of the line/network. During light loading the maximum reactive
compensation at the tap with minimum number of turns is used and for full load conditions the
reactor is switched to the tap with the maximum number of turns. A typical tapping range allows a
reduction of the reactive power from 100 % to approx. 50 %.

Switching of shunt-reactors
Switching of shunt-reactors requires special precautions. In the early history of shunt reactors
damage now and then occurred to the reactors during switching operations. In some cases the
circuit breaker was also damaged at the same time. The reason for the failures are now well
physically explained and understood, and adequate precautions to avoid, or at least reduce the
probability of such failures, are available.
It is particularly when disconnecting the reactor from the power system that severe overvoltages
may arise. When the breaker contacts separate, an arc starts burning between the contacts. While
the arc is burning, there is still an electrical connection between the power system and the reactor.
After a certain time the circuit breaker will extinguish the arc. Then the connection between the
power system and the reactor is broken, and the load side of the circuit breaker with the reactor is
left on its own. In many cases the arc will be extinguished before the current reaches its natural
passage through zero. This means that when the arc extinguishes, a certain quantity of magnetic
energy is stored in the reactor core, and the reactor has no possibility to feed this energy back to
the power system. Some of the energy will remain in the reactor core as remanent magnetism , but
a part of the energy will charge the stray capacitance to earth of the equipment on the load side of
the circuit breaker. Since this capacitance is usually quite small, the voltage across this
capacitance will be relatively high and consequently also the voltage at the reactor terminal. With
some simplification we can write:
1 1
L ⋅ i2 ⇒ C ⋅ u2 (2.5.1.1)
2 2
In this expression
L is the inductance of the reactor
i is the current at the moment of chopping
C is the stray capacitance of the equipment (including the reactor) at the load side of the
circuit breaker
u is the voltage rise across the C
Expressed in words, (2.5.1.1) reflects that the magnetic energy in the reactor (left side of the arrow)
is transformed to electrostatic energy in C (right side of the arrow). It follows that:
L
u = i⋅ (2.5.1.2)
C
When using modern SF6 circuit breakers, the size of the voltage due to the current chopping is
typically in the range 1,2 to 2,0 p.u. and somewhat higher for other types of circuit breakers. The
rate of voltage rise is relatively moderate.
However, when the arc in the circuit breaker is extinguished, a kind of competition starts in the
circuit breaker. The one competitor is the voltage increase between the two contacts in the circuit
breaker, the other is the increase in breakdown voltage between the circuit breaker contacts,
because the contact separation still continues and the distance between the contacts increases.
If the latter competitor wins, the voltage across the reactor will oscillate due to the energy that is
flowing forth and back between the stray capacitance C and the inductance L of the reactor. The
oscillation will be damped due to the resistance that always is present in a circuit. A typical course
of the voltage across the reactor is shown in Figure 2-30.
Figure 2-30
This voltage course, when disconnecting the reactor, will be harmless to the reactor and the
surroundings.

The other alternative is that the voltage between the separated breaker contacts (the so-called
recovery voltage) wins, which means that it at a certain moment exceeds the voltage break down
voltage between the contacts. Then a new arc will arise between the contacts. This is called
reignition. At reignition the voltage on the breaker contact on the load side very quickly changes to
nearly the same voltage as the breaker contact on the source side. This voltage change may take
place in the course of a small fraction of a microsecond. The voltage on the reactor terminal will
closely follow the voltage on the breaker contact.
The extremely rapid voltage change is followed by a damped oscillation of very high frequency.
Even new arcs followed by reignitions may occur before the disconnection of the reactor is
finalised. in Figure 2-31 shows a typical voltage course on the reactor terminal with just one
reignition in the circuit breaker.
Figure 2-31
During such a voltage course the reactor winding is highly stressed, especially at the beginning of
the winding. These stresses may exceed the stresses that the winding is exposed to during the
standard transient voltage tests and may lead to breakdown in the winding. The stresses in the
winding are not only dependent on the size of the voltage change but also on how fast the voltage
changes (du/dt). So even transient voltages with peak value below the surge arrester protection
level may damage the reactor.
The root of the problem is the reignitions that may occur in all types of circuit breakers
(SF6, vacuum, oil, compressed air). A way to eliminate reignitions in the circuit breaker and thereby
avoid damage to the reactor and equipment in the surroundings is to apply synchronous opening of
the circuit breaker, also called point-on-wave controlled opening. The principle is illustrated in
Figure 2-32.
Figure 2-32
By starting the contact separation at a certain level on the rising part of the current curve, the level
being sufficiently high to avoid that the circuit breaker does not chop the current, the arc will burn
until the current has passed its maximum value and proceeds further towards its natural passage
through zero. At a certain level before the current reaches zero the circuit breaker will extinguish
the arc and chop the current, but then the contacts have had sufficient time to separate quite far
from each other. Consequently the break down voltage of the distance between the contacts has
also increased to a value high enough to prevent the recovery voltage to cause a break down
(reignition).
The signal for synchronisation comes from a capacitor voltage transformer (CVT).
Since synchronised switching was introduced, shunt reactor failures attributable to switching
operations seem to have disappeared. Encouraged by this good service experience ABB always
recommends equipment (SwitchsyncTM, [4]) for synchronised switching when offering circuit
breakers for shunt reactor switching.
More detailed information on controlled switching can be found in [4], available on request to the
nearest ABB office.

2.5.2. Current limiting reactors
Current-limiting reactors are series reactors intended to
reduce the short circuit currents in the power system. The
motive to reduce the short circuit currents is to use circuit
breakers with lower short circuit current breaking capacity
and consequently less expensive circuit breakers.
Sometimes other system components also need protection
against too high short circuit currents, like for instance auto-
connected transformers that are not self-protecting due to
their low impedance.
Another application is limitation of the inrush current when
starting large motors.
Current-limiting reactors are sometimes used to limit
discharge currents of capacitor banks. In such cases a bifilar
wound resistance wire is included and connected in parallel
with the inductance.
One phase of a dry-type reactor

with a lifting device assembled
Dry-type current-limiting reactors

For moderate voltages and power ratings the cheapest type of current limiting reactors is usually
the simple, naked dry-type reactor without iron core and any enclosure, cooled by natural air
circulation. Numerous reactors of this type are in operation around in the world, most of them
probably in medium high voltage power systems.
The magnitude of the inductance of these reactors is normally in the order of millihenry. The
inductance remains constant when short circuit current flows through the reactor. There is no
decline in the inductance due to saturation in an iron core.
The conductor material in the winding may be either copper or aluminium. The insulation and the
supporting materials for the winding are nowadays synthetic, frequently with a high temperature
class. When short circuit current due to failure in the power system flows through the reactor high
mechanical forces arise in the reactor, within each phase winding as well as between phases. The
reactors must be designed to withstand these forces, which often determines the dimensioning of
the reactor.
The absence of an iron core makes the winding capacitance to earth quite small, which gives the
advantage that the voltage distribution within the winding deviates just moderately from linearity
during transient voltage conditions.
Figure 2-33 shows a sketch of one phase of such a reactor. D
The two rectangles illustrate the outer contours of the
winding. a is the total height and r is the radial width of the
winding. D is the mean winding diameter. The inductance is
proportional to the square of the number of turns, D and a
factor that depends on the quotients a/D and r/D.
The mutual inductance between the phases comes in
addition, depending on the distance between the phases and a
whether the phases are placed above each other or besides
each other, see Figure 2-34.
Figure 2-33

Vertical Horizontal assembly
assembly
Figure 2-34
The air core reactors may require relatively
large space because the magnetic field
spreads freely in the surroundings and may
cause excessive heating in iron reinforcements
in concrete walls, floors and ceilings, wire
fences and other metal items. Appropriate
distance from the reactors must then be kept.
The distance should be sufficiently large to
keep the magnetic field below 80 A/m at the
floor and at the ceiling. At adjacent wall the
magnetic field should not exceed 30 A/m.
Figure 2-35
These field values are referred to continuous rated current through the reactor or to temporary
currents lasting more than a few minutes.
The thermal time constant of reinforcement iron and wire fences is short. The supplier should
inform the purchaser regarding necessary distances from the reactor, at which the magnetic field
values have declined to those mentioned above.
Figure 2-35 illustrates the magnetic field attributed to an air-core reactor without any shield.
Considerable forces due to the field can draw loose iron items in the vicinity into the reactor and
cause damage. So it is recommended to keep the surroundings clean.
Possible disturbing influence of the magnetic field on the functioning of other electrotechnical
product in the vicinity must be considered.
Humans should not regularly stay for longer time near the strong magnetic field from such reactors
when current is flowing through the windings.
NOTE: Persons bearing pacemaker should stay far away from such reactors.
Oil-immersed current-limiting reactors

Dry-type reactors for higher voltages may not be suitable in heavily polluted areas because of the
risk of dielectric failure. In such cases oil-immersed reactors might be more reliable.
To avoid excessive heating in the tank a frame of laminated core steel must enclose the oil-
immersed reactor winding. See Figure 2-36. A core steel limb with gaps in the centre of the winding
may not be necessary. The dimensioning of the reactor must be such that the inductance is
sufficiently large when short circuit current flows through the reactor and when saturation may
occur in the core.
The eddy current losses in the windings of reactors without a gapped centre limb of laminated core
steel are quite high because of the strong magnetic field where the winding conductors are
situated. A gapped centre limb would reduce these eddy losses, but on the other hand the core
would be more complicated and costly.

The magnetic field can also be shielded by means of plates of highly conductive materials like
copper or aluminium. However, the losses will be high in the shields due to the high counter-
circulating currents, so this shielding method is only applicable for smaller reactor power ratings.
The cost of an oil-immersed reactor will be considerably higher than of a dry-type, while the oil-
immersed reactor might be less space consuming.
Single-
phase
reactor with
frame core
3-phase
reactor with
frame core
Figure 2-36
When enquiring for a current-limiting reactor, the following information should be given:
• System voltage;
• Frequency;
• Short circuit power of the feeding system;
• Insulation level;
• Rated continuous current and/or rated short-time current and duration;
• Rated impedance of the reactor or alternatively, the reduced short circuit power after
including the impedance contribution from the reactor;
• Dry-type or oil-immersed;
• Indoor or outdoor installation.
2.5.3. Neutral earthing reactors

The neutral point of power systems can either be directly earthed or, at the other end of the scale,
isolated. Both alternatives have their advantages and drawbacks.
Direct earthing gives the lowest voltage on the healthy phases during a single-phase earth fault. It
offers also economic saving through the possibility to apply lower insulation level in the neutral end
of the transformer winding. The drawback is the high failure current, which the equipment has to
cope with.
Isolated neutral or earthing through high inductive impedance limits the failure current, but the
voltage on the healthy phases during a single-phase earth fault will be higher. (See Figure 15-1
page 165, the part of the diagram for positive (inductive) values of X0/X1).
Earthing through an arc-suppression reactor (also called resonant earthing), is a high impedance
earthing, which gives low failure current. (See section 2.5.7). The voltage on the healthy phases
during single-phase earth fault will, however, be nearly the same as when the neutral is isolated.
Neutral-reactor earthing is an earthing with relatively low-impedance, somewhere between direct
earthing an isolated neutral, limiting the failure current to an acceptable level without involving too
high voltage on the healthy phases.
Under normal system conditions the voltage across a neutral-earthing reactor is small and
consequently, the current through the reactor is also small. During system fault the current will
increase considerably, and its duration is usually limited to 10 seconds.
Losses in neutral-earthing reactors are without economic importance. The designed current density
in the winding is determined by the reactor’s ability to withstand the mechanical forces due to the
short-time fault current.

The design can be dry-type with air core or oil-immersed with a gapped core or with a magnetic
shield. In the latter cases the inductance of the reactor must be high enough under system fault
conditions to limit the failure current to the intended value.
The insulation level at the terminal connected to the system neutral is usually the same as the
insulation level of the neutral. In a lightning impulse test on the reactor a test impulse with a longer
front time than 1,2 µs, up to 13 µs, may be applied. The reason is that the front time of a lightning
surge from the line will be prolonged when it passes through the transformer winding before it hits
the reactor.
The insulation level at the earthed terminal of the reactor may be made lower than at the other
terminal.
2.5.4. Capacitor damping reactors

Capacitor damping reactors are used for limiting the inrush currents occurring during the switching
of capacitor batteries to a.c. networks. They are connected in series with the capacitors.
During normal operation the capacitor rated current flows through the damping reactor. The
maximum permissible (overload) current of the damping reactor is equal to the corresponding value
of the capacitor battery as called for in relevant standards for power (shunt) capacitors.
Reactors are also used to detune capacitor banks to avoid resonance with the power system.
Capacitor damping reactors are single-phase or three-phase, usually dry-type, self cooled, with air
core, for indoors or outdoors installation.
Capacitor damping reactors are able to withstand a rated inrush current which must be high
enough to cover all recognised cases of switching the capacitor battery or battery sections. The
system planner must provide information to the reactor supplier regarding the relevant inrush
resonant frequency. The reactor supplier supplies information about the Q-factor (the ratio
reactance to resistance) of the damping reactor at this frequency.
2.5.5. Tuning (Filter) reactors

Tuning reactors are connected with capacitors to tuned filter circuits with resonance in the audio
frequency range to reduce, block or filter harmonics or communication frequencies. The tuning
reactors are connected either in a parallel configuration in the system (with system voltage applied
across them) or in a series configuration (with load current flowing through them).
Figure 2-37 illustrates the two main types of filters in their basic forms.
C
L
Parallel resonant filter Series resonant filter
Figure 2-37
A parallel resonant filter has a high impedance that blocks for currents of a certain frequency, while
a series resonant filter has a low impedance that leads away currents of a certain frequency from
parts of the power system where are undesired.
Filters are preferably located as close as possible to the spot where the harmonics are generated.
Tuning reactors are single-phase or three-phase reactors, oil-immersed or dry-type. The reactors
may be designed with means for adjusting the inductance value within a limited range either by
tappings or by movement of core and/or coils. The preferred or recommendable design solution in
each particular case should be indicated already in the enquiry or the tender.
Naked dry-type air core reactors might offer the lowest purchase price. However, when erected
outdoors at moist and heavily polluted locations, such reactors may be more vulnerable to dielectric
failure than oil-immersed reactors.

Tuning reactors for audio frequency signals may be equipped with a second winding connected to
the audio frequency source or to other components.
When connected in parallel configuration the reactors are subjected to inrush transients at
switching operations. When connected in series configuration they are also subjected to
overcurrents due to system faults, which they must withstand under recognised conditions.
In three-phase filter circuits attention should be paid to the magnetic coupling between different
reactor phases.
A current with the frequency of the power system flows through the reactor winding. In addition
comes a current of the resonance frequency of the filter circuit where the reactor is a component.
The latter current may be continuous or intermittent. The sum of these two current components is
one of the parameters that determine the dimensioning of the reactor.
The voltage across the reactor is the sum of the voltage drop due to the power frequency current
and the tuning frequency current.
The rated inductance L of the reactor is referred to the tuning frequency.
When designing a tuning (or filter) reactor the value of the maximum short-time current and its
duration must be known.
The spectrum of signal frequency voltage and current in the system should also be known.
A property of interest is the Q-factor of the reactor, which is the ratio between the reactor reactance
and resistance at tuning frequency and reference temperature.
The insulation level of tuning reactors corresponds usually to the highest voltage for equipment Um
of the system where the reactor is installed, unless particular reasons motivate a different level.
If one terminal of the reactor is intended for direct earthing, non-uniform insulation may be applied.
If an audio signal reactor has a second winding, this winding should be designed with consideration
of possible transferred overvoltages from the power system.
2.5.6. Earthing transformers (Neutral couplers)

Earthing transformers are used to create a neutral point in a three-phase system, which provides
possibility for neutral earthing. The earthing can be through an arc-suppression reactor (see 2.5.7
page 47), a neutral earthing reactor (see 2.5.3 page 44) or resistor or directly.
The design can be a transformer with just one winding, which is zigzag connected. The zero
sequence impedance of such a winding is normally quite low, but it can be increased if the purpose
is to limit the current through the transformer in case of an earth fault somewhere in the system.
Figure 2-38 shows the connection diagram. During undisturbed system operation with balanced
(symmetrical) voltages the current through the earthing transformer is small and of the same size
as the magnetising current. Unbalanced voltages will cause some higher currents flowing through
the earthing transformer, which it must be capable to
R carry.
An alternative connection to the zigzag is star/delta
S connection where the delta connected winding will
compensate the zero sequence magnetic field so it
will be confined to a leakage field between the star
T and the delta winding and make the zero sequence
impedance of the transformer relatively small.
However, if it is desired to increase the zero
N sequence impedance, this can be achieved by
opening the delta connection and insert a reactor or
resistor.
Figure 2-38
It is possible to provide the earthing transformer with a secondary winding for continuous auxiliary
station supply.
Earthing transformers are usually oil immersed and may be installed outdoor. In cases where a
separate reactor is connected between the transformer neutral and earth, the reactor and the
transformer can be incorporated in the same tank.

When the earthing transformer is going to be used together with an arc-suppression reactor, the
rated current (and its duration) of the earthing transformer will be determined by the data for the
arc-suppression reactor.
If the earthing transformer is used for directly earthing or through a current limiting reactor, the
neutral current through the transformer will be high but the duration is limited to a few seconds.
Earthing transformer must be designed to withstand the thermal and mechanical effects of the
rated neutral current.
The characteristic of earthing transformer should be selected to match the property of the system.
See section 15.1.1 page 165.
Most of the time in service the loading of earthing transformers is very low. It is the randomly
occurring short-duration currents that cause any heating of significance. Ageing of the cellulose
materials is then not a matter of concern. Regarding acceptable temperatures there are two
aspects to consider:
The temperature during currents of say 10 seconds duration must not cause softening of the
winding conductor material, say 250 °C for copper and 200 °C for aluminium. (See Table 3 in IEC
60076-5 (2000-07) Power transformers – Part 5: Ability to withstand short circuit).
For currents with duration in the order of hours or more, temperatures that cause excessive gas
development in the oil should be avoided. Temperatures for items in direct contact with the oil
should then not exceed 140 °C.
The system earth fault protection relay may not be effective at low currents. To prevent damage to
earthing transformer by such current, oil thermometer with alarm/trip contacts is recommended.
Alternatively the value of maximum continuous earth fault current may be declared and sensitive
protection provided.
For earthing transformers that carry continuous load because of a secondary winding that supplies
local consumers, the temperature limits in IEC 60076-2 (1993-04) Power transformers Part 2:
Temperature rise apply.
2.5.7. Arc suppression reactors

Arc-suppression reactors are also named earth fault neutralisers or Petersen-coils after W.
Petersen who launched the idea of this particular reactor application early in the previous century.
Background
In high voltage power systems single-phase earth faults may take place. These may be initiated by
transient overvoltages, often combined with reduced dielectric strength due to contaminated
insulators or the presence of animals like birds, squirrel etc. Arcs arise which lead capacitive
currents. If the current is above certain levels, the arc may last for a long time and cause conductor
rupture and damage to material like insulators. It may even cause fire.
It is generally assumed that arcs extinguish by themselves when the arc current is below 5-10 A.
The purpose of the arc-suppression reactor is to reduce the arc current and thus provide the
condition for the arc to extinguish. In order to determine the appropriate inductance of an arc-
suppression reactor it is necessary to know the earth-fault current. This is in turn given by the
capacitance to earth Ce of each phase conductor of the power system.
Basic principle of the arc-suppression reactor
To illustrate the effect of an arc-suppression reactor we will use an example, which is somewhat
simplified but still sufficient to explain the principle.

S
T IcT
IcS
Ie
R
Ie Ce
Figure 2-39
Figure 2-39 shows to the left an energy source that might be a secondary winding of a transformer
with the terminals R, S and T. It is connected to a system where each phase has a capacitance to
earth Ce. This capacitance is distributed along the whole length of the conductors, but is indicated
as one concentrated capacitor Ce per phase. Assume that this capacitance is the same in all three
phases, which means that the phase conductors of overhead lines are perfectly revolved.
An earth fault is indicated in phase R. For the sake of simplicity we assume that the impedance at
the failure spot is so small that it can be neglected. In other words, the potential of phase R is equal
to the earth potential, which in undisturbed and symmetrical condition lies in or close to the neutral
point (star point) of the transformer winding.
Due to the earth fault the potentials to earth of phases S and T have increased. In normal operation
there is an exchange of currents between the system and earth in such a way that the capacitance
to earth of one phase serves as return path for the current through the capacitance of the two other
phases and vice versa.
The earth fault has altered this capacitive current flow. Now the return of the current to earth from
phase S and T goes through the earth fault and into phase R. Because of the increased potentials
to earth of phase S and T, the currents to earth from these phases have also increased. The vector
relationships between voltages and currents are shown in Figure 2-40.
T S
Ut Us
∆u
Ics
30o
Ie 30o R
Ict
Figure 2-40
In this example the potential in relation to earth on the sound phases S and T is assumed to be
equal to the normal system voltage U (line-to-line). In other words, the potential to earth on these
phases has increased by a factor of √3. (This factor may in practice be lower or higher than √3).
The neutral has shifted ∆u, which in this case is equal to the normal line-to-neutral voltage.

The capacitive currents to earth from phase S and T, Ics and Ict are leading 90° in relation to Us and
Ut respectively. The capacitive current in the earth fault, Ie is the vectorial sum of Ics and Ict.
Ics = Ict = U ⋅ ω ⋅ C e (2.5.7.1)
Ie = 2 ⋅ U ⋅ ω ⋅ C e ⋅ cos 30 o = 3 ⋅ U ⋅ ω ⋅ C e (2.5.7.2)
Depending on Ce, which is proportional to total length of lines and cables in the system, Ie may
become quite high and may sustain an arc at the failure spot.
S
T IcT
IcS
L Ie
R
IL Ce
Ie IL
IL
Figure 2-41
When connecting an arc-suppression reactor L between the neutral of the transformer winding and
earth, an inductive current flows through L to earth where it finds its return path through the earth
fault. The inductive current through the earth fault has the opposite direction of the capacitive
current provided by phases S and T.
T S
Ut Us
∆u
Ics
30o
Ie IL
30o R
Ict
Figure 2-42
Figure 2-42 shows the IL vector added to the previous vector diagram in Figure 2-41 before the
presence of the arc-suppression reactor. ∆u is the voltage that drives the current IL through the
reactor, and IL is naturally lagging 90° in relation to ∆u.
By adjusting the reactance of the reactor IL can be given the same numerical value as Ie, and
because Ie and IL have opposite directions, the resulting current through the fault will become zero
or close to zero. Then the arc at the failure spot is given a high probability to extinguish by itself,
and the operation of the power system can continue undisturbed and without any interruption of the
electricity supply.

Determination of reactor data
As described in the previous section the current through the reactor shall equalise the capacitive
current determined by the capacitance to earth of the system where the reactor is to be installed.
Then it is necessary to know Ce.
Ce can be found by direct measurement in the power system. However, the system might rarely be
at disposal for such measurements, so Ce must then be estimated on the basis of calculations.
Systems may contain both overhead lines and cables, and one kilometre of cable has a much
higher capacitance to earth than one kilometre of overhead line. The contribution to Ce from the
cables can be calculated based on specific data from the cable suppliers and the total length of the
cables.
The contribution to Ce from the overhead lines might not be just as easily to determine with the
same accuracy as for cables. Ce for overhead lines is determined by several parameters such as:
• the height of the conductors above the earth;
• the geometric configuration of the three phase conductors
• the number of parallel conductors per phase;
• the number of earth wires, if any, and their distance to the phase conductors and to the
earth;
• the dimensions of the conductors;
• the extent of vegetation below the line;
• seasonal variations due to ice and snow.
Exact formulas for the capacitance to earth under idealised conditions (plane earth, constant
distances to earth and between conductors) are deduced in the literature, for example [2].
However, taking into consideration that the reactance of arc-suppression reactors can be varied
within wide limits, simpler approximate calculation methods of Ce will be sufficient for the purpose.
Hunter and Light [3] have found some typical values of Ce of overhead lines at a number of
different service voltage levels, and corresponding earth fault currents per kV system voltage and
km line length have then been calculated by means of equation 2.5.7.2. The result is shown in
Table 2-1 below.
Table 2-1
System voltage Earth fault current
kV A/(kV*km)
13,8 0,00453
23 0,00339
34,5 0,00302
46 0,00297
69 0,00286
92 0,00302
115 0,00313
138 0,00318
161 0,00333
230 0,00365
Figure 2-43 a and b shows typical charging currents (earth fault currents) in an overhead line
system as functions of the line length, with the system voltages as parameters. The diagrams are
valid for 50 Hz. For 60 Hz the currents must be increased by 20%. From these diagrams the
capacitive fault current can easily be estimated. The nominal current of an arc-suppression reactor
should be the same as the capacitive fault current, which means that the reactor must be capable
to carry this current for a certain time, and in addition, the reactance of the reactor must be such
that it lets this current through when a certain voltage appear across the reactor. This voltage shall
be the highest voltage the reactor will be exposed to in service. In practice this is taken as the
highest system voltage divided by √3. That is the phase-to neutral voltage when the system is
balanced (symmetrical).

120
single line-to-earth fault at 50 Hz

Amperes charging current in a
100 69 kV
80
46 kV
60
34,5 kV
a
40 23 kV
13,8 kV
20
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Length of overhead lines (km)
450
single line-to-earth fault at 50 Hz
Amperes charging current in a
230 kV
400
350
300
161 kV
250
138 kV
b
200 115 kV
150 92 kV
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Length of overhead lines (km)
Figure 2-43
When also cables are parts of the system, the contribution from the cables to the earth fault current
must be taken into account. This should preferably be based on information from the cable
suppliers, but in case such information is lacking, we provide some data as guidance.
The capacitance to earth of cables may vary within a range of 0,1 – 0,7 µF/km depending on the
cable design and dimensions. We consider three different designs, which are shown in Figure 2-44.

Shield
Sheath
Cable with separately

Belted three-core Single-core shielded phase
conductors (H-type) and
separate lead-sheathed
cable (SL-type)
Figure 2-44
The earthing capacitance for each phase, Ce, expressed in µF/km cable is indicated on the
ordinate axis in the following Figure 2-45, Figure 2-46 and Figure 2-47.
0,45
0,4 µ F/km
0,35 7,2 kV
12 kV
Earth capacitance
0,3
17,5 kV
0,25 24 kV
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
Conductor area mm2
240
300
120
150
185
95
70
25
35
50
Conductor –to-earth capacitance Ce of belted three-core cables

as a function of conductor cross-section. Paper insulation
Figure 2-45

0,8
0,7 µF/km
12 kV
0,6
Earth capacitance 17,5 kV
0,5 24 kV
36 kV
0,4
52 kV
0,3 72,5 kV
0,2
0,1
0
Conductor area mm2
240
300
120
150
185
95
70
25
35
50
Conductor-to-earth capacitance Ce of single-core, SL- and H-type cables

as a function of conductor cross-section. Paper insulation.
Figure 2-46
0,7
0,6 µ F/km
0,5 12 kV
Earth capacitance
24 kV
0,4 36 kV
72,5 kV
0,3 123 kV
0,2
0,1
0,0
Conductor area mm2
35
150
240
300
400
500
630
50
70
95
120
185
Conductor –to-earth capacitance Ce of XLPE-insulated cables

as a function of conductor cross-section.
Figure 2-47
To determine the capacitive earth fault current based on the diagrams in Figures 2-45, 2-46 or 2-47
the ordinate Y read from the conductor area on the x-axis and the curve for the relevant system
voltage should be inserted in the following formula:
I e = 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ π ⋅ f ⋅ Y ⋅ U ⋅ L c ⋅ 10 3 (2.5.7.3)

In this formula
Ie is the capacitive earth fault current in amperes;
f is the power frequency;
Y is the ordinate from one of the diagrams in Figure 2-45, Figure 2-46 or Figure 2-47 in µF/km;
U is the system voltage (line-to-line) in kV;
Lc is the total length of the actual type of cable in the system in km.
The total capacitive earth fault current
The total capacitive earth fault current is determined by adding arithmetically the contributions from
the overhead lines and from the cables. The rated current of the arc-suppression reactor should be
at least the same as the total capacitive earth fault current. Preferably future extensions should
also be taken into account. In general the rated current of the reactor should not be too small. In
case of imperfect tuning of the reactor the residual reactive current should be inductive. A
capacitive residual current may cause that the voltage to earth on the healthy phases becomes still
higher than the line-to-line system voltage.
Design
Arc-suppression reactors are single phase. They have a core consisting of steel sheets, just like
transformer cores. In most cases the core has a centre limb, which is enclosed by the winding, and
two unwound side limbs and the upper and lower yokes close the magnetic path. The core differs
from transformer cores, since the centre limb consists of a number of core steel packets with non-
magnetic gaps in between.
The winding is similar to transformer windings. It may have tappings for tuning the reactance to the
capacitance to earth of the system. The reactance can be varied within a certain range. The
relation between the highest and the lowest reactance is for practical reasons limited to 2,5:1. For
lower system voltages (22 kV and lower) the relation can be 3:1.
If larger a range is required, 10-12:1 can be achieved by regulating the gaps in the core. Regulation
of the gaps can be made by means of an electric motor. This regulation is continuous, while
regulation by means of tappings in the winding is in steps.
In established systems where the situation is quite stable, that is, there are no or very rare changes
in the earth capacitance of the system, reactance adjustment in steps by means of an off-circuit
tap-changer will be adequate. In systems, which are subject to frequent extensions or
sectionalising, automatic tuning by varying the gaps in the core may be preferred.
Arc-suppression reactors are oil-immersed in most cases.
Arc-suppression reactors are normally equipped with a secondary winding for indication and
measurement of the voltage across the reactor. The secondary winding is sometimes loaded with a
resistance in order to increase the active component of the failure current to activate selective
earth-fault relays in case of a permanent earth fault. An arc-suppression reactor does of course not
remove an earth-fault when for example a conductor of an overhead line has fallen down to the
earth. However, the reactor can in such cases limit the material damages by minimising the fault
current.
Normally arc-suppression reactors have a built-in current transformer for indication and
measurement of the current through the reactor.
System connection
Arc-suppression reactors are connected between the power system neutral and earth. The system
neutral may be available at the neutral bushing of star- or zigzag-connected transformer windings.
If a transformer with such a winding is missing at the location where installation of an arc-
suppression reactor is desired, an earthing reactor (also called neutral coupler) can provide a
neutral point. (See 2.5.3 page 44).
When determining the reactance of an arc-suppression reactor, the zero sequence reactance of
the transformer or earthing reactor must be taken into account. This zero sequence reactance
comes in series with the reactor reactance. It is then the sum of reactor reactance and one third of
the zero sequence reactance of the connected transformer or earthing reactor that shall equalise
the system capacitance. To determine the reactance of the arc-suppression reactor, the zero
sequence reactance of the transformer where it is connected must be known.

Transformer zero sequence impedance
IEC 60076-1 (1993-03) Power transformers Part 1: General, defines the zero sequence impedance
of a three-phase winding as the impedance, expressed in ohms per phase at rated frequency,
between the line terminals of a three-phase star-connected or zigzag-connected winding,
connected together, and its neutral terminal.
This can be found by measurement in the following way:
Measurement of zero sequence impedance

Figure 2-48
The zero sequence impedance in ohm/phase is given by

U0
Z0 = (2.5.7.4)
I0
The zero sequence impedance may also be expressed in per cent of the reference (or base)
impedance of the transformer Zref:
Z 0 ⋅ 100
z0 = (2.5.7.5)
Z ref
U2
Z ref = (2.5.7.6)
Sr
in which U is the rated voltage (line-to-line) in kV and Sr is the reference power rating of the
transformer in MVA.
The zero sequence impedance may have several values because it may depend on how the other
winding or windings are connected or loaded. The key question is whether any other winding
provide balancing ampere-turns or not.
If there is a delta-connected winding in the transformer, balancing ampere-turns will be provided by
a current circulating within the triangle of the delta-connected winding. In this case the zero
sequence impedance will be approximately equal to the plus and minus sequence short-circuit
impedance of the pair of windings, star and delta.
Zigzag-connected windings have the special property that they can be connected in such a way
that they provide balancing ampere-turn themselves, because currents equal in size with opposite
polarity flow through the two halves of such windings on each of the three limbs. The current
creates a magnetic leakage field between the two winding halves, and the zero sequence
reactance of the zigzag-winding becomes low and equal to the short circuit reactance between the
two halves.

Yyn-connected transformers (without any tertiary delta-connected winding) have very high zero
sequence reactance, 30-100% or even more. If the core has 5 limbs or if it is a shell-type
transformer or if three single-phase transformers are connected star-star in bank, the zero
sequence impedance will be of the same order as the magnetising impedance because there is no
possibility for counteracting ampere-turns in any other winding. When connecting an arc-
suppression reactor to YNy- or Yyn-connected transformers, it may be necessary to reduce the
reactance of the reactor by one third of the zero sequence reactance of the transformer. If the zero
sequence reactance of the transformer is neglected, the reactance of the arc-suppression reactor
should be:
1
XL = (2.5.7.7)
3 ωC e
When the zero sequence reactance of the transformer is high compared to 1/3ωCe, XL should be
adjusted according to:
1 X
XL = − 0t (2.5.7.8)
3ωC e 3
where X0t is the zero sequence reactance of the transformer.

Another aspect of connecting arc-suppression reactors to transformers where the zero sequence
magnetic field flows uncompensated, like in YNy- and Yyn-connected transformers, is that this
magnetic field may cause excessive heating in the tank wall and in clamps keeping the laminated
steel plates of the core together. The thermal time constant for these items is short, so the heating
is noticeable in the course of few seconds. Such excessive heating may cause gas development in
the oil and even gas bubbles that may jeopardise the safe operation of the transformer. If the
duration of the fault current is limited to just a few seconds, such potential risk can be disregarded.
Longer duration loading of the transformer neutral should be clarified with the transformer supplier.
The neutral of zigzag-connected windings is always suitable for connection of an arc-suppression
reactor, regardless of any other winding on the core. The neutral of star-connected windings is also
suitable for connection of an arc-suppression reactor, provided that the transformer that the star-
connected winding belongs to has another winding that is delta-connected.
Operational characteristics
A question of far-reaching importance is how long the involved parts of the power system is
permitted to operate with a single-phase earth fault that does not disappear after a few seconds,
before the section where the failure is located must be disconnected from the voltage source. This
question does not only involve the dimensioning of the arc-suppression reactor and the design of
the transformer where it is connected. It involves also in general the choice of surge arresters in the
system. The temporary overvoltage to earth on the healthy phases during a single-phase earth
fault and its duration determines the choice of surge arresters, their protection level, the insulation
level of system components and the safety margin between the insulation level and the arrester
protection level.
Tuning
Setting of the reactance of an arc-suppression reactor (or tuning the reactor) can be made without
making any artificial earth fault by deliberately connecting one phase of the system to earth. In
many cases the capacitances to earth are not exactly equal in all three phases. This causes a
certain displacement of the neutral. In other words, there will be some voltage across the arc-
suppression reactor, which can be read on a voltmeter connected to the low voltage measurement
winding of the reactor. When the reactance of the reactor is varied, the neutral displacement and
the voltage across the reactor will also vary. The reactor is in resonance with the capacitance to
earth of the power system when the neutral displacement and the voltage across the reactor have
their maximum.
The capacitance to earth in cables are quite equal and if cables is a dominant part of the system in
relation to overhead lines, the neutral displacement might become too small to make use of this
tuning method. In such cases installing a suitable capacitor to earth in one of the phases can
provide an unbalance, which gives an adequate neutral displacement.
Maximising the neutral displacement is also the basic principle for automatic tuning of the reactor in
service.

After a period when circuit breakers with fast re-closure frequently were installed instead of arc-
suppression reactors in order to solve the earth fault problem, the arc-suppression reactors now
seem to obtain some of a renaissance. The reason is probably the continually increasing
dependence of reliable electricity supply in the society. Due to the use of more and more modern
electronic equipment even very short interruptions in the electricity supply causes considerable
inconvenience and problems.
According to statistics earth fault arcs in adequately tuned power systems quickly extinguish in the
majority of cases without any interruption in the electricity supply. Tuned arc-suppression reactors
also cause a delay in re-establishing the normal service voltage to earth in the faulty phase. The
risk of arc re-ignition is then reduced.
2.5.8. Smoothing reactors

The direct current that comes from the rectifier in d.c. systems has superimposed harmonic
components, also called ripple. The smoothing reactor is connected in series rectifier (convertor)
and the whole load current, including the d.c. current and small a.c. harmonic currents, flows
through it.
Oil-immersed smoothing
reactor in the Rihand - Dehli
Figure 2-49 HVDC transmission
The purpose of the reactor is to provide high impedance to the flow of the harmonic currents,
reduce their magnitude and thus making the d.c. current more smooth. The higher reactor
inductance the smaller remaining harmonic currents (ripple), but at the same time higher reactor
costs and losses. The voltage drop across the reactor is the notches in the voltage from the
rectifier.
A smoothing reactor has no nominal power rating in the same sense as a.c. reactors. However, a
size comparison can be made on the base of the stored magnetic energy. In this respect the size of
a smoothing reactor in HVDC systems can be much higher than even the largest shunt reactors,
which also is reflected in the physical dimensions. Sometimes it is necessary to share the winding
(which naturally is single-phase) on two core limbs in order to keep the outer dimensions within the
transport profile.

Besides reducing the current ripple, the smoothing reactor has other functions to cover, like:
• preventing commutation failure in the inverter by limiting the rate-of–rise of current during
commutation in one bridge (the transfer of current from one valve to another in the same
row in the bridge) and during collapse of voltage in another bridge;
• reducing the rate-of-rise of current if failures occur on the d.c. system;
• improving the dynamic stability of the transmission system;
• reducing the risk of commutation failure during a.c. system voltage drop.
The design may be dry-type or oil-immersed, with or without gapped iron core or magnetic shield.
The magnetic characteristic may be linear or non-linear.
In large HVDC systems the smoothing reactors is operating at a high d.c. potential to earth. When
dry-type air-core reactors have been used, they have been placed on platforms, which have a high
insulation level to earth. Dry-type air core reactors will probably in many cases, depending on the
required inductance and the service voltage, be cheaper and lighter than oil-immersed reactors.
However, even dry-type air core reactor weight may amount
to 25 – 50 ton, so an insulating platform must be of a
mechanical robust design.
Dry-type air core reactors have a linear inductance
characteristic, while oil-immersed reactors may have a non-
linear inductance characteristic due to saturation in
ferromagnetic core or shield, depending on the chosen flux
density when designing the reactor.
The direct current flowing through smoothing reactors
causes a magnetising bias where the a.c. magnetisation is
superimposed. The magnetic flux will then not oscillate
symmetrically around zero but around a flux value
determined by the d.c. magnetisation. In the part of the
cycle when the d.c. flux and the a.c. flux have the same Air-core smoothing reactor in the
direction, the iron core may be saturated. FennoSkan HVDC transmission
Figure 2-50 shows an example where the vertical red line indicates the bias d.c. magnetisation
caused by the d.c. current flowing through the reactor. The two dotted horizontal lines indicate the
range of linked flux variation caused by the superimposed harmonic a.c. voltage. They are located
symmetrically around the d.c. linked magnetic flux. The two dotted vertical lines indicate the limits
for the corresponding harmonic a.c. current. The latter limits are located asymmetrically in relation
to the d.c. magnetising current.
a.c. current
ψ
a.c. voltage
Linked magnetic flux
d.c. magnetisation
Magnetising current i
Figure 2-50

The inductance L of the reactor is defined as:
dΨ
L= (2.5.8.1)
di
This is identical to the slope of the magnetisation curve, which varies with the magnetising current.
The lower part of the curve is linear, and in this range L is constant. Where the core is completely
saturated, the curve is also linear and L is also constant, but here the slope of the curve
corresponds to the inductance of an air core reactor, as if the iron core does not exist. Between
these two linear ranges there is a range where the curve is non-linear. In this range L is not
constant but varies during the cycle of the a.c. voltage and current. The resulting L is called the
incremental inductance, which is lower than the inductance in the low linear range of the curve.
Consequently the reduction of the current ripple will also be lower compared to the reduction that
would be achieved if the reactor were operated in the low linear range of the magnetisation curve.
On the other hand, however, this would cause a more expensive reactor.
Smoothing reactors in large HVDC transmission systems manufactured by ABB are nowadays oil-
immersed and designed with gapped iron core, just like large shunt reactors. For such reactors the
incremental inductance is an essential parameter. It can be measured during the delivery test
provided there is a sufficiently large d.c. source available in the test laboratory. Alternatively the
incremental inductance can be calculated based on a recording of the magnetisation curve of the
reactor.
Smoothing reactors in HVDC links are subject to special dielectric stresses when the direction of
power flow in the link changes. To verify the ability of the reactor to withstand such stresses a
polarity reversal test is performed before delivery from the factory. Figure 2-51 shows a voltage
versus time diagram for such a test. A period with negative polarity is followed by a period of
positive polarity and finally a period back to negative polarity. To demonstrate that there is a
satisfactory safety margin the test voltage Upr should be higher than the rated d.c. voltage in
operation, for example 25% or other value, according to agreement.
Figure 2-51
The polarity reversal test is followed by an a.c. voltage test of 1 hour duration with PD
measurement.
The dielectric testing includes also a withstand test with d.c. voltage equal to 1,5 times the rated
service voltage of 1 hour duration and with PD measurement.
Supplementary information is found in:
• IEC 289 (1988) Reactors, which is in the process of being revised and will be issued with
the number IEC 60076-6;
• IEEE Std 1277-2000 IEEE Standard General Requirements and Test Code for Dry-Type
and Oil-Immersed Smoothing Reactors for DC Power Transmission.

3. QUALITY, INTERNAL CONTROL, SUSTAINABILITY
3.1. MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
3.1.1. Quality
The functional reliability of transformer installations depends of the suitability and quality of the
transformer, components and the processes employed. ABB transformer factories have adopted
the International standard of quality management system
ISO 9001:2000 Quality management systems
Requirements
This standard emphasizes customer satisfaction, process approach and continuous improvement.
Most ABB factories operate ISO 9001 certified management systems.
3.1.2. Internal control

ABB factories comply with national internal control regulations defining requirements for health,
safety and working environment, HSE.
3.1.3. Environmental system

ABB requires that all manufacturing sites operate a certified environmental management system
according to the International standard
ISO 14001:1996 Environmental management systems
Specification with guidance for use
Thus, ABB has committed itself to work for environmental improvement and pollution reduction.
3.1.4. Sustainable development

ABB is a signatory to the
International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)
Business Charter for Sustainable Development
and works actively to live up to this commitment and to fulfil its social responsibilities.
ABB is actively promoting use of energy-efficient equipment in search for minimizing the cost of
losses for the society. This will also contribute to reduction of the energy shortage. See also Life
cycle assessment section 10.4 page 135.
3.2. CUSTOMER REVIEW OF MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Customers may review the general management system of the manufacturing sites; however
company secrets may be excluded.
The customers are obliged to only use information regarding ABB Ltd. obtained in this way for their
own use, and not disclose anything to any third party unless this is agreed with ABB Ltd. in writing.
3.3. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Please observe the following and any other safety advices before installation, commissioning and
maintenance:
• Never work on energized transformers or any energized installed electrical equipment alone,
• Do not move or lift a transformer without adequate equipment and safety precautions,
• Do not make any connections which do not comply with the rating plate,
• Do not apply abnormal mechanical strain on the terminals,
• Do not reconnect when the transformer is energized,
• Do not attempt to change tap setting on off-circuit tap changers while the transformer is
energized,
• Do not energize or perform maintenance on the transformer without proper earth connection,
• Do not operate the transformer without alarm and monitoring systems connected,
• Do not remove any enclosure panels while the transformer is energized,

• Do not tamper with interlocks, alarms and control circuits,
• Be aware of possible need for magnetic field protection,
• Perform a final inspection prior to energizing:
o All external connections have been made properly,
o Review and check all alarm and trip functions,
o Remove all temporary earthing connections,
o The transformer tank is properly earthed,
o Neutral terminals of star connected windings are correctly earthed or surge protected,
o All connections are tight and secure,
o All secondary circuits of current transformers are closed and earthed,
o All accessory circuits are operational,
o All tap connections are properly positioned,
o The neutral and earth connections have been properly made,
o Fans – if supplied – are operational,
o Proper clearance is maintained from high voltage bus to terminal equipment,
o The correct transformer ratio exists for units with internal terminal boards,
o All windings are free from un-intended earths. A relevant megger is recommended,
o There is continuity in all windings,
o There is no dust, dirt or foreign material on core and coils (dry-type transformers),
o There is no visible moisture on or inside the core and coils (dry-type transformers),
o All plastic wrappings are removed from the core and coils (dry-type transformers),
o All shipping members have been removed,
o There are no obstructions in or near the openings for ventilation,
o Cooling water supply is adequate,
o No tools or other articles are left inside or on top of the core, coils, tank or enclosures,
o All protective covers are closed and tightened,
• Comply with any instructions supplied by the transformer manufacturer,
• Comply with relevant Internal Control Regulations.
See also relevant safety sections on safety and protection in Extracts from IEC 61936-1 (2002-10)
Power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c. – Part 1: Common rules in Section 18 page 201 of the
handbook.

4. LOSS CAPITALISATION AND OPTIMUM TRANSFORMER DESIGN
The total transformer cost for a user consists of two main components:
1. The initial costs, that is the purchase price and the installation cost
2. The operational costs during the time in use
The initial costs generate capital costs. The operational costs consist of surveillance, maintenance,
insurance, and taxes and, not the least, the costs for the energy needed to cover the losses in the
transformer.
Transformer suppliers offer transformers with the user’s requested power rating and voltage ratio,
which in addition fulfil certain dielectric, thermal and mechanical requirements. A transformer may
be designed to achieve the lowest possible purchase price. The losses of such a transformer are
relatively high, and the operational costs will be accordingly high.
However, by increasing the cross section of the winding conductors and/or the core beyond the
minimum needed for a reliable transformer, a wide range of transformer designs with lower losses
can be achieved. The quantity of materials will be higher and naturally also the purchase price.
Figure 4-1 shows in principle how the manufacturing cost (the blue curve related to the left vertical
axis) and the losses (the red curve related to the right vertical axis) vary with the transformer mass
or the consumption of material. The manufacturing cost increases with increasing transformer
mass, while the losses decrease with increasing transformer mass.
$ kW
Manufacturing cost
Losses
Transformer mass (kg)

Figure 4-1

In Figure 4-2 the monetary value of the losses is inserted instead of the losses.
$ Manufacturing cost +
Money value of
l
Manufacturing cost
Money value of losses
Transformer mass (kg)
Figure 4-2
The black curve is the sum of the manufacturing cost and the money value of the losses, that is the
total costs. This curve has a minimum point as can be seen in Figure 4-2.
The customer’s best buy is a transformer that gives the minimum total costs, which is to be found
somewhere on the scale between the minimum purchase price and the price for a transformer
which from a pure technical point of view is more or less oversized. How much should then the
quantity of materials be increased to obtain the optimum loss transformer?
To answer this question the designer needs already at the enquiry stage money values per kilowatt
for the no load and the load losses, which must be provided by the purchaser. Based on these
values the transformer designer works out the best compromise between initial cost and power loss
expenditure.
The money values for the losses, the so-called capitalised loss values, express the maximum
amount of money the user is willing to invest to reduce the transformer losses by one kilowatt.
We will in this chapter describe a way to achieve reasonable capitalised loss values.
The losses in the transformer are traditionally expressed in terms of two separate quantities,
determined by two separate tests.
• No load loss at rated voltage
• Load loss at rated current
The no load loss figure is obtained in a test with rated voltage applied to one of the windings and all
other windings open-circuited.
The load loss is by definition taken as the active power consumed in a short-circuit test where rated
current of rated frequency is fed into one winding and another winding short-circuited. Possible
other windings shall be open. The loss is guaranteed and determined at a reference temperature in
the windings (75 ºC according to International Standards (IEC), 85 ºC according to ANSI/IEEE. The
reference temperature for dry-type transformers depends on the type of insulation material and the
corresponding permitted winding temperature).
No load loss
The no load loss is assumed to be present with its measured reference value for the whole time
that the transformer is energised. No account is taken of the difference between service voltage
and rated voltage, or of possible combination effects of leakage flux running through yoke parts. A
system intertie transformer or receiving transformer is energised continuously, but generating sets
may be started and stopped (peak load generation). Industrial process transformers may also have
intermittent duty cycles.

Load loss
The evaluation of load loss is more complicated. For a transformer in general transmission or
distribution duty the load has a daily variation, a weekly variation and a seasonal variation. This is then
further combined with a long-term trend of generally rising loading over a number of years, until the
installation becomes fully loaded and has to be relieved or reinforced. It would be practicable, with
today’s computer facilities, to run a summation over an estimated life cycle scenario, taking into
account detailed load variations, tap-changer settings and operating temperatures with variable
ambient (which is co-variant with seasonal load variation). However, in view of the considerable
uncertainty of the assumptions, a much simpler method is satisfactory for the purpose. Actual
temperature and voltage (tap-changer position) variations are disregarded, and only the variation of
loading is used. The momentary load loss is taken to vary strictly with the square of the load.
An important aspect is that transformer installations must provide sufficient power capacity for
back-up service in case of disturbance. A certain overload for a limited period of time is
permissible. (However, awareness should be drawn to the fact that overloading and increased
average winding temperature above 105 °C increases the probability of bubbling in the oil, which
under unfortunate circumstances may cause dielectric breakdown in the transformer. The risk of
bubbling increases also with the content of moisture in the cellulose insulation. The cellulose acts
as a kind of reservoir for the moisture).
The ratio of back-up loading over the preceding undisturbed loading is in many cases larger than the
ratio of permissible overload above rated load. This means that the spare capacity requirement, if
applied, restricts maximum undisturbed loading to below rated power in many typical applications.
Take as an example a case where two equal transformers are working in parallel, and one of them
falls out. The permissible overload is, say 40%. This would mean that the installation is at its safety
limit when each of the two units reaches 70% loading, and consequently draw about 50% of
reference loss. Higher loading than 70 % of each transformer would mean more than 140 %
loading of the remaining transformer if one of them falls out.
Several parameters influence the capitalised loss values. Some of these parameters must be
predicted for a number of future years. Consequently such predictions are subject to considerable
uncertainty.
Nevertheless, an attempt to analyse the situation to obtain reasonably relevant capitalised loss
figures will most likely lead to a more economic choice of transformer than neglecting the cost of
the losses completely and just go for the lowest purchase price.
Relevant parameters
a) energy cost and how this evolves during the years the transformer will be in operation;
The energy cost per kWh is influenced by many factors, like fuel market price, supply and
demand of electricity, taxes, inflation, political situations and decisions, climatic variations
etc. It may increase or decrease from one year to another and may even fluctuate during
the 24-hour day. This makes a fine-tuned prediction of the evolution of the energy costs
impossible. In a perspective of a series of years, the energy costs will probably increase.
As an approximation the evolution of energy costs can be calculated by means of an
average increase rate per year. In a calculation model for the capitalised costs of the
losses, it is then possible to calculate several alternative increase rates in order to see
how the final result is influenced.
b) the loading pattern of the transformer;
The loading pattern may vary much from one transformer to another. In industrial
applications like for example aluminium electrolysis the transformers will be fully loaded
from the beginning and will run so continuously except for shut-down periods of the pot-
line due to maintenance, low aluminium prices due to market saturation or other reasons.
Transformers for operation in systems for general electricity supply to society normally have
a power rating which is considerably higher than the load just after installation, in order to
meet future needs and possible disturbance situations. The initial load may then be even
below one half the power rating of the transformer. This means that the load loss is below
one fourth of the reference loss. The low loading might prevail for several years before the
load current slowly approaches the nominal current of the transformer, if the need for spare
capacity permits that high loading. The capitalised load loss for a transformer with such a
loading pattern will naturally be significantly lower than for a transformer where the load
current is equal to the nominal current just after energising the transformer.

c) the time horizon;
Numerous transformers are operating satisfactorily after more than half a century in
service. The considerable accumulated saving potential during this long time should
make an investment to achieve low transformer losses quite attractive. The amount of
money the purchaser/investor accepts to invest per kW reduced loss is, however,
determined by the number of years (n) he is willing to wait until the accumulated saving
equals the invested amount, possibly also adjusted according to the general inflation rate.
Before these n years have elapsed there is no net revenue on the investment. The
earnings are coming in the following years.
Such an investment will compete with alternative investments objects, considering
profitability potential and economic risk level.
The risk level connected to adequately insured transformers for general electricity supply
to highly populated urban areas is normally low, while it may be higher for industrial
transformers, because the owner company might not be viable for more than relatively
few years.
d) time in de-energised condition due to maintenance or other reasons;
e) insurance premium;
The annual insurance premium is normally a certain percentage of the acquisition cost
and adds to the operational costs. It is often adjusted according to the inflation rate.
However, this parameter has normally not any large influence on the capitalised loss
values and may be disregarded.
f) taxes;
The property tax is normally a certain percentage of the acquisition cost and adds also to
the operational costs. Rules for depreciation for the equipment in question vary from one
country to another. After a certain number of years the value of the transformer is written
down, and the property tax may disappear.
g) the cost of the losses in the feeding system (including generators, transformers, lines and
cables) caused by the losses in the transformer under consideration;
h) generation installation costs;
Investments are needed to build electric power stations with buildings, generators,
turbines, nuclear reactors, cooling towers, hydro regulations with dams and tunnels and
so on. For a certain invested amount a number of MW electric power has been made
available.
i) transmission installation costs;
Investments are needed to transmit the electric power from the power station to the
terminals of the transformer under consideration.
j) cost for the energy consumed by the cooling equipment (fans and pumps). Separate
capitalised values for power needed for the cooling equipment is sometimes specified;
Parameters g), h) and i) are in the following text assumed to be included in the kWh-price (d) at the
primary terminals of the transformer in question.

Capitalisation of no load loss
The wanted figure is the maximum amount of money (X) the purchaser is willing to invest in order
to reduce the transformer no load loss by 1 kW.
[Readers wishing to use the loss capitalisation formulas without going through the
background and the development of the formulas, can go to equations (4-14) and (4-28) for
no-load losses and load losses respectively.]
Assume as an example a transformer purchaser who buys the electric energy from a utility at the
primary terminals of the transformer at a price of d $/kWh. The price d is assumed to cover all the
costs to generate 1 kWh and transmit this energy from the generator terminals to the point in the
system where the transformer is situated, including the losses in the generator and the feeding
transmission system. d is intended to be a representative constant value for the variable energy
price during the first year of transformer operation. The energy cost for 1 kW the first year will then
be 8760·d $, provided the power is consumed continuously during all the 8760 hours of the whole
year.
Assume that the energy price increases p% per year as an average for a number of n years. The
energy cost for 1 kW during the second year of operation will then be:
8760 ⋅ d ⋅ 1 + p 
100 
(4-1)

For the third year:

2
8760 ⋅ d ⋅ 1 + p 
100 
(4-2)

For the nth year:
n −1
8760 ⋅ d ⋅ 1 + p 
100 
(4-3)

Setting:
q = 1+ p (4-4)
100
the sum of the energy cost for
consuming 1 kW continuously during n years becomes:
(
8760 ⋅ d ⋅ 1 + q + q2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + qn −1 ) (4-5)
where the expression within the
brackets is a geometric series with the quotient q. The sum s of this series is:
qn − 1
s= (4-6)
q −1
To calculate the total cost for 1 kW during n years the cost for the first year 8760·d must then be
multiplied with the factor s.

The diagram in Figure 4-3 illustrates how this factor varies with p and n.
110
100 n n=20
 1 + p  −1
90
 100  n=15
s=
Multiplication factor s
80 n=10
 1 + 100  − 1
p
70   n=5
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Average annual increase in energy price p%
Figure 4-3
For example, the accumulated cost of 1 kW no load loss after 20 years is 41 times the cost of the
first year if the average annual increase in the energy price is 7%.
The diagram in Figure 4-4 shows the multiplication factor for the whole physical lifetime of the
transformer (say n=50 years) versus the average annual increase in energy price. It indicates that
during the lifetime of a transformer the saving potential by lowering the transformer loss might be
quite considerable.
8000
n
7000  1 + p  −1
 100 
s=
 1 + 100  − 1
6000 p
Multiplication factor s
  n=50
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Average annual increase in energy price p%
Figure 4-4

At an average annual increase rate of for example 7%, the savings during the lifetime of the
transformer for 1 kW lower no load loss would be more than 400 times the energy cost for 1 kW no
load loss the first year in operation.
How much should a purchaser/investor be recommended to pay for 1kW reduced no load loss,
considering that the return on the investments has the form of avoided expenditure during the
years the transformer will be in operation?
The first step to find an answer is that the purchaser should determine how many years that are
allowed to elapse before the accumulated saving equals the invested amount of money. Or in other
words, decide how many years (n) are allowed to elapse before the investor has got the invested
amount back in the form of avoided expenditure. The investor might also require the invested
amount back adjusted for an estimated average annual inflation rate of i% during the n years.
When n and i are determined, a corresponding average annual interest rate a% can be calculated
as shown in the following.
The annual return of an invested amount X is:
a
X⋅ (4-7)
100
For n years this sums up to:
a
n⋅ X⋅
100 (4-8)
With an average annual inflation rate of i%, the invested amount X must after n years be adjusted
to:
n
 i 
X ⋅ 1 + 
 100  (4-9)
to maintain the original real value of X.
The following equation can then be set up:
n
a  i 
n⋅ X⋅ = X ⋅ 1 + 
100  100  (4-10)
This equation gives the correlation between the three variables n, i and a.
n
100  i 
a= ⋅ 1 + 
n  100  (4-11)
The total return on the invested amount X to obtain 1 kW less no load loss should be equal to the
reduced energy cost for 1 kW less no load loss accumulated during n years of operation:
n
1 + p  −1
 100 
8760 ⋅ d ⋅
1 + p  −1
 100 
(4-12)
The following basic equation can then be written:
n
1 + p  −1
a  100 
n⋅ X⋅ = 8760 ⋅ d ⋅
100 1 + p  −1
 100 
(4-13)
The expression on the left side of the equal sign in (4-13) represents the return requirement on the
investment X. The right side represents the economic value of the energy saving.

It follows that:
 p 
n 

8760 ⋅ d ⋅  1 +  − 1
100 
X=   ⋅ 100 ⋅ 100
n⋅a⋅p (4-14)
To calculate an example with figures:
Average energy cost rate the first year of operation d = 0,085 $/kWh
Average annual increase in energy cost rate p=7%
Number of years before invested amount shall be paid back n=5
Average annual general inflation rate i=4%
Annual interest rate on invested amount X acc. to (10) a =24,33 %
Inserted in equation (4-14) gives:

X = 3520 $/kW
If the number of years n is changed to 8 and the other free variables d, p and i remain unchanged
(observe that a is a dependent variable of i and n), the result will be:
X = 5580 $/kW
Increasing the number of years the investor allows to elapse before the invested amount is saved
from 5 to 8, increases the capitalised loss value by more than 2000 $/kW.
An additional parameter could be added. If the transformer is not energised continuously during the
year but a little less due to maintenance in the system or disturbance. Say for example the
transformer is only energised 95% of the time, the 8760 hours must be multiplied by 0,95. The
capitalised loss value will be reduced by the same factor.
Capitalisation of load loss

The no load loss is constant when the transformer is energised and is practically independent of
the loading of the transformer. The energy consumption during a year due to the no load loss in the
transformer is then simply the constant no load loss multiplied with the number of hours in a year
the transformer is energised.
Contrary to the no load loss the load loss varies with the square of the instantaneous loading
current, which may vary within a large range. The energy consumption during a year due to the
load loss in the transformer is the sum of energy consumed within a high number of small time
intervals ∆t of the whole year. Assume that these time intervals are so small that the instantaneous
loading current Ii can be regarded as constant within each interval. The energy consumption within
such an interval will then be
constant · (4-15)
The energy consumption for a whole year is the sum
constant · (4-16)
Introduce now a parameter called the equivalent loading current Ieq. That is a constant loading
current that consumes the same amount of energy during the 8760 hours of a year as according to
expression (4-16).
ΣIi2 ⋅ ∆t
I2eq =
8760 (4-17)
The load loss is proportional to the square of Ieq/IN. In the following Ieq will be expressed in p.u. of
the nominal current IN of the transformer. The load loss is then proportional to the square of Ieq.
The target is to find capitalised value for the load loss. One question is how much are the savings
of 1 kW reduced reference load loss (referred to nominal current IN and reference temperature)
accumulated over a certain number of years?

To answer this a couple of more variables must be taken into consideration:
the equivalent loading current the first year in operation Ieqinit
the annual average increase in the equivalent loading current z %
The average energy price the first year in operation is d $/kWh and the average annual increase in
the energy price is p %, as for the no load loss.
The savings for 1 kW less reference load loss the first year in operation is
I2eqinit ⋅ 8760 ⋅ d
(4-18)
For the second year
(
I2eqinit ⋅ 1 + z
100
) ⋅ 8760 ⋅ d ⋅ 1 + p100 
2
(4-19)
For the third year
( )
2 2
I2eqinit ⋅  1 + z
2
⋅ 8760 ⋅ d ⋅ 1 + p 
 100   100 
(4-20)
For the fourth year
( )
3 3
I2eqinit ⋅  1 + z
2
⋅ 8760 ⋅ d ⋅ 1 + p 
 100   100  (4-21)
th
For the n year
( )
n−1 n−1
I2eqinit ⋅  1 + z  ⋅ 8760 ⋅ d ⋅ 1 + p 
2
 100   100  (4-22)

The sum of the savings for n years becomes

( ) ( )
 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
2 2
1 + 1 + z
2
⋅ 1 + p  +  1 + z 2
 ⋅ 1 + p
 100  100   100   100  
I2
⋅ 8760 ⋅ d ⋅  
( )
eqinit
  z
2
n−1
  p 
n−1

+  1 + 100  1 + 100  
  (4-23)
The expression within the main brackets is a geometric series with the quotient
q = 1+ z( ) ⋅ 1 + p100 
100 
2
(4-24)
and the sum
( )
n
 1+ z 2
⋅ 1 + p  − 1
q − 1 
n 100  100 
sn = =
q −1 1+ z
2
100 
(⋅ 1 + p  −1
100 
)
(4-25)
In a shorter expression than (4-23) the accumulated savings during n years for 1 kW reduced load
loss become
( )
n
 1+ z 2
⋅ 1 + p  − 1
 100  100 
I2eqinit ⋅ 8760 ⋅ d ⋅
(
1+ z
2
100 
)
⋅ 1 + p
100 
 −1
(4-26)
Analogous to the expressions (4-7) - (4-13) we can set up the following equation

( )
n
 1+ z 2
⋅ 1 + p  − 1
a  100  100 
n⋅Y⋅ = I2eqinit ⋅ 8760 ⋅ d ⋅
100 (1+ z
2
)
100 
⋅ 1 + p  −1
100 
(4-27)
where Y is the amount invested to reduce the reference load loss 1 kW. Y can be obtained from
equation (4-27).
( )
n
 1+ z 2
⋅ 1 + p  − 1
2
Ieqinit ⋅ 8760 ⋅ d  100  100 
Y= ⋅ ⋅ 100
n⋅a (
1+ z
2
100 
) 
⋅ 1+ p
100 
 −1
(4-28)
Numerical examples:
Assume:
Ieqinit = 0,4 in p.u. of the nominal current of the transformer
The average energy price the first year in operation d = 0,085 $/kWh
The average increase in loading current per year z=5%
The average annual increase in energy cost rate p=7%
The average annual inflation rate i=4%
Number of years before the invested amount shall be paid back n=5
Annual interest rate on invested amount Y acc.to (4-11) a =24,33 %
Result:
Y = 700 $/kW
If the number of years n = 8, and the other free variables d, z, p and i remain unchanged, (observe
that a is a dependent variable of i and n), the result becomes:
Y = 1330 $/kW
Capitalisation of auxiliary power consumed in the cooling equipment

Some purchasers want to evaluate the power of fans and pumps belonging to the cooling
equipment as well. This must also be based on certain assumptions.
For example if the fans and pumps must run even when the transformer is unloaded but energised,
the capitalised auxiliary loss will in principle be the same as the capitalised no load loss. However,
the energy price d $/kWh might be different at the low voltage level of the fan and pump motors,
and the capitalisation value must be adjusted accordingly.
For larger power transformers the cooling equipment may consist of several sections. For example
two sections, where one section provides sufficient cooling up to 70% load, and the other section is
running only when the load exceeds 70%. In such a case two capitalisation values apply, one for
the first section and one for the second. The reason is that the second section probably will be
running a less number of hours than the first section. It may even last several years after
installation before the transformer loading makes it necessary to run both sections.
If n (the number of years the investor is willing to wait before he has got back the invested amount
to reduce the power in the second section by 1kW) is for example 5, and the second section will
not be in operation at all the first 5 years after the transformer installation, the capitalised loss for
the second section will be zero.
Take as another example that the second section is in operation 1000 hours each year the first n
years, the basic equation (4-13) still apply with the exception that the number 8760 must be
replaced by 1000.
If the number of operational hours is estimated to vary from one year to another, the right side of
(4-13) can be split into several year-by-year terms.

Comments:
• The earnings of investment in lower transformer losses have the form of avoidance of future
expenses. The accumulated avoided expenditure increases during the whole time the
transformer is in operation. The strategic key question for the purchaser/investor is how many
years he is prepared to wait before the avoided expenditure equals the invested amount
(possibly adjusted for the general inflation) in lower losses at the time of purchase. In other
words the choice of n in equations (4-14), (4-28) and (4-11).
• n is the only parameter in equations (4-14), (4-28) and (4-11) the purchaser/investor is free to
choose. He can only make the best possible estimate of z, p and i (see (4-11)), but has no
influence on their future real numerical values.
• n and d are the two parameters that have the largest influence on the capitalised values.
• p and i influences respectively the right and the left side of (4-13) in the same direction. p and i
tend to follow each other. For these reasons p and i have only a moderate influence on the
capitalised loss values. However, it is not unreasonable to assume that the increase rate of
energy cost (p) will be higher than the general inflation rate (i). The present calculation method
offers the opportunity to distinguish between the two.
• The uncertainty in the estimation of the parameters z, p and i increases the further into the
future one goes (high n), which in turn influences the relevance of the capitalised loss values.
• For air-cooled transformers situated in-door and for water-cooled transformers the provision of
sufficient quantity of cooling air or water may involve costs. Such costs, expressed in terms of
$/kW (or any other currency that is used for d), should be added to the capitalised loss values
obtained from equation (4-14) and (4-28).
• The sum of the manufacturing costs and the economic value of the total transformer losses is
called the comparison price. The aim of the transformer optimisation is to obtain a transformer
with dimensions and losses that gives the minimum comparison price. Investigations show that
the comparison price of transformers that are optimised with capitalised loss values that lie
within ± 30 – 40 % of a “correct” value does not increase the comparison price by more than
about 1%. Consequently, the total economy of the installation is not critically dependent on a
very accurate forecast of correct capitalised loss values. But totally unrealistic values should be
avoided.
• On a long-term base investment in lower losses is very profitable. In addition investment in
lower losses in a transformer installed to day contributes to less energy consumption in the
society in the future and to better environment.
• Finally another parameter associated with the transformer efficiency is the short circuit
impedance of the transformer, which causes a voltage drop on the secondary side when the
transformer is loaded. A high short-circuit impedance causes a high voltage drop and a lower
power supplied to the secondary system. See section 11.5 page 138.
On the other hand low short circuit impedance will increase the short circuit current through the
windings in case of a short circuit on the secondary side. The mechanical forces on the
windings increase with the square of the short circuit current, and it may become necessary to
increase the cross section of the winding conductors in order to enable the windings to
withstand the forces. In turn this will increase the dimensions and the weight of the transformer
and consequently the manufacturing cost.
The choice of short circuit impedance will be a compromise between the two aspects voltage
drop and the forces acting on the windings during short circuit current. The purchaser may also
desire to use the short circuit impedance of the transformer as a short circuit current limiting
device to protect equipment in the system on the secondary side.
Providing the transformer with a regulating winding and a tap changer can compensate the
voltage drop in the transformer. Installing compensating capacitors in the system is an
alternative.

5. INFORMATION REQUIRED WITH ENQUIRY AND ORDER
For application for quotations and possible ordering transformers, contact your nearest ABB office
or search for your product and ABB contact on http://www.abb.com
The information given in this section is mostly an extract from IEC 60076-1 Annex A. *Copyright ©
IEC, Geneva, Switzerland. www.iec.ch
The list is not exhausted, but can in any case be used as a checklist.
5.1. NORMAL INFORMATION

The following information shall be given in all cases:
• Particulars of the specifications to which the transformer shall comply.
E.g. international and national standards, local standards, regulations and particular
customer requirements,
• Kind of transformer, for example: separate winding transformer, auto-transformer or booster
transformer,
• Single or three-phase unit,
• Number of phases in system,
• Frequency.
E.g. in North America, parts of South-America, half of Japan, often on board ships 60 Hz is
used, most other countries use 50 Hz. Other frequencies may be actual, 400 Hz on board
aeroplane, 16 2 3 Hz for railway. Continuous operation at frequency less than 95% of rated
value has to be specified,
• Dry-type or liquid filled. If liquid filled, whether mineral oil or synthetic insulating liquid. If dry-
type, degree of protection (see IEC 60529),
If dry type the insulation system temperature classification should be agreed. E.g. a dry-type
solution may give less expensive buildings, but availability concerning power and voltage are
limited. High fire point liquid based on mineral oil or other synthetic fluids as for instance
dimethyl silicone fluid may give building savings,
• Indoor or outdoor type,
• Type of cooling,
Reference is made to section 7.2 page 96,
• Rated power for each winding and, for tapping range exceeding ± 5 %, the specified
maximum current tapping.
Recommended power ratings:
10 – 12,5 – 16 – 20 – 25 – 31,5 – 40 – 50 – 63 – 80 – 100 etc.
Often used practice is to have the same power over the whole tapping range. Reduced
power of some minus tap is also common, but in any case it should be specified.
ANSI/IEEE standard require that power flow direction have to be specified.
If applicable the transformer is specified with alternative methods of cooling, the respective
lower power values are to be stated together with the rated power (which refers to the most
efficient cooling),
Typical specification could be 70% / 100% ONAN / ONAF, or as overload 100% / 130%
ONAN / ONAF.
• Rated voltage for each winding
• For a transformer with tappings:
Which winding is tapped,
the number of tappings, and
the tapping range or tapping step,
Whether 'off-circuit' or 'on-load' tap-changing is required,
If the tapping range is more than ±5 %, the type of voltage variation, and the location of
the maximum current tapping, if applicable, see IEC 60076 – 1 (2000-04) clause 5.4.
Normal specified type of voltage variation is CFVV (constant flux voltage variation) and in
special cases VFVV (variable flux voltage variation). But normal operation will often be CbVV
(combined voltage variation).
• Highest voltage for equipment (Um) for each winding (with respect to insulation, see IEC
60076-3),

Um according standard voltage levels. Specified voltage in some tap changer plus positions
may be higher than Um (Maximum system voltage). But continuous operation at voltage
above Um has to be specified.
• Method of system earthing (for each winding),
• Insulation level (see IEC 60076-3), for each winding,
Unusual voltage condition including transient over voltages, resonance, switching surges
etc., which may require special insulation design has to be considered.
• Connection symbol and neutral terminals, if required for any winding,
If already a connection between different voltage systems exists in the network it is
mandatory to specify appropriate connection symbol. In connection symbol YNyn0 the letters
“N” and “n” means neutral points accessible on external terminals.
• Any peculiarities of installation, assembly, transport and handling. Restrictions on
dimensions and mass,
In areas with unknown infrastructure it is mandatory to clarify at an early stage handling,
transport- and lifting possibilities and limitations.
• Details of auxiliary supply voltage (for fans and pumps, tap-changer, alarms etc),
• Fittings required and an indication of the side from which meters, rating plates, oil-level
indicators, etc., shall be legible,
• Type of oil preservation system,
See 7.4.1.5 page 105. Oil preservation systems.
• For multi-winding transformers, required power-loading combinations, stating, when
necessary, the active and reactive outputs separately, especially in the case of multi-winding
auto-transformers.
Capitalisation of losses, see section 4 page 62.
5.2. SPECIAL INFORMATION

The following additional information may need to be given:
• If a lightning impulse voltage test is required, whether or not the test is to include chopped
waves (see IEC 60076-3),
In IEC standard LIC (lightning impulse chopped on tail) is a special test. In ANSI/IEEE
standard LIC is part of normal LI test procedure. Some national standards influenced by
ANSI/IEEE have adopted LIC as part of LI test even if they mainly stick to IEC.
• Whether a stabilizing winding is required and, if so, the method of earthing,
If neutral point in a star connected winding is not isolated, it can be loaded and the zero
sequence current has to be compensated in a delta-connected winding. In transformer with
5-leg core a delta-connected winding is needed to limit the zero sequence impedance.
See also section 11.
• Short-circuit impedance, or impedance range (see IEC 60076-1 Annex C). For multi-winding
transformers, any impedance’s that are specified for particular pairs of windings (together
with relevant reference ratings if percentage values are given),
The transformer impedance limits the dimensioning short circuit power in the secondary
network. On the other hand high short circuit impedance reduces the transformer efficiency.
• Tolerances on voltage ratios and short-circuit impedance’s as left to agreement in IEC
60076-1 Table 1, or deviating from values given in the table,
The requirement regarding voltage ratio according to Table 1 is ± 0.5% on principal tap,
other taps according to agreement, but most transformer suppliers normally fulfils the
requirement of ± 0.5% on all taps.
• Whether a generator transformer is to be connected to the generator directly or switchgear,
and whether it will be subjected to load rejection conditions,
Which can give up to 1.4 times normal voltage in 5 seconds.
• Whether a transformer is to be connected directly or by a short length of overhead line to
gas-insulated switchgear (GIS).
Also connection of large power transformer with high current isolated phase bus duct has to
be mentioned,
• Altitude above sea level, if in excess of 1 000 m (3 300 ft),

• Special ambient temperature conditions, (see IEC 60076-1 section 1.2 b)), or restrictions to
circulation of cooling air.
In addition for example limitations in oil and winding temperature rises (e.g. 55/50 instead of
65/60 °C) may be given.
The ambient conditions, for instance semi indoor arrangement or tropical installation, must
be considered and specified temperature rise adjusted accordingly.
When water-cooled transformer, if temperature of cooling water is outside standard
condition.
Also other special ambient conditions as damaging fumes or vapours, excessive or abrasive
dust, explosive mixtures of dust or gases, steam, salt spray excessive moisture, dripping
water or harsh environments as coastal or duty has to be mentioned.
• Expected seismic activity at the installation site which requires special consideration,
See also section 6.4 page 91.
Be also aware of other caused vibration, tilting, shock, etc.
• Special installation space restrictions which may influence the insulation clearances and
terminal locations on the transformer, also the maintenance
• Whether load current wave shape will be heavily distorted. Whether unbalanced phase
loading is anticipated. In both cases, details to be given.
Load with abnormal harmonics current, harmonic factor above 5%, may cause excessive
losses and abnormal heating.
Other special operation conditions such as:
Continuous load operation at voltage and voltage per Hertz above 105% of rated values, and
above 110% in no-load condition.
Continuous operation at load power factor less than 80%,
• Whether transformers will be subjected to frequent over-currents, for example, furnace
transformers and traction feeding transformers, and other impact duty such as chipper mill in
timber handling etc. and also heavy capacitive motor duty,
• Details of intended regular cyclic overloading other than covered by IEC 60076 – 1 (2000-04)
clause 4.2 (to enable the rating of the transformer auxiliary equipment to be established),
• Any other exceptional service conditions.
Unusual strong magnetic fields,
• If a transformer has alternative winding connections, how they should be changed, and
which connection is required ex works
• Short-circuit characteristics of the connected systems (expressed as short-circuit power or
current, or system impedance data) and possible limitations affecting the transformer design
(see IEC 60076-5),
Unusual short-circuit application condition and planned short circuits as part of regular
operation or relaying practice.
• Whether sound-level measurement is to be carried out (see IEC 60551),
The sound level can be given as sound pressure or as sound power, normally A-weighted,
see 11.11 page 153.
• Vacuum withstand of the transformer tank and, possibly, the conservator, if a specific value
is required.
It is recommended to specify both tank and conservator to sustain full vacuum for larger
units. This allows oil filling under vacuum at site.
• Any tests not referred to above which may be required.
This should be mentioned separately and may lead to additional cost and longer delivery
time.
Any information regarding the required corrosion resistance of the surface treatment in reference to
the geographic zone and pollution zone has to be stated.

5.3. PARALLEL OPERATIONS
If parallel operation with existing transformers is required, this shall be stated and the following
information on the existing transformers given:
• Rated power,
• Rated voltage ratio,
• Voltage ratios corresponding to tappings other than the principal tapping,
• Load loss at rated current on the principal tapping, corrected to the appropriate reference
temperature,
• Short-circuit impedance on the principal tapping and at least on the extreme tappings, if the
tapping range of the tapped winding exceeds ±5 %,
• Diagram of connections, or connection symbol, or both.
NOTE: On multi-winding transformers, supplementary information will generally be required.

6. TRANSFORMER DESIGN
This chapter gives a little more detailed description of the main parts of the transformer. The active
part where the transformation takes place consists of the core and the windings.
6.1. CORES
This section describes various types of cores. The core material is described in section 13.1 page 159.
Figure 6-1 shows a three-phase core with three limbs, which are magnetically connected with each
other at the upper and lower ends by yokes. The space available for the windings is called the
window. Normally the limbs are arranged in one plane and with vertical orientation.

In three-phase transformers all the windings for each phase are located on their own limb. The
three limbs are magnetically coupled together by the upper and lower yokes. In normal symmetric
operation the sum of the voltages and the sum of the currents are at any instant equal to zero. The
sum of the fluxes in the three limbs is also equal to zero. All the flux will remain in the core when
the three limbs are connected together at the upper and lower ends. The flux within the limb varies
sinusoidally, like the voltage. In the yoke the flux divides and has in a three-limb core its return path
in the two other limbs. See Figure 6-1.
In a three-phase three-limb core the yokes must be able to carry the same flux as in the limbs. In
practice the cross section of the yokes is the same as of the limbs or somewhat larger.
In three-phase five-limb cores the flux from the three main limbs with windings have additional
return paths through the two outer side limbs. This means that the main flux divides when it comes
to the yoke. See Figure 6-2. The yokes and the side limbs can then be dimensioned for one half of
the main flux. In other words, the cross section of the yokes and the side limbs is one half of the
cross section of the main limbs. In turn this gives the designer the possibility to reduce the total
height of the core and the transport height, while the limb height and the space of the window may
remain the same as in a three-limb core.
A five-limb core is more expensive than a three-limb core, so the latter is the preferred choice as
far as the transport profile permits.
From an operational point of view users should be aware that five-limb transformers have
extremely high zero sequence impedance (like shell-type transformers) unless a delta connected
winding is provided.
Another possibility to cope with transport profile or transport weight restrictions is to make three
single-phase transformers instead of one three-phase transformer. The core for single-phase
transformers can be made in two different ways, either with one mid-limb with windings and two
side-limbs for the return of the flux or with two limbs with windings. See Figure 6-3 and Figure 6-4.

The design in Figure 6-3 is in general more economical than that in Figure 6-4. However, in certain
cases, for example when two generators are feeding one transformer, the two limb design may be
preferred because it is quite convenient to let one generator feed the low voltage winding on one
limb and the other generator feed the winding on the other limb.
Another advantage with single-phase transformers is that a single-phase stand-by spare unit is
cheaper than a three-phase one.
Sometimes the power rating of the transformer is so high that although the power rating is shared
among three single-phase transformers the single-phase windings must be placed on two wound
limbs of the single-phase core. A core steel frame consisting of two unwound side limbs and the
yokes with a cross section of half the cross section of the wound limbs must be provided in order to
keep the transformer height within the permitted transport profile. Figure 6-5 shows an example on
such a core.
Figure 6-5

The shape of the thin (a few tenths of a millimetre) sheets has been designed to achieve low losses
and low magnetising current. The connection between limb and yoke is arranged as 45 degrees
mitred joints in order to achieve a large crossover section and low flux density where the magnetic
flux does not proceed in a preferred direction. The sheets are laid in packets of two or four sheets
where each packet has the joint displaced relative to the adjacent packet. Such an overlapping
gives a rigid mechanical structure of the core together with a reduction of the fringe effect for the
flux traversing the joint.
General stacking pattern for a three-phase three limb core with conventional or step-lap joints.
Figure 6-6
In recent years the step-lap joint has been most applied. By making a stepwise shift of the joints it
is possible to reduce the magnetisation losses still further in the joints between the limbs and the
yokes. The two jointing methods are illustrated in Figure 6-6.
Generally the core laminations are insulated from earth and deliberately earthed in one point only.
It is then possible to reveal any unintentional earthing, which may give rise to circulating currents if
more than one point of the core has connection to earth. In customer specifications there is often a
clause saying that the core shall be earthed in one point only and that the dielectric withstand shall
be 2 kV ac.
The high number of the thin core steel sheets in the limbs is kept together by means of glue for the
smaller transformers, for the larger transformers by means of steel straps around the limbs or an
epoxy-cured stocking. Besides rigid mechanical properties the fabric stocking is made slightly
conductive in order to reduce the electric field stress around the sharp corners on the lamination
packets in the limb. Holes through the laminations are then avoided, which would disturb the
magnetic flux distribution within the core and set up additional losses. Core clamps with curved tie
bolts keep the yoke laminations together.
For clamping and support of the windings in their axial direction the centre portion of the yokes are
made with plane surfaces in the core window. These plane surfaces are extended outside the core
laminations and supported by the core clamps. On large units with high leakage flux the outer
section of this plane may be covered by core steel laminations (electromagnetic winding supports).
In addition to being a structural member it provides a low reluctance return
path via the core for the leakage flux. In modern transformers the insulation
requirement has also been extended to the core clamps.
The stacked core described in this section is the dominant type of core
used in large transformers. Wound cores are used is an economical type
for single-phase distribution transformers. This type is shown in Figure 6-7.
Figure 6-7

6.2. WINDINGS
The shape of the winding conductor in power transformers is usually rectangular in order to utilise
the available space effectively. Even in smaller transformers for distribution purposes where the
necessary conductor cross section easily can be obtained by means of a small circular wire, this
wire is often flattened on two sides to increase the space factor in the core window.
With increasing conductor area the conductor must be divided into two or more parallel conductor
elements in order to reduce the eddy current losses in the winding and ease the winding work. The
rectangular shaped conductor element is called a strand. The word ‘conductor’ is then used in a
more abstract sense as a composite word for ‘winding current carrier’.
Each strand is insulated either by paper lapping or by an
enamel lacquer. Two separately insulated and electrically
parallel strands may sometimes have a common paper
covering. The two insulated strands in a common paper
covering is called a cable.
The word ‘cable’ is used here to denote the smallest visible
conductor element when viewing the winding externally. This
can be described as follows: one or several cables in parallel
may carry the winding current where the cables are separately
insulated. Each cable can in turn contain one or several
strands in parallel.
The paper lapping is built up of thin (a few tens of
micrometers) paper strips, a few centimetres wide, wound
around and along the strand as indicated in Figure 6-8. The
paper is lapped in several layers to obtain the necessary total
Conductor strand with insulation
thickness set by the electrical and mechanical stresses.
paper lapping
Figure 6-8
A special kind of winding conductor is the continuously
transposed cable. This cable is built up of two layers of
enamel lacquer insulated strands arranged axially upon
each other, as shown in Figure 6-9. By transposing the
outer strand of one layer to the next lazer with a regular
pitch and applzing common outer insulation a continuous
transposed cable is achieved.
When traversing the same flux for a whole transposition
cycle, all strand loops receive the same induced voltage,
and circulating currents between the strands are avoided.
Continuously transposed cable
Figure 6-9
A transposed cable may contain up to a hundred strands in parallel. With a transposition pitch of
10 cm, a full cycle is completed after some metres.
Transpositions of strands must also be made in windings with conventional conductors to avoid
circulating currents. These transpositions are then made during the work in the winding machine.
To make these transpositions is quite time consuming. The manufacturers of continuously
transposed cables make the transpositions in an automatic machine. If necessary for increased
mechanical strength the strands are covered with epoxy glue, which cures during processing the
winding. For lower voltages a netting around the transposed cable is used to keep the strands
together. For higher voltages insulation paper covers the cable.

In order to avoid high local dielectric stresses, the conductor surface is smooth and without scars.
The corners are rounded. The conductor material is often annealed when the paper lapping starts.
The material is mechanically soft. In order to withstand the short-circuit forces it is sometime
necessary to increase the strength of the material by means of cold working. One way to do the
cold working process is to expose the strand to a repetitive bending operation.
In large power transformers the mechanical forces during short circuit current have often more
influence on the winding dimensions than thermal aspects and loss considerations.
Winding types
Windings can be divided into four main types:
• Layer windings
• Helical windings
• Disc windings
• Foil windings
The number of turns and the current in the winding primarily
determine the choice of winding type.
Layer windings
The turns are arranged axially along the winding. The consecutive
turns are wound close to each other without any intermediate
space. The winding may be made as a single or multilayer winding.
Within ABB single and multilayer windings are used mainly for
small and medium size transformers. For large transformers this
winding type is used for regulating windings. Single layer or multi-
layer types are used.
Regulating winding in
layer type design
Figure 6-10

Sketch of a double threaded
helical winding
Figure 6-11
Helical windings
The helical winding can be seen as a variant of the multilayer winding but with spacers between
each turn or thread in the winding. The helical winding is suitable for high currents, where the
current is shared between several parallel strands. Then the dimensions of each strand can be
kept reasonably small in order to keep the eddy current losses low.
All cables (one or several strands in common paper covering) in a disc belong to the same
electrical turn, and they are all connected in parallel. The winding can be made as single threaded
or multi threaded with two or more discs electrically in parallel.
The parallel connected winding conductors and strands are situated in a magnetic field that varies
from point to point inside the volume occupied by the winding. To avoid circulating currents
between the strands the position of each strand along the winding is changed in such a way along
the winding that each strand encloses the same amount of magnetic field. The induced voltage in
each loop formed by each strand will then be the same.
Without this precaution (called transposition of conductors and strands) the current distribution
among the strands would be very uneven. Some strands would carry high currents while other
strands would carry low currents. This would create unnecessary high temperature spots and
increased losses.
The helical winding is the preferred concept when the number of turns and the total amount of
current permit. The quantity of conducting material that can be fitted inside a given volume is high
compared to other types of winding. It is said that helical windings have a high space factor, which
is beneficial for an overall total mass – total loss relation. Moreover it is mechanically robust and
easy to manufacture, particularly when continuously transposed cable is used.
Disc windings

Disc windings
The disc-winding concept is used for windings with a large number of turns and relatively small
currents. The disc winding is built up of a number of discs connected in series. In each disc the
turns are wound in radial direction like a spiral in inwards and outwards direction in adjacent discs.
Generally disc winding will be preferred instead of helical winding when the number of turns is high.
In a helical winding the height of strands will decrease by increasing number of turns. Heights
below a few millimetres are not feasible. In addition the relation between the quantity of conductor
and insulation becomes uneconomically low. Low strand height has also a negative impact on the
mechanical strength of the winding.
The major difference between a helical and a disc winding is the number of turns per disc. In helical
windings there are never more than one turn per disc while disc windings have more than one turn
per disc. Disc windings offer freedom to choose the number of discs and the number of turns per
disc as long as the product of the two equals the desired total number of turns.
The mechanical properties of disc windings are similar to the helical winding.
The capacitance between segments of
conventional disc windings is fairly low in
comparison with the capacitance between
segments and earth. For fast transient voltages
coming from the connected power system
hitting the transformer this results in a
pronounced non-linear voltage distribution
within the winding and high local dielectric
stresses, particularly in the beginning of the
winding.
One way to alleviate this phenomenon is to
interleave the turns of adjacent discs. After
having passed half of the number of turns in a
disc the conductor goesto the next disc and
then returns to the previous disc for the
remaining turns. Such an arrangement
increases the capacitance along the winding
Sketch of a disc winding (the series capacitance), which in turn gives a
more linear voltage distribution along the
winding during transient voltage conditions.
A major application for the disc winding is in
windings for the highest voltages. These are
windings where the dielectric stresses need
special care. One particular item for high
voltage disc windings is the location of the
winding terminal.
Higher voltage systems are in most cases
operated with directly earthed neutral point,
which means that the system neutral is
effectively tied to earth potential. With the
three-phase winding connected in star (the
most common connection for higher voltages)
the line end is on a high potential and the
neutral end close to earth potential. The
winding insulation towards earth can then be
built according to the actual voltage to earth
in each section of the winding. The term ‘non-
uniform insulation’ in the IEC standard means
full insulation level at the line end and
reduced insulation level in the neutral.
Conventional and interleaved

disc winding
Figure 6-12

In transformers with non-uniform insulation an economic design solution
is to place the line entry at the mid of the winding height as shown in
Figure 6-13. The winding has two halves with opposite winding
direction, and the two halves are connected in parallel. The potential at
the top and the bottom of the winding is in service close to earth
potential, which means that the distances between the winding and the
yokes can be smaller and the insulation system towards an adjacent
winding simpler than if both ends had full insulation level.
A special kind of disc winding is the double-disc winding. This winding
type is used for the highest currents, in the magnitude of 100 kA like
in furnace transformers and rectifier transformers for industrial
applications. The voltage is low, seldom much above 1 kV, often lower.
The winding has a number of parallel-connected groups, each group
consisting of two discs connected in series. The groups are situated
above each other on the limb, and they are parallel connected by
means of thick bus bars oriented vertically along the winding. Because
of the bus bars a double-disc winding is always the utmost winding on
the limb.
Disk winding with

center entry
Figure 6-13
Foil windings
Foil windings are made of wide copper or aluminium sheet, from some tenths of a millimetre up a
few millimetres thick. The main technical advantage is that axial mechanical forces acting on the
windings in the transformer during short circuit currents become insignificant because induced
eddy currents in the foil weaken the radial component of the magnetic leakage field at the top and
the bottom of the winding. A drawback is that these eddy currents cause additional losses in areas
close to the edges of the foil. Foil windings have the other advantage that the manufacturing time is
short.
Foil windings are widely applied in low voltage windings of distribution transformers. They are also
used in larger transformers and not at least in transformers that in normal service are frequently
exposed to high overcurrents of short duration.
Regulating windings
Tappings for turn ratio regulation of the voltage may be provided in windings when the winding
current is not too high and the regulation range is not too wide. However, if tappings are made in a
disc winding, a section of the winding will be with no ampere-turns. This will disturb the ampere-
turn balance with other windings in the transformer. A radial component of the magnetic flux will
arise, which in turn creates enhanced axial short circuit forces. The transformer can be designed to
withstand such forces provided the radial component of the magnetic field is not too large.
For larger regulating ranges the regulating turns are arranged in a separate winding shell. The
height of this regulating winding is approximately the same as of the other windings. The winding
type is layer or helical. The turns of each regulating step are distributed along the whole or nearly
the whole winding height. The turns of each regulating step are connected in series by means of
cable connections outside the winding. Cables provide connections between each regulating step
and the tap changer.
The most economical design solution is to locate the regulating winding (electrically) at the neutral
point of a star connected winding where the potential difference between the three phases is small.
This gives the simplest and cheapest tap changer.

The three basic ways to arrange
voltage regulation; linear, plus-minus
and coarse-fine
Figure 6-14
Tap changers for operation during load (OLTC) as well as the cheaper type only operable in de-
energised condition are available. The latter type is called off-circuit tap changer (OCTC), to
emphasize that it cannot be operated when the transformer is energised. Just no current through
the tap changer contacts is an insufficient condition to allow operation of an OCTC.
The tap changer and the regulating winding arrangement can be made in three different ways,
either as linear, plus-minus or coarse-fine regulation. For small regulating ranges (say 10 % of
nominal value) it is common to use linear regulation. This means that the voltage across the
regulating winding is added to the voltage across the main winding; see the left sketch in Figure
6-14.
For larger regulating ranges a plus-minus regulation may be more suitable, see middle sketch. In a
plus-minus regulation the tapped winding is connected to the main winding via a separate plus
minus switch. This switch permits the voltage across the tapped winding to be added to or
subtracted from the voltage across the main winding.
A third arrangement is coarse-fine regulation where the regulation function is spilt into two
windings, one for the coarse step and one for the fine steps.
The choice of tapping arrangement affects among others:
• The number of leads to the tap changer;
• The loss pattern over the tapping range;
• The relative number of turns in the main and the regulating winding.

Main insulation
The windings are arranged as concentric shells around the core limb. They have the same
approximate height and an even turn distribution along the height. Equal heights and even turn
distributions are beneficial in respect of low additional losses and low short circuit stresses.
The insulation between the windings and winding to core is built as a barrier system. The insulation
distance between two components of different potential (two windings or winding to core or earth)
is divided into a number of segments by pressboard sheets perpendicular to the field stress. This
means that the pressboard sheets should ideally be shaped along equipotent surfaces.
Vertically oriented pressboard sticks govern the distance between two adjacent barriers and thus
also the windings, see Figure 6-18 and Figure 6-19.
A helical winding closest to the core Barrier arrangement between

followed by a disc winding and a layer windings.
winding for voltage regulation.
Figure 6-15

Windings with a high potential at their ends have the barrier system extended to cover the distance to
yoke. Angle shaped pressboard elements are positioned alternately on the inside and the outside of
the winding barrier system. The design provides necessary openings for the oil to enter and leave the
winding, see Figure 6-16.
High voltage windings are enclosed by angle shaped

barriers towards the yokes and shield rings at the
winding ends for dielectric control
Figure 6-16
Figure 6-16 also shows the arrangement with shield rings. A shield ring with its large edge radii and
insulation improve the stress pattern at the winding ends. In addition the shield ring increases the
series capacitance of disc windings, which in turn reduces the non-linearity of the voltage
distribution along the winding during transient voltage conditions and lower dielectric stresses
within the winding is achieved.
The shield ring has a core of hard pressboard. A metal foil is wound around this core, but the foil
does not form a closed turn. The foil is connected to a winding conductor close to the winding end.
Outside the foil is a paper covering.

Cooling of windings
The windings are large heat producers, which need cooling. Oil has a high value of heat capacity:
1,8 kWs/kgK (while steel and copper has 0,4 – 0,5). Its transport capacity for dissipated heat is
therefore great, but there is still a need for considerable rates of oil flow through the cooling ducts
in the windings.
A simple example: Suppose that 180 kW of winding losses shall be removed. The temperature
difference between inlet and outlet oil may be 20 degrees. Then the necessary flow of oil is 5 kg
per second (5 x 20 x 1,8 = 180). The example would be typical for a 30 – 50 MVA transformer. A
large system transformer would need, say, ten times as high oil flow, that is 3 cubic meters per
minute.
Figure 6-17
In most transformers the oil circulation through the windings is drawn automatically from the free
volume in the tank by thermosiphon effect. The flow will adjust itself to an equilibrium between the
thermosiphon driving head and the flow resistance in the duct. Another important physical property
of the oil then appears, namely its viscosity characteristic under varying temperature.
Figure 6-17 shows a transformer with natural oil circulation. Curve 1 in the diagram to the right is
the temperature profile in winding and tank. Curve 2 is the temperature profile in the radiators. The
shaded area between the two curves indicates available driving head.
In hot climate this is of little concern, but in an artic climate there may be real problems with “cold
start”, that is, when a transformer has been disconnected for some time and has to be started up
from a very low temperature. It may be so bad that pump motors stall. Or in a self-cooled unit the
circulation between tank and radiators does not start although the temperature in the tank has gone
up.
In cold climate, therefore, an oil with a lower viscosity index is usually specified. The requirements
regarding viscosity are expressed in terms of a highest allowable viscosity at a specified low
temperature and a highest allowable “pour point” temperature, that is, the temperature where the
oil just barely flows at all.
In some countries it is tradition to design very large transformers with “forced, guided” oil flow, that
is, the oil is pumped in a closed system of ducts right into the windings. The pump forces a defined
and constant flow, and it is secured even with considerable flow resistance in the cooling ducts. In
other countries this practice is denounced because any loss of auxiliary power would necessitate
tripping of the transformer with very short notice.

Short circuit withstand
This section describes the force pattern on and within a winding during an external short circuit. In
accordance with the division of the forces into radial and axial components, withstand criteria can
be established for the two directions.
The electromagnetic forces are proportional to the square of the instantaneous value of the current.
With an alternating current the corresponding forces are repetitive and varying. As the current also
includes a damped and decaying dc-component, the first current peak will invoke the highest
electromagnetic force. In general withstand criteria are based on this first peak value of forces and
currents. Under some circumstances a more complete analysis is necessary where the dynamic
behaviour of the winding is considered.
In a well-balanced transformer both the inner and outer windings are subject to compressive axial
forces. The radial forces tend to compress an inner winding (reduce its diameter) and expand an
outer winding (increase its diameter). The forces act in such a way that they tend to increase the
volume of the leakage flux space between the windings.
Permissible axial forces are limited by the mechanical strength of the winding end supports and the
spacers between discs. For helical and disc windings there is an increasing probability for the
conductors to tilt when increasing the axial forces.
Small conductor dimensions in radial direction and
large height in axial direction increases the risk for
tilting. On the other hand a small dimension in
radial direction is preferred in order to reduce the
winding eddy current losses. The designer has to
find a conductor dimension which gives satisfactory
mechanical strength without sacrificing the
requirement for low losses.
Tilting of conductors under axial stress
Figure 6-18
The maximum permissible radial force on an inner winding is set by the buckling strength. The
failure mode can be described as a radial slide of one or several sections of the winding shell. The
winding buckles. Due to the cylindrical shape of the winding the radial force cause a tangential
stress in the conductor material.
In order to visualise a buckling failure mode a disc section of the
winding (helical or disc winding) can be represented by a number
of parallel beams between two spacers. The beams are secured
from twisting by the spacers, the angle between the spacer and
the beam remains unchanged, but the spacer together with the
beam ends are free to move axially.
With this model it can be seen that the buckling withstand
increases with increasing conductor width. However, in addition
other factors or important, such as the free length of the beam,
that is the distance between two spacers, and the modulus of
elasticity of the conductor.
The buckling withstand is often a dimensioning factor of an inner
winding and consequently of the whole transformer.
ABB’s design and manufacturing practice is based upon the
experience from short circuit testing of about one hundred power
transformers. The service record of ABB transformers is excellent
Typical example on buckling regarding their ability to withstand short circuit currents.
of an inner winding
Figure 6-19

6.3. TANK
The tank is primarily the container for the oil and a physical protection for the active part. It also
serves as support structure for accessories and control equipment.
Tank with stiffeners of box-beam design, showing

jacking pad, lifting hooks and rail for transport
bracket.
Figure 6-20
Before filling the oil the tank with the active part inside it is evacuated in order to remove all air that
would endanger the dielectric strength of the transformer insulation. Consequently the tank is
designed to withstand the pressure from the atmosphere with a minimum of deformations. The
tightness at outside and inside overpressure is verified through suitable tests.
The cover may be bolted or welded to the tank frame. Some users prefer a bell type tank where the
tank is welded or bolted to the tank bottom.
To keep the tank dimensions within the specified transport profile and, at the same time, enclose
the active part in the tank in with necessary insulation clearances and still obtain a reasonably
simple design often makes the designer’s task a considerable challenge when designing large
transformers.
Another phenomenon to take into account when designing tanks is that a coincidence of sound
frequencies generated by the transformer core and the resonance frequencies of parts of the tank
may enhance the sound radiated to the environment.

Conservator with a diaphragm
between the oil and the air
Figure 6-21
The tank is designed to permit the temperature dependent expansion of the oil. Most often a
separate expansion vessel is installed, also called conservator. Since the conservator is vented to
the air the oil pressure in the transformer remains fairly constant and independent of the
temperature. The free access of the surrounding air is limited. Good dielectric properties of the oil
require that the oil is clean and has low moisture content. Moisture in the oil will also accelerate the
ageing of the cellulose insulation. Air entering the conservator is therefore filtered and
dehumidified. In addition a diaphragm in form of a rubber sack that separates the oil in the
conservator from the air is recommended on power transformers. See Figure 6-21.
With increasing transformer power rating the effects of large currents in and out of the transformer
influence the design. The same goes for the leakage flux inside the tank. Inserts of non-magnetic
material around high current bushings reduce the risk of excessive heating. Tank lining with high
conductive shields expels the flux from entering the tank wall. Alternatively low reluctance material
takes care of the flux before it enters into the tank wall.
6.4. EARTH QUAKE WITHSTAND ABILITY

Transformers to be installed in seismic active areas should be subject to a seismic interaction
analysis.
The magnitude of the seismic load to be expected and the transformer shall withstand should be
determined. A design earthquake may be set.
In certain areas there are local requirements to such analysis.
The seismic forces and the effects on the transformer, its components and the support should be
evaluated. These forces interact with the other forces on the transformer, e.g. static and load
forces.
In analysing the seismic behaviour, the natural frequencies, the accelerations, the forces, the
displacements and the motions are determined.
A finite element method may be performed in determining the stresses in selected points on the
transformer. In this analysis an approximation of the physical properties and geometry is
generated. A superposition technique is used to obtain the resultant displacements, forces and
accelerations for the assembly under the dynamic loading of a design earthquake.
Special consideration should be given to core and winding support, and to attached equipment as
bushings, conservator, cooling equipment and accessories. Also the support and the support
structure and external connections should be considered.
Some customers and local regulations require the seismic interaction analysis to be approved by
an independent authority.
The customer should specify the earthquake requirements in the transformer inquiry/contract.

7. TRANSFORMER COMPONENTS
7.1. TERMINALS
In dry-type transformers the terminals may just be ended on a terminal board in form of studs or
blade connectors. The terminals may be situated inside an enclosure. In oil or liquid insulated type
transformer means of bringing the electrical connection from the inside to the outside the tank has
to be provided
7.1.1. Bushings
Terminals device in form of bushing brings the connection from the transformer insulation medium
to the external insulation medium, which in most cases are air, but can also be oil in a cable
termination box or SF6 in a gas insulated switchgear. In transformer designs with gas cushion the
lower part of the bushing has to be extended to reach down into the transformer insulation medium.
The bushings provide the necessary insulation between the windings electrical connection and the
main tank, which is at earth potential. They provide also necessary insulation in the external
medium. They need to fulfil necessary current capacity. This makes a wide range of requirements
and accordingly a wide range of solutions.
The airside of an oil-to-air bushing may be done in a simpler way if only for indoor use.
7.1.1.1. Low voltage bushings
A simple low voltage oil-to-air bushing may be a rod of conducting material
inserted into a porcelain tube. This has a central current-carrying bolt, usually
of copper, and the insulation is provided by a combination of the porcelain
shell and the transformer oil. Under oil the porcelain surface creep strength is
very much greater than in air, so the oil portion of the bushing is short and has
a more or less plain porcelain surface. The air portion is longer and has shed
profile in order to provide a very much longer creep path, a portion of which is
protected so that it remains dry in rainy or foggy conditions. There are gaskets
sealing between rod and porcelain and between porcelain and tank wall to
prevent oil leaks.
The normal limit for these simple porcelain bushings is up to 45 kV system
voltage and current up in range of 10 kA.
Special low voltage bushings are available where extra efforts are put into the
design to get very low partial discharge levels.

7.1.1.2. Condenser bushings
For bushings with higher rated voltage, that is in the
region of from 25 kV to 52 kV or higher, dependent
upon the design and the customer requirement it is
necessary to introduce active control of voltage
distribution between the central high voltage lead and
the external metal mounting flange at ground potential.
Such control is achieved by a capacitive voltage
distribution. In a simple form the central rod or tube is
wound up with paper in a number of layers and
concentrically arranged conductive foils separate each
layer. This arrangement is often called a condenser
body bushing.
Such designs had already been developed before 1910
but were not fully utilized until 40 to 50 years later. For
a long time laminates of phenolic paper were almost
universally used. This material is also named Bakelite
The Bakelite bodies were mechanically strong but
never completely free from shrinkage cracks in which
corona developed in service. The bushings were
relatively immune to this inner corona but it could in
many cases no longer be tolerated when indication of
partial discharges began to be used as a diagnostic
tool for transformers in course of the 1960s and 1970s.
The bushing technology then changed over to bodies
of paper impregnated with transformer oil. This entailed
a complication in that the bushings were not oil tight in
the body itself. They had to be provided with a sealing
porcelain shroud below the mounting flange on the oil
side.
In the design of conventional condenser bushing the
condenser body is wound on a central tube, which may
be current conducting. If possible the body is coiled up
from full width paper, otherwise narrow strips will be
wound in overlap from end to end. At regular intervals equalisation plates are constructed using
either aluminium foil inserts or conductive ink fused to the fibres of the paper to create concentric
cylinders. The lengths of these equalisation plates are stepped. The capacitance between
consecutive layers is equalized, as layers with higher diameter are of shorter length. The outside of
the body has a finalizing conductive layer, which is connected to the mounting flange through a
jumper. This connection may be opened so that a capacitor or some other element may be inserted
between the outer foil and the ground for the purpose of measurement or protection. The body is
positioned in the earthed flange and inside a weatherproof insulator that can be in two parts, an
upper part made of porcelain or silicone polymer with sheds and a lower part, normally under oil,
made of porcelain or epoxy resin. In case the airside and oil side porcelains are compressed axially
with sealing gaskets towards the mounting flange and towards the bottom and top armatures. The
assembling pressure is sustained by springs allowing expansion and contraction of different
components during temperature changes. The inside of the bushing, the volume between the
central conductor and the outer casing is filled with transformer oil, separated from the transformer,
and the condenser body is fully impregnated. The bushing head, or dome provides oil expansion
space and may be fitted with a sight glass to give indication of the bushing oil level. The head
allows space for an air or gas cushion to allow for expansion and contraction of the oil. This
expansion space must be adequately sealed against the ingress of atmospheric air and hence
moisture. Bushings with oil impregnated condenser body are primarily designed for installation at,
or near, the vertical position. But with special precautions in the design they may be invented for
even horizontal installation.
Different solutions are used to create the electrical path for the current through the bushing
depending on the bushing design and the rated current needed.
The central conductor may be a copper bolt with connection terminals stud in both ends.
For higher current ratings the central conductor is a thick wall tube due to the skin effect.

The central tube in the bushing can be a thin wall metal tube not dimensioned for current carrying.
The current go through a draw lead connection consisting of a multi stranded flexible conductor
joined to the terminal of the winding. This lead is drawn up through the central tube of the bushing.
It is cut to the correct length and provided with a top connector that is fastened to the top of the
bushing. When the transformer is shipped with bushings removed the draw lead is lowered down
into the tank. An advantage is that no access to the lower end of the bushing is needed when
mounting and dismounting the bushing.
If full current capacity of such bushing has to be utilized a solid rod solution is invented. This is a
solid rod of copper, which mostly fills the available space in the central tube. The lower part of the
rod is connected to the extended winding terminal and the upper part has a termination fitting to the
top of the bushing. When mounting the bushing it is lowered over this rod. When bushing is
dismounted for transportation the rod has a split facility at level of the bushing flange or tank cover.
For bushings with central tube dimensioned for current carrying ABB has developed the draw rod
system used when the winding terminal is provided with a static shielding body that shall surround
the bottom end of the bushing. This shield is permanently installed on the active part of the
transformer and it contains a slightly movable contact stud that is permanently connected to the
winding terminal. This contact stud carries a relatively light draw rod of steel extending nearly to the
level of the cover. When the bushing is fitted, the bottom part of the draw rod is joined to an
additional longer part that extends through the bushing. The bushing is guided along the complete
rod down into the shield body and the contact stud is permanently pressed hard against the bottom
end of the bushing when the draw rod is tensioned and fixed at the upper end of the bushing. The
system includes springs to provide the contact pressure and device to compensate for temperature
elongations.
The external connection to the bushing top is usually a straight cylindrical stud but customer’s local
standards may require other variants. The customer supplies special hardware armatures, which
are suited to their bus bar. At high system voltages the bus bar conductor will be multiple wires or
sometime horizontal aluminium tubes. Certain flexibility must be provided in the latter case in order
to permit temperature variations and to relieve the bushing from short circuit power acting on the
bars. The bushing shall, in principal, be completely unstressed and must not be used as support
insulator to stretch up horizontal wires.
In HV condenser bushings provision can be made for accommodation of a number of toroid wound
current transformers by incorporating an earth band at the oil-immersed end just below the
mounting flange.
The airside of oil to air outdoors bushing is exposed to climatic influences, rain and possibly
pollution with salt and dust. This is subject to specific standards requirements and type tests. The
external withstand capability of the bushing is provided with the aid of sheds on the porcelain which
are intended to keep protected parts of the insulation surface dry and clean. The standards
mention total creeps distance, protected creep distance and the straight-line distance between top
and bottom and it is to some extend up to customer to specify requirements.
Plant for high voltage DC is designed with elevated requirements on external insulation. The DC
voltage will, under certain circumstances, provide an electrostatic precipitator effect resulting in
much heavier pollution than will be found in plant at a comparable AC voltage.
The special demands on HVDC bushings has also lead to the introduction of bushings with
reduced oil volume and the main insulation made by a combination of SF6 gas, static shields and
traditional technology.
The bushing manufacturer conducts routine tests as per industry standards before delivery.
Routine tests can include seal integrity, capacitance, tan δ or power factor, power frequency and
partial discharge. Limits are set by the standards based on type and rating. Type tests are required
when new designs are introduced and require a series of additional tests.
A test of the external insulation of bushings is conducted under artificial rain in the laboratory with
AC voltage applied for one minute, and possibly with switching impulse. Impulse tests with
standard wave (1/50 µsec) are made on the bushing in dry conditions. It is assumed that water
droplets do not influence the withstand voltage values at standard impulse.
High voltage condenser bushings are available where the condenser body is made of epoxy resin
vacuum impregnated paper. These bushings were originally developed for use with SF6 but are
now widely used for oil to air interfaces. These bushings for high voltage implementation are
available with porcelain oil filled upper casing, but the under oil end is totally resin encapsulated.
Outer housing of porcelain for outdoor bushings is still dominant due to these material excellent
properties of weathering and abrasion resistance.

For medium voltages up to 145 kV total oil free design is invented. The condenser body is made of
epoxy resin vacuum impregnated paper. The airside outer protective housing is made of silicone
polymer moulded directly onto the condenser or it can be a hollow composite insulator, filament
wound tube plus silicone, mounted outside and the gap between filled with a solid dielectric
medium. The outer protection of silicone is formed with sheds. The bushing is lightweight. It can be
installed in any position. For transformers exposed to earthquake or vandalism by stone throwing
this may be a safer solution than porcelain.
7.1.1.3. High current bushings
Bushings for very high currents, in the range up to 30 kA, have a very
large massive central conductor. Its purpose is to conduct heat. The
current flows near the surface and penetrates only about 1 –2 cm. The
heat that is developed even at the contact surface of the airside is
largely carried downward, and carried away by the top oil in the
transformer.
Because of the skin effect it is advantageous to arrange at least the
airside terminals on the sides of a rectangle or polygon. This collect
the current from the circumference were it float and the bushing can
easily be connected to a tube formed bus by sets of flexibles.
High current outlet of large transformers is often arranged as bus duct,
which may give extra high temperature environment and special
designed high temperature bushings have to be used.
High current terminals with low voltage on transformers for furnaces
and electrolysis are not made as proper bushings but in the form of flat
bar palms or cylindrical studs mounted in panels of plastic laminate.
7.1.2. Cable connections

The general design of this type of connection is that the cable is terminated in oil filled
compartment according to cable manufacturer’s recommendation. From there it is connected
through a separable link onto an oil-to-oil bushing through the tank wall. The separating link is
provided to permit disconnection of the cable from the transformer for insulation tests on the cable.
It is further avoided that the inner parts of the transformer will be exposed during the time when the
cable is installed, only the separate container or box involved.
Modern plastic cables for lower system voltage are usually not boxed in this manner; they are
terminated in open air.
There is also a different technology with dry plug-in bushings up to
145 kV level. A conical plug is mounted on the transformer wall,
and a corresponding female part is mounted on the end of the
cable. When the parts are joined this provide an airtight and
moisture tight bond. The components are safe to touch while live.
For lower voltage level it is possible to disconnect an unloaded
transformer by just pulling the plugs out with an insulating rod.
The insulating rod is to protect against arcing should an attempt
be made to disconnect a loaded cable.
The oil to oil bushing may be omitted and the lead from the
winding terminal is brought directly to the cable termination
through a sufficient opening in the tank wall between the tank and
cable box.

7.1.3. SF6 connections
Terminal of transformer that are directly flanged towards SF6 bus ducts have particular bushings.
Insulation distances in the compressed gas atmosphere are about the same as in oil and both ends
of the bushing look about the same.
Bushings for such application are today available with condenser body made of epoxy resin
vacuum impregnated paper fixed in a flange. The compressed gas has an overpressure of the
order of 3 atmospheres. There are multiple sealing systems between the main insulating body and
the bushing-fixing flange as well as between the body and the current conductor. Within the flange
between the gas side and the oil side seals, there is an annular chamber in which the gas will be
trapped in case of an SF6 leakage, and from which the gas can be let out without entering the
transformer. Such leakage of SF6 gas will also be detected.
Oil to SF6 bushings are also available with condenser body of oil-impregnated paper housed inside
upper and lower porcelain with a metal flange between. These bushings have an oil volume
separated from the transformer oil and with sealing systems towards the oil system of the
transformer on one side and towards the bus bar gas enclosure on the other side. The closed oil
volume of the bushing is pressure monitored so that a possible leakage from the gas system will be
indicated.
7.2. COOLERS
The cooling equipment collects hot oil at the top of the tank and returns cooled oil lower down on
the side. The cooling arrangement can be seen as two oil circuits with an indirect interaction, one
inner and one outer circuit. The inner circuit transfers the loss energy from the heat producing
surfaces to the oil. In the outer circuit the oil transfer the heat to a secondary cooling medium. The
ambient air normally cools transformers.
It is possible to build air coolers with forced air circulation more compactly than cooler with natural
draught. However, such a cooler also has fairly high impedance to the oil circulation in the internal
circuit, which necessitates that the oil be pumped through the cooler. For built in transformers, e.g.,
deep underground power caverns or in some industrial application oil to water heat exchangers are
used; as in such cases, sufficient air for cooling may not be available. The system also permits
small physical dimensions. The disadvantage of the compact design is that auxiliary power must
always be available.
Present standards give clear definitions of the different types of cooling together with special
designations. The examples below are taken from IEC:
ONAN – Oil natural – air natural
ONAF – Oil natural – air forced
OFAN – Oil forced – air natural
OFAF – Oil forced – air forced
OFWF – Oil forced – water forced
On the oil side the oil can be directed to the heat producing surfaces by the oil pumps:
OD – Oil directed
A given transformer can have a combination of cooling types to permit a change in the type of
cooling e.g. ONAN/ONAF etc.
Pumps as well as fans sometimes suffer breakdowns. It must be possible to exchange such
components without emptying the transformer or even taking it out of service. All cooling circuits
should therefore be provided with necessary valves for shutting off each separate oil circuit.
The letter O is used for mineral oil and insulating liquid with fire point ≤ 300 °C.
The letter K is used for insulating liquid with fire point > 300 °C.
The letter L is used for insulating liquid with no measurable fire point.
7.2.1. Radiators
Radiators are available in various patters. They almost consist basically of number of flat passages
of edge-welded plates connecting a top and bottom header. It is possible to make the radiators
slightly higher than the tank so that the top header has a swan-necked shape, this has the added
benefit that it also improves the oil circulation by increasing the thermal head developed in the
radiator. The radiators have a venting plug in the top header and a draining plug in the bottom
header. Radiators are almost flanged direct to the transformer tank or to the headers in
freestanding cooler banks through a butterfly valve permitting individual radiators to be shut off and
even easily removed.

A separate, self-supporting rack, forming a freestanding cooler bank entails the cost for a separate
mounting pad and fitting of the pipe work. One advantage is that the conservator may be placed on
the bank. This simplifies the orientation of bushings with regard to clearances.
Because of their construction it is difficult to prepare the surface adequately and to apply paint
protection to radiators under site condition. It is therefore recommended to have sheet-steel
radiators hot dip galvanized.
7.2.2. Corrugated tanks

The corrugated tank is both tank and cooling surface for small and medium
distribution transformers. The tank consists of cover, corrugated tank walls
and bottom box.
The standard tank design is hermetically sealed type where the corrugated
walls are of such a flexible construction that they expand and contract
depending on the changes in the oil volume, due to temperature variations
during operation. Number and depth of corrugations on each side of the
tank can be optimised to meet the cooling and dynamic pressure variation
requirements.
Standardised type test for hermetically sealed corrugated tank simulating
the pressure variations throughout the expected service life of the transformer has been
successfully performed.
Hermetically sealed transformers compared with a conservator type have several advantages. One
is that the oil is not in contact with the atmosphere thus avoiding absorption of moisture from the
environment another one is that it is easier to maintain (clean).
7.2.3. Fans
For larger units it is possible to suspend fans below or on the side of radiators to provide a forced
draught, and achieve ONAF cooling arrangement. This might enable the transformer loading
capacity to be increased by some 25%. The radiators have to be grouped in such a way to obtain
coverage by the fans.
The cooling fans will generate a low frequency noise, which will be added to the noise from the
transformer itself. The intensity depends on fan size, rotation speed and the design of the fan
blade. Fans are available in a rich several of designs. In basic it is a standard squirrel cage motor
totally enclosed with a propeller mounted direct to the shaft and in a casing provided with
necessary wire guards.
Fan is also a part of a forced air heat exchanger
7.2.4. Forced oil, forced air heat exchangers

For large transformers it became very space consuming to remove the heat with natural circulation
through radiators. The space requirement of compact coolers is drastically lower than for simple
radiator batteries. For space reasons it may be economical to use compact coolers with
appreciable flow resistance, which requires forced circulation of the oil by pumps, and strong fans
for air blowing.
Such OFAF heat exchangers usually consist of round tubes with thin swaged cooling fins or
elements of flat corrugated tubes. Some designs are very compact with narrow ducts on the airside
and high fan pressure.
When using several coolers for OFAF cooled transformers it is preferred to arrange two or more
individual coolers in series instead of parallel in order to reach a higher temperature drop. On large
transformer the cooling equipment is separated into several groups or circuits, and these can be
activated or deactivated as required, controlled by thermostats or may in some more advanced
way.
The mounting of coolers for forced cooling with pumps and fans have several options for the
orientation and grouping on the tank, depending on local conditions. In certain cases separate
racks are also an option.

7.2.5. Oil-water coolers
Water-cooling may be an attractive alternative when transformers are installed in a cave station, or
in harsh industrial environments as steel works etc. But the choice has to be evaluated against to
pump the cooling oil out in the air environment to an air cooler. An obvious risk with water-cooling
in a temperate climate is freezing. In hotter climates it may more critical to have cooling water in
sufficient quantities.
Water coolers are compact. They are almost conventional cylindrical tubular heat exchangers, with
removable tubes. Such heat exchangers are very common and represent classical technology, and
are supplied for quite many different purposes in technology. More recent designs, for instance
membrane type flat heat exchangers, have hardly been used.
A central problem is the properties of the cooling water with regard to corrosion of the materials in
water tubes. Leakage of water into the oil system is fatal to a transformer and such systems must
be monitored with meticulous care. The installation should be arranged so that the pressure on oil
side is higher than the pressure on water side, but this may not always be possible to safeguard.
Corrosion can be a problem. Cooling water analysis is recommended in order to select the most
suitable materials in the cooler. Sophisticated materials, such as titanium tube coolers, may be
used.
Deposition has to be avoided by ensuring that an adequate rate of water flow is maintained, but
allowing this to become excessive will lead to tube erosion.
Double-tube cooler may be applied. With such an arrangement the oil and water circuits are
separated by an interspaced so that any fluid leakage will be collected in this space and will raise
an alarm.
7.2.6. Oil pumps

Circulation pumps for oil cooling equipment are special compact, totally sealed models. The motor
is immersed in the transformer oil, and there are no stuffing boxes.
The sound level of these pumps is low, compared to the transformer sound level.

7.3. VOLTAGE REGULATION EQUIPMENT
The majority of all transformers incorporate some means of adjusting their voltage ratio, by adding
or removing tapping turns.
This adjustment may be made by an on-load tap-changer, or by means of an off-circuit tap-
changer, or by the selection of bolted link positions with the transformer disconnected and
grounded.
The degree of sophistication of the system of tap selection depends on the frequency with which it
is required to change taps and the size and importance of the transformer.
7.3.1. Off Circuit tap changers

The off-circuit tap-changer is of rather simple design, giving connection to a selected tap in the
winding. As the name says it is designed only to be operated only when the transformer is de-
energised.
The contact pressure may occur to be retained by some kind of spring arrangement and then some
vibration is possible. In off-circuit tap-changers operating on the same tap position for years the
contact resistance then may slowly increase due to local degradation and oxidation of material in
the contact point. Heating will take place resulting in a build up of pyrolytic formed carbon, which
will increase the contact resistance further, and also reduce the cooling. Ultimately a runaway
situation is reached and the transformer will probably trip on gas actuated protection or worse; a
step short circuit occurs. To avoid this it is vital that the tap changer is operated, off circuit, through
its complete range a few times during regular routine maintenance to wipe the contact surfaces
clean before returning it back to the selected tapping.
Of course the same advice is valid if an on-load tap-changer is left in service but without operation
for a long period.

7.3.2. On load tap changers
The on-load tap-changer has to provide uninterrupted current flow during the transition operation
from one tap to the other. The current flow must be maintained uninterrupted without partial short-
circuiting of the tapped winding.
As early as between 1905 and 1910 arrangements were introduced for changeover between
tappings of the transformer without interruption of supply.

The operation of an on-load tap-changer can be understood by two identifiable functions. It implies
a switching device that transfers the throughput power from one tap of the transformer to an
adjacent one. During this operation the two taps will be connected through fitted transition
impedance. In this phase the two taps will share the load current. Thereafter the connection to the
former tap will be interrupted and the load has been transferred to the new tap. The device that
performs this switching is called diverter switch.
The connections to the two taps that involve the diverter switch are maybe transferred one position
along the series of physical taps of the regulating winding for each operation. This is the tap
selector function. The tap selection is conducted without any current rupture.
A rather important improvement of tap-changers resulted from the invention of the fast acting flip-
flop diverter switch, named the Jantzen principle after the inventor. The Jantzen principle imply that
the switch contacts are spring-loaded and they flip over from one position to a new with only a very
short interval of connection between the two taps and through transition resistor.
An alternative to the principle with fast acting switching sequence and resistors is to use reactor. In
a reactor type tap-changer it is instead more difficult to break the circulating reactive current and
this will rather limit step voltages but it will works well at relatively high currents. This compared to a
fast operating resistance tap-changer, which can handle higher voltage but not high current. This
leads to reactor tap-changer being usually located on low voltage of the transformer while
resistance tap-changer will be connected on the high voltage side.
In a reactor type tap-changer the losses in the mid-point reactor due to the load current and the
superimposed circulating current between the two involved tap is small and the reactor can be left
permanently in circuit between them. This provide an intermediate step between two taps and this
gives twice as many working positions as the number of taps in the winding.
From the 1970’s tap-changers with vacuum breakers have been available. Vacuum breakers have
low contact erosion and this gives tap-changers with increased number of operation between
necessary services. The design is however generally becoming more complex.
Also experimental designs of tap-changers where the changeover function is effectuated by power
semi-conductor elements have been in the market. These designs also with the aim of reduced
services intervals.
In resistor type tap-changers the diverter switch is enclosed in a container with oil separated from
the oil in the transformer. The oil in this container will be very contaminated in due course and must
be kept separate from the oil system of the transformer itself and should also have a complete
separate conservator volume with its own breather.
The tap selector is a cage or an insulating cylinder with series of contacts to which taps from the
regulating winding are connected. Inside the cage two contact arms move from step to step across
the regulating winding. Both arms are electrically connected to the incoming terminals of diverter
switch. One arm will be at actual tap position and carry the load current the other arm is unloaded
and is free to move to next to come tap position. The selector contacts never break any current and
can be situated in the transformer oil itself.
When the free arm has found its position the diverter switch transfer the load over. The operating
cycles of the diverter is shown in Figure 7-1 Flag cycle.
Flag cycle arise from the rectangular vector diagram of transformer output voltage when moving
from one tapping to an adjacent one.

Flag cycle
Figure 7-1
(a) The tap-changer has come from tap 7 and is presently connected at tap 6 and shall connect
to tap 5.
(b) Selector arm H moves from tap 7 to tap 5.
(c) The diverter switch engages the resistor, the load current from tap 6 go through Ry.
(d) Step 5 and 6 are short-circuited through Ry plus Ru, the resistors are dimensioned to
prevent a short circuit of the loop but also to keep acceptable voltage disturbance. The
circulating current is in the range as the rated load current.
(e) The diverter breaks the connection with tap 6 and load current comes from tap 5 through
Ru.
(f) Changeover resistor is bypassed and connection direct to step 5 is established.
Tap-changers for lighter duty, moderate voltages to earth and over the regulating range are of
some manufacturers built in a simpler manner. In such tap-changers both the selection and
switching are carried out on the same contact. The intermediate contacts and the transition resistor
are mounted on one the moving arm. The arm moves in rapid jerks and passes the series of
contacts that are installed along a circular arc when going from tap contact to the next. Also in this
type the cycle consequently involves an interruption of power, which entails arc and contact erosion
and the tap-changer housing has to be closed from the transformer oil.
Tap changers of such design is referred to as selector switch type.
Flag cycle in a selector switch type.

Figure 7-2
Such tap-changer has also been available with a simpler transition mode, which use only one
resistor. In such a single resistor type tap-changer the load current and the resistor circulating
current have to be arranged to be subtractive, which dictates the power flow direction through the
transformer or at least reduced rating with reverse power flow.
The single resistor type is named to follow a pennant cycle. The terms arise from the appearance
of the vector diagram showing the change in output voltage of the transformer when moving from
one tapping to the adjacent one.
In same manner the double resistor type is named to follow a flag cycle. The flag cycle gives no
restriction to power flow direction.

Pennant cycle.
Figure 7-3
When only limited regulating range, up to 10% of nominal value, is required it is common to
arrange the regulating winding for linear regulation. This means that the induced voltage in the
regulating winding is added to the voltage in the main winding. For larger regulation range so-called
plus-minus regulation may be more adequate. In a plus-minus regulation the tapped winding is
connected to the main winding via a separate plus minus switch. This switch permits the induced
voltage in the tapped winding to be added to or subtracted from the voltage in the main winding.
The third arrangement is a coarse-fine regulation where the voltage regulation function is split into
two winding, one for the coarse step and one for the fine steps.
Some comparisons of the three arrangements:
• All three need the same total number of turns in the windings.
• Linear need double number of steps in a fine winding compared to plus-minus or
coarse-fine which is a disadvantage when larger regulation range. Both due to the
design of the winding and complexity of the tap-changer.
• Plus minus need one separate winding less compared to coarse-fine.
• Coarse-fine give less load losses in the minus part of the regulation range compared to
plus minus.
• The plus-minus tap-changer and the coarse-fin tap-changer are almost equal; the
selector in both contains a changeover selector.
There are several different ways of arranging the regulation with regard to the size and the location
of the regulation winding. A regulating winding is difficult and expensive to manufacture and it
represents an insulation risk because those parts that are not connected in circuit will oscillate
freely when the transformer is subjected to over voltage surges. There is every reason to make the
regulating range and the regulating winding as small as possible.
In high voltage systems transformer, the windings are normally Y-connected. The location of the
regulating windings can then preferably be in the vicinity of the neutral point. The insulation level to
earth and between phases in the tap-changer may then be low.
Tap- changers are provided with counter that indicated the number of executed changeover
operations, and of course with an indicator for the actual tapping that is connected. It is often
required that this indication shall also be remotely available in the control room.
For the driving of the tap-changer there is a need for auxiliary motor power and in addition auxiliary
voltages for control and monitoring circuits and indicators.
The tap-changer is a moving mechanism and actually they are the only vital parts of the
transformer that do move and it should be serviced regularly.

7.3.3. Automatic voltage regulation
The tap-changer is installed to meet voltage variation in the systems connected to the transformer.
It is not certain that the goal would be to maintain a constant secondary voltage at all times. The
outgoing network may also have voltage drop and this may have to be compensated for as well.
The equipment for control of the tap changer does not belong to the tap-changer as such but to the
relay system in the station. In principle the tap-changer just receives orders: raise or lower.
However, certain functions for coordination between different transformers in the same station are
part of the tap-changer technology. When different transformers are directly parallel connected
their tap-changer should move in step with each other. This is arranged in such a way that one is
wired as a master and the other as a slave. Absolutely simultaneous operation will not be achieved
but there is a small interval with circulating current between the two transformers. This is however
without any practical importance.
7.4. ACCESSORIES
7.4.1. Types of accessories

7.4.1.1. Gas actuated relay
In the connection tube between the tank and the conservator there is normally a gas-actuated
relay. The relay has two functions:
- Collects free gas bubbles on their way up to conservator from the transformer tank.
- Sensitive when the oil flow between tank and conservator exceeds a pre set value.
An alternate name for this gas-actuated relay is Buchholz relay after its inventor.
Free gas may be an indication of an incipient fault within the transformer. The gas is collected in
the gas relay. The gas will displace the liquid in the relay and a float will sink down. The protection
is therefore arranged in such a way that when a minor amount of gas is collected in gas relay an
alarm signal is actuated. If an additional amount of gas is collected tripping contact may be
actuated.
When a serious fault as arcing occurs in the transformer the gas evolution will push a burst of oil up
towards the conservator vessel and a flap is actuated. Sudden increase in oil flow is normally
judged to be a serve indication and the signal from the flap is then wired to tripping circuit.
Relay with only one of the two functions is utilized. For instance hermetically sealed transformers
without gas cushion has a small chamber on top of the cover with a float, which will actuate a
contact if gas is collected. This simple relay can also be used on small transformers even if a
conservator exists. A relay only sensitive to oil flow may be used between tap changer diverter
switch chamber and its conservator tank.
7.4.1.2. Temperature indication
Thermometers are normally installed for measurement of top oil temperature and winding hot spot
indication.
The top oil temperature can be measured directly by sensor in the oil top layer in the tank. For
remote indication of top oil a Pt 100 element can be arranged as the thermometer sensor.
The measurement of winding temperature is carried out in an indirect way. The winding hot spot is
assumed to be near the winding top end where it is surrounded by oil at top oil temperature.
Further the temperature gradient between winding hot spot and the top oil is dependent on the
losses in the winding, which in turn are proportional to the square of the current. The thermometer
therefore measures the top oil temperature to which it adds the temperature difference of the
winding to surrounding oil.
The winding thermometer is then arranged as a sensor inside a resistor immersed in the top oil. A
current transformer, which reflects the winding current, feeds the resistor. A shunt across the
resistor is adjusted to give a temperature contribution equal to the winding gradient as calculated or
measured during heat run test.
For remote indication of winding hot spot a Pt 100 element can be arranged as the thermometer
sensor.
Some winding thermometer designs perform the winding gradient addition in the thermometer
display unit using only the top oil temperature sensor and the winding current transformer out put.

The thermometers are provided with electrical contacts. At a pre set high temperature an alarm
signal is given. A pre set critical temperature result in a tripping signal to the transformer circuit
breakers. Additional electrical contacts may be used for control of forced cooling equipment.
Device for direct measurement of conductor temperature by fibre optics placed directly in the
windings at selected spots is available.
For dry-type transformers open temperature indicators are utilized at the top area.
7.4.1.3. Built in current transformers
Current transformers can be arranged inside transformer often around the earthed sleeve of the
bushing oil side, but also on low voltage bus bars. This is a matter of cost and space as well as
safety. By this arrangement a number of separate current transformers in the switchyard, with both
external and internal insulation for high service voltage, may be avoided.
In special cases with elevated requirements it may not be possible to provide a design around the
bushing tail or on a bus bar where conceptual only one single primary turn can be realized.
7.4.1.4. Dehydrating breathers
It is necessary to exclude moisture from the air space above the conservator oil level, in order to
maintain the dryness of the transformer oil. This space is vented through a device containing a drying
agent usually silica gel. The property of silica gel is its high absorption power of humidity. This is total
until it has absorbed water for about 15% of its weight; saturation is reached when it has absorbed 30
to 40% of its weight. Until recently the silica gel has been impregnated with cobalt chloride as colour
indicator. Cobalt chloride impregnated silica gel changes from blue to pink when it is about half
saturated with water. Now an environmentally friendly organic colour indicator replaces this heavy
metal additive. This new type of silica gel shows an alteration from orange to colourless.
When the moisture content of the silica gel becomes excessive, indicated by the change in colour
of more than 2/3 of the content, its ability to extract moisture is reduced and it is recommended that
it be replaced by a further charge of dry material. Drying in an oven will reactivate the moisture-
saturated gel and the colour will revert.
A refrigeration breather can be an alternative on large or important units, also when operating in
very humid climates. The refrigeration breather freeze-dries the air venting into the conservator.
The air in conservator over the oil will also circulate via reverse convection through the refrigeration
device whether the transformer is breathing or not, so this air is continually dried in service.
7.4.1.5. Oil preservation systems
Most common is the open conservator tank where air space above the oil level is vented through a
dehumidifier unit.
The transformer conservator tank can be provided with an air bag system. A synthetic rubber bag
occupies the space above oil. The interior of the bag is then connected to atmosphere so it can
breathe in air when transformer cools and the oil volume is reduced and breathe out when
transformer heats up.
A variation is a conservator horizontally divided by a membrane or diaphragm system, which allows
for expansion and contraction of the oil without actually allowing this to come into direct contact
with the external air.
The space above oil in the conservator tank can be filled with nitrogen. This can be provided from a
cylinder of compressed gas via a pressure-reducing valve. When transformer breaths in, the
pressure-reducing valve allows more nitrogen to be released. When the volume increases, nitrogen
is vented to atmosphere by means of a vent valve.
To minimize the use of nitrogen a certain span in pressure can be set between filling in and
bleeding out nitrogen.
The transformers can be hermetically sealed. For smaller oil filled distribution transformers a
flexible corrugated tank can take up all the expansion of oil. Other vice its necessary to provide
space above oil in the transformer tank filled with either dry air or nitrogen to act as a cushion for
expansion and contraction of the oil.
Some combinations have also been practiced. The transformer tank can be totally filled with oil and
then equipped with an enlarged conservator tank with enough volume for oil expansion and the
necessary gas cushion. The gas cushion can be extended by an extra tank, may be at ground
level. To limit the volume of the gas cushion it can allow to breath to the atmosphere at set
minimum and maximum internal pressures.

7.4.1.6. Oil level indicators
Oil level indicators are used to show the oil level in the conservator tank, normally as a dial
instrument placed directly on the conservator tank. On large transformers the size of the dial is
adapted to be readable from ground level. Oil level indicators for remote indication at the ground
level are available.
The indicator may be equipped with switches for high and low oil level.
7.4.1.7. Pressure relief devices
A flash over or a short circuit occurring in oil filled transformer is usually accompanied by an
overpressure in the tank due to gas being formed by the decomposition and the evaporation of the
oil. The pressure relief device is aimed to limit the tank overpressure on an internal fault and
thereby reduce the risk for rupture of the tank and uncontrolled spill of oil, which might also
aggravate a fire associated with the fault. Low mass of the valve disc plus low spring rate of closing
springs permit fast and wide opening. The valve normally closes again when the overpressure is
released.
The pressure relief device is to some extent controversial. The question is whether it will operate
satisfactorily. Many claim that during severe transformer faults and if the distance from the fault
location inside the tank to the valve is not extremely short and direct the tank will rupture anyhow.
7.4.1.8. Sudden pressure relief devices
The sudden pressure relay is aimed to pick up the oil pressure wave in the transformer tank when
a serious fault occurs. The device is able to distinguish between rapid and slow rates of pressure
rise and will trip a switch if pressure increase faster than a specified rate. It permits an early
detection of a fault inside the transformer and thus enables a fast tripping of the transformer. In
transformer without separate conservator tank this device can substitute the sudden increase in oil
flow function of a gas-actuated relay.
7.4.1.9. Over voltage protection devices
Internal over voltage protection
In some high voltage regulating winding system with large regulating range or in auto high voltage
regulating transformers the designer may find it necessary to protect the regulating winding system
by built in over voltage protecting elements clamping parts of the windings. Ladders of ZnO (zink-
oxide) varistors elements normally arrange this.
External over voltage protection
Transformer terminals have always to be over voltage protected. The simplest way is by spark
gaps on the bushings. But spark gaps as the only over voltage protection of a transformer should
be limited to lower system voltages and at less important parts of the network. It is recommended
to minimise the gap distance to achieve optimal protection of the transformer. Recommended arc
horn gap distance depending of transformer BIL is set in following table.
System voltage BIL Distance
kV kV mm
12 75 60
17.5 95 70
24 125 100
36 170 140
The intention of using only spark gaps overvoltage protection of a transformer should be stated in
the technical specification.
Better protection is achieved by surge arrestors located close to the terminals as possible, direct on
the transformer tank or adjacent to the transformer. Also the ground connection between the
arrestor pad and the transformer tank should be as short and direct as possible.
If over voltage protection has to be situated some distance apart from transformer due to for
instance direct connection to SF6 switchgear or direct cable connection this has to be taken into
consideration when selecting transformer insulation level.
See also section 15.2 page 167.

7.4.1.10. Transport wheels/skids
It is normally not practical to lift larger units by crane direct to final position on fundament, it have in
some way to be moved from the vehicle to the pad. If a cast-in rails system exist between unload
area and final position the unit may be equipped with wheels allowing it to be rolled in. 90 degrees
turn in transport direction can be arranged by bi-directional wheels. The unit is jacked up and the
wheels are turned. In position the unit can be left on its locked wheels or the wheels can be
removed and replaced by support blocks or the unit can be lowered down directly on the
fundament.
If no rail system exists a temporary system of normally flat beams is arranged and the unit is pulled
directly in position on greased beams or by help of caterpillar tracks.
When in position the unit may be welded to the foundation. It may also be placed on vibration pads
to reduce the sound transmission to the foundation.
How to transport and position the unit onto the foundation has to be clarified at an early stage
between the purchaser and the manufacturer. Also to be clarified are that transport beams, jacking
points, both at the transformer and at the foundation, as well as hauling hooks have correct
dimensions and are in the best position.
7.4.1.11. Combustible Gas Detector
The combustible gas detector indicates hydrogen in the oil. The hydrogen is picked up through a
dialytic membrane. This system gives an early indication of slow gas generation before free gas in
oil starts bubbling towards the gas accumulation relay. It may be used in addition to a gas-actuated
relay because it gives earlier warning. In transformers without separate conservator tanks this
detector substitute the gas accumulation function of a gas actuated relay.
7.4.1.12. Flow indicator
For the control of the oil flow out of the pumps on transformer with forced oil cooling equipment, oil
flow indicators are installed. The indicator is often based on a method of measuring the pressure
difference across an obstacle in the oil flow.
Flow indicators are also used in the water flow of water-cooled transformers.
The indicators are normally equipped with an alarm switch. It can also include a dial.
7.4.2. Power transformer and oil immersed reactor accessories

Minimum accessories:
Gas actuated relay with alarm and trip
Top oil thermometer with alarm and trip
Oil level indicator with alarm at high and low level
If OLTC:
Tap-changer protection device with trip
If oil forced cooling:
Oil flow indicator with alarm
Optional:
Winding hot-spot thermometer with alarm and trip

7.4.2.1. On line monitor systems
Within ABB, different on line monitoring systems for different purposes are available.
There is one system for recording of transient voltages, e.g. caused by operations of circuit breakers.
By using this system, dangerous situations caused by overvoltages can be revealed. The system
gives information about different kinds of overvoltages and corrective measures can be taken.
Other systems available are surveillance systems that continuously record some key parameters
via sensors. These parameters are all essential to determine the condition of the transformer and
to identify possible faults. Such systems work with models, which get their input values from the
sensors. The models are advanced calculation algorithms based on standards, design and ABB
knowledge that compare the output with preset limits. As mentioned the input values to the models
come from the sensors. The most essential parameters measured are:
• Key gases in oil
• Water content in oil
• Temperatures
• Load currents
• Line voltages
• Partial discharges (PD)
• Dissipation power factor in bushings
The models available are as follows:
• Continuous calculation of load
• Winding hot-spot calculation
• Insulation ageing, consumed lifetime
• On load tap-changer contact wear and tap position tracking
• Moisture analysis, moisture in oil/paper, bubbling temperature
• Cooling efficiency
• Cooling control
In addition manual models for calculation gas analysis based on user input are available.

7.4.3. Distribution transformer accessories
This is a list of available accessories to be selected in cooperation with the user.
Accessory type Type of transformer
SDT/MDT LDT Dry
Tap changer
Off-circuit S O Bolted links
On-load O O On request
• Voltage regulation relay O
• Electrical position indicator O
• Parallel operation equipment O
Conservator O S NA
Silicagel dehydrating breather O1) S NA
Pocket, top liquid thermometer O2) S NA
Dial thermometer O S S
Pressure relief valve S4) O NA
Pressure relief device with signal O O NA
Gas-actuated relay O S NA
Integrated protective device mounted
O O NA
on the cover
Temperature monitoring system NA NA O
Earthing terminals S S S
Wheels, (bi-directional) S2) S S
Drain valve at tank bottom S S NA
Liquid level gauge O3) S NA
Liquid sampling valve O3) S NA
Cable boxes on LV – and HV side
O5) O5) NA
mounted on the cover
Plug in HV & LV bushings equipped
O O NA
with the robust protections
Enclosures
NA NA O
(of different protection class)
Overvoltage protection devices
• Surge arrestors O O O
• Arching horns O O NA
Overcurrent protection, fuses O
Built-in current transformers O O O
Multi function devices; pressure, O O NA
temperature, oil level and gas
The abbreviations S (standard accessory), O (optional) and NA (not applicable) are an
indication of where the different accessories are most common in use.
1)
Only used when conservator
2)
Thermometer pocket is an option on SDT and standard on MDT.
3)
Standard on SDT/MDT with conservator
4)
Standard on hermetically sealed
5)
Plug-in bushings is the preferred ABB solution instead of cable boxes
due to easy assembly and lower cost and reduced distances in the substation

8. INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING
This section describes ABB’s general experience/recommendations and minimum requirements,
however it may be overruled or supplemented by local regulations and the supplier’s or purchaser’s
specific instructions.
8.1. GENERAL
8.1.1. Responsibilities
For power transformers, the installation and commissioning are normally performed by ABB.
Distribution transformers are normally installed and commissioned by the buyer.
In some cases the installation and commissioning is e.g. performed by the customer and
supervised by ABB.
Responsibilities are defined in the purchase contract with reference to General conditions, e.g.
ORGALIME.
Limitation of responsibilities should be defined, e.g. when recommended protection is not installed.
8.1.2. Incoterms (Transfer of responsibility)

Incoterms defined by International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) make international trade easier
and help traders in different countries to understand one another.
Incoterms are standard definitions of trade terms and are internationally recognized as
indispensable evidence of the buyer’s and seller’s responsibilities under a sales contract. Incoterms
will not apply unless specifically incorporated into the contract
Those standard trade definitions that are most commonly used in international contracts are
protected by ICC copyright, however a wall chart may be viewed on
http://www.iccwbo.org/index_incoterms.asp where a wall chart in preferred language may also be
purchased.
8.2. INSTALLATION
8.2.1. Power- and large distribution transformers
Installation and commissioning should preferably be performed by the supplier or in close
cooperation with the supplier. The contract describes what to be performed by the parties.
8.2.1.1. Allocation of responsibilities between supplier and purchaser
After the Factory Acceptance Test (FAT), the transformer is disassembled and made ready for
shipping. Depending on the size and voltage class of the transformer more or less of the equipment
on the transformer is dismantled prior to transport. Normally conservator, coolers and high voltage
bushings are dismantled prior to shipping and transported separately. Usually large power
transformers are shipped without oil. When the transformer is shipped without oil, the transformer
oil is transported on tank lorry suited for this purpose and/or in barrels. During transport the
transformer is filled with dry air with a certain overpressure in order to avoid moisture absorption in
the insulation. Before leaving the factory a tightness test is performed. Smaller transformers like
large distribution transformer might be shipped with oil. The weight limit for when the transformer is
transported with or without oil depends on several factors like the transport facilities (trucks, boat,
cranes), weight limits on roads, bridges etc.
For transformers with a transport weight above 20 ton, which usually is the case for power- and
large distribution transformers, special transport is required. This means, transport is performed by
experts in handling heavy goods.
During transport, the transformer should be equipped with an impact recorder. This is to record if
anything should happen to the transformer during transport and during handling at site. Some
recorders register impacts (G-forces in x, y and z-direction) and exactly when the impacts occur.
This is essential in the event the transformer has been exposed to abnormal impacts and to
determine which party has the transport responsibility at the time of the impact. The recorder shall
not be dismantled and the recording finally read before the transformer is at its final destination. If
specified, this shall be performed in the presence of the parties responsible for the various sections
of the transport.

The transformer should be insured during the transportation either by the supplier or the purchaser,
depending on the terms of delivery (INCOTERMS, see section 8.1.2 page 110). Terms of delivery
are included in the contract between the supplier and the purchaser.
E.g., if the terms are EXW, the purchaser takes over the responsibility (risk) for the transformer
when it is leaving the supplier’s premises. If this is the condition, it is up to the purchaser whether
or not the transformer should be equipped with an impact recorder.
When ABB supplies new power- and large distribution transformers, the preferred terms of delivery
normally are DDP or DDU. In this case the supplier (ABB) is responsible for the transformer until
the arrival at the agreed destination. The transformer should then be equipped with impact
recorder.
When the transformer arrives at site, it shall be inspected. During this inspection all necessary
documentation shall be available. Representatives from the supplier (supervisor) should be present
during this inspection. In any case, in the event of possible transformer damage during transport,
the supplier shall be notified and consulted before any actions are taken. If the purchaser unloads a
transformer with possible transport damage without consulting the supplier, the purchaser has the
full responsibility.
If it is specified that all handling, lifting, installation, oil filling and oil processing shall be carried out
by the supplier or under supervision of a representative from the supplier the warranty is only valid
when this requirement is fulfilled. The impact recorder shall not be removed until the transformer is
placed and fixed on its final site foundation.
If storage of the transformer is required prior to energising this shall be performed according to the
supplier’s instructions and the conditions for extended warranty shall be agreed between the
parties.
8.2.2. Distribution transformers

8.2.2.1. Transport
The transformer is supplied filled with liquid and normally all accessories fitted, except for the
largest units. The radiators may be dismantled during transport.
During transport the following should be considered:
• Angle of tilting exceeding 10º must be specified in the contract,
• Prevention of damage to bushings, corrugated panels or radiators and accessories,
• Larger transformers should preferably be positioned with the longitudinal axis in the direction
of movement,
• Secure against movement by means of e.g. wooden blocks and lashes,
• Adapt vehicle speed to the road conditions,
• Vehicle capacity shall be adequate for the transport weight of the transformer,
• Any impact recorders to be specified in the contract,
• Any use of crates or containers.
8.2.2.2. Handling, lifting
Only approved and suitable lifting equipment shall be used.
Use a forklift only on transport pallets or transformer bottom.
Do not apply load to corrugated fins or radiators and their supports.
Use the provided lifting lugs only.
When lifting a transformer with cable boxes on the cover, special care must be taken.
When hydraulic jacks are used, only provided jacking points shall be used, and in such a way that
twisting forces on the transformer tank are avoided.

Transformer lifting example
8.2.2.3. Receiving the transformer at site
Transformers manufactured by ABB are thoroughly tested and inspected prior to shipping, but
upon receiving the transformer at site, it should be inspected carefully.
To be inspected:
• The way in which the transformer has been secured on the trailer,
• That the delivery is complete according to order confirmation,
• Compare the packing list with the goods received,
• The transformer nameplate,
• Liquid level, when applicable. Any leakages?
• External damage, e.g. cracks in bushings,
• Impact recorders indications when applicable.
The receipt of the unit shall be signed for and the result of the inspection shall be noted.
Transformer shipments are normally insured.
In case of damage revealed during the receiving inspection do any of the following:
• Make necessary arrangement to avoid further damage,
• Contact the insurance company concerned and ABB,
• Make a report of the damage immediately,
• No repairs should be started until responsibilities are clarified and actions are agreed upon
all involved parties.
8.2.2.4. Storage prior to energizing
When storage of the transformer is required, the following recommendations should be noted:
• Preferably in dry and clean locations, without any possibilities of mechanical damage and on
a solid foundation,
• If the transformer does not have a structural steel base, it should be placed upon supports to
allow ventilation under the bottom of the transformer base,
• The liquid conservator and dehydrating breather must be checked to ensure that dry air is
breathed. (Conservator type only) Liquid samples to be analysed regarding moisture content
prior to energizing,
• Humidity/condensation in control cubicles, driving mechanism for on-load tap changer, cable
boxes, dry-type transformers etc. should be inspected/removed,
• Minimum storage temperature for dry-type transformer is in general -25°C, however for
Resibloc –60°C,
• Prior to energizing, perform a megger test between the different windings, and from the
windings to earth. This applies to dry-type in particular.

8.2.2.5. Erection at site
In determining the location of a transformer, give careful consideration to accessibility, safety,
ventilation and ease of inspection. Make sure the foundation for mounting the transformer is
entirely adequate.
Ventilate the erection site properly. As a guide each kilowatt of losses requires 4 cubic meters of air
circulation per minute. Fresh air intake at floor level, and a ventilation duct leading to outer air must
be built into the ceiling or upper part of the wall. The intake and outlet openings should be located
at opposite sides of the room. The duct cross section of the outlet should be 10 % more than the
cross section of the inlet opening due to the increase of volume of the hot air.
Observe local authorities regulations for civil engineering of transformer cells, safety regulations,
fire protection regulations. A liquid containment tank may be required.
A transformer equipped with wheels must be prevented from moving by chocking the wheels.
8.2.2.6. Network connection

8.2.2.6.1. Electrical clearances in air
Maximum system voltage (kV) 3.6 7.2 12 17.5 24 36 72.5
Lightning impulse withstand voltage (kV) 45 60 75 95 125 170 325
Minimum clearance according to IEC
60076-3, phase to phase and phase to 60 90 110 170 210 280 630
earth. (mm)
*Copyright © IEC, Geneva, Switzerland. www.iec.ch
Note: Testing or well documented local practice can allow the use of reduced clearances.
8.2.2.6.2. Connecting transformer terminals to the networks
Observe local authorities safety regulations and regulations for electrical installations.
Conductors, bus bars and cables shall be installed such that minimal mechanical stress is
transferred to the bushings.
Conical washers shall be used in order to obtain the required contact pressure. Nuts should be
adequately locked.
Flexible connectors shall be used between the terminals and the bars, when connecting to low
voltage busbars. Suitable cable lugs shall be used when connecting low voltage copper cables.
High voltage connection is normally performed by copper cables and copper cable lugs. In
some cases heat shrinkable connectors or elbow connectors are used.
For aluminium-copper joints the copper is coated with tin, or bi-metal sheets (one side of copper
and the other of aluminium) can be used between the joint.
The aluminium surface must be larger than the copper surface.
Aluminium parts shall always be placed above copper parts so that water cannot drain from the
copper parts onto the aluminium (corrosion).
It must be remembered that good contact between joined aluminium surfaces can be achieved
only if the no conducting oxide film is removed with a wire brush, file or similar immediately
before joining, and renewed oxidation is prevented by applying a thin protective film of grease
(petroleum jelly).
Jointing compound, which prevents the access of air and humidity into joints, must be used in
the joint. The zinc crystals of the compound break down the layer of oxide on the aluminium.
Minimum electrical clearances shall be obtained.
Suitably strong steel bolts and nuts must be used for tightening the joint. The tightening torque
values given below are recommended to be used in external transformer joints.
Cable and busbar load capacities are outside the scope of this handbook, however dealt with in
detail in ABB Switchgear Manual.

8.2.2.6.3. Tightening torque
Recommended tightening torque/Nm
Bolt size Property Class
Bolt 8.8 Nut 8
M5 3,0
M6 5,5
M8 15,0
M10 30,0
M12 60,0
M16 120,0
When disk-type spring washers are used, the nuts should only be
tightened until the washer becomes flat.
8.2.2.7. Earthing
Earth the transformer at the earthing terminals provided.
Earthing resistance according to electricity utilities- or national standards
8.2.2.8. Protective equipment
Connect the equipment, and check the functions:
• Thermometer with contacts for alarm and tripping signals,
• When applicable, oil level indicator with contacts for alarm signal,
• Gas relay with contacts for alarm and tripping signals,
• Pressure relief device with contacts for alarm signal. When provided,
• Recommended thermometer settings for ONAN transformers.
Type of temperature equipment Alarm Tripping
Oil thermometer setting 85ºC 100ºC
Oil thermometer setting, when combined with a 90ºC 105ºC
winding temperature indicator
Winding temperature indicator setting 105ºC 135ºC
• Recommended thermometer settings for dry-type transformers according to
the relevant temperature class.
Temperature class Alarm Tripping
105 (A) 90ºC 105ºC
120 (E) 105ºC 120ºC
130 (B) 115ºC 130ºC
155 (F) 140ºC 155ºC
180 (H) 165ºC 180ºC
200
220
8.2.2.9. Insulation resistance

Check the insulation resistance between HV and LV as well as windings to earth. Minimum value is
1000 ohm per volt service voltage (Maximum 1mAmp.),
8.2.2.10. Off-circuit/on-load tap changer
• Check the galvanic contact between the winding and the tap-changer in all positions,
• Compare the voltage ratio of the transformer and the network voltages, and select the
suitable tap changer position.
8.2.2.11. Mechanical checks
• Check the liquid level,
• Tighten all leaking gaskets carefully,
• After completed installation work, surface damage caused by transportation and installation
work shall be repaired,
• Condition of dehydrating breather. (For conservator type only),
• Finally the transformer must be cleaned.

8.3. COMMISSIONING
8.3.1. Energising
Prior to energising, the transformer has to be checked. If applicable the following items should be
reviewed:
• Inspection of transformer
• Check impact recorder:
o If impacts above a certain level are recorded the transformer must be checked for
transport damage,
• Check, painting, leakages and fastening:
o Conservator, cover, tank and coolers
• Bleeding:
o Cover, bushings, tap changer, Buchholz relay, cooling equipment
• Earthing of:
o Transformer, cabinets, current transformers, surge arresters, RC-network, tap-
changers, oil filter etc.
• Cooling equipment:
o OFWF: Check the mounting direction of oil pumps, oil flow-, and water flow
indicators. Adjust water- and oil flow indicators. Check the rotation direction of the
motors, motor voltage, motor protection. Check that all valves are open
o OFAF: Check the mounting direction of oil pumps, oil flow indicators. Adjust oil flow
indicators. Check the rotation direction of the motors, motor voltage, motor
protection. Check that valves are open.
o ONAF: Check the rotation direction of the motors, motor voltage, motor protection,
check that valves are open
o ONAN: Check that valves are open
• Tap-changer, oil filter and motor drive unit:
o Should be checked according to guidelines given by the manufacturer for this
equipment, e.g. locking of shaft connections, mounting direction protective relay,
symmetrical coupling, motor voltage, phase rotation, motor protection, end limit
switches (electrical and mechanical), emergency stop – raise and lower switch,
step by step, remote controlling etc. The checklist may vary depending on selected
manufacturer, type of tap-changer and equipment installed.
• Current transformers:
o Check polarity, and that all secondary CT circuits are closed before energising the
transformer. If a current transformer is not in use it has to be short cirquited and
earthed. An open circuited current transformer gives hazardous voltages and is
dangerous to personnel and equipment. It can result in personal injury, death or
property damage.
• Protective equipment:
o Check that all alarm signals from protective equipment is functioning, such as
thermometers, oil level indicators, Buchholz relay, oil flow-, water flow indicators etc.
o Check that all trip signals from protective equipment is functioning, such as
thermometers, oil level indicators, Buchholz relay, tap-changer protective relay,
etc. Trip signals are hard wired to the circuit breaker and all trip signals should be
checked to verify that the circuit breaker opens when a trip signal is activated.

• Oil sample:
o Oil sample must be collected and analysed to check that the oil condition
(dielectric withstand voltage and moisture level) fulfils the requirements of IEC or
ANSI/IEEE standards.
• Electrical tests:
o Electrical tests recommended by the supplier should be performed.
After the transformer has been found to be in good condition and the protective equipment is found
in order according to the above list, the transformer is ready to be connected to the network
(energised).
In particular, when connecting distribution transformers to the network, fuses may blow immediately
caused by high inrush current. This does not necessarily mean that there is a fault in the
transformer. Replace blown fuses and try energising again because the magnitude of the inrush
current is a statistical variable with large spread. Modern over-current and differential relays contain
a filter which makes the relays insensitive to inrush currents. Older relays may trip the circuit
breaker immediately. See also section 11.7 page 141, paragraph “Inrush current”. After the
transformer has been connected to the network, gas may be present which cause the gas relay to
trip to give an alarm. It could be a false alarm caused by an air bubble, trapped under the cover,
and then moved into the gas relay. Air is colourless and odourless. If not air, a gas and an oil
sample should be taken for analysis.
Date for formal take-over can vary, but shall be clearly stated in the contract between supplier and
purchaser. This can be after the transformer is energised or after a test period of the transformer. A
hand-over protocol should be established, signed by both parties, see also section 8.1.2 page 110.
8.3.2. Documentation
The following documentation will be handed over to the purchaser at time of take-over as
applicable:
• Transformer specification
• Outline drawing
• Transport drawing
• Schematic drawing
• Wiring diagram
• Assembly, operation and maintenance manual
• Technical documentation from sub suppliers (bushings, tap-changer, coolers etc)
• Data sheet transformer oil
• Test protocol (FAT)
• Transport (shipping) documentation
• Trouble shooting guide
• Commissioning report.
• Take-over protocol

9. OPERATION, MONITORING AND MAINTENANCE
9.1. GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
• Perform a safety job analysis before the work starts,
• Never work on transformers or any installed electrical equipment alone,
• Do not change the position of off-circuit tap-changers while the transformer is energized,
• Do not energize or perform maintenance on the transformer without proper earth connection,
For more information see section 3.3 page 60 on safety aspects.
9.2. OPERATION
9.2.1. Lifetime
The lifetime of a transformer can be divided into two categories; economical and technical.
Economical lifetime:
Economical lifetime ends when the capitalized cost of continued operation of the existing
transformer exceeds the capitalized cost of a new investment.
In practical terms; typically when the cost of the total losses of the old transformer are too high.
Consequential risks and costs associated with electricity downtime are of increasing importance.
Technical lifetime - The ageing process of cellulose:
The cellulose materials undergo chemical degradation – ageing – in service. The dominant
processes have the character of oxidation and result in breaks of the long cellulose chain
molecules into shorter fragments, and the material becomes gradually more brittle. Old paper
breaks up into small flakes. But even in this state the dielectric breakdown voltage is hardly
affected at all.
The practical consequence of the ageing is a higher risk of mechanical rupture and metal-to-metal
contact as a result of mechanical shock and vibrations.
The cellulose molecule has a ring structure as shown to the left in Figure 9-1. Several of these
molecules are linked together to a chain by oxygen atoms. This is called polymerisation.
Figure 9-1
There is a standardised method of chemical analysis which provides information of the average
number of rings in the chains of cellulose molecules. This number is called the degree of
polymerisation, or abbreviated, the DP number. Virgin paper made of slow growing pine in cold
climate has typically a DP number of 1200 – 1400. There is a correlation between the DP number
and the tensile strength of the material and the degree of ageing can be expressed by the
decrease in DP number. When the DP number has fallen to 200, the material is quite brittle. It is
common to express the condition of the material by means of the DP number instead of the tensile
strength because the DP number can be determined with less measurement uncertainty than the
tensile strength when the ageing process has come to a certain stage.
The ageing is a cumulative process depending on influences from the environment in the
transformer. The rate of the chemical reaction rises with the temperature. V. M. Montsinger’s rule,
established after many years of intensive research, states that the rate of the chemical
deterioration process is doubled for each 6-7 °C temperature rise. However, this rate is
considerably increased by the presence of water molecules and free oxygen dissolved in the oil.

As the paper due to ageing becomes gradually weaker in respect of tensile strength there will be a
correspondingly increasing risk that the transformer will fail if a short circuit in the power system
occur. In absence of such external events the transformer may operate satisfactorily even with
solid insulation with very low DP numbers because the compressive strength and the dielectric
strength of the cellulose are hardly reduced at all by the ageing process.
Short circuit tests that demonstrate the ability of a transformer to withstand the short circuit currents
are almost always performed on new transformers which never have been in service. The so-called
‘end of life’ term is a matter of definition. The term could be related to a percentage of the original
tensile strength of the insulation, for example 50, 25 or 10 %, or to an absolute value of the tensile
strength in N/mm2. Or to a certain minimum of the DP number. There is no universally valid figure
to choose. The likelihood of short circuits in the power system plays an important role.
A comprehensive international investigation performed some years ago concluded that the failure
rate of large power transformers due to short circuit currents was very low, 3 failures per 25 000
transformer service years, that is 0,12 per thousand. The investigation included both ‘young’
transformers and transformers that have been in operation for several decades. This failure rate
might increase sometime in the future due to further aging of the whole bulk of transformers in
service. In general, for the time being the rate of failures due to short circuit currents does not seem
to be a matter of large concern. However, it is justified to make efforts to keep the interior of the
transformer dry and clean.
Cellulose is one of the most hygroscopic existing materials, which means that it has a high ability to
absorb moisture. When stored in air, the water content is typically 5 – 10 % by weight, dependent
on the relative moisture content in the ambient air. Cellulose with that high moisture content would
be unsuitable for insulation in transformers because moisture from the cellulose would be
transferred to the oil and would drastically reduce the dielectric strength of the oil. In addition the
ageing process in the cellulose would be accelerated.
To make the cellulose a suitable insulation material it has to be dried to moisture content well
below 1 % before filling the oil on the transformer in the factory. The high temperature needed in
this drying process will cause a noticeable reduction in the original DP number of the cellulose.
In order to keep the tensile strength of the cellulose materials as good as possible in service,
penetration of moisture from the ambient air into the transformer can be avoided by making the
tank hermetically sealed on smaller distribution transformers. For larger transformers it is
recommended to separate the oil in the conservator from the air by means of a diaphragm.
However, water and free oxygen will be produced inside the transformer due to the natural ageing
process. The water content in the oil can be measured from oil samples taken from the
transformer. From the water content in the oil the water content in the cellulose insulation can be
estimated by means of the diagram in Figure 9-2.
Figure 9-2

The diagram shows equilibrium lines for the water content in cellulose and the water content in oil.
The equilibrium condition depends on the mean temperature of the oil. 10 ppm water in the oil
corresponds to 1,5 % water in the cellulose at 60 °C oil temperature. At 20 °C 10 ppm in the oil
corresponds to 4 % in the cellulose. So, in order to estimate the water content in the cellulose from
the water content in an oil sample, it is important to know the average oil temperature when the oil
sample was taken.
The cellulose is able to absorb much more water than the oil although the quantity of oil is much
larger than the quantity of cellulose. The cellulose is the large reservoir of water in the transformer,
not the oil.
From the diagram it appears that if the cellulose contains for example 2 % water and the
temperature increases from 20 to 60 °C, the water content in oil increases from 3 to 18 ppm. In
other words, by increasing the temperature water is transferred from the cellulose to the oil.
However, while the increase in the water content in the oil is considerable, the relative decrease in
the water content in the cellulose is very small. From this consideration the conclusion is that drying
the oil is not an efficient method to remove moisture from the cellulose.
If the water content in oil samples indicates that the water content in the cellulose after some years
in service has increased beyond an acceptable value, the oil must be emptied from in the
transformer before any drying process to remove the water from the cellulose starts.
The diagram in Figure 9-3 shows how the ac breakdown field typically declines with increasing
moisture content at 20 °C temperature. (Tested according to IEC 60156 (1995-08) Insulating liquids
– Determination of the breakdown voltage at power frequency – Test method).
35
30
Breakdown electric field (kV/mm)
25
20
15
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Moisture content in the oil (ppm )
Figure 9-3
The moisture content in the oil when performing the delivery test on a new transformer is maximum
5 ppm. It should be noted that the ac breakdown field declines quite much as soon as the moisture
content exceeds 20 ppm. Consequently there will be a fall also in the dielectric strength and the
service reliability of the transformer.
Figure 9-4 shows how the DP number decreases with the time in a test at 120 °C. In a new
transformer the moisture content in the solid insulation is dried to 0,5%. The curve in Figure 9-4 is
the result of a material test where samples with 3% and samples with 0,5% moisture content at the
beginning of the test were exposed to 120 °C. The vertical axis indicates the quotient of
simultaneous values of DP numbers. The declining curve that the DP number for the samples with
3% moisture is reduced at a higher rate than the samples with 0,5% moisture [5].

1
0,9
0,8
DP3%/DP0,5%
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Weeks
Figure 9-4
Keeping the moisture content in the solid insulation and in the oil low increases the probability of
reliable transformer operation during many years, often more than half a century.
IEC 60076-7 Ed. 1: Loading guide for oil-immersed power transformer provides simplified methods
on how a theoretical consumption of insulation life can be calculated when overloading
transformers continuously and temporarily.
Practical experience shows that many transformers have been operated satisfactorily until a
change in system voltage has necessitated a replacement.
9.2.2. Temperature rise and load capacity

Thermal class 105 is defined to withstand a continuous temperature of 105 °C for 7 years, without
loosing more than 50 % of its original mechanical strength. Class 130 is defined to withstand a
continuous temperature of 130 °C for 7 years, and so forth for all other insulation classes.
The sum of ambient + average temperature rise of any of the windings + 10° C (to allow for that
maximum temperature rise in a winding is 10 °C above average) should not exceed 105 °C.
Ageing sets certain limitations to the load capacity of the transformer. These limitations are defined
in IEC publication 60354 “Loading guide for oil immersed transformers”. (Within short time to be
replaced by IEC 60076-7).
Continuous load capacity at different constant ambient air temperatures has been calculated
according to IEC 60354.
Permissible continuous symmetrical loading capacity at different ambient air
temperatures for ONAN distribution transformers.
Constant ambient
air temperature ºC 0 +10 +20 +30 +40 +50 +60
Permissible continuous
load factor, % 116 108 100 91 82 72 -
Temperature rise 60/65 ºC
Permissible continuous
load factor, % - 119 110 100 89 77 64
Temperature rise 50/55 ºC
In practice the transformer is not continuously fully loaded. The load and the temperature fluctuate
by seasons and time of the day.
The permissible short-term overload depends on the starting conditions, plus duration and the
repetitive cycle of the overload. This is defined in the IEC 60354, and must be analysed on a case-
to-case basis.
Based on the above there is a certain emergency overload capacity for the transformer.
Special attention shall be paid to the fact that the transformer’s short term load capacity cannot be
judged on the basis of the oil temperature alone, because the oil temperature changes much
slower with the load than the temperature rise of the winding.
Overloading a transformer implies that the construction and the accessories, such as the tap
changer and the bushings are correspondingly rated. Normally the accessories are selected with
rated current not less than 120% of rated current of the transformer. (For bushings see IEC 60137).

Corresponding considerations are made for dry-type transformers, and are described in
IEC 60905 Loading guide for dry-type power transformers (Under updating).
From IEEE STD C57.91-1995 8.1.2 Normal life expectancy
The basic loading of a distribution transformer for normal life expectancy is continuous loading at
rated output when operated under usual service conditions as indicated in 4.1 of IEEE Std
C57.12.00-1993. It is assumed that operation under these conditions is equivalent to operation in a
constant 30 °C ambient temperature. The hottest-spot conductor temperature is the principal factor
in determining life due to loading. Direct temperature measurement of the hottest spot may not be
practical on commercial designs. The indicated hottest-spot temperatures have therefore been
obtained from tests made in the laboratory and mathematical models. The hottest-spot temperature
at rated load is the sum of the average winding temperature and a hottest-spot allowance, usually
15 °C. Normal life expectancy will result from operating continuously with hottest-spot conductor
temperature of 110 °C or an equivalent dally transient cycle. For mineral oil-immersed transformers
operating continuously under the foregoing conditions this temperature has been limited to a
maximum of 110 °C. Normal life expectancy of transformer insulation using different criteria is
given in table 1 in IEEE STD C57.91-1995. Distribution and power transformer model tests indicate
that the normal life expectancy at a continuous hottest-spot temperature of 110 °C is 20,55 years.
9.2.3. Parallel operation

When two or more transformers are connected in parallel the following is required:
• Only transformers having the same phase displacement between primary and secondary
voltage can operate in parallel. The clock-hour which indicate the phase displacement is
stamped on the transformer rating plate, e.g. Dyn11, Yd11,
• Poles with the same polarity on HV- and LV side shall be connected in parallel,
• Transformers should have approximately the same voltage ratio,
• The short-circuit impedance voltage should be the same, within +-10%,
• The power rating of the transformers should not deviate more than 1:3,
• Tap changers should have tap position giving voltage ratios as close as possible.
Deviation from the above requirements is possible, provided adequate knowledge is available.
For further details, reference is made to IEC 60076-8 (Power transformers – Application guide
clause 6 page 81- 91).
9.2.4. Frequency
A transformer designed for 50 Hz can be used for 60 Hz but not vice versa, however electric
equipment for accessories should be considered.
9.2.5. Protection
9.2.5.1. Overcurrent protection
There are two types of overcurrent protection:
• Fuses,
• Overcurrent relays which send tripping signals to the circuit breaker.
Overcurrent protection is mainly intended for protection against high overcurrents due to
external short-circuits.
9.2.5.2. Differential protection
Differential relays react upon different ampere-turns on the two sides of the transformer which
indicates that there may be an internal fault in the transformer.

9.2.5.3. Alarm and trip signals from the transformer
Signals from the transformer can either be local or remote. The accessories on the transformer
determine the kind of signals. This is again depends on the type of transformer and customer
requirements.
In its simplest form the signal is local and with only visual indication at the transformer, which
e.g. may be from a liquid level indicator or a dial thermometer measuring the top oil
temperature.
From most accessories remote signals may be collected. The normal way to do this is to
transfer all signals to a common connection box on small transformers, or to a termination
cabinet for larger transformers. From here the customer may transfer the signals further to a
control room.
Examples:
• Top oil temperature
• Winding temperature
• Gas actuated relay
• Oil level indicator
• Pressure relief devices
• Oil and water flow indicators
• On-load tap-changer position indication
• On line monitoring system
See section 7.4 page 104 for further details on accessories.
9.2.5.4. Over voltage protection

See section 15 page 164.
9.3. MONITORING
9.3.1. General
Most transformers are equipped with protection systems to avoid damage to the transformers, the
network or both, in the event of non-normal operation of the transformer or the network. Examples
of such protection systems are the network and transformer protection current transformers
mounted usually at the transformer terminals feeding relays (overcurrent, differential), the gas and
oil activated relay (Buchholz) and the winding and oil temperature indicators (WTI and OTI). These
systems are common to most power transformers, including some distribution transformers.
However, monitors are mostly confined to medium to large power transformers, in particular those
that are strategically important in a network or, as in the case of generator step-up transformers
and HVDC converter transformers, where the transformers are the only means of power transfer in
networks. An unplanned transformer outage in these networks can have severe technical and
economic consequences for the network operator. The main purpose of fitting monitors to these
transformers is for condition assessment with the purpose of mitigating some of the above
difficulties [Draft IEC 61378-3 Convertor transformers - Part 3: Application guide].
Monitoring of transformers can roughly be divided in high and low level monitoring.
• High level
o On-line monitoring
• Low level
o Periodic recording of a few parameters, visual inspection
o Oil condition monitoring
o Off-line monitoring

9.3.2. High level monitoring
The major goals of an on-line monitoring system are to prevent major failures, to achieve better
utilisation of load capacity, optimise maintenance and to extend the remaining lifetime.
Transformers of strategically importance should be equipped with on-line monitoring systems in
order to ensure reliable operation, a minimum of maintenance (condition based maintenance) and
low life cycle cost.
The on-line monitoring system receive and archive all information needed from just a few sensors,
other necessary parameters are calculated based on the compiled data. The on-line monitoring
system receives typically the following information from sensors:
• Temperatures
• Gas in oil
• Moisture
• Partial discharge
• Currents
• Voltages
• Tap Changer
The measured and calculated parameters are used in algorithms used in models for calculating
and recording:
• Cooling/overload forecast
• Real-time status/availability
• Lifetime
• Event recording
• Condition based maintenance
• Operation and updates
E.g., by knowing the current at each OLTC operation and the number of operations, the wear of the
contacts can be calculated. Maintenance can then be performed as condition based instead of
periodically. The advantage of condition based maintenance, is that the maintenance is performed
when necessary and not to early or long overdue. With such systems, early warnings are given and
necessary precautions with regards to maintenance can be taken in order to avoid failures that may
have large economical consequences.
Systems for control and monitoring are available within ABB. One of the systems is TEC, which is a
transformer control and monitoring system that new transformers can be equipped with. Figure 9-5
shows the layout of the TEC system.
Figure 9-5
Older transformer can be equipped with a monitoring system called T-Monitor.

9.3.3. Low level monitoring
Most transformers have a minimum of monitoring. Low level monitoring can be divided into the
following:
• Periodic recording of a few parameters, visual inspection
• Oil condition monitoring
• Off-line monitoring
Periodically recording is normally done when the transformer is energised. It is important to take
the necessary safety precautions when the inspection is performed. The parameters recorded can
be oil level, top oil temperature, winding temperature, load current and the number of operations
since last maintenance of the tap-changer. The amount of equipment will vary depending type of
transformer, importance of transformer, etc. Depending on the importance of the transformer the
recording of these parameters could be done daily, weekly, monthly or even more rarely. At the
same time as the above mentioned parameters are recorded a visual inspection of the transformer
for leakages and cracks in bushings should be performed.
Periodic analysis of the oil in a transformer (oil condition monitoring) is by far the most widely used
method for monitoring the general condition of a transformer. The condition of the oil and in
particular, of the transformers insulation systems, can be determined by taking oil samples from the
transformer for dissolved gas analysis (DGA) and other tests. The tests are comprehensively
described for example, in the IEC Standard 60296 and the Guides 60422 and 60567. The
presence of an incipient fault in a transformer will normally be detected by this means. Though, the
interpretation of the fault mechanism and its location could be more difficult to determine. [Draft IEC
61378-3 Convertor transformers - Part 3: Application guide].
Normally oil samples are taken when the transformer is energised and necessary safety
precautions should be taken. The frequency of how often the oil samples should be taken will vary
depending on the importance of the transformer. The most common frequency for oil condition
monitoring is annually. When there is suspicion of an incipient fault in progress, the oil samples
should be taken more frequently, e.g. every three months.
Improvements in the test procedure and analysis have occurred from time to time as the laboratory
test equipment and the understanding of the chemical processes occurring in transformers and
their analysis improve. An example of this is the measurement of the furfuraldehyde (FFA) content
in transformer oil samples. The magnitude of the FFA constituent present in transformer oil
samples is an important factor for assessing the ageing of the transformer insulation and indirectly
offers an assessment of transformer life expectancy [Draft IEC 61378-3 Convertor transformers -
Part 3: Application guide].
Off-line condition monitoring takes place during a transformer outage, for maintenance or when an
outage has occurred as the result of a transformer or network fault. Tests are on the transformer at
site with the transformer de-energised.
The general condition of the transformer and of the insulation systems can be determined by taking
oil samples from the transformer for dissolved gas analysis (DGA) and other tests, as described
above.
In addition, specific site tests can be performed to determine the electrical and mechanical status of
the transformer. The parameters that can be measured and used for this purpose include: [draft
IEC 61378-3 Convertor transformers - Part 3: Application guide].
• Winding resistances
• Magnetising currents
• Impedance voltages
• Dielectric loss factor
• Insulation resistance, including core and yoke clamps to earth,
• Inter-winding and winding to earth capacitance measurements.
• Dielectric response, measurement of moisture in solid insulation.
All the above tests are non-invasive with the exception possibly of the core insulation resistance
measurements. Unless the core and clamps earthing connections have been brought out for
external grounding, these particular tests may have to be made by opening the transformer to
obtain access to the connections.”

9.3.4. Inspection in energised condition
Inspection during operation shall only be performed after taking safety measures into consideration
as applicable:
• If there is a maximum indicator on the thermometer the maximum temperature should be
recorded,
• Oil levels, transformer, tap-changer,
• Check oil / water flow,
• Pressure gauges, leakage detectors,
• Surge arrester counters,
• Motor drive units counters,
• Surge arrester leakage currents,
• OLTC pressure oil filter manometers,
• Inspection for contamination, especially on bushings,
• Inspection of surface condition,
• Dehydrating breather. The silica gel shall be changed when approx. 2/3 of the silica gel has
changed from blue to red colour (old type), or from pink to white, respectively. (Conservator
type only),
• Inspection for leakages,
• Irregular noise from transformer, oil pumps, motors and cooling fans equipment
• Other irregular conditions; alarms, trips etc.
• Maintenance carried out
9.3.5. Inspection in de-energised condition

After the transformer is disconnected and properly earthed, inspection in de-energised condition
may be performed. In addition to the items listed in section 9.3.4 it is possible to inspect items that
not are visible in energised condition, typically equipment located on the transformer cover.
Further, if necessary, internal inspection of the transformer may be performed after draining the oil.

9.4. MAINTENANCE
9.4.1. General
The primary purpose of transformer maintenance is to ensure the internal and external parts of the
transformer and accessories are kept in good condition and “fit for purpose” and able to operate
safely at all times. A secondary and equally essential purpose is to maintain a historical record of
the condition of the transformer [draft IEC 61378-3 Convertor transformers - Part 3: Application
guide].
Transformer maintenance can be done periodically or as condition based maintenance. The latter
is usually the most economical way of doing maintenance. Recommended maintenance are then
done based on one or more of the following; inspections, analysis of oil samples, electrical
measurements, test of equipment, measurement of temperatures by using a heat sensitive camera,
monitoring (off-line and/or on-line).
9.4.2. Maintenance in energised condition

For personal safety reasons, only a limited amount of maintenance activities should be performed
on the transformer when it is in operation. When necessary safety precautions have been taken the
following maintenance can be done in energised condition:
• Inspection for leakages, cracks in porcelain bushings, check of auxiliary equipment etc.
• Check drying material in the dehydrating breather. (Conservator type only)
• Measurement of temperatures of joints, bushings etc. by using a heat sensitive camera
• Oil samples (Conservator type only).
9.4.3. Maintenance in de-energised condition

Before starting maintenance work, the transformer has to be disconnected from the network and
earthed. When the circuit breaker and the isolator have been opened, they shall be locked in open
position to prevent inadvertently closing during maintenance work.
Items to be considered are:
• Bushing gaskets; if leaks occur, tightening usually will help, if the gasket has lost its
elasticity, it must be replaced. The reason for loss of elasticity could be excessive heating or
aging,
• Cover gaskets, valves and gaskets of the tap changer. If there are leakages, bolt tightening
will often help,
• Welded joints. Leaking joints can be repaired only by welding. A skilled welder and a welding
instruction are required. Contact ABB for further instructions,
• Cleaning contaminated bushings (cleaning agent e.g. methylated spirit),
• Cleaning glasses on gas relay, thermometer and liquid level indicator,
• Functional inspection and testing of applicable accessories,
• Move tap changer through all positions a few times, all types of tap changers,
• Liquid sampling from bottom drain valve for larger units as required,
• Check drying material in the dehydrating breather. (Conservator type only),
• Amend surface treatment defects,
• Oil and insulation maintenance, drying and reclaiming, see section 9.4.5 page 132,
• Tap-changer maintenance, see sections 9.4.7 page 133 and 9.4.8 page 133,
• Inspection and maintenance on the active part should not be performed unless there are
unambiguous indications of defects.
In addition, for dry-type transformers:
• Inspection and e.g. vacuum cleaning as required,
• Humidity removal,
• Tightening winding supports.
In heavily contaminated installations more frequent inspections may be needed.

9.4.4. Investigation of transformer disturbances
If, during operation, the protective equipment of the transformer gives an alarm or trips the
transformer from the network, one should immediately investigate the reason for it. Studies may
reveal whether it is a question of transformer damage or some other disturbances in the system.
9.4.4.1. Fault localisation advice, dry type transformers
For oil type transformers see section 9.4.4.2 for further information. For dry-type transformers, see
table below in addition:
SYMPTOMS PROBABLE CAUSES SOLUTIONS

Presence of humidity on surface Clean with dry air.
Low insulation of windings. Ventilate.
resistance
Contamination. Ageing. Clean. Contact ABB.
Windings. Defective windings. Contact ABB.
Tap changer or bolted links.
Check that the position or
The primary voltage does not connection comply with
The automatic
coincide with the position or the primary voltage.
protection device
connection.
trips as soon as the
transformer is Fuses blows. Change fuses.
energized Fuses incorrectly calibrated Consider different rating
Protection relays.
Check timing and current
Timing and/or current is
setting.
incorrectly adjusted.
Check installation and
Primary voltage.
contact the electricity
Absence of primary voltage.
utility.
Unexpected secondary Tap changer or bolted links.
voltage Change position or
incorrectly positioned or connection.
connected.
Winding rupture. Contact ABB.
Check the connections.
Bolted links incorrectly connected Check installation and
in one of the phases. contact the electricity
utility.
Fuse has blown in one phase Change fuse.
Non-symmetrical
voltages on the Winding rupture Contact ABB.
secondary side L.V. installation
Non-symmetrical load on the Check L.V. installation.
secondary side.
No voltage applied in one of the Contact the electricity
phases on the primary side utility
Triggering and alarm incorrectly
Check settings.
set.
Check thermometer
Incorrect thermometer operation.
Spurious triggering Defect Pt100 sensors or Check sensors or
during operation thermistors. thermistors.
Fuse Blown fuse Change fuse.
Relays Incorrect timing. Check timing.

Remove the failure in the

Triggering of the Short circuit in the system on the system
overcurrent relay or secondary side
blown HV fuses during
operation Perforation of insulating material. Contact ABB
Failure in the transformer Contact ABB

Triggering of differential
relay during operation Failure in current transformers Check current
feeding the relay transformers
Check ventilation of
Insufficient ventilation. High
premises. Consider
ambient temperature.
installation of cooling fans
Consider load reduction
or installation of a
Transformer overloaded
transformer with higher
Abnormal operating power rating
temperature. Local heating at the transformer Clean contact surfaces
terminals and retighten
Check the current-
carrying capacity of the
Excessive cable heating cable. Consider
installation arrangement
and the size of the cable.
High voltage to earth Earth failure on one phase Remove failure
Supply voltage higher than Change bolted links
presupposed connection.
Loose accessories or elements Retighten.
Install sound damping
High acoustical sound panels. Place the
level Reflection from walls and other transformer in non-parallel
elements. direction to the walls. Use
damping pads below the
transformer
Low frequency Contact electricity utility
Smoke Insulation failure Contact ABB

NOTE: Contact specialists before inspection, adjustment and repair of vital parts.
Observe guarantee conditions.
9.4.4.2. Fault localisation advices oil immersed transformers

The table below includes all types of oil immersed transformers.

Low insulation
Earth fault. Oil deficency Contact ABB.
resistance
Check installation and
Primary voltage.
contact the electricity
Absence of primary voltage.
utility.
Unexpected secondary
Tap changer or bolted links
voltage Change position or
incorrectly positioned or
connection.
connected.
Winding rupture. Contact ABB.
Blown fuse in one phase Change fuse

Non-symmetrical Check the connections.
voltages on the Bolted links incorrectly connected Check installation and
secondary side in one of the phases. contact the electricity
utility.
Winding rupture Contact ABB.
L.V. installation
Non-symmetrical load on the Check L.V. installation.
secondary side.
No voltage applied in one of the Contact the electricity
phases on the primary side utility
Short circuit in the system on the Remove the failure in the
Triggering of the over- secondary side system
current relay
Winding rupture Contact ABB
Internal failure in the transformer Contact ABB
Triggering of differential
relay during operation Failure in current transformers Check current
feeding the relay transformers
Triggering and alarm incorrectly
Check settings.
set.
Check thermometer
Incorrect thermometer operation
Spurious triggering Defect Pt100 sensors or Check sensors or

during operation thermistors. thermistors.
Relays incorrect timing. Check timing.
Short circuit in the control system Remove the failure in the
on the secondary side control system
Abnormal operating Local heating at the transformer Clean contact surfaces

temperature measured terminals and retighten
by thermography. Excessive cable heating Undersized cables
Check ventilation of
Insufficient ventilation. High
premises. Consider
ambient temperature.
installation of cooling fans
Consider load reduction
or installation of a
Winding and/or Top-oil Transformer overloaded
transformer with higher
thermometer alarm
power rating
and/or trip
Reduced oil, water or air Check oil, water and air
circulation circulation
Too high oil temperature Reduce load.
Too high water temperature Reduce load.
Measurement of
unexpected voltage to Earth failure on one phase Remove failure
earth.
Supply voltage higher than Reduce supply voltage or
High acoustical sound presupposed change position on
level tapchanger
Loose accessories or elements Retighten.
Install sound damping
panels. Place the
Reflection from walls and other transformer in non-parallel
elements. direction to the walls. Use
damping pads below the
transformer

Low frequency Contact electricity utility
Oil circulation too low Open valves in oil circuit
Oil flow trip Oil pump protection Check oil pump and
protection
De-energize the
transformer.
If the captured gas is
Gas-bubbles caused by local
inflammable:
overheating
Carry out dissolved gas
analysis (DGA)
Buchholz-gas relay Contact ABB
alarm
If the captured gas is not

Gas-bubbles caused by inflammable:
incomplete bleeding Bleed the transformer
properly and energize.

Arcing in active part analysis (DGA)
Contact ABB
Adjust oil level and repair

Buchholz-gas relay trip leakages.
Welding on the
Oil level too low transformer is only
allowed if the transformer
is filled by oil / inert gas
(nitrogen)
Adjust oil level.
Repair leakages if any.
Oil level indicator: Welding on the
Alarm high level or Incorrect oil level. transformer is only
Trip low level allowed if the transformer
is filled by oil / inert gas
(nitrogen)
Increase water flow,
Water flow switch /
Too low water flow clean water
indicator alarm
circuit / cooler
Reduce water pressure,
Pressure differential Pressure difference oil / water
check water flow, clean
relay alarm less than 0.03 bar
water circuit / cooler
Leakage detector Repair / change the
Leakage in cooler
alarm cooler
On load tap-changer Sudden pressure rise Inspection / repair of tap-
protective relay trip tap-changer compartment changer diverter switch
Check tap-changer,
On load tap-changer
Operation of tap-changer failed interlocking and
out of step trip
synchronism

Pressure relief device
Sudden pressure rise transformer analysis (DGA)
trip
Contact ABB
Gas monitoring alarm Gas-detection analysis (DGA)
Contact ABB.

NOTE: Contact specialists before inspection, adjustment and repair of vital parts.
Observe guarantee conditions.
9.4.4.3. Recording of disturbances

• Date and time of the occurrence,
• Data for installed overvoltage protection,
• Network data, were connections or other relevant things made when the disturbance took
place; what was the loading like; possible relay operations which took place elsewhere in the
network (e.g. earth fault relay),
• Weather data (thunderstorm, rain, etc.),
• Is the gas relay filled with gas: colour and quality?
• Is oil sooty?
• Thermometer readings,
• Were coolers or tank damaged?
• Are there visible marks of arcing on e.g. the bushings, cover or conservator?
• In case of dry-type transformers, are there humidity, contamination or visible marks of arcing
on windings, cleats and leads?
• Gas-in-oil analysis for LDT units and power transformers?
• Any other observation.
9.4.4.4. Function of transformer protective equipment
Operation of some protective equipment such as gas relay or differential relay does not always
mean that the transformer is damaged.
The gas relay can operate for example when:
An air bubble has been left under the transformer cover. An air bubble is colourless and
odourless.
A short-circuit current has passed the transformer. No gas bubbles.
However if the gas has colour or smell, the transformer is damaged.
9.4.4.5. Measurements
In addition to the above instructions, the following inspection measurements can be carried out:
• Insulation resistance.
To obtain reliable results, the insulators have to be dry, clean and overvoltage protection
(surge arresters, RC-networks) has to be disconnected from the transformer.
• No-load current measurement by means of a variable low voltage source.
The voltage during measurement should gradually be increased. The measured current
should be compared with the no-load current measured in the delivery test.
For higher voltages on the low-voltage side of the transformer the measured current will be
in the range of a few milliamperes for a sound transformer,
• Voltage ratio,
• DC resistances of windings should be compared with the DC resistance measured during
delivery test. The temperature when the measurements were made must be considered.

9.4.5. Transformer liquid and insulation
The task of oil in a transformer is to act as an electrical insulation and to transfer heat from the
transformer’s active parts into coolers. Oil acts as a good electrical insulation only as long as it is
satisfactorily dry and clean.
Moisture balance between the oil and the solid insulation implies that most of the moisture will
gather in the paper insulation.
Moisture in insulation is one of the dominant ageing accelerators. It is recommended to dry the
insulation when the moisture exceeds a certain level. Drying of the insulation and oil is
recommended for large distribution and power transformers since this can be technically and
economically motivated. Equipment for drying transformers at site is available and the residual
moisture in the insulation will be less than 1% after drying with low frequency heating equipment.
During drying the transformer has to be de-energised. Drying time can vary from one to two weeks
depending on the transformer size, amount of insulation and initial moisture level in the insulation.
Testing of oil in transformers should normally be performed 12 months after filling or refilling,
subsequently annually on large distribution and power transformers. ABB offers different tests and
analyses of oil samples depending of transformer type, size, service record and strategic
importance for safe electricity supply.
Testing of oil in on load tap changers must be performed according to the tap changer supplier’s
recommendations.
To take oil samples from hermetically sealed transformers is normally not necessary, and should
only be performed after consultation with ABB. The oil in this type of transformers is not in contact
with the atmosphere, and less exposed to moisture.
Especially for large distribution and power transformers, oil regeneration/reclaiming of oil may be
technically and economically motivated. Reclaiming implies filtering, de-gassing, removal of ageing
by-products and addition of inhibitor if required. Reclaiming of oil is performed with the transformer
in service (operation). The transformer is only de-energised for a few hours when the equipment is
connected and disconnected from the transformer. If the oil is in good condition, except from
particles present in the oil, filtering can be recommended for removal of the particles.
Often it is recommended to do both drying and reclaiming on the same transformer. Done at the
right time, recommended by the supplier, i.e. before the degradation of oil and insulation has gone
too far, the lifetime of the transformer can be extended with several years.
9.4.6. Bushings and joints

The porcelain insulators of transformer bushings ought to be cleaned during service interruptions
as often as necessary. This is particularly important for places exposed to contamination and
moisture.
Methylated spirit or easily evaporating cleaning agents can be used for cleaning.
The condition of external conductor and bus bar joints of transformer bushings shall be checked at
regular intervals because reduced contact pressure in the joints leads to overheated bushings etc.
and may cause the adjacent gasket to be destroyed by the heat. A heat sensitive camera can be
used to check the temperatures in joints, bushings etc.
Maintenance of HV condenser bushings shall be performed according to the instructions given by
the bushing supplier.

9.4.7. Off-circuit tap changer
The transformation ratio can be adjusted with an off-circuit tap changer when the transformer is not
energised.
The control shaft of the off-circuit tap changer is brought through the cover or the tank wall. The
shaft end is provided with a handle, position indicator and locking device. When the tap changer is
turned the locking device must be secured, because that assures that the off-circuit tap changer
has been set to operating position.
Off-circuit tap changers do normally not require regular maintenance, but it is recommended that
the off-circuit tap changer is moved from one extreme position to the other a few times during
service interruption. This is necessary especially when the tap changer is moved infrequently.
Moving from one position to another is performed either manually by a hand wheel or by a motor
drive unit.
Total expected lifetime depends on the number of operations, normal current etc. Inspection /
maintenance of tap-changers must only be carried out by trained and experienced personnel. See
supplier’s documentation provided.
For dry-type transformers the off-circuit tap changing is generally done by means of bolted links.
9.4.8. On-load tap-changer

Maintenance of on load tap-changer shall be performed according to the instructions given by the
supplier of the tap-changer.
Reference should be made to IEC 60214 (Tap-changers) and IEC 60542 (Application guide for on-
load tap-changers) and especially to the tap-changer manufacturers operation and maintenance
instructions. In addition, it is strongly recommended that only suitably trained personnel should
undertake OLTC examination and maintenance [IEC 61378-3 Convertor transformers - Part 3:
Application guide].
On-load tap-changers have to be maintained regularly. Maintenance interval and total expected
lifetime depends on number of operations, normal current, if oil filtering unit is provided etc.
9.4.9. Motor drive unit

Motor drive units have to be maintained regularly. Maintenance interval and total expected lifetime
depends on number of operations. Only trained and experienced personnel must carry out
maintenance of motor drive units. See supplier’s documentation provided.
9.4.10. Oil filtering unit

The paper filter in the oil-filtering unit for the on-load tap-changer has to be changed when pressure
loss has reached approximately 4 bars on the pressure gauge. See the supplier’s documentation.
9.4.11. Coolers
Coolers are cleaned by means of e.g. brushing inside the water tubes or air side vacuum cleaning
when necessary. Need for cleaning is indicated by increased pressure loss, decreased
temperature-difference oil/water/air in/out, increased transformer temperature, decreased water
flow etc. See the supplier’s documentation.
9.4.12. Liquid conservator with rubber diaphragm

The system consisting of oil conservator with rubber sack does normally not require any other
maintenance than inspection of the silica gel breather. The silica gel shall be changed when
approx. 2/3 of the silica gel has changed from blue to red colour (old type of silica gel) or from pink
to white, respectively.

9.4.13. Gaskets
The gaskets of the cover and flanges, as well as between bushings and cover, are usually made of
liquid resistant vulcanised cork sheet, nitrile rubber or silicone sealant.
If the gaskets are leaking, leaks can usually be sealed by tightening the screws (bolts).
When these gaskets have to be replaced, it is recommended to contact ABB.
Liquid resistant rubber rings are used as gasket for bushing bolts, shafts and spindles. All these
gaskets can be tightened and replaced from outside the tank.
When tightening the gaskets special care must be taken to prevent the breaking of screws (bolts)
or the gasket “floats away” (if not in a groove) caused by the heavy pressure. In particular stud nuts
must be tightened very carefully.
9.4.14. Dry-type transformers

Dust and dirt on the transformer leads to reduced dialectical strength and cooling due to different
environmental conditions where ventilated dry type transformers are installed. A periodic program
for cleaning should be established for each installation. Horizontal surfaces should be cleaned with
a vacuum cleaner. Coils cooling ducts should be cleaned using dry compressed air or nitrogen
(maximum pressure 3 bar).
If the transformer is installed in an enclosure, the enclosure should be cleaned like switchgear
cubicles. Dust accumulation on the enclosure ventilation opening is an indication that an internal
inspection should be made.
In addition to cleaning the following should also be carried out during the inspection:
• The condition of external bolted electrical connections shall be checked and retightened.
• Loose winding clamps shall be retightened.
• The function of all warning devices shall be checked.
• Cooling fans shall be cleaned like the transformer. Afterwards, check their function and
operation.
9.4.15. Surface protection

9.4.15.1. Painted surfaces
When repairing damaged paint, the points to be repainted should be cleaned from rust, dirt and
grease before priming with a zinc rich primer prior to top coat paint. The final paint thickness should
at least be equal to the original paint thickness.
By major paint damages contact with a specialised surface coating company is recommended.
9.4.15.2. Zinc coated surfaces
Zinc coated surfaces have a self-repairing, passivating, characteristic. Small damages as scratches
do normally not need repairing. Larger areas, above 50 mm2, may need repair. After thoroughly
cleaning apply zinc-rich (between 65-69% zinc by weight, or >92% by weight metallic zinc in dry
film) paint to at least the same thickness as the original zinc coating. Do not remove any original
zinc during cleaning. The paint may be one-component (preferred) or two-component.

10. DISPOSAL AFTER USE
Scrapped transformers may harm the environment, they may, however, also represent a value if
treated correspondingly.
Some transformer owners prefer to scrap used transformers themselves.
If not, ABB have agreements with local waste processing plants and may dispose of used
transformers taking sustainable development into consideration.
Material disposal technology is continuously improving, thus the salvage value of a transformer
is expected to increase in the future. Transformers acquired today may after service life, e.g.
20 years, represent a higher value than those scrapped today. It is also expected that materials
which today are not recyclable may be treated differently in the future.
10.1. LOCAL REGULATIONS

Local regulations shall always be adhered to in disposing used transformers. Local authorities may
give guidance; also Internet community home pages may give advice.
If in doubt the local ABB Company can assist.
10.2. REUSE
Transformers contain valuable materials, which may be reused either as is or after reprocessing.
Examples are:
• Copper,
• Aluminium,
• Oil,
• Steel.
Insulation material, pressboard and paper, represent energy.
10.3. LANDFILL
Materials not re-circulated go to landfill or energy production. The landfill portion of the transformer
should be minimized.
10.4. LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA)

The environmental impact of transformers may be divided into five life cycle categories:
1. Raw material extraction, manufacturing and transport
2. Transformer production
3. Transport to site
4. Energy losses during service
5. Disposal after use
LCA calculations show that categories 1, 2 and 3 are negligible compared to 4.
A part of category 1 is regained during disposal, provided reuse of materials or energy extraction.
Life cycle assessment shows that the dominating environmental impact during a transformers life is
energy losses during service. The total losses consist of load losses and no load losses, both are
significant. The relation between load and no load losses depends on the transformer loading.
The lifetime energy losses are one of the reasons why ABB recommends an energy-effective
transformer layout, see section 4 page 62.
10.5. PCB-Contaminated oil

PCB was used in many ways and was included in several different products, including transformer
and condenser oil, however it is harmful to the environment and develops cancer-causing dioxides
during normal combustion. The use of PCB is now prohibited.
Not all ABB transformer manufacturers used PCB, and those who did, stopped using it long before
the factories were acquired by ABB.
ABB can assist in the disposal of PCB-contaminated oil.

11. PHYSICAL FUNDAMENTALS
11.1. INTRODUCTION
A transformer is a static device with two or more windings that are linked to each other by means of
a strong magnetic field. Transformers are designed for specific purposes, such as the
measurement of voltage and current, or the transfer of signals or electric power. The design
requirements of transformers depend on the application. In measurement transformers, the
quantity measured must be transferred from the primary circuit to the secondary as exactly as
possible, while in signal transformers the signal must be transferred with a minimum of distortion.
This text concentrates on power transformers, where the main requirement is that it shall transfer a
certain amount of electric power at a constant frequency while the voltage is being changed from
one level to another with a minimum of power losses.
11.2. CHOICE OF SYSTEM VOLTAGE

Large power stations where the electric energy is generated are often situated far away from the
numerous places where the electric energy is consumed. The need for high voltage levels in
electric power transmission is illustrated in the following.
The power loss p in a 3-phase transmission line with a resistance R per phase and a current I
flowing in each phase is:
p = 3 ⋅ R ⋅ I2 (W) (1)
At a system voltage U the transmitted active power is:
P = 3 ⋅ U ⋅ I ⋅ cos ϕ (W) (2)

Equation (2) can be rewritten as:
P
I= (A) (3)
3 ⋅ U ⋅ cos ϕ
Inserted in the equation (1) gives:
R
p = P2 (W) (4)
U 2 ⋅ cos 2 ϕ
Equation (4) indicates that the power loss in the line is proportional to the square of the transmitted
active power and inversely proportional to the square of the system voltage.
In other words, the power loss will be lower when the system voltage is increased.
The choice of system voltage is a matter of economic balance. A high system voltage reduces the
transmission losses, but on the other side it requires more expensive lines, cables and
transformers.
Several hundreds of kilovolts are used for lines transporting large quantities of electric power over
long distances. Closer to the consumers the power is distributed at lower voltage levels. The
voltage is taken down in several steps. While generator transformers are step-up transformers, the
distribution transformers are normally step-down transformers. The power rating of distribution
transformers is usually lower the closer to the consumer the transformers are situated.
11.3. BASIC PHYSICS OF THE TRANSFORMER

The function of a transformer is mainly based on two physical phenomena.
One of them is the electromagnetic induction, which was discovered by Faraday in the 1830’s. The
induction law was formulated by Neumann in 1845.
Consider a loop of a conducting material enclosing a magnetic field Φ. If a change ∆Φ takes place
during a short time-interval ∆t, a voltage will be induced which will drive a current around in the
loop. The induced voltage ui is proportional to the quotient ∆Φ/ ∆t, or more correctly written on
differential form:
dΦ
ui = (V) (5)
dt

This is the scalar value of the induced voltage. To indicate also the direction of the induced voltage,
the induction law is written as:
dΦ
ui = − (V) (6)
dt
where the minus sign indicate that ui has the
direction that it will drive a current through the loop, which sets up a magnetic field with the
opposite direction of the change dΦ. In other words, the induced current strives to resist any
change in the magnetic field. When the flux increases, the induced current has the direction that
gives a flux with a direction opposite the direction of Φ. When the flux decreases, the induced
current has the direction that gives a flux with a direction in phase with Φ.
Figure 11-1
If the loop is replaced by a coil with N number of series-connected turns, the same induced voltage
will take place in each of the turns. The voltage induced in the whole coil will then be:
dΦ
ui = −N ⋅ (V) (7)
dt
The other physical phenomenon is that a conductor carrying an electrical current is surrounded by
a magnetic field.
H
I
Figure 11-2
To create a magnetic field that varies in time in a transformer a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the
primary winding which creates a magnetising current.
The windings are made as concentric shells around a central core of laminated steel plates, which
is formed as a closed loop for the magnetic field. Due to the magnetic properties of the steel the
magnetic flux will be several thousand times higher than it would have been without the steel core,
which makes the magnetic coupling between the windings strong.

When the terminals of the secondary winding are open, the relation between the applied voltage on
the primary side and the output voltage on the secondary side is the same as the relation between
the number of turns in the primary winding and the secondary winding respectively:
U1 N
= 1 (8)
U2 N2
or
N2
U 2 = U1 ⋅ (V) (9)
N1
When the secondary winding is loaded, the voltage ratio may differ considerably from the turn ratio
(see 6.5.), while the ratio between the primary and secondary currents fulfils the equation:
I1 ⋅ N1 = I 2 ⋅ N 2 (10)
with a deviation of one percent or less.
11.4. EQUIVALENT DIAGRAM

A simple equivalent diagram for the transformer can be drawn based on two measurements on the
transformer, one in no load and one in short-circuited condition.
I2
Z0 U20 U2 ZL
Figure 11-3
In no load condition (open secondary terminals) the total magnetising current and the active power
consumption are measured at rated voltage. The current has one dominant inductive component
and one smaller active component. These can be calculated from the measurements, and the real
and the imaginary components of transformer’s no load impedance Z0 can be found. This
impedance is not constant but will vary non-linearly with the applied voltage due to the non-linearity
of the magnetisation curve. The real part of Z0 represents the no load losses.
The other impedance in the diagram, Z, is found by short-circuiting the secondary terminals and
applying a voltage at the primary side. The current in the windings during this measurement shall
be equal to the rated current. To achieve this current an applied voltage of just a fraction of the
rated voltage will be sufficient. This voltage is called the short-circuit voltage and is usually
expressed as a percentage of the rated voltage. The impedance of the circuit is given by the
quotient of the short-circuit voltage divided by the rated current. The circuit is a parallel connection
of Z0 and Z. Because Z0>>Z the impedance of the parallel connection is equal to Z with a negligible
difference. The real part of Z represents the load losses of the transformer, and the imaginary part
is attributed to the magnetic leakage field. That is the part of the magnetic field, which is situated
outside the core.
11.5. VOLTAGE RATIO AND VOLTAGE DROP (OR RISE)

The voltage ratio of a transformer is normally specified in no load condition and is directly
proportional to the ratio of the number of turns in the windings.
When the transformer is loaded, the voltage on the secondary terminals changes from that in no
load condition, depending on
• the angle φ between the voltage on the secondary terminals of the transformer U2 and the
secondary current I2
• the value of the secondary current I2
• the short-circuit impedance of the transformer Z and its active and reactive components,
r and ±jx respectively

At no load the secondary voltage is U20. With the load ZL connected, the voltage at the secondary
terminals changes to U2. The corresponding vector diagram is shown in Figure 4. In the following
considerations symmetrical loading is assumed. The influence of the small magnetising current
(usually in the magnitude of 1% of the rated current) is negligible.
∆U2
φ
U20 ux φ
ur
I2
U2
Figure 11-4
From the vector diagram in Figure 11-4 the following relationship appears:
(V) (11)
∆U2 = I2 ⋅ r ⋅ cos ϕ + I2 ⋅ x ⋅ sin ϕ + U 20 − U220 − (I2 ⋅ r ⋅ sin ϕ − I2 ⋅ x ⋅ cos ϕ)
2
∆U2 is the voltage drop, the arithmetic difference between U20 and U2. ur and ux are the active and
the reactive short-circuit voltages at rated current related to the rated voltage U20.
To calculate the relative voltage drop at any relative loading n (see (13)) equation (11) can be
rewritten as
∆U2 (12)
= n(ur cos ϕ + ux sin ϕ) + 1 − 1 − n2 (ur sin ϕ − ux cos ϕ)
2
U20
I2 (13)
n=
I 2N
Example: n = 1 ur = 0,01 ux = 0,06 cosφ = 0,8 inductive

∆U 2 (14)
= 1 ⋅ (0,01 ⋅ 0,8 + 0,06 ⋅ 0.6 ) + 1 − 1 − 12 ⋅ (0,01 * 0,6 − 0,06 ⋅ 0,8 ) = 0,045
2
U 20
∆U 2 = 0,045 ⋅ U 20 (V) (15)
U 2 = U 20 − ∆U 2 = (1 − 0,045 ) ⋅ U 20 = 0.955 ⋅ U 20 (V) (16)
In other words, when a transformer with these values for ur and ux is loaded with rated current with
a power factor of 0,8 inductive the voltage on the secondary terminals decreases to 95,5% of the
voltage at no load.

1,15
1,1
U2/U20 1,05
1
n=0,5
0,95 n=1
n=1,3
0,9
0,85
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
Angle ϕ (degrees) of loading current
Figure 11-5
Figure 11-5 shows an example of how the secondary voltage varies with various angles of ϕ and
load currents for the particular values ur = 0,74% and ux = 10 %. Negative angles of ϕ mean
lagging (inductive) load current. Positive angles of ϕ mean leading (capacitive) load current.
Note that at angle φ above a certain positive value the secondary voltage increases compared to
voltage at no load.
0,99
0,98
0,97
0,96
U2/U20
0,95
Powerfactor=1
0,94
Powerfactor=0,9
0,93 Powerfactor=0,8
Powerfactor=0,7
0,92
0,91
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
ux %
Figure 11-6
Figure 11-6 shows another example of how the secondary voltage may vary at various values of
the short circuit reactance ux and of cosφ. In general the secondary voltage decreases with
increasing ux. Note that for example at ux=10 % and cosφ=0,8 the secondary voltage has dropped
to 93% of the no load voltage.

The voltage drop is due to the consumption of active and reactive power in the transformer.
According to the IEC definitions (see clause 4.1 of IEC 60076-1) it is implied that the rated power of
a two-winding transformer is the input power. The output power differs from the rated power.
This is different from the definition in ANSI/IEEE, which states that the output power shall be equal
to the rated power, and that the voltage applied on the primary side shall be adjusted to
compensate for the voltage drop (or rise) in the transformer.
Users and installation planners are recommended to take the variation of the secondary voltage
during loading into account when specifying the transformer data. This may be especially important
for example in a case where a large motor represents the main load of the transformer. The highly
inductive starting current of the motor may then be considerably higher than the rated current of the
transformer. Consequently there may be a considerable voltage drop through the transformer. If
the feeding power source is weak, this will contribute to an even lower voltage on the secondary
side of the transformer.
The power factors (cosϕ) in Figure 11-5 are inductive. Both Figure 11-5 and Figure 11-6 indicate
that the voltage drop in the transformer decreases when the power factor increases. A low voltage
drop increases the efficiency of the transformer.
11.6. Efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer is calculated according to:
1
η% = ⋅ 100
P + PL ⋅ n 2
1+ 0
P2 ⋅ n
where
P0 is the no load loss k(W) at rated voltage
PL is the load loss (kW) at rated current
P2 is the active power (kW) supplied to the load
n is the relative degree of loading. At rated current n=1.
P2 is calculated according to:

∆U 2
P2 = 3 ⋅ I2 ⋅ U 20 ⋅ (1 − ) ⋅ cos ϕ
U 20
Example:
1600 kVA transformer
P0=1,560 kW PL=11,900 kW uz= 5,7% n=1 cosϕ=0,8 η=98,92%
cosϕ=1,0 η=99,16%
The efficiency of transformers is in general quite high.
11.7. NO LOAD (MAGNETISING) CURRENT AND NO LOAD LOSSES

The no load current and no load losses are attributed to the core and the special magnetic
properties of the core steel.
Ferromagnetic materials are characterised by their particular high relative permeability, up to 280
000. This means that a relatively small number of magnetising ampereturn per meter length of the
magnetic flux lines is required to obtain a strong magnetic field, which gives a strong coupling
between the windings of a transformer.
Unlike the permeability of other materials, which have constant permeability, a diagram is
necessary to describe the permeability of ferromagnetic materials, see Figure 11-7.
When a sinusoidal ac voltage is applied to the terminals of a transformer winding, a magnetising
current will flow through the winding and a magnetic flux will float in the core. The magnetic flux will
also be of sinusoidal shape, lagging 90 degrees after the applied voltage. The magnetising current
will not be sinusoidal but considerably distorted.
Figure 11-7 shows corresponding values of magnetic flux and magnetising current during one cycle
of the applied voltage. Starting at point a in the diagram, where the flux density and the
magnetising current have their maximum negative value. When the magnetising current and the

magnetic flux proceed towards smaller negative values, they follow the curve from a to b. At point b
the magnetising current is zero, but there is still remaining a magnetic flux in the core. This flux is
called the remanent magnetic flux.
When proceeding further along the curve to the right in the diagram the magnetising force changes
to positive direction. At point c the flux density in the core becomes zero. This value of the
magnetising force is called the coercive force.
Increasing the magnetising force further from point c, a flux in the positive direction starts to flow in
the core. At point d the current and the flux start to decrease. However, as these values decrease,
they follow the curve to the left rather than to the right.
T=Vs/m2
d
B
e
f c
H
A/m
Figure 11-7
At point e the current has decreased to zero. And again there is a remanent flux floating in the
core, this time with the opposite direction compared to the remanent flux at point b. Increasing the
current now in the negative direction, the flux decreases further and becomes zero at point f. From
point f on the flux changes direction and increases in the negative direction until it reaches point a.
Now one cycle of the applied voltage is completed.
The physical explanation for the described course of events is, expressed in the following simplified
way, a ferromagnetic material has numerous small magnets attached to its crystalline molecular
structure. Within certain domains these magnets have the same orientation. In the original state of
the material these domains are randomly orientated, and the magnetic field from each of them
practically cancels each other so there is no resulting magnetic field.
If the material is placed in an external magnetic field, this will have an impact on the orientation of
the domains. As the external field is increasing, more and more of the domains will change their
direction so the direction of their magnetic field coincides with the direction of the external field.
If the external field gradually decreases, more and more domains will slide out of the orientation
they obtained due to the external field. But when the external field has disappeared, there will still
be a considerable number of domains, which remain in the same direction as they were under the
influence of the foregoing external field.
Exposed to an increasing external field of opposite direction, more and more domains will change
orientation. At a certain value of the external field, the orientation of the domains will be so mixed
that there is no resulting magnetic field from them. Further increase of the external field will cause
more and more domains to change their direction gradually so the direction of their magnetic field
coincides with the new direction of the external field.
Due to the many magnetic domains that become unidirectional, the total magnetic field will be
thousands of times higher than the original external field that directed the domains.

Reorientation of the domains is a gradual process that requires some time. This is the reason why
the magnetic flux lags behind the magnetizing force, which the diagram in Figure 11-7 illustrates.
This diagram is called the hysteresis loop. The word hysteresis comes from the Greek hystereo =
lag behind.
The hysteresis loop illustrates also that the slope of the curve decreases with increasing
magnetizing force. At a certain flux density the slope of the curve will become equal to µ0, the
permeability of air.
This means that no further increase in the magnetic flux can be obtained from the ferromagnetic
material. All the domains have now aligned their field with the external field. This is called magnetic
saturation. For the best commercially available core material today the saturation flux density is
slightly above 2,0 Tesla (Vs/m2).
The permeability is equal to the slope of the hysteresis loop. Because this slope varies during a
cycle of the applied voltage, the permeability is not a constant but varies during the cycle and
varies also with the peak value of the flux density.
To turn the direction of the magnetic domains requires a supply of active energy. The required
energy is represented by the area within the hysteresis loop, which has the unit of Ws/m3 of core
material. The supplied energy changes to heat, which increases the temperature of the core. One
could imagine that there is friction present in the material when the domains turn around. The
supplied energy appears as losses in the transformer. They are called hysteresis losses, and they
are proportional to the frequency. At 50 Hz the hysteresis loop is run through 50 times per second.
The hysteresis losses per second will then be 50 times the area of the loop. The loop can be
displayed on the screen of an oscilloscope.
Materials with a narrow hysteresis loop, that is low coercive force, have low hysteresis losses.
As mentioned previously, the no load current is not sinusoidal.
Figure 11-8
Figure 11-8 shows a typical shape of this current, which can be constructed from the hysteresis
loop. It has a short peak value due to the low slope of the magnetising curves (the right and the left
strings of the hysteresis loop) at high flux densities. It is non-symmetrical on the two sides of the
peak value due to the width of the hysteresis loop.
The no load current measured at the delivery test and noted in the test report is the r.m.s.-value of
the non-sinusoidal no load current. For three-phase transformers the average value for the three
phases is noted.
Eddy current losses
Another component of the no load losses is the eddy current losses. The time-variable magnetic
flux induces currents running in paths perpendicular to the direction of the flux. These currents
produce losses in the core plates. These losses can be calculated by means of the following
formula:

P0 eddy = 1 ⋅ σ ⋅ ω 2 ⋅ d 2 ⋅ B 2 ⋅ V (W) (17)
24
where
σ is the conductivity of the core material
ω is the angular frequency
d is the thickness of the core plates
B is the peak value of the flux density
V is the volume of the core
The formula deserves some comments. It appears that the eddy current losses are proportional to
the conductivity of the core material. In modern core plate a few percents of silicon is alloyed to
reduce the conductivity and the eddy current losses. But if the silicon content exceeds a certain
limit, the material will be difficult to roll, slit and cut.
The eddy current losses are proportional to the square of the thickness of the plates. The choice of
plate thickness is a matter of economic balance between the capitalised value of the losses and
manufacturing costs. In practice the thickness is normally within the range 0,23 – 0,30 mm.
Anomalous losses
For the sake of completeness there is a third component in the no load losses which is called
anomalous losses that have been ascribed to a diffusion phenomena in the crystal grid of the
material.
The traditional way to measure the specific total losses in core steel expressed in W per kg core
steel has been by means of the Epstein frame. This is a quadratic frame made of the laminated
core steel to be investigated. The method is described in IEC 60404-2 (1996-03) Magnetic
materials – Part 2: Methods of measurement of the magnetic properties of electrical steel sheet
and strip by means of an Epstein frame.
It is relatively laborious and time consuming to prepare the samples for the Epstein measurement.
In order to establish a quicker method that facilitates measurements on a higher number of
samples, single sheet testers were developed. This makes it possible to state average and
variability values with higher statistical confidence.
In single sheet testers a magnetic field is created that is applied perpendicular to the surface of the
sample sheet at one end, floats along the length of the sheet and goes out again perpendicular to
the surface again at the other end. The method is standardised and described in IEC 60404-3
(2002-10) Ed. 2.1 Magnetic materials – Part 3: Methods of measurement of the magnetic
properties of magnetic sheet and strip by means of a single sheet tester.
The no load losses in a transformer core in W per kg core steel will normally be higher than the
values obtained from test samples in a laboratory. There are several reasons for this.
Modern low loss core steel is quite sensitive to mechanical strain and treatment. The large number
of thin core plates must be kept together by means of a certain pressure, which also may be
unevenly distributed along the core limbs and yokes. The joints between limbs and yokes where
the flux direction changes may not be perfect due to tolerances in the manufacturing. Particularly
the joints between limbs and the upper yoke are critical because the plates of the upper yoke are
more or less forced down after the core is raised and the windings are assembled on the limbs.
Burrs at the edges of the core plates influence the losses unfavourably. The increase in losses in a
real transformer core compared to the material measurements in laboratories is often expressed by
means of a factor called the ‘building factor’. This factor varies with the cross section area of the
core and with the design as well.
Experienced manufacturers are normally able to predict the no load losses with not more than a
few percent deviation from the measured losses. This is due to studies of the flux pattern in
transformer cores and mathematical models derived from regression analysis of the measured
losses of a large number of transformers.
Inrush currents
Inrush currents have sometimes been a problem from a protection point of view. Fuses have blown
or relays have disconnected the transformer immediately after energizing. This may create the
suspicion that there is something wrong with the transformer. An explanation of the phenomenon
will be given in the following.
The magnitude of the inrush current is a statistical variable depending on where on the sinusoidal
voltage curve the circuit breaker connects the transformer to the voltage source. The highest inrush
current occurs when the circuit breaker connects the transformer when the voltage passes through zero.

When the circuit breaker disconnects the transformer from the voltage source, there will always
remain a remanent flux in the core, unless the disconnection takes place exactly when the flux
passes zero. The remanent flux will be a statistical variable. It will be at its maximum if the
disconnection happens when the flux has its maximum. The polarity of the remanent flux may be
positive or negative.
The induction law states that the induced voltage is proportional to the time derivative of the
magnetic flux.
u = dΦ (V) (18)
dt
This can also be seen the opposite way, the magnetic flux is the time integral of the voltage:
dΦ = u ⋅ dt (Vs) (19)
Φ = ∫ u ⋅ dt (Vs) (20)
Assuming that the voltage is sinusoidal and the integral is taken over the first half cycle of the
voltage, that is from 0 to π, where 0 is the time when the circuit breaker makes and π is the time
when the voltage changes direction:
π
Φ = ∫ U ⋅ sin(ωt ) ⋅ d(ωt ) = U(− cos π − ( − cos 0)) = 2U (Vs) (21)
0
To compare this result with the situation when the circuit breaker makes at the peak value of the
voltage, the integral is taken between the limits π/2 and π.
π
Φ=
π
∫ U ⋅ sin(ωt ) ⋅ d(ωt ) = U(− cos π − (− cos π 2)) = U (Vs) (22)
2
Equation (22) complies with the situation in continuous normal service.

From equation (21) it appears that the magnetic flux reaches a value, which is twice as large as it is
in normal service if the circuit breaker makes when the voltage passes through zero. This means
that the point of magnetic saturation in the core will be exceeded. The reactance of the transformer
is then very low compared to the large reactance at normal flux. A high current will then be drawn
from the energy source. This current will be of the same magnitude and character as a short-circuit
current, and will cause considerable mechanical forces in the primary winding. The forces are
proportional to the square of the current.
If the remanent flux Φr has the same direction as the flux calculated in the foregoing the total flux
will be
Φ t = 2Φ + Φ r (Vs) (23)
which makes the inrush current even higher.
Figure 11-9
Figure 11-9 illustrates the situation. The light grey curve marked Φ’ is the magnetic flux in the
normal stationary condition.

When the voltage changes direction at π, the current will decrease. But at 2π the current will
increase again. This course of events will continue with gradually decreasing peak values of the
current. The influence of the original remanent flux will also gradually disappear. The number of
cycles before stationary normal operation is reached ranges from less than 10 cycles for small
transformers up to several minutes for larger transformers.
A sudden increased sound level that follows the same declining development as the magnetic flux
can be heard.
The statistical probability that the absolute worst case will occur is not high. In most cases electrical
connection between the two poles of the circuit breaker will be established before metallic contact
between the poles takes place because of arcing between the poles. There is higher probability
that such arching will occur when the voltage difference between the poles is in the range of the
voltage maximum than when this voltage difference is close to zero.
The short-circuit power of the feeding source has also influence on the magnitude of the inrush
current. If the short–circuit impedance of the source is high, the inrush current will cause a voltage
drop across this impedance which will reduce the voltage at the transformer terminals. It can also
be noted that the worst case only occurs in one out of the three phases.
A characteristic of the inrush current is that it contains a second harmonic component because of
asymmetrical half-cycles. Modern overcurrent relays and differential relays contain a control circuit
that reduces the sensitivity of the relay when a second harmonic in the current exists. In that way a
releasing signal from the relay to the circuit breaker is prevented during inrush current, which is a
normal physical phenomenon and not a failure.
Inrush currents tend to be higher on modern transformers compared to transformers manufactured
say 40 years ago. The reason is that modern low loss core steel allows higher flux densities in the
core without unacceptable high core temperatures as a consequence.
11.8. LOAD LOSSES

The currents floating in the windings create losses due to the resistance in the windings. They are
equal to RI2 in each of the windings, where R is the direct current winding resistance and I the
current through the winding.
The eddy current losses come in addition. The winding conductors are situated in a time-varying
magnetic field due to the current floating in the conductors themselves. See Figure 11-10. This
magnetic field creates eddy currents in the winding conductors. The consequence of the eddy
currents is that the resulting current in the conductors is unevenly distributed in the cross section of
the conductor, which in turn increases the losses.
The magnetic flux density varies also across the radial width of the winding. In a simple winding
configuration of a two-winding transformer, where the windings are situated as two concentric
shells, the flux density is highest at conductors nearest the duct between the shells. Consequently
the losses and also the temperature will highest in these conductors.
To avoid high eddy current losses the conductor dimension perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines
must be kept small. Further tall and slim windings have lower eddy current losses than low and
wide windings. However, in practise the design of a transformer is often a compromise between
different considerations, like for example short-circuit impedance and space limitations.
Because of the magnetic leakage field additional losses arise in the tank and in metal details
keeping the core and the windings firmly together.
The RI2 losses increase with the temperature while the additional losses decrease with increasing
temperature. The temperature that guaranteed losses shall be referred to is stated in the
standards.
11.9. SHORT-CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE

Users have sometimes particular requirements regarding the short-circuit impedance. Such
requirements may be determined by:
• parallel operation with existing units,
• limitation of voltage drop,
• limitation of short-circuit currents.

The transformer designer can meet the requirements in different ways:
• The size of the core cross-section. A large cross-section gives a low impedance and vice
versa,
• A tall transformer gives a low impedance and vice versa.
For each transformer there is, however, a smaller range which gives the optimum transformer from
an economic point of view, that is the lowest sum of the manufacturing costs and the capitalised
value of the losses.
Regarding smaller distribution transformers a high degree of standardisation in the manufacturing
may in certain cases constrain the designer’s ability to meet the requirements.
Short-circuit impedance Z is often expressed as uz in p.u. or in % according to the following
formulas:
u z = Ir ⋅ Z / U r p.u. (24)
u z = 100 ⋅ Ir ⋅ Z / Ur % (25)
Formulas (24) and (25) are valid for for single-phase transformers, where Ir and Ur are rated values
of current and voltage on either side of the transformer. For 3-phase transformers the nominator
must be multiplied with √3.
Based on measured short-circuit voltage the value of Zk expressed in ohm can be calculated from
the following formula:
u z% ⋅ U r u z% 2
Z= = ⋅ Ur Ω (26)
100 ⋅ Ir 100 Sr
for single phase transformers and
u z% ⋅ Ur u z% 2
Z= = ⋅ Ur Ω (27)
3 ⋅ 100 ⋅ Ir 100 Sr
for 3-phase transformers. Sr is the rated power of the transformer.

From formulas (26) and (27) it appears that Z expressed in ohm is different depending on which
side of the transformer it is referred to, because the ratio Ur/Ir or Ur2/Sr is different on each side of
the transformer, unless the turn ratio is equal to 1.
It follows that
2 2
Z 1  U r1  N 
=   =  1  (28)
Z 2  Ur 2   N2 
where the indices 1 and 2 refers to the two sides of the transformer. The relation between the
short-circuit impedance expressed in ohm referred to the two sides of the transformer is equal to
the square of the turn ratio or square of the rated voltage ratio.
Z has the active and reactive components R and jX. To find these components the load losses (PL)
are registered by means of wattmeters during the short-circuit measurement. Then
R= PL/Ir2 Ω (29)
X= Z −R
2 2
Ω (30)
The real part of the short-circuit voltage is

R ⋅ Ir
ur = p.u. (31)
Ur
R ⋅ Ir
ur% = ⋅ 100 % (32)
Ur
For three-phase transformers a factor √3 is inserted in the nominator. There is a simple relation
between ur, the load losses PL and the rated power Sr of the transformer:

R ⋅ Ir R ⋅ Ir2 P
ur = = = L p.u. (33)
Ur Ur ⋅ Ir Sr
The relation ur = PL/Sr is also valid for 3-phase transformers. The imaginary part of uz can be
calculated as
u x = u 2z − u r2 p.u.
(34)
or %
X= Z2 − R2 Ω (35)
While X0 is mainly linked to the magnetic field in the core, X is linked to magnetic leakage field,
which mainly runs through the windings and the ducts between windings.
Figure 11-10
When the transformer is energized but not loaded, the practically the whole magnetic field goes in
the core. When loading the transformer with a lagging current, a part of the magnetic field is drawn
out from the core to the core window where the windings are situated. See Figure 11-10. The
magnetic flux in the core becomes smaller. Typically for distribution transformers the high voltage is
applied to the outer winding. The secondary low voltage winding is the inner winding where the
voltage decreases.
If a capacitive load is added the resulting current decreases because the capacitive current partly
compensates the inductive current. The leakage field becomes smaller and the flux in the core
increases and makes the voltage drop on the secondary side smaller.
If the transformer is loaded with a leading current, that is a current with a resulting reactive current,
which is capacitive, this capacitive load supplies reactive power to the transformer. The magnetic
flux in the core and the secondary voltage increase.
The reactive power of the magnetic energy of the leakage field is
Q = ω ⋅ LI 2 = 2πfLI 2 = XI2 VA(r) (36)

Here I is the load current flowing in either of the windings and X the reactance in ohm referred to
same side of the transformer as I.
X can be calculated based on the geometric dimensions of the windings and the number of turns.
For a simple two-winding arrangement the formula is:
t1 + t 2 L1 + L 2
X = 4π ⋅ 10 −7 ( t 12 + ) k R N 2 ⋅ 2πf Ω (37)
3 hw
Dimensions in meter. N is the number of turns in the winding on the side to which X shall be
referred. See Figure 6-11.

⊗
IN IN hw
t1 t12 t2
Figure 11-11
In the formula (37) L1 and L2 are the mean circumference for the inner and outer windings
respectively. The formula is based on the assumption that the magnetic field lines goes vertically
along the whole height hw of the windings. This is in reality not the case. It can be seen from Figure
11-10 that some of the field lines towards the ends of the windings have an increasing horizontal or
radial component. The German professor W. Rogowski made a careful study on how to
compensate for this deviation from the assumption in the formula. The result of this study
(published early in the last century) was a correction factor
(t 1 + t 12 + t 2 )  −
πh w

kR = 1− 1 − e (t1 + t12 + t 2 )  (38)
πh w  
 
This factor has is known as the the Rogowski factor. In most practical cases its numerical value is
within the range 0,95 – 0,99. It makes the length of the leakage field duct a little longer, hw/kR
instead of hw.
The formula for ux expressed as a percentage of the rated voltage Ur is
u x = 2( t 12 +
t1 + t 2 L1 + L 2
) kR
(IN) f 10 −2
% (39)
3 hw e t 0 50
where et0 is the number of volts per turn in no load condition.
Corresponding hand formulas exist also for more complicated winding arrangements. The short-
circuit reactance or short-circuit voltage calculated by means of these formulas comply very well
with the measured values. However, for high currents an addition for the reactance in the lead
assembly must be made.
11.10. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES

IEC 60076-5 Power transformers – Part 5: Ability to withstand short circuit identifies the
requirements for transformers to sustain without damage the effects of overcurrents originated by
external short circuits.
For three-phase transformers with two separate windings, the r.m.s. value of the symmetrical short-
circuit current is calculated as:
U
I sc = kA (40)
3 ⋅ (Z + Z s )
Where Zs is the short-circuit impedance of the system.
U 2s
Zs = In ohms per phase (equivalent star connection) (41)
S

Where
Us is the rated voltage of the system, in kilovolts (kV);
S is the short-circuit apparent power of the system, in megavoltamperes (MVA).
U and Z are defined as follows:
U is the rated voltage Ur of the winding under consideration, in kilovolts (kV)
Z is the short-circuit impedance of the transformer referred to the winding under
consideration; it is calculated as follows:
u z ⋅ Ur2 In ohms per phase (equivalent

Z= (42)
100 ⋅ S r star connection)
where
us is the measured short-circuit impedance at rated current and frequency at reference
temperature, as a percentage;
Sr is the rated power of the transformer, in megavoltamperes (MVA).
The duration of the symmetrical short-circuit current must be limited to avoid excessive
overheating. According to IEC 60076-5 the duration shall be 2s, unless otherwise agreed between
purchaser and supplier. During this time the temperature in the windings shall not exceed certain
values given in IEC 60076-5, when calculated by means of formulas given in the standard.
Another aspect of the short circuit topic is the mechanical forces in the windings due to
overcurrents. Unlike temperatures that need some time to rise, the mechanical forces follow the
current instantaneously. The first cycles of a short-circuit current are asymmetric with respect to the
time axis. The degree of asymmetry depends on point of the sinusoidal voltage curve where the
short-circuit occurs. The degree of asymmetry is a statistical variable with its maximum when the
short-circuit occurs in the range where the voltage passes through zero and its minimum in the
range where the voltage has its peak value. This will be demonstrated in the following.
R X
Û sin( ωt + α )
i(t
Figure 11-12
Consider the circuit in Figure 11-12. Assume that the switch makes at the instant t = 0, thus
simulating a short-circuit. The current i(t) is expressed by the following equation:
i( t ) = Î ⋅ (sin(ωt + α − ϕ) − e
−t
τ
⋅ sin(α − ϕ)) A (43)
in which
Û
Î = A (44)
Z
that is the peak value of the symmetrical, stationary short-circuit current
Z = R + jωL [Ω]
α = switching angle of the voltage u(t) at the instant of the short circuit [rad]
ϕ = phase angle of the circuit impedance (=arctg ωL/R) [rad]
τ = L/R = tgϕ/ω [s] (the time constant of the circuit)
ω = 2·π·f [s-1]

The current starts from zero and consists of two components:
• an alternating steady-state component of fundamental frequency,
• an unidirectional component decreasing exponentially with time.
The first peak value of the short-circuit current determines the maximum force that acts on the
windings. The maximum value of this current depends on the X/R ratio and the switching angle α. It
occurs in almost all cases when α = 0 (or π).
In power systems X >>R, which means that ϕ ≈ π/2.
Equation (43) can then with reasonable approximation be written as:
π −t
i( t ) = Î ⋅ (sin(ωt − ) + e τ ) A (45)
2
The first current peak closely corresponds to the time when ωt = π.
2
1,5
Isc 1
p.u. 0,5
0
0 20 40 60 80
-0,5
-1
t
Figure 11-13
i = Î ⋅ k = I sc ⋅ 2 ⋅ k = I sc max A (46)
where the asymmetry factor k is
− πR (47)
k = 1+ e X
Figure 11-13 shows an example on how the short-circuit current elapses.

In this example X/R = 8, k = 1,68.
The peak factor is k·√2 and its dependence of X/R is shown in Figure 11-14. The peak factor value
in the example in Figure 11-13 is 2,38. The value of the first peak of the short circuit current is the
r.m.s. value of the stationary short circuit current multiplied with the peak factor.
In a real case with a transformer installed in a network:
X = the sum of the network and the transformer reactance [Ω]
R = the sum of the network and the transformer resistance [Ω]
X/R and the peak factor increase with increasing transformer power rating.

3,0
2,8
2,6
2,4
k√2
2,2
2,0
1,8
1,6
1,4
1 10 100
X/R
Figure 11-14
Mechanical forces in the windings
Current flows through the winding conductors, which are situated in the magnetic leakage field. The
conductors are then subject to mechanical forces.
These forces are not static. They are pulsating. Each time the current passes through zero the
forces are also zero. At normal load current the forces are small. They increase with the square of
the current, so during the high overcurrents that arise if a short-circuit in the system occur, the
forces must be given attention when designing the transformer. The short circuit current may
amount to 10 – 20 times the rated current of the transformer, which means that the forces in the
windings may be 100 – 400 times larger at a short circuit than in normal service. For transformers
with extremely low short circuit impedance the figures might be still higher.
The forces cause large movements in the windings. These movements are invisible for the human
eye. But rapid film recordings played in slow motion show the size of the movements and illustrate
the violence of the forces.
I
B
F=IХB
Figure 11-15
When considering the ability of a design to withstand it is usual to split the forces into radial and
axial components as indicated in Figure 11-15, which shows an upper part of an outer winding. The
radial force is directed outwards and causes a tensile force in the winding conductors. In the
corresponding inner winding the radial component is directed inwards. That may cause buckling of
the winding if it has not been made robust enough.
The axial forces are caused by the radial component of the magnetic field at the ends of
the windings. These forces may lead to tilting of the conductors between the axial spacers in
the winding. The force on each turn or disc adds together. The sum of the forces is balanced at
the other end of the winding. The whole winding is subject to a strong axial pressure. See
Figure 11-16.

A B
A Axial current forces

B Resulting axial pressure
Figure 11-16
The ability to withstand tilting of the conductors depends on the diameter of the winding, the
distance between the spacers around the circumference and the dimensions of the conductor.
In case of axial “openings” in the winding, that is one or more places along the height of the
winding where there are no ampere-turns, there will be axial forces directed towards the yokes.
The framework keeping the core and windings together must be designed to be able to withstand
such forces.
A more comprehensive treatment of the short-circuit topic is given in the book “SHORT-CIRCUIT
DUTY OF POWER TRANSFORMERS – THE ABB APPROACH” by Giorgio Bertagnolli, issued by
ABB. The book is available from ABB at request.
11.11. TRANSFORMER SOUND

Transformers in service cause sound, which in the long run may seriously discomfort people in the
environment.
Sound may be defined as any pressure variation in air (or other elastic media) that the human ear
can detect. The pressure variations travel through the medium from the sound source to the
listener’s ears. The number of cyclic pressure variations per second is called the frequency of the
sound, and is expressed in Herz (Hz). The frequency of a sound produces its own distinctive tone.
A transformer ‘hum’ is low frequency, fundamentally 100 Hz or 200 Hz, while a whistle is high
frequency, typically above 3 kHz. The normal range of hearing for a healthy young person extends
from approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
A further characteristic used to describe a sound is the amplitude of the pressure variations, which
is expressed in Pascals (Pa). The weakest sound that a healthy human ear can detect is strongly
dependent on the frequency; at 1 kHz it has amplitude of 20 µPa. The threshold of pain
corresponds to a sound pressure of more than a million times higher. Therefore, to avoid the use of
large numbers, the decibel scale (dB) is used.

The dB-scale is logarithmic and uses 20 µPa as the reference level, p0, which then corresponds to
0 dB. Sound pressure level Lp expressed in dB is defined in the following equation:
p2
L p = 10 ⋅ lg dB (48)
p 02
where p is the sound pressure measured by a microphone. Sound pressure is a scalar quantity,
which means it has magnitude only.
To provide a feeling of how a few well-known types of sound are situated on the dB-scale some
values are listed below.
Source of sound Sound pressure level in dB
Quiet living area 45
Normal conversation at 1 m distance 60
Medium factory noise 75
Factory maximum limit 85
City street with heavy traffic 95
Circle saw at 1 m distance 105
Comprehensive investigations are made to correlate human perception of ‘loudness’ at various
frequencies and sound pressures. The curves in Figure 11-17 are results of such investigations.
These curves will vary somewhat from one person to another, but they can be regarded as average
curves for how young persons with healthy ears respond.
Each curve represents sound that is perceived as ‘equally loud’ across the whole frequency range.
The lowest curve that goes through zero dB sound pressure at1000 Hz represents the hearing
threshold. The human ear is not able to hear anything below this curve. It appears that the ear is
most sensitive in the frequency range between 3 and 4 kHz, where a sound pressure even below
20 µPa is audible.
For frequencies below 700 Hz the threshold curve ascends, which means that for the lower
frequencies the sound pressure has to be increased to make the sound audible. The curve also
rises at frequencies above 4 kHz.
The three upper curves go through 40, 70 and 100 dB at 1 kHz. A microphone responds quite
differently to sound pressure. In order to imitate the response curves of the human ear filters are
inserted in the measuring equipment. Three different filters are standardized, named A, B and C
filters. They imitate the curves going through 40, 70 and 100 dB at 1 kHz respectively.
Measurement results made with one of the three filters inserted are denoted dB(A), dB(B) or dB(C).
Ear sensivity curves
120
C-weighted filter
110
100
90 B-weighted filter
Sound pressure (dB)
80
70
60 A-weighted filter
50
40
30
20 Hearing threshold
10
0
-10
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Sound frequency (Hz)
Figure 11-17

When measuring the sound pressure around a transformer, the A-filter is used because this
corresponds to the sound pressure level that normally prevails.
The sound pressure caused by a transformer is measured in several points around the transformer
at a distance of 0,3 meters from the outer vertical surface of the transformer. This measurement
result is in itself of limited interest, because nobody normally is standing 0,3 meters from the
transformer. More interesting is the sound pressure level at larger distance from the transformer
where people may stay.
To be able to estimate the sound pressure at larger distance, the sound power level of the
transformer must be determined. The term ’sound power’ needs to be explained.
A sound source radiates power into the surrounding air resulting in a sound pressure field. Sound
power is the cause. Sound pressure is the effect. The sound pressure, which is heard or measured
with a microphone, is dependent on the distance from the source and the acoustic environment.
So, the sound pressure at a certain distance from the source alone cannot quantify the strength of
the source. It is necessary to determine the sound power of the source, which is independent of the
environment and a unique descriptor of the strength of the sound source.
Sound power is the rate at which energy per unit time is radiated from the source. Its dimension is
Watt. However, sound power Lw is normally also expressed in dB and logarithmic scale according
to the following formula:
W
L w = 10 ⋅ lg db (49)
W0
In this formula W0 is an arbitrarily chosen reference value equal to 10-13 Watt, which corresponds to
a quite weak sound source. This reference value is chosen without regard to the previously
mentioned reference value for sound pressure.
The sound power of one of the strongest sound power sources of concern, a large jet motor, has a
sound power of about 100 000 Watts. The total power range to deal with is then 1018. Instead of
working with such extremely high figures in acoustical subjects, the whole power range is covered
by 180 dB.
Based on the measured sound pressure the sound power of the transformer in dB can be
calculated according to formulas given in IEC 60076-10 Ed. 1.0.
In a large free field the sound pressure at larger distances from the transformer can be calculated.
In practice there are often one or more walls or other items in the surroundings of the transformer
that will reflect sound from the transformer and make a prediction of the sound pressure at various
places in the neighbourhood difficult.
Sources of sound generation
The dominant generating source of transformer sound is magnetostriction. Magnetostriction is the
change in dimensions which takes place in certain materials when they are subjected to a change
in magnetic flux. In magnetic core steel the dimensional change is in the range of 10-7 to 10-5
meters per meter length at typical induction levels.
The effect does not depend on the sign of the flux, only on its magnitude and orientation relative to
certain crystallographic axes of the material. Therefore, when excited by a sinusoidal flux, the
fundamental frequency of the dimensional change will be twice the exciting frequency. The effect is
highly non-linear, especially at high, near saturation, induction levels. The non-linearity results in a
significant harmonic content in the vibration spectrum of the core.
In three-phase cores the change in dimension in each core limb does not occur simultaneously,
which means that the whole core will be subject to pulsating distortions that also generate sound.
A DC bias in addition to the AC magnetization of the core may significantly increase the vibration
amplitudes of the core and consequently the sound level. The DC bias may also cause a
considerable difference in the positive and negative peaks of the flux density, which in turn makes
the fundamental frequency of the sound equal to the frequency of the service voltage instead of
twice this frequency.

There are a few means available to the transformer designer to reduce the sound generated from
the core:
• Reduce the flux density in the core from the usual 1,7 – 1,85 Tesla down to 1,2 Tesla. This
can be done either by increasing the core cross section or by increasing the number of turns
in the windings. There is not much to gain in reduced sound level by going below 1,2 Tesla.
Reduced flux density gives larger geometric dimensions, increased load losses and higher
weight and manufacturing costs. The no load losses will decrease,
• Avoid combinations of core cross section and limb height that make natural frequencies of
the core coincide with frequencies of the magnetic field,
• Making the framework that holds the core together heavier and stiffer,
• Inserting a pad of damping material between the active part of the transformer and the tank
bottom.
Another source of sound from transformers is vibrations in the windings due to pulsating
mechanical forces acting on the winding conductors. The windings are situated in the magnetic
leakage field. The force acting on a winding conductor is proportional to the product of the current
floating in the conductor and the local flux density of the magnetic field where the conductor is
situated.
At normal flux densities in the core, 1,7 T and above, the sound due to the core will overshadow
the sound from the windings. But in cases where especially low sound levels are specified and the
flux density in the core is low (down to 1,2 T) in order to fulfil the required sound level, the sound
produced by the windings may give a noticeable contribution to the total sound level of the
transformer.
Plane metal plates between stiffeners in the transformer tank may act like a membrane of a
loudspeaker if any natural frequency of the plate coincides with a dominant frequency of the
vibrations from the active part. The total sound level of the transformer may in such situations be
considerably increased.
The measurement of sound from transformers may sometimes be disturbed by high background
sound or sound from one or several other strong sound sources in the surroundings. To determine
the sound power of the transformer in such situations sound intensity measurements are made.
Sound intensity is the time-averaged product of the pressure and particle velocity of the medium in
which the sound waves are propagating. Sound intensity is a vector quantity describing the
magnitude and direction of the net flow of sound energy at a given position.
It is outside the scope of this chapter to explain the physics that form the basis for determining the
sound power of a source by means of sound intensity measurements. We will just mention that two
closely spaced microphones are used and that the measurement procedure and the determination
of the results are described in IEC 60076-10.
Cooling fans create turbulent flows of air resulting in pressure fluctuations with a wide range of
frequencies. The sound level is highly dependent on the speed of the fan wheel periphery.
The transmission of sound from the transformer to the surroundings can be reduced by installing
sound-damping panels around the transformer or place the transformer inside a separate building.
Within large buildings transformer sound may propagate widely through structural parts of the
building, like floors and walls. Inserting plates of suitable damping material between the transformer
and its fundament can effectively reduce this.
The IEC transformer standards do not prescribe any permissible limits for transformer sound. They
just describe how sound characteristics of transformers can be determined. Permissible limits are
entirely subject to agreement between purchaser and supplier in each case.
The CENELEC transformer standard HD 428.1 S1:1992 has standardized limits for the sound level
for the smallest distribution transformers.

12. THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
There are three basic ways to connect the phase windings of each side in three-phase
transformers:
• Y-connection, also called star connection, where one end of the three phase windings
are connected together in one point called the neutral point or the star point (Figure
12-1 to the left);
• D-connection, also called delta connection, where the three phase windings are
connected in series and form a ring (triangle) (Figure 12-1 in the middle);
• Z-connection, also called interconnected star or zigzag connection (Figure 12-1 to the
right).
Figure 12-1
The primary, secondary and tertiary sides of a transformer may in principle be connected
individually in any of the three ways indicated above. This offers several different combinations
of connections in a transformer with different characteristics, which also may be influenced by
the type of core. In this handbook the description will be limited to the most frequently used
connection combinations.
The Y-connection is the natural choice of connection for the highest voltages and when the
neutral is intended for loading. In any case a neutral bushing should be provided either for
overvoltage protection purpose or for direct earthing. In the latter case the insulation level of the
neutral may be made lower than in the phase end of the winding with economical benefit.
The Y-connected winding has also the benefit that tappings for turn ratio regulation can be
provided at the neutral end where also a tap changer can be located. The tap changer will then
operate at a low voltage level to earth, and the voltage difference between the phases is low as
well. A cheaper tap changer can be selected compared to a tap changer located at a higher
voltage level.
When Y-connection is used in one side of the transformer, one other side should preferably be
delta connected, especially when the neutral of the Y-connected winding is intended to be
loaded. The delta connected winding provides ampere-turn balance for the zero sequence
current floating through the neutral and each phase of the Y-winding, which gives a reasonable
zero sequence impedance. Without a D-connected winding the zero sequence current would
create a zero sequence field in the core. If the core has 3 limbs, such a field will find its path
from yoke to yoke through the tank wall and create excessive heating there. If the core has 5-
limbs or is a shell type core, the field will find its path from yoke to yoke through the unwound
side-limbs, and the zero sequence impedance will be extremely high. A consequence is that the
current in case of an earth fault might become so small that the protecting relays do not react.
In a D-connected winding the current through each phase-winding is the line current divided by
√3, while in a Y-connected winding the line current floating through each phase-winding is equal
to the line current. On the other hand the D-connected winding requires √3 times as many turns
as a Y-connected winding for the same voltage.
The D-connected winding is advantageous in large power transformers when the current is high
and the voltage relatively low, like for example in the low voltage winding of generator step up
transformers.

A D-connected winding enables triple harmonic currents to circulate inside the triangle formed
by the three series-connected phase windings. Triple harmonics in the magnetisation current is
required to avoid distortion of the magnetic flux in the core and in turn distortion from the
sinusoidal shape of the induced voltage. The triple harmonic currents are equal in time-phase in
all three phases, and these currents cannot float in a Y-connected winding unless the neutral of
the winding is connected to a return path.
Lack of triple harmonics in the magnetising current may cause considerable distortion of the
induced voltage when the core has 5 limbs or is a shell-type core. A D-connected winding in the
transformer will remove this disturbance because the D-connected winding will provide the
missing triple harmonic currents. Sometimes transformers are equipped with a tertiary D-
connected winding which is not intended for loading but only for avoiding voltage distortion and
reduction of zero sequence impedance. Such windings are called stabilising windings.
Distribution transformers for loading between phase and neutral have normally D-connected
winding on the primary side. However, for the lowest power ratings the current in a D-connected
winding might be very small and the required dimension of the winding conductor inconveniently
small to handle in the factory. In such cases the high voltage winding may be Y-connected and
the secondary winding zigzag-connected. Zero sequence currents floating in the two branches
of the Z-connected winding will balance each other, and the zero sequence impedance seen
from the secondary side is mainly determined by the magnetic leakage field between the two
winding branches and is quite low.
By arranging the connection of a pair of windings in different ways it is possible to make a
number of different degrees of voltage displacements between the sides of the transformer.
Transformers that are connected in parallel on both sides require the same voltage
displacement. The face of a watch has traditionally been used to describe the voltage
displacement between the primary voltage and the secondary voltage and, when applicable, the
displacement between the primary and the tertiary. One phase of the primary is pointing at
twelve and the corresponding phase at the other side is pointing at any of the watch numbers.
Figure 12-2
The frequently used combination Yd11 means for instance that there is 30 ° displacement
between the voltages of the two sides as illustrated in Figure 12-2.

13. TRANSFORMER MATERIALS
13.1. CORE MATERIALS
Transformer cores are built from thin sheets of steel. These sheets are manufactured specifically
for use in transformers.
Core steel has low carbon content < 0.1%. Increased carbon content has a detrimental influence
on the hysteresis losses as well as the ageing properties.
Core steel is alloyed with silicon (Si). Silicon increases the specific electrical resistance, which
again reduces the eddy current losses in the core. Increased silicon content makes the core steel
brittle; therefore the content is kept below 3%.
Today, only grain-oriented steel is used. By cold rolling the steel sheets, the magnetic domains in
the steel sheet will tend to be oriented in the rolling direction.
One gets a material with very good loss properties in the rolling direction, and correspondingly poor
properties in the transversal direction. The rolling process requires special equipment with very
high surface pressure.
The grain oriented core steel is available in several grades. The different properties are obtained by
the raw material composition, the degree of cold rolling and different finishing treatments, for
example laser treatment. Laser treatment is a mechanical treatment which divides the magnetic
domains into smaller domains with lower losses as the result.
To minimise eddy current losses, the sheets must be insulated from each other. Earlier it was
common to use varnish or paper. Today the core steel is delivered ready insulated from the
manufacturer. The insulation is an inorganic material compatible with transformer oil and is
corrosion and temperature resistant. The insulating coating is very thin < 4 µm. A thin coating
means a good core fill factor.
The core is built up from many layers of core steel sheets. Suppose the core limb was built from a
solid iron bolt, the core would represent a short-circuited winding around itself, and the transformer
would not work. The mutually insulated sheets prevent such a short-circuit.
Eddy current losses in the core steel are proportional to the square of the thickness. Therefore
the steel sheets have to be thin in order to reduce the no load losses. Typical thickness is from
0,18 mm to 0,30 mm.
13.2. CONDUCTOR MATERIALS

From a technical and economical point of view there are two conductor materials that can be used,
copper (Cu) or aluminium (Al).
The choice of conductor material depends mainly on price and availability. The supply and demand
of copper and aluminium can vary quite significant on the world market, and thereby also price and
availability of conductors from the manufacturers.
Some customers prescribe copper only, for different reasons, mainly conservatism.
The physical dimensions of a transformer with copper windings are normally smaller than that of a
transformer with aluminium windings.
Conductor shapes are foil, round or rectangular wire.
The foil is not directly insulated. The round and rectangular wire is normally coated by varnish.
The use of varnish instead of paper improves the winding space factor due to smaller thickness,
and reduces the winding to liquid temperature gradient (winding to air temperature gradient for dry-
type transformers).
Rectangular wire can also be insulated by paper for thermal class 105 or with aramid for higher
temperature classes.
Cold working of the conductor increases the mechanical strength and the ability to withstand short-
circuit forces.

13.3. INSULATION MATERIALS
13.3.1. Solid insulation materials

13.3.1.1. General
A good insulation material must have the following properties:
1. High dielectric strength,
2. Good mechanical properties,
3. Long lifetime at operating temperature,
4. Easily workable.
Insulation material must withstand the operating temperatures that occur in the transformer during
the lifetime of the transformer.
Insulation materials to be used in liquid-immersed transformers must be compatible to the liquid.
13.3.1.2. Cellulose materials
Mainly used in oil immersed transformers with thermal class 105.
Cellulose insulation is made of slow growing types of wood, having long fibres. Long fibres give
long life-time, and high density gives high dielectric strength.
Cellulose products are compatible to mineral oil, and are easy to oil impregnate.
The impregnation is done under vacuum and elevated temperature, and the tiny cavities in the
cellulose are filled with oil. Thereby the dielectric strength is further increased. In case the cavities
were not filled with oil, these small air bubbles would cause partial discharges. Partial discharges
may in the long term escalate to a dielectric break-down.
Contaminants represent weaknesses in the insulation that may lead to dielectric break-down.
Cellulose insulation is specified in IEC 60554-3 for paper, and IEC 60641-3 for board.
13.3.1.3. Wood
Laminated wood is used for different support purposes in liquid immersed transformers.
The applicable IEC standard is 61061-1/2/3.
13.3.1.4. Porcelain
Porcelain is mainly used for bushings in oil-immersed transformers. In some cases also used as
supports or spacers in dry type transformers.
13.3.1.5. Solid synthetic insulation materials
These materials are mainly used in dry type transformers or reactors having higher thermal classes
130, 155, 180, 220. These materials are more expensive than cellulose insulation.
Enamels are used as conductor insulation, and normally double coated. Several qualities for
different applications are available. Reference is made to IEC 60317
Epoxy resins used in combination with fillers, for example glass fibre and quartz powder is used for
insulation barriers and complete vacuum cast windings.
Polyesters can be used as insulation barriers, spacers and duct sticks. Reference is made to IEC
60893-3 and IEC 61212-3
Aramid fibre are used to manufacture insulation paper or board sheets in different thicknesses. The
material surface may be smooth or porous. The porous type can to a certain extent be oil
impregnated. The material has very good thermal properties, thermal class 220.
Aramid insulation is specified in IEC 60819-3 for paper, and IEC 60629-1 for board.

13.3.2. Fluids
13.3.2.1. General
The fluid in a transformer has several functions; the two most important are certainly insulation and
cooling. Another function is to carry information about the condition of the active part inside the
transformer.
Several requirements have to be fulfilled;
Chemical Electrical
Oxidation stability Breakdown voltage AC
Oxidation inhibitor content Breakdown voltage, impulse
Inhibitor is recommended
Corrosive sulphur Dissipation factor
Water content Streaming charging
Neutralization value
Physical Additional
Viscosity Low particle content
Appearance Compatibility with other transformer
materials
Density Gassing properties
Pour point Aromatic structure
Surface tension Poly-aromatic structure
Flash point Solubility properties
13.3.2.2. Mineral oil

Important properties of mineral oil are specified in IEC 60296.
Flash point 145 °C, density 0,88 kg/dm3, relative permittivity 2,2.
Mineral oil is the most common liquid used. Mineral oil is normally the reference to which all other
liquids are compared.
Mineral oil offers in most cases the best compromise between cost and technical properties, and
compatibility with other transformer materials is also very good.
Inhibitors retards the ageing process of the oil.

13.3.3. Other fluids
These fluids are reserved for special applications, and are typically 5-6 times more expensive than
mineral oil.
The main motivation for using these fluids is improved fire safety and environmental impact.
Further these fluids are applicable for operation at elevated temperatures, however have limited
capabilities in extremely cold climates.
13.3.3.1. Dimethyl Silicone
Important properties of silicone fluid are specified in IEC 60836
Silicone fluid has lower dielectric and cooling properties compared to mineral oil.
When it ignites it is self-quenching because it creates a layer of oxide. However, it is not self-
quenching related to arcing and electrical failures.
Silicone fluid is not used in on-load tap changers a.o. due to its poor lubrication properties.
13.3.3.2. Synthetic Ester
Important properties of synthetic ester are specified in IEC 61099
13.3.3.3. Synthetic Hydrocarbon
Important properties of synthetic hydrocarbon are specified in IEC 60867
13.3.3.4. Agricultural Ester
No applicable IEC specification.
This is good compromise between fire safety and environmental friendliness.
BIOTEMP is an ABB developed and patented agricultural ester, based on sunflower oil, see also
www.abb.com/transformers for additional information.

14. TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS
The information given below is an extract from IEC 60076-1 (1993-03) Clause 10. Testing of dry-
type transformers is described in IEC 60726 (1982) for further information. *Copyright © IEC,
Geneva, Switzerland. www.iec.ch
ABB has issued a comprehensive book on this subject, see section 17.2 page 200. This book
describes testing both according to IEC and ANSI/IEEE standards.
14.1. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

• Tests shall be made at any ambient temperature between 10 °C and 40 °C, and with cooling
water if required at any temperature not exceeding 25 °C,
• Tests shall be made at the manufacturer's works, unless otherwise agreed between the
manufacturer and the purchaser,
• All external components and fittings that are likely to affect the performance of the
transformer during the test shall be in place,
• Tapped windings shall be connected on their principal tapping, unless the relevant test
clause requires otherwise or unless the manufacturer and the purchaser agree otherwise,
• The test basis for all characteristics other than insulation is the rated condition, unless the
test clause states otherwise,
• All measuring systems used for the tests shall have approved, traceable accuracy and be
subject to periodic calibration, according to the rules of 7.6 of ISO 9001.
NOTE: Specific requirements regarding accuracy and verification of measuring systems are under
consideration within CENELEC.
Where it is required that test results are to be corrected to a reference temperature, this shall be; for oil-
immersed transformers: 75 °C, and for dry-type transformers: according to the requirements in IEC 60726.
14.2. ROUTINE TESTS

• Measurement of winding resistance (IEC 60076-1 10.2),
• Measurement of voltage ratio and check of phase displacement (IEC 60076-1 10.3),
• Measurement of short-circuit impedance and load loss (IEC 60076-1 10.4),
• Measurement of no-load loss and current (IEC 60076-1 10.5),
• Dielectric routine tests (IEC 60076-3),
• Tests on on-load tap-changers, where appropriate (IEC 60076-1 10.8).
PD test will be a routine test in the new IEC standard for dry-type transformers, now in process.
14.3. TYPE TESTS

• Temperature-rise test (IEC 60076-2),
• Dielectric type tests (IEC 60076-3).
14.4. SPECIAL TESTS

• Dielectric special tests (IEC 60076-3),
• Determination of capacitances windings-to-earth, and between windings,
• Determination of transient voltage transfer characteristics,
• Zero-sequence impedance(s) on three-phase transformers (IEC 60076-1 10.7),
• Short-circuit withstand test (IEC 60076-5),
• Determination of sound levels (IEC 60076-10),
• Measurement of the harmonics of the no-load current (IEC 60076-1 10.6),
• Measurement of the power taken by the fan and oil pump motors,
• Measurement of insulation resistance to earth of the windings, and/or measurement of
dissipation factor (tan δ) of the insulation system capacitances. (These are reference values
for comparison with later measurement in the field. No limitations for the values are given
here.).
NOTE: If tests other than those listed above are specified in the contract, such test methods are subject to
agreement

15. OVERVOLTAGES AND OVERVOLTAGE LIMITATION
Transformers may in service be exposed to voltages in excess of the normal operating voltage.
These overvoltages are classified with regard to their duration in two main groups:
• Temporary overvoltages (TOV)
• Transient overvoltages
A temporary overvoltage is a power frequency voltage of relatively long duration, ranging from less
than one second up to several hours.
A transient overvoltage is a short-duration overvoltage ranging from nanoseconds up to a few
milliseconds. The front time may vary from nanoseconds up to a few milliseconds. Transient
overvoltages may be oscillatory or non-oscillatory. They are usually unidirectional.
A transformer may also be exposed to combinations of temporary and transient overvoltages.
Transient overvoltages may be immediately followed by temporary overvoltages.
Overvoltages are also classified in two main groups with regard to their origin:
• Overvoltages caused by atmospheric phenomena,
• Overvoltages generated within the power system.
Overvoltages caused by atmospheric phenomena.
These are transient overvoltages mostly due to lightning strokes to earth near overhead lines
connected to the transformer, although lightning can in some cases also directly strike the line or
even the transformer.
The peak value of the voltage depends on the lightning current, which is a statistical variable.
Lightning currents of more than 100 kA have been registered. According to measurements on
overhead lines the 50% probability peak value of the lightning current is in the range 10 – 20 kA in
most investigations. The distance between the transformer and the spot of the lightning stroke has
an influence on the front time of the surge that strikes the transformer, the shorter distance from the
transformer the shorter front time.
Overvoltages generated within the power system.
This group contains both temporary and transient overvoltages due to sudden changes in the
service conditions in the power system. Such changes are caused by switching operations or
failures.
Temporary overvoltages are caused by earth faults, load rejections and low frequency resonance
phenomena.
Transient overvoltages occur when equipment is connected to or disconnected from the system.
They can also occur when external insulation flashes over. When switching reactive loads,
transient voltages may amount to 6 – 7 p.u. due to multiple transient current interruptions in the
circuit breaker with front times down to fractions of a microsecond.
Transformer ability to withstand overvoltages.
Transformers are designed to withstand certain dielectric tests before delivery from the factory.
These tests shall verify that the transformer has a high probability of reliable operation.
The tests are specified in international or national standards. Service experience confirms that
transformers, which have passed such tests, are reliable with very few exceptions.
But an additional condition for the high service reliability is that adequate overvoltage limitation is
provided, because the transformer may in service also be exposed to more severe overvoltages
than those applied in the delivery test.
In power system planning the importance of considering all types of overvoltages that the
equipment may be exposed to should be emphasized. To be able to do this in an appropriate way,
physical understanding of the origin of the various types of overvoltages is necessary.
The magnitude of several kinds of overvoltages is a statistical variable. The ability of the insulation
to withstand overvoltages is also a statistical variable. It is a task for the system planner, who has
the overview and the knowledge about the system, to choose precautions to prevent overvoltage
damage on the equipment. This includes balancing the costs for such precautions against the
statistical risk for failures and their economical consequences. Suppliers of the equipment may
make guarantee reservations in cases where precautions regarding limitations of overvoltages are
missing or obviously insufficient.

15.1. LIMITATION OF TEMPORARY OVERVOLTAGES
15.1.1. Overvoltages due to earth-fault

A phase-to-earth fault may result in phase-to-earth overvoltages affecting the two other phases.
The system parameters determine such overvoltages, which can only be controlled by affecting
these parameters while designing the system.
It should be recognised that surge arresters are normally not suitable to limit temporary
overvoltages due to the duration of such overvoltages and the limited thermal capability of the
surge arresters.
The overvoltage on the sound phases during an earth-fault is usually expressed by means of the
earth fault factor. In the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV) issued by IEC the earth
fault factor is given the following definition:
The earth fault factor is at a given location of a three-phase system, and for a given system
configuration, the ratio of the highest r.m.s. phase-to-earth power frequency voltage on a healthy
phase during a fault to earth affecting one or more phases at any point on the system to the r.m.s.
phase-to-earth power frequency voltage, which would be obtained at the given location in absence
of any such fault. [IEV 604-03-06]
During a single-phase earth-fault the system will be in an non-symmetrical condition and the earth-
fault factor is calculated by means of symmetrical components. The complex impedances of the
system seen from the location of the earth-fault are:
Z1 = R1 + j X1 : resistance and reactance of the positive sequence system
Z2 = R2 + j X2 : resistance and reactance of the negative sequence system
Z0 = R0 + j X0 : resistance and reactance of the zero sequence system
If the following assumptions are made:
Z1 ≈ Z2, R1 << X1 and that the fault resistance R = 0,
a diagram, that illustrates how the earth-fault factor at the location of the fault varies with X0/ X1
for different values of R0/X1, can be drawn.
The diagram is shown in Figure 15-1.
The curves show the earth-fault factor at the location of the fault. In extended resonant earthed
networks the earth-fault factor may be higher at other locations than the fault.
X is positive for inductive reactances and negative for capacitive reactances. The earth fault current
is inductive for X1/X0 > -2 and capacitive for X1/X0 < -2. When
X0/X1 = - 2 the system is in a resonance condition.
It can be seen that unfavourable combinations of the parameters X1, X0 and R0 will give very high
overvoltages that may destroy the surge arresters and the insulation of transformers and other
equipment. The high overvoltages can only be reduced by changing these three parameters.
When for example X0 and R0 both are zero, the earth-fault factor is 0,866, which means that the
highest voltage to earth on one of the healthy phases is 0,866 times the normal voltage between
phase and neutral. In this case the two healthy phases are each operating at half the line-to-line
voltage with opposite polarity referred to earth.
For small positive values of X0/X1, the earth-fault factor increases with increasing R0. For high
values of R0 the earth-fault factor approaches √3.
At high positive or negative values of X0/X1 the earth-fault factor approaches also √3 nearly
independent of R0.
At low negative values of X0/X1 the earth-fault factor may become very high, but it can be reduced
by selecting a high R0.
A low earth-fault factor has the advantage that it allows a low protection level of the surge
arresters. Thus the safety margin between the insulation level (BIL) of the transformer and the
protection level of the surge arresters can be kept relatively high, depending on the duration of the
fault, which is the other main parameter that influences the choice of the surge arresters.

Earth-fault factor versus X0/X1 for various R0/X1
4,5
4
R0/X1=0
3,5 R0/X1=0,5
R0/X1=1
Earth-fault factor.
3 R0/X1=2
R0/X1=5
2,5 R0/X1=50
1,5
0,5
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
X0/X1
Figure 15-1
The duration of the overvoltage corresponds to the duration of the fault and will remain until fault
clearing. In systems without earth-fault clearing the duration may be several hours. This will imply
surge arresters with higher protection level and lower safety margin regarding transient
overvoltages.
In insulation co-ordination knowledge about the earth-fault factor at various places in the network,
in different loading conditions and system configurations is of vital importance. A thorough system
analysis is necessary.
15.1.2. Load rejection overvoltages

A full load rejection in moderately extended systems can give rise to phase-to-earth and phase–to-
phase overvoltages with amplitude usually below 1,2 p.u. The overvoltage duration depends on
the operation of the voltage-control equipment and may be up to several minutes. Special
precautions to protect distribution transformers against overvoltages due to load rejection are
normally not needed
15.1.3. Overvoltages due to ferroresonance

Ferroresonance may occur in circuits with inductive elements having non-linear magnetizing
characteristics (reactors with iron core or transformers in no load or low load condition) and large
capacitive elements (lines, cables and capacitors).
The frequency of these overvoltages is equal or close to the frequency of the power system, that is
a low frequency.
Overvoltages due to ferroresonance may occur in certain fault situations like:
• malfunction of a circuitbreaker if it fails to break or close in one or two phases during
switching operation,
• one or two phase conductors are ruptured during earth fault, short-circuit or due to
mechanical stresses,
• fuses are blown in one or two phases.
Transformer failures caused by overvoltages due to ferroresonance do not seem to occur
frequently, but the risk is not negligible when the capacitive current of the system is of the same
size as the magnetizing current of the transformer. Providing automatic and quick disconnection of
the transformer in case the supply should fail in one or two phases will limit the duration of the
overvoltage and system instability and reduce the extent and probability of material damage.

15.2. LIMITATION OF TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGES
The ability of a transformer to withstand transient overvoltages is characterised by its basic impulse
level (BIL), which corresponds to the peak value of the standard test voltage impulse. This is an
aperiodic voltage impulse with a front time of 1,2 µs and a time from the beginning to half the peak
value of 50 µs. The BIL of a transformer is also called the insulation level of the transformer.
Transformers connected to overhead lines should be protected against transient overvoltages
caused by lightning to secure high service reliability. Limitation of the overvoltage can be achieved
by means of:
• non-linear resistor-type surge arresters with series gaps,
• metal-oxide surge arresters without gaps,
• spark gaps, that is an open air gap between two terminals.
These devices are in most cases connected between each phase terminal of the transformer and
earth. If the neutral point of y- and z-connected windings is isolated or earthed through a high
inductance or resistance, a three-phase impulse wave will be reflected with the same polarity and
an increased peak value at the neutral point. For this reason the neutral point should also be
provided with overvoltage protection.
The protection level of surge arresters is normally selected lower than the insulation level of the
transformer in order to provide a certain safety margin. A protection level around 70% of the
insulation level of the transformer is frequently aimed at for the surge arresters at the phase
terminals. However, when using non-linear resistor-type surge arresters with series gaps, it must
be checked that the arc in the series gaps will extinguish with sufficient safety margin when the
transient overvoltage has passed away but with a sustained temporary overvoltage corresponding
to the actual earth-fault factor.
The protection level of a surge arrester in the neutral point is normally chosen to be around 3/4 of
the protection level of the surge arresters at the phase terminals.
To provide optimum protection the distance between the surge arresters and the terminals of the
transformer to be protected should be as short as possible. The same goes for the distance from
the earthing terminal of the arresters to the earth. In cases where short connections to the surge
arresters are difficult to achieve for practical reasons, selection of a higher insulation level for the
transformer should be considered.
Windings for rated voltages below 1000 V should also be protected in the same way when they are
connected to overhead lines.
In general metal-oxide surge arresters without gaps offers the possibility to select a lower
protection level than the non-linear resistor-type surge arresters with series gaps. Thus an
increased safety margin between the insulation level of the transformer and the protection level of
the surge arrester can be achieved.
It must be kept in mind that metal-oxide surge arresters also will be continuously exposed to the
normal service voltage, and in addition, to all kinds of smaller and larger temporary and transient
overvoltages, contrary to the non-linear resistor-type surge arresters with series gaps. In the latter
type the resistor is exposed only during transient overvoltages that are high enough to ignite the
series gaps.
Spark gaps have been widely used in the past especially at moderate rated voltages, but they have
several disadvantages:
• unpredictable sparkover voltage,
• long and unpredictable time delay to breakdown,
• strong dependence on wave shape,
• dependence on voltage polarity,
• dependence on ambient conditions,
• risk of creating an evolving fault,
• imposing a short-circuit condition on the network,
• creating chopped waves.

Due to the superior properties of metal-oxide arresters they are becoming increasingly preferred
over spark gaps in modern systems. But in locations with frequent lightning storms with high
lightning currents spark gaps can be useful in combination with metal-oxide arresters. Spark gaps
installed at one or two poles of the overhead line away from the transformer will lead the highest
current surges to earth before they reach the metal-oxide arresters at the transformer terminals. In
this way the spark gaps will reduce the ageing of the arresters. A high number of high lightning
current surges will contribute to ageing of the arresters.
Transformers installed in locations where they are not exposed to lightning overvoltages will still be
exposed to transient overvoltages caused by switching operations.
The service experience regarding oil-immersed transformers in such locations indicates that they
seem to withstand such overvoltages without being protected by surge arresters.
15.3. SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS FOR DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS

In locations which are not exposed to lightning overvoltages, a higher failure rate on dry-type
transformers than on oil-immersed transformers has been observed on dry-type transformers when
adequate protection against transient overvoltages is missing. Failures have also occurred on dry-
type transformers in spite of being protected by surge arresters.
The explanation is that extremely steep overvoltages occur during prestrikes and reignitions in the
circuit breaker after the current has been chopped outside its natural passage through zero. The
internal overvoltages within a winding are not only depending on the peak value of the voltage
arising at the terminals, but also on the steepness of the voltage change at the terminals. Thus a
voltage with a peak value below the protection level of the arrester may damage the transformer if
the change in terminal voltage takes place in just a fraction of a microsecond. Oil-immersed
transformers seem to be more robust against such stresses compared to dry-type transformers.
For the latter type the need for adequate protection should be recognised.
Attention should be paid to the physical fact that the transient overvoltages that arise when
breaking inductive currents like the magnetizing current of a transformer is independent of the
system voltage. They increase with the magnetic energy stored in the transformer core at the
moment of current chopping. In other words, these transient overvoltages increase with the size of
the transformer, and are most severe for transformers for low system voltages due to their lower
insulation level. Because of the statistical nature of the size of the transient voltages, transformers
that are more frequently disconnected and energized are, if not adequately protected, more prone
to fail than transformers that are continuously energized for several years between each
disconnection.
To summarise this, the need to protect for example a 2000 kVA, 10 kV transformer that is
frequently switched in and out is higher than to protect a 100 kVA, 20 kV transformer that is
energized continuously for long periods without being disconnected.
Capacitors between transformer terminals and earth will reduce the number of reignitions in the
circuit breaker, or even in some cases eliminate them. The capacitors will also reduce the front
steepness of the incoming wave during energizing and reduce the risk of transformer failure
Switching of capacitor banks for phase compensation has sometimes caused failures in dry-type
transformers. The use of circuit breaker with opening and closing resistors has considerably
reduced such failures.
Another possibility is using circuit breaker with point-on-wave control, which close and open at the
most favourable time to minimize the transients.
15.3.1. Internal overvoltages caused by high frequency oscillations

Switching operations are always followed by high frequency oscillations in the kHz and MHz range,
with slow or rapid damping. If the damping is slow and the dominating frequency of the oscillations
coincide with one of the resonance frequencies of the transformer, high local turn-to-turn voltage
stresses within the winding arise and may cause a failure.
Opening and closing resistors on the circuit breaker will effectively damp such oscillations.
Alternatively the dominating frequency of the oscillations could be changed (lowered) by installing
additional capacitance. When choosing this solution, the resonance characteristics of the
transformer should be known and a careful study of the power system should be made.

15.4. TRANSFERRED OVERVOLTAGES IN TRANSFORMERS
For high frequencies (kHz) the voltage ratio might be quite different from the turn ratio, with risk of
high voltage transferred from one side to another that may damage the other winding if the
transferred voltage is magnified by resonance effects.
Transferred voltages in transformers can have the following modes:
• electromagnetic transfer,
• electrostatic or capacitive transfer,
• oscillatory transfer through natural oscillations of the primary and/or the secondary circuits of
the transformer. The earth capacitances and the self-inductances of the windings form the
oscillation circuits.
Transferred overvoltages can be critical if:
• the secondary winding is not connected to the network,
• the secondary winding has a low rated voltage compared to the rated voltage of the high
voltage winding,
• the winding is the tertiary of a three-winding transformer.
Surge arresters between phase terminals as well as between phases might be justified. Annex E of
IEC 60071-2 goes a little more in detail on this subject.
In any case, the minimum precaution is that a secondary or tertiary winding that is not connected to
the network, should be earthed in one point, one corner of delta windings and preferably the neutral
of star windings.

16. MISCELLANEOUS
16.1. CERTIFICATION/APPROVAL/LABELLING
The CE mark (Communauté Européenne, European Conformity) based on European Directives
assists the free distribution of goods on the European market. It is directed to the national
standards supervising bodies. When the manufacturer applies the CE mark, this states that the
legal requirements for the commercial product have been met. The CE mark is not a quality
designation, a safety designation or a designation of conformity to a standard.
The following three European Union Directives may be applicable to transformer installations:
The Machine Directive covers most types of machines, with the exception of certain special types
that are specifically excluded. The power supply companies and the manufacturers in Europe
(EURELECTRIC/UNIPEDE and CAPIEL) have always been of the unanimous opinion that high-
voltage equipment is not subject to the Machine Directive. The European Commission now shares
this view. It should also be noted that motors, by definition, are not covered by the Machine
Directive.
The EMC Directive is intended for application to almost all electrical equipment. However, fixed
installations (which are assembled at the site of operation) have to meet the EMC protection
requirements but they do not require a declaration of conformity, a CE mark nor an approval by any
competent authority. This also applies to all primary and secondary devices in these installations
(as components with no direct function).
The Low Voltage Directive (LVD) is applicable to independent low-voltage equipment which is also
used in transformers and installations, such as control circuits, protection relays, measuring and
metering devices, terminal strips, etc. This equipment must conform to the LVD and have a CE
mark when purchased on the open market.
However, if control, measuring, protection and regulating equipment is a fixed component of high-
voltage substations and/or transformers, it is not covered by the Low-Voltage Directive, because by
definition (as per IEC 60050-441) they are considered to be high-voltage products.
In conclusion it is noted that high-voltage equipment and installations, including secondary
installations, do not require a CE mark. However, they are subject to the relevant standards and
regulations.
In North America transformers may be delivered with Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) and CSA
recognition/labels.

16.2. DECLARATION OF CONFORMITY
A Declaration of Conformity (DoC) according to EN 45014 General criteria for supplier’s declaration
of conformity will be issued if the customer requests it.
In some cases the designation Certificate of Conformity or similar is in use.
DoC will at minimum identify the supplier, the product, the conformity statement, the normative
documents (with edition/date of issue) the transformer is in conformity with and possible additional
information. The DoC shall denote place and date of issue as well as name, function and signature
of the authorized person(s) acting on behalf of the supplier, see example:
16.3. IP-CLASSIFICATION
16.3.1. General
IP classification describes to what extent electrical equipment, in this regard the transformer
terminals as well as accessories, are protected against touching and external influence such as
dust, pollution, moisture etc.
Reference is made to IEC 60529 for a detailed description on this subject. *Copyright © IEC,
Geneva, Switzerland. www.iec.ch
Explanation of numerals : IP23
The first characteristic numeral (2) describes the protection against solid foreign objects of 12.5
mm diameter and greater.
The second characteristic numeral (3) describes the protection against spraying water.

16.3.2. Degrees of protection against solid objects
Description Definition First Characteristic Numeral

Non-protected 0
Protected against solid The object probe, sphere of 1
foreign objects of 50 mm diameter shall not
50mm diameter and fully penetrate
greater
foreign objects of 12.5 mm diameter shall not
12.5mm diameter and fully penetrate
greater
2.5mm diameter and penetrate at all
greater
1.0mm diameter and penetrate
greater
Dust protected Ingress of dust is not totally 5
prevented, but dust shall
not penetrate in a quantity
to interfere with satisfactory
operation of the apparatus
or to impair safety
Dust tight No ingress of dust 6
16.3.3. Degrees of protection against water

Second characteristic
Description Definition
numeral
No protection 0
Protected against Vertically falling water drops shall have
vertically falling water no harmful effects 1
drops
Protected against Vertically falling water drops shall have
vertically falling water no harmful effects when the enclosure is
2
drops when enclosure tilted at any angle up to 15 degrees on
tilted up to 15 degrees either side of the vertical axis
Protected against Water sprayed at an angle up to 60
spraying water degreed on either side of the vertical 3
axis shall have no harmful effects
Protected against Water splashed against the enclosure
splashing water from any direction shall have no harmful 4
effects
Protected against water Water projected in jets against the
jets enclosure from any direction shall have 5
no harmful effects
Protected against Water projected in powerful water jets
powerful water jets against the enclosure from any direction 6
shall have no harmful effects

16.3.4. Comparison to NEMA ratings
IEC 60529 does not specify degrees of protection against mechanical damage of equipment, risk of
explosions, or conditions such as moisture (produced for example by condensation), corrosive
vapors, fungus, or vermin. The NEMA Standard for Enclosures for Electrical Equipment does test
for environmental conditions such as corrosion, rusty, icing, oil, and coolants. For this reason, and
because the test and evaluations for other characteristics are not identical, the IEC Enclosure
Classification Designations cannot be exactly equated with the enclosure Type numbers in the
NEMA Standard.
The following table provides an equivalent conversion from the enclosure Type numbers in NEMA
Standard to the IEC Enclosure Classification Designations. The NEMA enclosure type numbers
meet or exceed the test requirements for the associated IEC Classification; for this reason the table
cannot be used to convert from IEC Classifications to NEMA enclosure Type numbers.
NEMA Enclosure Type Number IEC Enclosure Classification Designation
1 IP10
2 IP11
3 IP54
3R IP14
3S IP54
4 and 4X IP56
5 IP52
6 AND 6P IP67
12 AND 12K IP52
13 IP54
16.4. TERMINAL DESIGNATION, IDENTIFYING TERMINALS

Unless the customer specifies terminal marking otherwise, ABB suggests that the terminals shall
be marked according to IEC 60616 TR or ANSI/IEEE C57.12.70-1978TM.
IEC standards specifies that external terminals shall be marked with reference numbers, which
shall precede a reference letter (1U,1V,1W). The high-voltage terminals shall be marked with the
reference number 1, and the other terminals with 2,3,4 … in descending sequence of their rated
voltage. The letter N shall mark the neutral terminals on transformers having star or zigzag
connection.
ANSI/IEEE standards specifies that external terminals shall be marked with capital letter, which
shall precede a reference subscript number (H1,H2,H3,). The highest voltage terminals shall be
marked with capital letter H, the other voltage with X, Y and Z in order of decreasing voltage. The
subscript number 0 shall mark the neutral terminals on transformers having star or zigzag
connection.
16.4.1. Single phase transformer

According to IEC 60616 TR, the two terminals at the high-voltage side shall be marked 1.1 and 1.2
and the two terminals at the low-voltage side should be marked 2.1 and 2.2.
1.1 1.2
2.1 2.2
Figure 16-1
According to ANSI/IEEE C57.12.70-1978TM, the two terminals at the high-voltage side shall be
marked H1 and H2 and the two terminals at the low-voltage side shall be marked X1 and X2.

H1 H2
X2 X1
Figure 16-2
When Single-Phase transformers are used in a three-phase system, they are connected in Three-
Phase Banks. In figure Figure 16-3 is an example with three Single-Phase transformers connected
∆-Y used in Three-Phase Banks with 30° angular displacements.
A B C
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
ADDT ADDT ADDT
PLRT PLRT PLRT
X2 X1 X2 X1 X2 X1
a b c
Figure 16-3
For more information about how to use single-phase transformers in three-phase banks see
ANSI/IEEE C57.12.70-1978TM.
16.4.2. Three phase transformer

According to IEC 60616 TR, the terminals shall be located and marked from left to right in following
sequence, at the high-voltage 1W, 1V, 1U, 1N, and at the low-voltage 2W, 2V, 2U, 2N both seen
from the low-voltage side. (1N and 2N are the neutral terminals.)
Figure 16-4
According to ANSI/IEEE C57.12.70-1978TM, the terminals shall be located and marked from left to
right in following sequence, at the high-voltage H0, H1, H2, H3, and at the low-voltage X0, X1, X2, X3
side both seen from the low-voltage side. (H0 and X0 are the neutral terminals.)

Figure 16-5
16.5. RATING PLATE

Transformers shall be provided with a rating plate of weatherproof material in visible position. All
entries on the plate shall be indelibly marked.
Please see standard IEC 60076-1 for complete description to the rating plate information for the
different types of transformers. *Copyright © IEC, Geneva, Switzerland. www.iec.ch
Below is the minimum information to be given for each transformer:

• Kind of transformer,
• Number of the applied standard,
• Manufacturer’s name,
• Manufacturer’s serial number,
• Year of manufacture,
• Number of phases,
• Rated power (kVA or MVA),
• Rated frequency (Hz),
• Basic insulation levels,
• Rated voltage and tapping range (V or kV),
• Rated currents (A or kA),
• Connection symbol,
• Short-circuit impedance (%),
• Type of cooling,
• Total mass,
• Mass of insulating oil.
• For dry-type transformers:
o Temperature class,
o Climatic class,
o Environmental class,
o Fire behaviour class,
o Degree of protection (IP class).
Below is an example of the default ABB rating plate for transformers of type SDT and dry-type
transformers. When customer specification requires additional information, this will be added as an
extra plate or a different rating plate.
So far no standardised power transformer rating plates are defined by ABB.

16.6. ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC)
16.6.1. Definitions
The International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV) gives the following definition of EMC:
”The ability of an equipment or system to function satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment
without introducing intolerable electromagnetic disturbances to anything in that environment.” [IEV
161-01-07]
Other relevant definitions are:
Electromagnetic disturbance
Any electromagnetic phenomenon which, by being present in the electromagnetic environment,
can cause electrical equipment to depart from its intended performance [IEV 161-01-05, modified]
Electromagnetic interference (EMI)
Degradation of the performance of equipment, transmission channel or system caused by an
electromagnetic disturbance.
NOTE The terms “electromagnetic disturbance” and “electromagnetic interference” denote respectively
cause and effect, but they are often used indiscriminately. [IEV 161-01-06]
Disturbance level
The amount or magnitude of an electromagnetic disturbance, measured and evaluated in a
specified way [IEV 161-03-01, modified]
Electromagnetic compatibility level
The specified electromagnetic disturbance level used as a reference level in a specified
environment for co-ordination in the setting of emission and immunity limits
NOTE By convention, the compatibility level is chosen so that there is only a small probability that it will be
exceeded by the actual disturbance level. [IEV 161-03-10, modified]
Immunity level
The maximum level of a given electromagnetic disturbance incident on a particular device,
equipment or system for which it remains capable of operating at a required degree of performance
[IEV 161-03-14]
16.6.2. Electromagnetic disturbances on transformers

Transformers may be exposed to various types of electromagnetic disturbances when operating in
public and industrial power supply systems.
Disturbance phenomena to consider are:
• harmonics,
• inter-harmonics,
• overvoltages,
• voltage unbalance,
• overcurrents,
• power frequency variation.
Harmonics
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are whole multiples of the
power frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate.
Equipment with a non-linear voltage/current characteristic cause current harmonics.
Harmonic currents produce harmonic voltage drops across the impedance of the network.
IEC 60076-1 Power transformers Part 1: General assumes that the wave shape of the supply
voltage is approximately sinusoidal. This requirement is normally not critical in public supply
systems but may have to be considered in installations with considerable convertor loading. If the
total harmonic content exceeds 5% or the even harmonic content exceeds 1%, this should be
specified in the enquiry and in the order.

Current harmonics influence the load losses and the temperature rise, which may need
consideration in the transformer design.
In systems with considerable capacitive elements, like long cables or power factor correction
capacitors, there is a risk that harmonics cause shunt and series resonance in the network, which
in turn causes voltage magnification even at a point remote from the distorting load.
The magnetizing current of transformers contains harmonics due to the non-linear magnetizing
characteristic. The magnetizing current is in normal operation small, in the order of 1% of the rated
current of the transformers, and the influence of its harmonics is negligible. However, if the
transformer core is saturated due to an applied voltage higher than the rated voltage, the
magnetizing current and its harmonics will dramatically increase.
Interharmonics
Interharmonic currents and voltages have frequencies which are not an integer multiple of the
fundamental frequency. They can appear as discrete frequencies or as a wide-band spectrum. The
sources of interharmonics can be different types of convertors, induction motors, arc welding
machines and arc furnaces.
Interharmonics may need consideration in the transformer design.
Overvoltages
Quasi-stationary or steady state overvoltage causing an increase of more than 5% in the flux
density in the transformer core in relation to the core flux at rated voltage should be specified in the
enquiry and in the order.
The saturation flux density of modern core steel is 2,03 Tesla. Further increase in the magnetic flux
may cause unacceptable heating in structural details keeping the core together and in the tank.
A dramatic increase in the magnetizing current and its harmonics will also take place.
The topic of temporary and transient overvoltages is treated in chapter 15.
Voltage unbalance
IEC 60076-1 Power transformers Part 1: General assumes that the three-phase supply voltage is
approximately symmetrical in normal service conditions.
The predominant cause of voltage unbalance is unbalanced load. Due to the distorted voltage
triangle the voltage across one or two phase windings will be higher than rated. Consequently the
flux density in one or two limbs of the core will increase correspondingly. If saturation in these limbs
is reached, unacceptable heating in structural details keeping the core together and in the tank may
occur. Increase in the magnetizing current and its harmonics in the affected phases will be another
consequence. The sound level of the transformer may also increase.
It is not possible to make a general rule regarding permitted unbalance for transformers. Each case
must be treated individually. If the degree of unbalance is known before ordering the transformer, it
will be possible to take it into account in the design. Before connecting a dominant single-phase
load to an already existing transformer, it is recommended to analyse the situation first.
Overcurrents
IEC 60076-7 – Power transformers – Part 7: Loading guide for oil-immersed transformers (in
process) and IEC 60905 Loading guide for dry-type transformers provide advice regarding
overloading of transformers, continuously or intermittently.
Transformers may also be exposed to overcurrents due to short-circuits in the network. Such
currents may amount to 10 – 20 times the rated current of the transformer or even more. Large
pulsating mechanical forces will act on the windings and their supports during these currents. In
addition the high current density in the windings will rapidly increase the winding temperature.
Transformers are designed to withstand certain short-circuit currents, but the duration of the
currents must be limited to maximum 2 seconds by means of relays that disconnect the transformer
from the energy sources, unless a longer duration is agreed in the contract.
Service experience indicates that transformers from experienced manufacturers seldom fails
because of short-circuit currents.

Power frequency variation
In public supply systems the temporary frequency deviation from the nominal frequency is normally
not more than ±1 Hz. The steady-state deviation of frequency from the nominal frequency is much
less.
A frequency of 49 Hz instead of 50 Hz will increase the flux density in the transformer core by 2%
at the same applied voltage.
In supply systems isolated from public network (for example an island system) frequency variations
up to ±4% are expected. In such cases the flux density in the transformer core may increase up to
4%, and this should be taken into account when designing the transformer.
The maximum disturbance level in a network may be derived from theoretical studies or
measurements. The disturbance level is not a single value but varies statistically with location and
time. Because of this variability it is often very difficult or even impossible to determine the real
highest level of disturbance, which may appear very infrequently. It may, in general, not be
economical to define the compatibility level in terms of this highest value to which most devices
would not be exposed to most of the time.
It seems more appropriate to define the compatibility level as a value that only will be exceeded by
the disturbance level in very few cases, for example 1 or 2%.
The compatibility of transformers regarding overvoltages and overcurrents is verified by means of
various tests described in the IEC transformer standards 60076-3, 60076-5 and 60726. When
performing thermal testing on convertor transformers, the effect of harmonic currents is taken into
according to IEC 61378-1.
16.6.3. Electromagnetic field in the vicinity of transformers

Distribution transformers with voltage ratio from medium to low voltage for supply to commercial
and industrial consumers are often integrated into these consumers’ buildings. The electromagnetic
field from such transformers may disturb the performance of electronic equipment situated near by.
Or in other words, the magnetic field may exceed the immunity level of the electronic equipment.
IEC 61000-2-7 “Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 2: Environment – Section 7: Low
frequency magnetic fields in various environments” refers results from measurements taken at an
installation of a 315 kVA distribution transformer. The measurements were taken with field coils
and are considerably influenced by the presence of harmonics. For this reason two values are
stated for each ff, one at 50 Hz and one at 0 kHz to 2 kHz. Typical measured maximum values at
various locations are given in the following table:
Magnetic field Magnetic flux density
Location [A/m] in air [µT]
50 Hz 0 kHz – 2 kHz 50 Hz 0 kHz – 2 kHz
Adjacent to transformer connections 200 300 250 380
Above transformer 15 60 20 75
Adjacent to low-voltage cables 20 70 25 90
Adjacent to but outside the roof 5 30 6 40
The magnetic field was detectable up to approximately 10 m from the physical enclosure of the
substation.
Practical experience from measurements of electromagnetic field around a transformer indicates
that the measured values are considerably dependant on how the measurements are made. There
is so far no international standard describing how measurements of the electromagnetic field
around transformers shall be performed to achieve consistent results. Still the above example
indicates the magnitude of the field that can be expected.
CENELEC report R014-001 “Guide for the evaluation of electromagnetic fields around power
transformers” indicates formulas for calculation of field values for some simple geometric
configurations.
In cases where the field exceeds the immunity levels of various kinds of electronic equipment in the
vicinity of the transformer, appropriate shielding of the equipment or moving the equipment further
away from the transformer can solve the problem. ABB has developed solutions for shielding cable
boxes which reduce the electromagnetic field related to the LV cables and connections.

Contaminants on bushings of oil-immersed transformers and on windings of dry-type transformers
may, especially in the presence of moisture, cause electrical discharges, which in turn may cause
disturbance on electronic equipment. Appropriate routines for cleaning are recommended in
section 4.3.6.
16.6.4. Effect of electromagnetic fields on humans

With regard to health hazards a magnetic flux density of 100 µT at 50 Hz seems to be considered
as acceptable with high safety factor (250-500). For short time exposure the acceptable limit can
be doubled.
Research on the effect of electric and magnetic fields on health is still not complete.
Attention should be paid to the possible influence of such fields on heart pacemakers.
16.7. UNITS AND CONVERSION TABLES
16.7.1. Basic Sl units
Unit Unit
Quantity
Symbol Name
Length m metre
Mass kg kilogramme
Time s second
Electric current A ampere
Thermodynamic temperature K kelvin
Luminous intensity cd candela
Quantity of substance mole mole
16.7.2. Multiples and sub-multiples of units

Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
1012 tera T 10-2 centi c
109 giga G 10-3 milli m
106 mega M 10-6 micro µ
103 kilo k 10-9 nano n
102 hecto h 10-12 pico p
101 deka da 10-15 femto f
10-1 deci d 10-18 atto a
16.7.3. Electrical and magnetic quantities

SI unit
Quantity Symbol Other units symbol Relationship
Name
Electric ampere A
current,
magnetic
potential
difference
Electric volt V 1 V =1 W/A
voltage,
electric
potential
difference
Electric siemens S 1 S = A/V
conductance
Electric ohm Ω 1 Ω = 1/S
resistance

SI unit
Quantity Symbol Other units symbol Relationship
Name
Quantity of coulomb C ampere-hour Ah 1C = 1 As
electricity,
1 Ah = 3600
electric
As
charge
Electric farad F 1 F = 1 C/V

capacitance
Electric flux coulomb per C/m2
density square
metre
Electric field volt per V/m
strength metre
Magnetic weber, Wb, Vs 1 Wb = 1 Vs
flux volt-second
Magnetic tesla T 1 T =1
flux density, Wb/m2
(induction)
Inductance henry H 1 H = 1 Ωs
(permeance) =1 Wb/A
Magnetic ampere per A/m
field strength metre
16.7.4. General electrotechnical symbols

16.7.4.1. Mathematical symbols for electrical quantities (general)
Symbol Quantity SI unit
Q quantity of electricity, electric charge C
E electric field strength V/m
D electric flux density, electric displacement C/m²
U electric potential difference V
V, φ electric potential V
ε absolute permittivity constant F/m
permittivity for vacuum
ε0 F/m
ε0 = 8,8541817 ·10-12 F/m
εr relative permittivity 1
C electric capacitance F
I electric current A
J, S electric current density A/m²
γ, σ specific electric conductivity S/m
ρ specific electric resistance, resistivity Ωm
G electric conductance S
R electric resistance Ω
E electromotive force V

16.7.4.2. Mathematical symbols for magnetic quantities (general)
Symbol Quantity SI unit
Φ magnetic flux Wb
B magnetic induction T
H magnetic field strength, magnetizing field strength A/m
F, Fm magnetomotive force A
U, Um magnetic potential difference A
µ absolute permeability H/m
absolute permeability for vacuum
µ0 H/m
µ0 = 4π ·10-7 ·H/m
µr relative permeability 1
L self inductance H
M, Lmn mutual inductance H
16.7.4.3. Mathematical symbols for alternating-current

Symbol Quantity Sl unit
S apparent power W, VA
P active power W
Q reactive power VA(r)
φ phase difference rad
power factor = P/S = λ. For the special case of sinusoidal
λ
voltage and current λ = cos φ
δ loss angle rad
d dissipation factor, d =P/ S2 − P2 . For the special case of

sinusoidal voltage and current d=tan δ.
Z impedance Ω
R resistance Ω
X reactance Ω
16.8. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ABB Asea Brown Boveri. www.abb.com

ANSI American National Standards Institute
ATS Auto transformer station
CbVV Combined voltage variation
CE Communauté Européenne. (European Conformity) www.ce-marking.org
Comite Europeen de Normalisation
CEN
(European committee for standardization)
Comite Europeen de Normalisation Electrotechnique
CENELEC
(European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization)
CFVV Constant flux voltage variation
DDP Delivered duty paid …
DDU Delivered duty unpaid …
DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. (German Institute for standardisation)
DoC Declaration of Conformity
EHV Extra high voltage, above 420 kV and up to and including 800 kV
EMC Electromagnetic compatibility
EXW Ex works …
FAT Factory acceptance test

GIS Gas-insulated switchgear
HV High voltage
ICC International Chamber of Commerce
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission. www.iec.ch
IEEE The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
IEV International Electrotechnical Vocabulary
INCOTERMS Standard definitions of trade terms
IP International Protection (IEC 60529)
ISO International Organization for Standardization
LBOR Load Break Immersed Switch – ABB product
LCA Life cycle Asessment
LDT Large distribution transformers
LI Lightening impulse, full wave
LIC Lightning impulse chopped on tail
LV Low voltage
MDT Medium distribution transformers
MTP Mini-Three Phase Padmounted transformer
NA Not applicable
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association www.nema.org
ONAF Cooling: Oil natural. Air forced
ONAN Cooling: Oil natural. Air natural
ORGALIME General conditions. Limitation of responsibilities
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl
PD Partial discharge
ppm Parts Per Million
PTDT Power Technology, Distribution Transformers
r.m.s. Root mean square
SDT Small distribution transformers
SI Systéme Internationale d´Unites (International System of Units)
TGV French high speed train
TOV Temporary overvoltage
UCT Underground commercial transformer
UHV Ultra high voltage, above 800 kV
Um Highest voltage for equipment
Verband der Elektrotechnik Elektronik Informationstechnik e.V
VDE
(Association for Electrical, Electronic & Information Technologies)
VFVV Variable flux voltage variation
VPE Vacuum Pressure Encapsulated
VPI Vacuum Pressure Impregnated
VSD Variable speed drives

16.9. CONTRIBUTORS
The following have contributed to the preparation of this Transformer Handbook
Name Section
Karlsen, Roar 2.1, 2.3, 16.5
[email protected]
Løvlien, Svein Ola 5, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4.1, 7.4.2,
[email protected]
Parma, Diego 0, 1.1, 1.2,
[email protected]
Stang, Geir 7.4.3, 8.2.2, 9.1, 9.2.2, 9.2.3, 9.2.4, 9.2.5,

9.4.1, 9.4.2, 9.4.3, 9.4.4, 9.4.5, 9.4.6, 9.4.7,
[email protected]
9.4.8, 9.4.9, 9.4.10, 9.4.11, 9.4.12, 9.4.13,
9.4.14, 16.4, 18
Stryken, Egil 8.1.1, 9.2.1, 13, 14, 16.3, 16.10
[email protected]
Sund, John-Bjarne 2.2, 2.4.1, 2.4.2, 0, 2.5, 4, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 9.2.1,
9.2.5, 11, 12, 15, 16.6, 17
[email protected]
Tødenes, Arnt Sigmar 2.4.4, 2.4.5, 7.4.2.1, 8.2.1, 8.3, 9.2.2, 9.3,
[email protected] 9.4.1, 9.4.2, 9.4.3, 9.4.4, 9.4.5, 9.4.6, 9.4.7,
9.4.8, 9.4.9, 9.4.10, 9.4.11, 9.4.12, 9.4.13
Whitefoot, Kevin Proofing and use of language.
[email protected]
Wilhelmsen, Reiulf 0, 3, 6.4, 8.1.2, 9.4.15, 10, 16.1, 0, 16.7, 16.8,
16.9, 18, 19
[email protected]
16.10. FEEDBACK
Any feedback regarding editorial changes, additional subject proposals etc. can be sent by E-mail
to [email protected].
Any questions regarding the various subjects can be sent by E-mail to the author with a copy to
[email protected].
16.11. OBTAINING COPIES OF THE HANDBOOK

Please contact your nearest ABB contact for obtaining a copy of the handbook.
See also www.abb.com/transformers.
Otherwise contact the ABB Transformers Communication Manager [email protected]

17. BIBLIOGRAPHY
17.1. TRANSFORMER-RELEVANT STANDARDS
A number of transformer relevant standards are listed in this section. These standards are issued
by the three different institutions IEC, CENELEC and ANSI/IEEE.
17.1.1. IEC standards

IEC stands for International Electrotechnical Commission, which was officially founded in 1906 in
London, England, based on a proposal launched at a meeting in the International Electrical
Congress in 1904 in St. Louis, USA.
The technical work in IEC is organised in technical committees (TCs), consisting of experts from
the member countries in the different subjects. By 1914 the IEC had formed four technical
committees to deal with nomenclature, symbols, rating of electrical machinery, and prime movers.
The First World War interrupted IEC work, which resumed in 1919 and by 1923 the number of
technical committees had increased to 10.
In 1938 the IEC produced the first edition of the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV).
The unification of electrotechnical terminology was one of the principal tasks allocated to the IEC
by the St. Louis congress. In the early days, the Nomenclature Committee was engaged in pioneer
work, as no comparable international technical vocabulary had yet been published and few national
electrotechnical vocabularies existed. With its 2000 terms in French, English, German, Italian,
Spanish and Esperanto, and its definitions in French and English, the IEV could rightly be
considered as an outstanding achievement. It aroused wide interest among international technical
organizations outside the electrotechnical field.
In September 1939 the IEC's activity came to a standstill because of the Second World War and
did not resume for another six years.
From 1948 to 1980 the number of technical committees grew from 34 to 80 and began to include
such new technologies as capacitors and resistors, semiconductor devices, electrical equipment in
medical practice and maritime navigation and radio communication systems and equipment.
In 2001 the Commission published the most recent edition of the IEC Multilingual Dictionary. It is
a compilation of the IEV, which now contains 18 500 electrotechnical concepts divided into
73 subject areas, containing full definitions in French and English and equivalent terms in
12 languages, including an index in German.
At present IEC have 62 member countries and technical committees for 110 different subjects.
Some of the technical committees have several subcommittees. Including the subcommittees there
are totally 174 technical committees.
Technical committee number 14 (TC14) deals with power transformers and reactors. This
committee has 32 participating countries (P-members) and 10 observer countries (O-members). To
be a P-member or an O-member is each country’s own individual choice. Only the participating
countries have the right and the commitment to vote on documents worked out by the committee
and the right to participate in the working groups (WGs) preparing the standards.
A draft for an IEC standard needs at least 67 % of the voting P-members to obtain approval as an
IEC standard. Each P-member has one vote. The present IEC standards prepared by TC14 have
achieved a considerable higher percentage of votes in favour than 67. So the IEC transformer
standards are based on a high degree of consensus among experts in the countries that are P-
members in TC14, and they are extensively applied around the world.
The use of IEC standards is a voluntary matter. Contractual partners are free to use the IEC
standards or anything else. They are also free to use parts of an IEC standard, to make exceptions
from the standards or additional requirements. But as soon as an IEC standard has been made a
part of a technical contract specification, the IEC standard becomes a legally binding document,
except for deviations written in the contract.
The IEC standards do not prescribe how to design and produce transformers. So, to say that a
transformer shall be or is designed and produced according to the IEC standards would be
meaningless, or it would at least be imprecise use of language.
The IEC transformer standards describe certain tests the transformers shall be subjected to before
delivery from the factory and state the acceptance criteria. The purpose of the tests is that
transformers that have passed these tests shall have good prospects of a long life and high service
reliability, when adequately protected and maintained. In this respect the IEC has been successful.

Transformers tested according to IEC standards are one of the most reliable components in electric
power systems. Many transformers have been in service for more then half a century without
problems worth mentioning.
However, In the Foreword of the standards the IEC states that the IEC provides no marking
procedure to indicate its approval and cannot be rendered responsible for any equipment declared
to be in conformity with one of its standards. Further the IEC draws attention to the possibility that
some of the elements of its standards may be the subject of patent rights, and states that the IEC
shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
17.1.2. CENELEC standards

CENELEC stands for Comité Européen de Normalisation Electrotechnique, in English: European
Committee for Electrotechnical Standardisation. It was created in 1973.
CENELEC standards (EN standards) are international standards prepared by working groups and
approved by weighted voting among countries being members of the European Union (EU) and
other countries included in the European Economic Area Agreement.
The CENELEC transformer standards are for a large part identical to the IEC standards with a few
minor amendments.
However, CENELEC has also issued standards concerning transformer accessories, which have
no corresponding IEC standards. An example is the series EN 50216-1 through 7 specifying
detailed geometric dimensions and certain performance characteristics of items like gas relays,
pressure devices, oil level and flow indicators, oil pumps. The purpose is to provide
interchangeability and to remove technical trade barriers between CENELEC member countries.
The latter is an EU target.
In line with this CENELEC member countries are bound to withdraw national standards conflicting
with the EN standards and ratify the EN standards, either as they are or in a word for word
translation. In public procurement there is an obligation to apply EN standards as the first priority
standards as the base for the technical specification, according to The European Public
Procurement Directive, if the prospective contract sum is above a certain limit.
CENELEC has also issued a number of Harmonization Documents (HD). Their formal status is
practically the same as that of the EN standards. CENELEC has decided to phase out the
Harmonization Documents and replace them by EN standards.
17.1.3. IEEE standards

IEEE stands for The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
Contrary to the IEC standards, which are international standards, IEEE standards are national
standards prepared and issued in the United States of America by the IEEE Societies. These
standards are also sometimes used in other countries, without being ratified as national standards
in those countries.
Like the IEC standards the use of IEEE Standards is wholly voluntary, and it becomes mandatory
only when specified in a contractual relationship or when required by a duly constituted legal
authority. The IEEE clearly indicates that the existence of an IEEE Standard does not imply that
there are no other ways to deal with matters related to the scope of the IEEE standard.
In some recent standards the IEEE expressly states that “The IEEE disclaims liability for any
personal injury, property or other damage, of any nature whatsoever, whether special, indirect,
consequential, or compensatory, directly or indirectly resulting from the publication, use of, or
reliance upon this, or any other IEEE Standard document.”
IEEE standards also contain a reservation regarding patent rights, saying:
“Attention is called to the possibility that implementation of this standard may
require use of subject matter covered by patent rights. By publication of this standard,
no position is taken with respect to the existence or validity of any patent rights in
connection therewith. The IEEE shall not be responsible for identifying patents for
which a license may be required by an IEEE standard or for conducting inquiries into
the legal validity or scope of those patents that are brought to its attention.”

17.1.4. Comparison between ANSI/IEEE standards and IEC standards
The purpose of this section is to point out some basic, essential differences between transformer
standards issued by the two institutions. This is not meant to be an exhaustive list of differences.
To avoid possible unpleasant surprises, contract partners need to perform a detailed study of the
standards specified in the enquiry or the contract.
The IEC standards prepared by TC14 are found in the series 60076- with sub-numbers 1, 2, 3 and
so on. convertor transformers are treated in the 60378- series and tap-changers in 60214-.
The basic American standards are the general C57.12.00, C57.12.80 taking care of the
terminology and C57.12.90 treating the testing topic. In addition comes a list of standards
specifying outside features like for example terminal arrangement, especially for smaller power
transformers for distribution and for different erection (pad-mounted, pole-mounted, underground)
and for different ranges of power and voltage rating.
With the exception of the minimum clearances between live parts of the bushings and between
these and earth, the IEC standards do not specify outside details. These items are left to national
standards or to customer specifications. So the outside appearance of transformers in for example
Germany and Great Britain may be quite different, although they all fulfill the IEC requirements.
Looking at the active part there is seldom much principal difference. (The active part of core-type
and shell-type do look very different, but neither the IEC nor the ANSI/IEEE standards distinguish
between these two types, except for the mechanical forces during short circuit).
There are some basic differences between the IEC and the ANSI/IEEE standards we would like to
emphasize.
17.1.4.1. Definition of power rating (rated kilovoltamperes)
IEEE Std C57.12.00-2000 has the following definition:
“The rated kVA of a transformer shall be the output that can be delivered for the time specified
at rated secondary voltage and rated frequency without exceeding the specified temperature-
rise limitations under prescribed conditions of test, and within the limitations of established
standards.”
Paragraph 5.5.2 Voltage ratings states:
“The voltage ratings shall be at no load and shall be based on the turn ratio.”
When a transformer is loaded there is a voltage drop in the transformer. To achieve rated voltage
at the secondary terminals, the voltage at the primary side has to be raised above the rated value
to compensate for the voltage drop in the transformer. The voltage drop depends on the short
circuit impedance of the transformer, the load current and the power factor of the load.
Under paragraph 4.1 Usual service conditions, the load power factor is assumed to be 0,8 or
higher. The transformer designer has to take these circumstances into account to avoid that the
flux density does not become too high when the power flow direction is such that the secondary
winding is not the inmost winding on the core.
Paragraph 4.1 specifies also that neither the voltage nor the volts per hertz are assumed to exceed
110 % of rated values. This means that the transformer core must in any case be able to carry a
magnetic flux that is 10 % higher than the flux at rated voltage in no load condition.
IEC 60076-1 (1993-03) has the following definition:
“3.4.6 rated power (Sr): A conventional value of apparent power assigned to a winding which,
together with the rated voltage of the winding, determines its rated current.”
and states further in a NOTE:
“Both windings of a two-winding transformer have the same rated power which by definition is
the rated power of the whole transformer.”
Paragraph 3.4.3 defines the rated voltage of a winding (Ur) as:
“The voltage assigned to be applied, or developed at no-load, between the terminals of an
untapped winding, or of a tapped winding connected to the principal tapping (see 3.5.2). For a
three-phase winding it is the voltage between line terminals. [IEV 421-04-01, modified]”
In a NOTE it is added:
“The rated voltages of all windings appear simultaneously at no-load when the voltage applied
to one of them has its rated value.”

The rated power is then a function of the product of rated voltage and rated current. The rated
voltage can be applied to the primary terminals, and rated current will flow in the primary winding
when the secondary winding is loaded with its rated current. The power applied to the primary
winding is then equal to the rated power. However, the secondary voltage will be different from the
rated secondary voltage and consequently also the power delivered from the secondary winding
will be different from the rated power of the transformer, due to the voltage drop in the transformer.
This implies that the rated power of the transformer according to the IEC definitions is a value of
apparent power input to the transformer, including its own absorption of active and reactive power
(while the rated power according to the IEEE definitions is a value of apparent power delivered
from the secondary side).
This implies further that when IEC standards apply, the user has to consider the voltage drop in the
transformer in various expected service conditions before determining the rated voltages of the
transformer.
In paragraph 4.4 IEC60076-1 (1993-03) says that:
“…a transformer shall be capable of continuous service without damage under conditions of
‘overfluxing’ where the ratio of voltage over frequency exceeds the corresponding ratio at rated
voltage and rated frequency by no more than 5 %.” (IEEE 10 %).
17.1.4.2. Reference temperature for load losses
The reference temperature for the load losses in IEEE is 85 °C, while it is 75 °C in IEC. This implies
that the load losses in one and the same transformer will appear higher when the IEEE standards
apply than when IEC standards apply.
When optimising a transformer design based on given capitalised values for the losses, the
spending of materials will tend to be higher when the IEEE standards apply than when IEC
standards apply.
17.1.4.3. Uncertainty in measurements
IEEE Std C57.12.00-2000 specifies in Table 21 accuracy requirements in the measurement of
losses, voltage, current, resistance and temperature. Before tendering on the base of this IEEE
standard, the tenderer must carefully evaluate his measurement equipment to see whether he is
able to fulfill these requirements.
IEC has no concrete numeric requirements on this topic, but says in the Application guide 60076-8,
paragraph 10.1 that:
“Statements of limits or uncertainty shall be available and these statements shall be supported
by a documented traceability (see ISO 9001).”
17.1.4.4. Dielectric testing
When lightning impulse test is specified, testing with chopped wave (chopped on the tail) is a
compulsory part of the test in the IEEE standard. In IEC chopped wave test is only made when
specified.
A transformer withstanding a full wave test may not without further notice withstand a chopped
wave because the chopping will involve a rapid fall in the voltage, which may cause more severe
stresses in the winding than during the full wave test. This is a test that may express something
about the transformer’s ability to withstand the stresses that arise when re-ignitions occur in the
circuitbreakers during contact separation when opening the circuitbreaker.
IEEE has also an option for a front of wave test. That is a voltage impulse chopped on the front
before the voltage surge has reached its crest value. This test is only made when specified. IEC
does not include this kind of test.
17.1.4.5. Short circuit requirements and testing
The differences between IEC and IEEE in requirements regarding ability to withstand short circuit
currents and in testing to verify this ability are not large. However, there are some details where the
standards deviate from each other, and some of these disparities will be listed in the following.

• IEEE standards divide the transformers into four categories while IEC has three categories,
based on the kVA rating in both standards. Each category is subject to somewhat different
requirements.
• In cases where the short circuit power of the systems to be connected to the transformer is
not specified, these values shall be taken from tables in the standards. The system short
circuit apparent power is considerably higher in the IEEE standard than according to
”current European practice” in IEC 60076-5 (2000). However, the transformer impedance is
normally much higher than the system impedance, so the difference in short circuit current
flowing through the transformer will be quite modest.
• The algorithm for calculating the maximum asymmetric peak current is the same in both
standards. The asymmetry increases with increasing x/r, where x and r are respectively the
total reactance and the total resistance in the whole circuit. For x/r>14 IEC states a
maximum value for the peak factor, while IEEE does not contain such a limitation. The
consequence of this may in some cases be that in very large transformers the cross section
of the winding conductor must be a little larger to fulfill the short circuit requirements in IEEE
compared to those in IEC. The manufacturing cost will then be somewhat higher. However,
this may be compensated by lower losses.
• IEEE specifies six “shots” per phase, two of those shall be with full asymmetry. IEC
specifies three “shots” per phase with full asymmetry on all three “shots”. It is hard to judge
which of the two test procedures is the toughest one for the transformer.
• Both IEEE and IEC standards contain a list of criteria that must be fulfilled to state that the
transformer has passed the test. These criteria are more or less the same in both standards
with one exception. IEEE requires for the largest transformers (category II, III and IV with
circular windings) not more than 2 % difference in the ohmic value of the transformer’s short
circuit impedance measured before and after the test. The corresponding requirement
in IEC for transformers with apparent power rating above 100 MVA is 1 %. IEC has the
toughest requirement at this point.
• Both IEEE and IEC standards have a requirement regarding the winding conductor
temperature rise during short circuit current. The temperature rise shall be calculated based
on the stationary value of the short circuit current and its duration. The algorithm is basically
the same in both standards, calculating as if no heat transfer to the environment takes place
during the short time the short circuit current is flowing. IEC assumes that all the heat
developed is stored in the conductor material, copper or aluminum. IEEE takes in addition
into account that some heat is also stored in the insulation of the conductor. The maximum
permitted temperature rise for each winding is the same in both standards, 250 °C for
copper and 200 °C for aluminum. However, IEEE permits also 250 °C for certain aluminum
alloys. IEC specifies that the duration of the current to be used when calculating this
temperature rise shall be 2 s unless a different duration is specified. This duration is in most
cases shorter in the IEEE standards.
• In an amendment (in process) to IEC 60076-5 a method is described, which shows how the
ability of the transformer to withstand the mechanical forces during short circuit may be
verified by means of calculation and comparison with a similar transformer that has passed
a short circuit test.
IEEE has no corresponding method.
• IEEE C57.12.00-2000 specifies that the winding hot spot temperature rise shall not exceed
80 °C.
IEC 60076-2 (1993-04) has no requirement on hot spot winding temperature rise.
IEC and IEEE have expressed the intention gradually to decrease or remove basic differences
between their standards. It is envisaged that a closer co-operation between the two organizations
will make the future standardization work more cost efficient. Besides that it is recognized that
basic physical phenomena are the same all over the world.
Concerning the transformer subjects the first approach in this respect is already in process. IEEE
has already issued a standard on phase-shifting transformers, IEEE Std. C57.135-2001. It would
seem unreasonable that the IEC, which so far has no standard for this type of transformers, should
start working on this topic from scratch. So, the IEC has sent this IEEE standard to the National
committees of the IEC for a preliminary vote with the possibility to comment and suggest changes.
If this standard achieves approval within the IEC, the standard will be issued in a new edition with
the logo of both organizations on the front page.

17.1.5. IEC Standards
IEC 60027-1 (1992, corrected and reprinted 1995-03-31)
Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology - Part 1: General
IEC 60027-1 am1 (1997-05)
Amendment 1 - Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology - Part 1: General
IEC 60050-441 (1984-01)
International Electrotechnical Vocabulary. Switchgear, controlgear and fuses
IEC 60050-441-am1 (2000-07)
Amendment 1 - International Electrotechnical Vocabulary. Switchgear, controlgear and fuses
IEC 60060-1 (1989-11)
High-voltage test techniques – Part 1: General definitions and test requirements
IEC 60071-1 (1993)
Insulation co-ordination – Part 1: Definitions, principles and rules
IEC 60071-2 (1996-12)
Insulation co-ordination – Part 2: Application Guide
IEC 60076-1 (2000-04) Ed. 2.1
Power transformers – Part 1: General
IEC 60076-2 (1993-04)
Power transformers – Part 2: Temperature rise
IEC 60076-2 Corr. 1 (1997-06)
Corrigendum 1 - Power transformers – Part 2: Temperature rise
IEC 60076-3 (2000-03)
Power transformers – Part 3: Insulation levels, dielectric tests and external clearances in air
IEC 60076-3 Corr. 1 (2000-12)
Corrigendum 1 - Power transformers – Part 3: Insulation levels, dielectric tests and external
clearances in air
IEC 60076-4 (2002-06)
Power transformers – Part 4: Guide to the lightning impulse and switching impulse testing –
Power transformers and reactrors
IEC 60076-5 (2000-07)
Power transformers – Part 5: Ability to withstand short circuit
IEC 60076-7 (in process)
Power transformers – Part 7: Loading guide for oil-immersed power transformers
IEC 60076-8 (1997-11)
Power transformers – Part 8: Application guide
IEC 60076-10 (2001-05)
Power transformers – Part 10: Determination of sound levels
IEC 60076-11 (2004-05)
Power transformers - Part 11: Dry-type transformers
IEC 60156 (1995-08)
Insulating liquids – Determination of the breakdown voltage at power frequency – Test
method
IEC 60214-1 (2003-02)
Tap-changers – Part 1: Performance requirements and test methods
IEC 60270 (2000-12)
High-voltage test techniques – Partial discharge measurements
IEC 60289 (1988-05)
Reactors
IEC 60296 (1982-01)
Specification for unused mineral insulating oils for transformers and switchgear
IEC 60296-am1 (1986-01)
Amendment no. 1

IEC 60354 (1991-10)1)
Loading guide for oil-immersed power transformers
IEC 60422 (1989-04)
Supervision and maintenance guide for mineral insulating oils in electrical equipment
IEC 60475 (1974-01)
Methods of sampling liquid dielectrics
IEC/TR 60479-1 (1994-09)
Effect of current on human beings and livestock – Part 1: General aspects
IEC 60529 (2001-02)
Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP Code)
IEC 60542 (1976-01)1)
Application guide for on-load tap-changers
IEC 60542-am1 (1988-01)
Amendment No. 1
IEC 60554-3-1 (1979-01)
Specification for cellulosic papers for electrical purposes. Part 3: Specifications for individual
materials. Sheet 1: General purpose electrical paper
IEC 60567 (1992-07)
Guide for the sampling of gases and of oil from oil-filled electrical equipment and for the
analysis of free and dissolved gases
IEC 60599 (1999-03)
Mineral oil-impregnated electrical equipment in service – Guide to the interpretation of
dissolved and free gases analysis
IEC/TR 60616 (1978-01)
Terminal and tapping markings for power transformers
IEC 60641-3-1 (1992-05)
Specification for pressboard and presspaper for electrical purposes – Part 3: Specification
for individual materials – Sheet 1: Requirements for pressboard, types B.0.1, B.2.1, B.2.3,
B.3.1, B.3.3, B.4.1, B.4.3, B.5.1, B.6.1 and B.7.1
IEC 60641-3-2 (1992-05)
Specification for pressboard and presspaper for electrical purposes – Part 3: Specification
for individual materials – Sheet 2: Requirements for presspaper, types P.2.1, P4.1, P.4.2,
P4.3, P.6.1 and P.7.1
IEC 60666 (1979-01)
Detection and determination of specified anti-oxidant additives in insulating oils
IEC 60695-1-40 (2002-11)
Fire hazard testing – Part 1-40: Guidance for assessing the fire hazard of electrotechnical
products – Insulating liquids
IEC 60726-am1 (1986-01)
Amendment No. 1
IEC 60814 (1997-08)
Insulating liquids – oil-impregnated paper and pressboard – Determination of water by
automatic coulometric Karl Fischer titration
IEC 60836 (1988-08)
Specification for silicone liquids for electrical purposes
IEC 60836 Corr.1 (1993-12)
Corrigendum 1 - Specification for silicone liquids for electrical purposes
IEC 60867 (1993-09)
Insulating liquids – Specifications for unused liquids based on synthetic aromatic
hydrocarbons
1)
New edition in process
1)
New edition in process

IEC 60897 (1987-03)
Methods for the determination of the lightning breakdown voltage of insulating liquids
IEC 60905 (1987-12)
Loading guide for dry-type transformers
IEC 60944 (1988-09)
Guide for the maintenance of silicone transformer liquids
IEC 60970 (1989-06)
Methods for counting and sizing particles in insulating liquids
IEC 61039 (1990-10)
General classification of insulating liquids
IEC 61065 (1991-05)
Method for evaluating the low temperature flow properties of mineral insulating oils after
ageing
IEC 61061-1Laminated wood
IEC 61065 Corr. 1 (1993-12)
Corrigendum 1 - Method for evaluating the low temperature flow properties of mineral
insulating oils after ageing
IEC 61099 (1992-05)
Specification for unused synthetic organic esters for electrical purposes
IEC 61099 Corr. 1 (1993-1)
Corrigendum 1 - Specification for unused synthetic organic esters for electrical purposes
IEC 61100 (1992-05)
Classification of insulating liquids according to fire point and net calorific value
IEC 61125 (1992-08 + corrigendum 1992-09)
Unused hydrocarbon-based insulating liquids – Test methods for evaluating the oxidation
stability
IEC 61144 (1992-12)
Test method for the determination of oxygen index of insulating liquids
IEC 61181 (1993-06)
Impregnated insulating materials – Application of dissolved gas analysis (DGA) to factory
tests on electrical equipment
IEC 61197 (1993-09)
Insulating liquids – Linear flame propagation – Test method using a glass-fibre tape
IEC 61203 (1992-12)
Synthetic organic esters for electrical purposes – Guide for maintenance of transformer
esters in equipment
IEC/TR3 61294 (1993-10)
Insulating liquids – Determination of the partial discharge inception voltage (PDIV) – Test
procedure
IEC 61378-1 (1997-09)
Convertor transformers – Part 1: Transformers for industrial applications
IEC 61378-2 (2002-02)
Convertor transformers – Part 2: Transformer for HVDC applications
IEC 61378-3 (In process)
Convertor transformers – Part 3: Application guide
IEC 61619 (1997-04)
Insulating liquids – Contamination by polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs) – Method of
determination by capillary column gas chromatography
IEC 61620 (1998-11)
Insulating liquids – Determination of dielectric dissipation factor by measurement of the
conductance and capacitance – Test method
IEC 61868 (1998-11)
Mineral insulating oils – Determination of kinematic viscosity at very low temperatures

IEC 61936-1 (2002-10)
– Power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c. – Part 1: Common rules
IEC 62021 (2003-06)
Insulating liquids – Determination of acidity – Part 1: Automatic potentiometric titration
17.1.6. CENELEC Standards

EN 50180: 1997 + corrigendum Apr. 1998
Bushings above 1 kV up to 36 kV and from 250 A to 3,15 kA for liquid filled transformers
EN 50216-1: 2002
Power transformer and reactor fittings – Part 1: General
EN 50216-2: 2002 +A1: 2002
Power transformer and reactor fittings – Part 2: Gas and oil actuated relay for liquid
immersed transformers and reactors with conservator
EN 50216-3: 2002 +A1: 2002
Power transformer and reactor fittings – Part 3: Protective relay for hermetically sealed
liquid-immersed transformers and reactors without gaseous cushion
EN 50216-4: 2002
Power transformer and reactor fittings – Part 4: Basic accessories (earthing terminal, drain
and filling devices, thermometer pocket, wheel assembly)
EN 50216-5: 2002 +A1: 2002
Power transformer and reactor fittings – Part 5: Liquid level, pressure devices and flow
indicators
EN 50216-6: 2002
Power transformer and reactor fittings – Part6: Cooling equipment – Removable radiators for
oil-immersed transformers
EN 50216-7: 2002
Power transformer and reactor fittings – Part 7: Electric pumps for transformer oil
EN50243: 2002
Outdoor bushings for 24 kV and 36 kV and for 5 kA and 8 kA, for liquid filled transformers
EN 50299: 2002
Oil-immersed cable connection assemblies for transformers and reactors having highest
voltage for equipment Um from 72,5 kV to 550 kV
EN 50336:2002
Bushings for transformers and reactor cable boxes not exceeding 36 kV
EN50386: 2002
Bushings up to 1 kV and from 250 A to 5 kA, for liquid filled transformers
EN50387: 2002
Busbar bushings up to 1 kV and from 1,25 kA to 5 kA, for liquid filled transformers
EN 60071-1:1995
Insulation co-ordination – Part 1: Definitions, principles and rules
EN 60071-1:1995 +A1: 2000
EN 60071-2:1997
Insulation co-ordination – Part 2: Application Guide
EN 60071-2:1997 +A12: 2002
EN 60076-1: 1997
Power transformers – Part 1: General
EN 60076-1: 1997 +A11: 1997
EN 60076-2: 1997
Power transformers – Part 2: Temperature rise
EN 60076-3: 2001
Power transformers – Part 3: Insulation levels, dielectric tests and external clearances in air

EN 60076-4: 2002
Power transformers – Part 4: Guide to the lightning impulse and switching impulse testing –
Power transformers and reactors
EN 60076-5: 2000
Power transformers – Part 5: Ability to withstand short-circuit
EN 60076-10: 2001
Power transformers – Part 10: Determination of sound levels
EN60137: 1996
Insulated bushing for alternating voltage above 1 kV
EN60156: 1995
Insulating liquids – Determination of the breakdown voltage at power frequency – Test
method
EN 60214: |997
On-load tap-changers
EN 60214-1: 2003
Tap-changers – Part 1: Performance requirements and test methods
EN 60567: 1992
Guide for the sampling of gases and of oil from oil-filled electrical equipment and for the
analysis of free and dissolved gases
EN 60599: 1999
Mineral oil-impregnated electrical equipment in service – Guide to the interpretation of
dissolved and free gas analysis
EN 60726: 2003
Dry-type transformers
EN 60814: 1997
Insulating liquids – oil-impregnated paper and pressboard – Determination of water by
automatic coulometric Karl Fischer titration
EN 61065: 1993
Method for evaluating the low temperature flow properties of mineral insulating oils after
ageing
EN 61099: 1992
Specification for unused synthetic organic esters for electrical purposes
EN 61100: 1992
Classification of insulating liquids according to fire point and net calorific value
EN 61125: 1993
Unused hydrocarbon-based insulating liquids – Test methods for evaluating the oxidation
stability
EN 61197: 1994
Insulating liquids – Linear flame propagation – Test method using a glass-fibre tape
EN 61203: 1994
Synthetic organic esters for electrical purposes – Guide for maintenance of transformer
esters in equipment
En 61378-1: 1998 + corrigendum Nov. 1998
Convertor transformers – Part 1: Transformers for industrial applications
EN 61620: 1999
Insulating liquids – Determination of dielectric dissipation factor by measurement of the
conductance and capacitance – Test method
HD 428.1 S1: 1992 +A1: 1995
Three-phase oil-immersed distribution transformers 50Hz, from 50 to 2500 kVA with highest
voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV – Part 1: General requirements and requirements
for transformers with highest voltage for equipment not exceeding 24 kV

HD 428.2.1 S1: 1994
Three-phase oil-immersed distribution transformers 50Hz, from 50 kVA to 2,5 MVA with
highest for equipment not exceeding 36 kV – Part 2: Distribution transformers with cable
boxes on the high–voltage and/or low-voltage side – Section 1: General requirements
HD 428.2.2 S1: 1997
voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV – Part 2: Distribution transformers with cable
boxes on the high–voltage and/or low-voltage side – Section 2: Cable boxes type 1 for use
on distribution transformers meeting the requirements of HD 428.2.1
HD 428.2.3 S1: 1998
voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV – Part 2: Distribution transformers with cable
boxes on the high–voltage and/or low-voltage side – Section 3: Cable boxes type 2 for use
on distribution transformers meeting the requirements of HD 428.2.1
HD 428.3 S1: 1994
voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV – Part 3: Supplementary requirements for
transformers with highest voltage for equipment equal to 36 kV
HD 428.4 S1: 1994
voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV – Part 4: Determination of power rating of a
transformer loaded with non-sinusoidal currents
HD 428.6 S1: 2002
voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV – Part 6: Requirements and tests concerning
pressurised corrugated tanks
HD 565 S1: 1993
Specification for silicone liquids for electrical purposes
HD 637 S1: 1999
Power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c.
R014-001: 1999
Guide for the evaluation of electromagnetic fields around power transformers

17.1.7. ANSI/IEEE Standards
IEEE Std 259 – 1999TM
IEEE Standard Test Procedure for Evaluation of Systems of Insulation for Dry-type Specialty
and General Purpose Transformers
IEEE Std 637 – 1985 (R1992,2002) TM
IEEE Guide for the Reclamation of Insulating Oil and Criteria for Use
IEEE Std 638 – 1992 (R1999) TM
IEEE Standard for Qualification of Class 1E Transformers for Nuclear Generating Stations
IEEE Std 1276 – 1997 TM
IEEE Guide for the Application of High-Temperature Materials in Liquid-Immersed Power
Transformers
IEEE Std 1388 – 2000 TM
IEEE Standards for Electronic Reporting of Transformer Tests
IEEE Std 1538 – 2000 TM
IEEE Guide for Determination of Maximum Winding Temperature Rise in Liquid-Filled
Transformers
IEEE Std C57.12.00 – 2000 TM
IEEE Standard General requirements for – Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and
Regulating Transfortmers
IEEE Std C57.12.01 – 1998 TM
IEEE Standard General Requirements for Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers
Including Those with Solid-Cast and/or Resin-Encapsulated Windings
ANSI C57.12.10-1997
230 kV and Below 833 / 958 through 8333 / 10 417 kVA, Single-Phase, and 750 / 862
through 60 000 / 80 000 /100 000 kVA, Three-Phase Without Load Tap Changing; and 3750
/ 4687 through 60 000 / 80 000 / 100 000 kVA with Load Tap Changing— Safety
Requirement
IEEE C57.12.20 – 1997 TM
American National Standard for Overhead Distribution Transformers 500 kVA and smaller:
High Voltage, 34500 V and below: Low Voltage 7970/13800 Y V and below – Requirements
IEEE Std C57.12.21 – 1992 TM
American National Standard Requirements for Pad-Mounted, Compartmental-Type, Self-
Cooled, Single-Phase Distribution Transformers With High Voltage Bushings; High-
voltage,34500 GRYD/19920 Volts and Below; Low-Voltage, 240/120 volts; 167 kVA and
Smaller
IEEE Std C57.12.22 – 1993 (R1998) TM
American National Standard for Transfomers – Pad-Mounted, Compartmental-Type, Self-
Cooled, Three-Phase Distribution Transformers with High Voltage Bushings, 2500 kVA and
Smaller, High-Voltage,34500 GrdY/19920 Volts and Below; Low-Voltage, 480 Volts and
Below – Requirements
IEEE Std C57.12.23 – 2002 TM
IEEE Standard for Underground Type, Self-Cooled, Single-Phase, Distribution Transformers
with Separable Insulated High-Voltage Connectors; High Voltage 25000 V and Below, Low
Voltage 600 V and Below, 167 kVA and Smaller
IEEE Std C57.12.24 – 2000 TM
American National Standard for Transfomers – Underground-Type, Three-Phase Distribution
Transformers, 2500 kVA and Smaller; Voltage, 34500 GrdY/19920 Volts and below; Low
Voltage, 480 Volts and Below – Requirements
IEEE Std C57.12.25.-. 1990 TM
American National Standard for Transformers – Pad-Mounted, Compartmental-Type, Self-
Cooled, Single-Phase Distribution Transformers with Separable Insulated High-Voltage
Connectors, High-voltage,34500 GrdY/19920 Volts and Below; Low-Voltage, 240/120 volts;
167 kVA and Smaller-Requirements

IEEE Std C57.12.26 – 1992 TM
IEEE Standard for Pad-Mounted, Compartmental-Type, Self-Cooled, Three-Phase
Distribution Transformers for Use with Separable Insulated High-Voltage Connectors (34500
GrdY/19920 Volts and Below; 2500 kVA and Smaller)
IEEE Std C57.12.28 – 1999 TM
American National Standard Pad-Mounted equipment – Enclosed Integrity
IEEE Std C57.12.29 – 1991 TM
American National Standard Switchgear and Transformers-Pad-Mounted Equipment-
Enclosure Integrity for Coastal Environments
IEEE Std C57.12.29 – 1999 TM Errata
American National Standard Pad-Mounted Equipment-Enclosure Integrity for Coastal
Environments (Replacement Figures Version)
IEEE Std C57.12.31 – 2002 TM
IEEE Standard for Pole mounted Equipment – Enclosure Integrity
IEEE Std C57.12.32 – 2002 TM
IEEE Standard for Submersible Equipment- Enclosure Integrity
IEEE Std C57.12.35 – 1996 TM
IEEE Standard for Bar Coding for Distribution Transformers
IEEE Std C57.12.40 – 2000 TM
American National Standard for Secondary Network Transformers Subway and Vault Types
(Liquid Immersed) – Requirements
IEEE Std 2C57.12.44 – 2000 TM
IEEE Standard Requirements for Secondary Network Protectors
IEEE Std C57.12.50 – 1981 TM (R1998)
American National Standard Requirements for Ventilated Dry-Type Distribution
Transformers, 1 to 500 kVA, Single-Phase, and 15 kVA, Three-Phase, with High-Voltage
601 to 34500 Volts, Low Voltage 120 to 600 Volts
IEEE Std C57.12.51 – 1981 TM (R1998)
American National Standard Requirements for Ventilated Dry-Type Distribution
Transformers, 501 kVA and Larger, Three-Phase, with High-Voltage 601 to 34500 Volts,
Low Voltage 208Y/120 to 4160 Volts
IEEE Std C57.12.52 – 1981 TM (R1998)
American National Standard Requirements for Sealed Dry-Type Distribution Transformers,
501 kVA and Larger, Three-Phase, with High-Voltage 601 to 34500 Volts, Low Voltage
208Y/120 to 4160 Volts
IEEE Std C57.12.55 – 1987 TM (R1998)
American National Standard Requirements for Transformers - Dry-Type Transformers Used
in Unit Installations, Including Substations, Conformance Standard
IEEE Std C57.12.56 – 1986 TM (R1998)
IEEE Standard Test Procedure for Thermal Evaluation of Insulation Systems for Ventilated
Dry-Type Power and Distribution Transformers
IEEE Std C57.12.58 – 1991 TM
IEEE Guide for Conducting a Transient Voltage Analysis of a Dry-Type Transformer Coil
IEEE Std C57.12.59 – 2001 TM
IEEE Guide for Dry-Type Transformer Through-Fault Current Duration
IEEE Std C57.12.60 – 1998 TM
IEEE Guide for Test Procedures for Thermal Evaluation of Insulation Systems for Solid-Cast
and Resin-Encapsulated Power and Distribution Transformers
IEEE Std C57.12.70 – 2000 TM
IEEE Standard Terminal Markings and Connections for Distribution and Power transformers
IEEE Std C57.12.80 – 2002 TM
IEEE Standard Terminology for Power and Distribution Transformers

IEEE Std C57.12.90 – 1999 TM
IEEE Standard test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power and Regulating
Transformers and IEEE Guide for Short Circuit Testing of Distribution and Power
Transformers
IEEE Std C57.12.91 – 2001 TM
IEEE Standard Test Code for Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers
IEEE Std C57.18.10 – 1998 TM
IEEE Standard Practices and Requirements for Semiconductor Rectifier Transformers
IEEE Std C57.19.00 – 1991 TM (R1997)
IEEE Standard General Requirements and Test Procedures for Outdoor Power Apparatus
Bushings
IEEE Std C57.19.01 – 2000 TM
IEEE Standard Performance Characteristics and Dimensions for Outdoor Apparatus
Bushings
IEEE Std C57.19.03 – 1996 TM (R2002)
IEEE Standard Requirements, Terminology, and Test Code for Bushings for DC Applications
IEEE Std C57.19.100 – 1995 TM
IEEE Guide for Application of Power Apparatus Bushings
IEEE Std C57.91 – 1995 TM (R2002)
IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers
IEEE Std C57.91 – 1995/Cor 1 – 2002 TM
IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers Corrigendum 1 (Corrigendum to
IEEE C57.91 – 1995) TM
IEEE Std C57.93 – 1995 TM
IEEE Guide for Installation of Liquid-Immersed Power transformers
IEEE C57.94 – 1982 (R1987/2000) TM
IEEE Recommended Practice for the Installation, Application, Operation, and Maintenance
of Dry-Type General Purpose Distribution and Power Transformers
IEEE Std C57.96 – 1999 TM
IEEE Guide for Loading Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers
IEEE C57.98 – 1993 (R1999) TM
IEEE Guide for Impulse Tests
IEEE Std C57.100 – 1999 TM
IEEE Standard Test Procedure for Thermal Evaluation of Liquid-Immersed Distribution and
Power Transformers
IEEE Std C57.104 – 1991 TM
IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-Immersed Transformers
IEEE Std C57.105 – 1978 TM (R1999)
IEEE Guide for the Application of Transformer Connections in Three-Phase Distribution
Systems
IEEE Std C57.106TM – 2002 TM
IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Insulating Oil in Equipment
IEEE Std C57.111 – 1989 TM (R1995)
IEEE Guide for Acceptance of Silicone Insulating Fluids and Its Maintenance in
Transformers
IEEE Std C57.113 – 1991 TM (R2002)
IEEE Guide for Partial Discharge Measurement in Liquid-Filled Transformers and Shunt
Reactors
IEEE Std C57.116 – 1989 TM (R1994,2002)
IEEE Guide for Transformers Directly Connected to Generators
IEEE Std C57.120-1991 TM
IEEE Loss Evaluation Guide for Power Transformers and Reactors

IEEE Std C57.121 – 1998 TM
IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Less Flammable Hydrocarbon Fluid in
Transformers
IEEE Std C57.123 – 2002 TM
IEEE Guide for Transformer Loss Measurement
IEEE Std C57.124 – 1991 TM (R1996,2002)
IEEE Recommended Practice for the Detection of Partial Discharge and the Measurement of
Apparent Charge in Dry-Type Transformers
IEEE Std C57.125 – 1991 (R1998)TM
IEEE Guide for Failure Investigation, Documentation and analysis for Power Transformers
and Shunt Reactors
IEEE Std C57.127 – 2000 TM
IEEE Trial-Use Guide for the Detection of Acoustic Emissions from Partial Discharges in Oil-
Immersed Power Transformers
IEEE Std. C57.129 – 1999TM
IEEE Standard General Requirements and Test Code for Oil-Immersed HVDC Converter
Transformers
IEEE Std C57.131 – 1995 TM
IEEE Standard Requirements for Load Tap Changers
IEEE Std C57.134 – 2000 TM
IEEE Guide for Determination of Hottest-Spot Temperature in Dry-Type Transformers
IEEE Std C57.135 – 2001TM
IEEE Guide for the Application, Specification, and Testing of Phase-Shifting Transformers
IEEE Std C57.136 – 2000TM
IEEE Guide for Sound Level Abatement and Determination for Liquid-immersed Power
Transformers and Shunt Reactors Ratings Over 500 kVA
IEEE Std C57.138 – 1998 TM
IEEE Recommended Practice for Routine Impulse Test for Distribution Transformers

17.2. OTHER RELEVANT STANDARDS AND LITTERATURE
[1] CIGRE-session 1984, Report 12-14: Resonance Behaviour of High-Voltage Transformers by
Working-Group 12.07.
[2] R. Wilheim and M. Waters: Neutral Grounding in High-Voltage Transmission, Elsevier
Publishing Company, 1956.
[3] E. M. Hunter and P. H. Light: Determination of Ground Fault Currents and Voltages on
Transmission Systems. Gen. El. Rev., 49 (April, 1946) 19.
[4] ABB Catalogue publication 1HSM 9543 22-01en, Controlled Switching Buyer’s Guide, Edition
1, 2004-05
[5] Alterungsmessungen an Papier-Ôlproben. ETVA, P. A. Nr 9619
[6] Giorgio Bertagnolli : -SHORT-CIRCUIT DUTY OF POWER TRANSFORMERS – THE ABB
APPROACH
[7] Rüdenberg: Elektrische Schaltvorgänge 5. Auflage 1974
ISBN 3-540-05766-8 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York
ISBN 0-387-05766-8 Springer-Verlag New York Heidelberg Berlin
[8] Herbert Baatz: Überspannungen in Energieversorgungsnetzen
1956 Springer-Verlag
[9] ABB Switchgear Manual, 10th edition
[10] ISO 9001:2000 Quality management systems. Requirements
[11] EN 45014 General criteria for supplier’s declaration of conformity
[12] 89/336/EEC Electromagnetic compatibility
[13] 73/23/EEC Low voltage equipment
[14] 98/37/EC Safety of machinery
[15] IEV 421-01-01 Electrotechnical Vocabulary
[16] ABB: Testing of Power Transformers, 1st edition 2003
ISBN 3-00-010400-3
[17] ABB, Åke Carlson: Power Transformer Design Fundamentals
[18] ABB, Åke Carlson: Power System Fundamentals

18. Extracts from
IEC 61936-1 (2002-10) POWER INSTALLATIONS
EXCEEDING 1 KV A.C. –
PART 1: COMMON RULES
The information given in this section is an extract from IEC 61936-1 (2002-10) Power installations
exceeding 1 kV a.c. Common rules .
For full text, see the relevant standard. The numbering follows the numbering in the standard with
preceding Re.
*Copyright © IEC, Geneva, Switzerland. www.iec.ch.
Re. 4 FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

Re. 4.1 General
Installations and equipment shall be capable of withstanding electrical, mechanical, climatic and
environmental influences anticipated on site.
The relevant laws or regulations of an authority having jurisdiction shall have precedence.
Re. 5 INSULATION
As conventional (air insulated) installations cannot be impulse tested, the installation requires
minimum clearances between live parts and earth and between live parts of phases in order to
avoid flashover below the impulse withstand level specified for individual tested components of the
installation.
Insulation coordination shall be in accordance with IEC 60071-1.
Table 1 – Minimum clearances in air – Voltage range I ( 1 kV < Um ≤ 245 kV
Rated short- Rated lightning

Nominal Highest
duration power- impulse Minimum phase-to-earth and
voltage of voltage for c
frequency withstand phase-to-phase clearance, N
system equipment a
Voltage withstand voltage voltage
range
Un Um 1,2/50 µs Indoor Outdoor
r.m.s.
r.m.s. r.m.s. (peak value) installations installations
kV kV kV kV mm mm
20 60 120
3 3,6 10
40 60 120
40 60 120
6 7,2 20
60 90 120
60 90 150
10 12 28 75 120 150
95 160 160
75 120 160
15 17,5 38
95 160 160
95 160
20 24 50 125 220
145 270
145 270
30 36 70
170 320
I 45 52 95 250 480
66 72,5 140 325 630
b
185 450 900
110 123
230 550 1 100
b b
185 450 900
132 145 230 550 1 100
275 650 1 300
b b
230 550 1 100
150 170 275 650 1 300
325 750 1 500
b b
275 650 1 300
b b
325 750 1 500
220 245 360 850 1 700
395 950 1 900
460 1 050 2 100
a The rated lightning impulse is applicable to phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth.
b If values are considered insufficient to prove that the required phase-to-phase withstand voltages are met,
additional phase-to-phase withstand tests are needed.
c For rod-structure.

Re. 6 EQUIPMENT
Re. 6.1 General requirements
Re. 6.1.1 Selection
Equipment shall be selected and installed to satisfy the following requirements:
a) safe construction when properly assembled, installed and connected to supply;
b) safe and proper performance taking into account the external influences that can be expected
at the intended location;
c) safe and proper performance during normal operation and in the event of reasonably expected
conditions of overload, abnormal operation and fault, without resulting in damage that would
render the equipment unsafe;
d) protection of personnel during use and maintenance of the equipment.
Re. 7 INSTALLATIONS
Re. 7.1 General requirements
This clause specifies only general requirements for the installations regarding choice of circuit
arrangement, circuit documentation, transport routes, lighting, operational safety and labelling.
Distances, clearances and dimensions specified are the minimum values permitted for safe
operation. They are generally based on the minimum values given in the former national standards
of the IEC members. A user may specify higher values if necessary.
NOTE For minimum clearances (N) of live parts, refer to 5.3 and to tables 1 and 2 and annex A.
National standards and regulations may require the use of higher clearance values.
Where an existing installation is to be extended, the requirements applicable at the time of its
design and erection may be specified as an alternative.
The relevant standards for operation of electrical (power) installations shall additionally be taken
into account. Operating procedures shall be agreed upon between manufacturer and user. Where
applicable, the documentation shall be provided with each installation to allow erection,
commissioning, operation, maintenance and environmental protection.
The extent of the documentation shall be agreed upon between the supplier and the user.
Diagrams, charts and tables, if any, shall be prepared in accordance with IEC 60617 and IEC
61082.
Re. 7.1.6 Operational safety
Operational safety installations shall be designed so that the escape and rescue paths and the
emergency exit can be safely used in the event of a fire, and that protection and environmental
compatibility are ensured.
Where necessary, installations themselves shall be protected against fire hazard, flooding and
contamination. If required, additional measures shall be taken to protect important installations
against the effects of road traffic (salt spray, vehicle accident).
Re. 8 SAFETY MEASURES

Installations shall be constructed in such a way as to enable the operating and maintenance
personnel to circulate and intervene within the framework of their duties and authorizations,
according to circumstances, at any point of the installation.
Specific maintenance work, preparation and repair work, which involve working in the vicinity of live
parts or actual work on live parts, are carried out observing the rules, procedures and work
distances as defined in national standards and regulations.

Re. 8. 6 Protection against fire
Re. 8.6.1 General
Relevant national, provincial and local fire protection regulations shall be taken into account in the
design of the installation.
NOTE Fire hazard and fire risk of electrical equipment is separated into two categories: fire victim and fire
origin. Precautions for each category should be taken into account in the installation requirements.
a) Precautions to fire victim:
i) space separation from origin of fire;
ii) flame propagation prevention:
− grading,
− liquid containment,
− fire barriers (e.g. REI fire-resistant materials 60/90),
− extinguishing system;
b) Precautions to fire origin:
i) electrical protection;
ii) thermal protection;
iii) pressure protection;
iv) fire resistant materials.
Care shall be taken that, in the event of fire, the escape and rescue paths and the emergency exits
can be used (see 7.1.6).
The user or owner of the installation shall specify any requirement for fire extinguishing equipment.
Automatic devices to protect against equipment burning due to severe overheating, overloading
and faults (internal/external) shall be provided, depending on the size and significance of the
installation.
Equipment in which there is a potential for sparks, arcing, explosion or high temperature, for
example electrical machines, transformers, resistors, switches and fuses, shall not be used in
operating areas subject to fire hazard unless the construction of this equipment is such that
flammable materials cannot be ignited by them.
If this cannot be ensured, special precautions, for example fire walls, fire-resistant separations,
vaults, enclosures and containment, are necessary.
Re. 8.6.2 Transformers, reactors

In the following subclauses, the word 'transformer' represents 'transformers and reactors'.
For the identification of coolant types, see 6.2.2.2. IEC 61100 classifies insulating liquids according
to fire point and net caloric value (heat of combustion). IEC 60726 classifies dry-type transformers
in terms of their behaviour when exposed to fire.
The fire hazard associated with transformers of outdoor and indoor installations is dependent on
the rating of the equipment, the volume and type of insulating mediums, the type and proximity and
exposure of nearby equipment and structures. The use of one or more recognized safeguard
measures shall be used in accordance with the evaluation of the risk.
NOTE For definition of risk, see ISO/IEC Guide 51.
Common sumps or catchment tanks, if required, for several transformers shall be arranged so that
a fire in one transformer cannot spread to another.
The same applies to individual sumps which are connected to the catchment tanks of other
transformers; gravel layers or pipes filled with fluid can, for example, be used for this purpose.
Arrangements which tend to minimize the fire hazard of the escaped fluid are preferred.
Re. 8.6.2.1 Outdoor installations

The layout of an outdoor installation shall be such that burning of a transformer with a liquid volume
of more than 1 000 l will not cause a fire hazard to other transformers or objects. For this purpose
adequate clearances, G, shall necessary. Guide values are given in table 3. Where transformers
with a liquid volume below 1 000 l are installed near combustible walls, special fire precautions may
be necessary depending on the nature and the use of the building.

If it is not possible to allow for adequate clearance as indicated in table 3, fire-resistant separating
walls with the following dimensions shall be provided:
a. between transformers (see figure 6) separating walls. For example EI 60 in accordance with
the Official Journal of the European Community, No. C 62/23:
− height: top of the expansion chamber (if any), otherwise the top of the transformer tank;
− length: width or length of the sump (in the case of a dry-type transformer, the width or length
of the transformer, depending upon the direction of the transformer);
b. between transformers and buildings (see figure 7) separating walls. For example EI 60; if
additional fire separating wall is not provided, fire rating of the building wall should be
increased, for example REI 90 in accordance with the Official Journal of the European
Community C 62/23.
Re. 8.6.2.2 Indoor installations in electrical power systems
Minimum requirements for the installation of indoor transformers are given in table 4.
Table 3 – Guide values for outdoor transformer clearances
Clearance G to
other transformers or
Liquid volume combustible building
Transformer type non-combustible
L surface
building surface
m
m
1 000
<……< 3 7,6
2 000
2 000
Oil insulated ≤…….< 5 10
transformers (O) 20 000
20 000
≤…..< 10 20
45 000
≥ 45 000 15,2 30,5
Less flammable 1 000
liquid insulated <…….< 15,2 30,5
transformers (K) 3 800
without enhanced 15,2
≥ 3 800 4,6
protection
Less flammable Clearance G to building surface or adjacent transformers
liquid insulated Horizontal Vertical
transformers (K) with m m
enhanced protection 0,9 1,5
Clearance G to building surface

Fire behaviour class or adjacent transformers
Dry type Horizontal Vertical
transformers (A) m m
F0 1,5 3,0
F1 / F2 None None
NOTE Enhanced protection means
– tank rupture strength;
– tank pressure relief;
– low current fault protection;
– high current fault protection.
For an example of enhanced protection, see Factory Mutual Global standard 3990, or equivalent.
If automatically activated fire extinguishing equipment is installed, the clearance G can be reduced.

Table 4 – Minimum requirements for the installation of indoor transformers
Liquid volume
Transformer type Safeguards
l
Oil insulated transformers ≤ 1 000 EI 60 respectively REI 60
(O)
> 1 000 EI 90 respectively REI 90 or EI 60 respectively REI 60
and automatic sprinkler protection
Less flammable liquid
insulated transformers (K) EI 60 respectively REI 60 or automatic sprinkler
without enhanced protection
protection
Less flammable liquid

≤ 10 MVA and EI 60 respectively REI 60 or separation distances 1,5 m
insulated transformers (K)
with enhanced protection Um ≤ 38 kV horizontally and 3,0 m vertically
Fire behaviour class

EI 60 respectively REI 60 or separation distances 0,9 m
Dry-type transformer (A) F0 horizontally and 1,5 m vertically
F1 / F2 Non combustible walls

NOTE 1 REI represents bearing system (wall) whereas EI represents non-load bearing system (wall) where R is
the load bearing capacity, E is the fire integrity, I is the thermal insulation and 60/90 refers to time in minutes.
NOTE 2 Enhanced protection means
– tank rupture strength;
– tank pressure relief;
– low current fault protection;
– high current fault protection.
For an example of enhanced protection, see Factory Mutual Global standard 3990 or equivalent.
Doors shall have a fire resistance of at least 60 min. Doors which open to the outside are adequate
if they are of fire-retardant material and construction. Ventilation openings necessary for the
operation of the transformers are permitted. When designing the openings, the possible escape of
hot gases shall be considered.
Figure 6 – Separating walls between transformers
a
The wall in this area shall be designed to avoid spread of fire.

a
The wall in this area shall be designed to avoid spread of fire.
Figure 7 Fire protection between transformer and building
NOTE In addition, the water from the fire extinguishing (if any) should be considered
a
Containment: the entire quantity of fluid of the transformer plus rain water
Figure 8 – Sump with integrated catchment tank

a
Containment: minimum 20% of the fluid from the transformer
Figure 9 – Sump with separated catchment tank
NOTE In addition, the water from fire estinguishing installation (if any) should be considered
a
Containment outdoor: the entire quantity of fluid of the largest transformer plus rain
Containment indoor: the entire quantity of fluid of the largest transformer
Figure 10 – Sump with integrated common catchment tank
NOTE The dotted area denotes the volume of the entire quantity of insulating fluid of the
transformer spilled on the floor
Figure11 – Example for small transformer without gravel layer and catchment tank

Re. 9 PROTECTION, CONTROL AND AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
Re. 9.1 Monitoring and control systems
Monitoring, protection, regulating and control devices shall be provided, as necessary, for the
correct and safe functioning of the equipment.
Automatic devices, designed to offer selectivity and quick operation, shall provide protection
against the effects of unacceptable overload and internal and external faults appropriate to the size
and significance of installation.
Equipment shall comply with the severity class (see IEC 60255) corresponding to the part of the
installation in which it is located.
Facilities shall be provided for isolating the control circuit of each primary switching equipment or
each switchgear bay in order to allow maintenance of high voltage equipment to be performed
safely.
Provision shall be made to allow for repair, maintenance, and/or testing to be carried out on
protection and control devices without any danger to personnel or the equipment.
Control circuits and signalling circuits shall, preferably, be functionally separated. Tripping signals
shall be displayed on the protection panel if it exists.
Alarm and fault-indicating equipment shall clearly indicate danger and fault conditions; several
signals can be combined as a common signal to be transmitted to a remote control point.
The control equipment and system, including cables and cords, shall be designed and installed to
minimize the possibility of damage to the connected equipment due to electromagnetic
interference. Basic rules are given in 9.5.
The control equipment and system, including cables and cords, shall be designed and installed in
such a way that they minimize the danger from operating failure, inadvertent operation or incorrect
information. In meeting this requirement, influences such as voltage dips, supply failure, insulation
faults and electromagnetic interference effects shall be taken into account.
Re. 10 EARTHING SYSTEMS

Re. 10.1 General
This clause provides the criteria for design, installation, testing and maintenance of an earthing
system such that it operates under all conditions and ensures the safety of human life in any place
to which persons have legitimate access. It also provides the criteria to ensure that the integrity of
equipment connected and in proximity to the earthing system is maintained.
Re. 10.2 Fundamental requirements

Re. 10.2.1 Safety criteria
The hazard to human beings is that a current will flow through the region of the heart which is
sufficient to cause ventricular fibrillation. The current limit, for power-frequency purposes, should be
derived from IEC 60479-1 (curve C1). For substation design, this curve needs to be translated into
voltage limits for comparison with the calculated step and touch voltages taking into account the
impedance present in the body current path. Annex B shows curves of typical voltage limits. The
voltage limits shall take into account the following factors:
– proportion of current flowing through the region of the heart;
– body impedance along the current path
(based on the 5 % values of table 1 of IEC 60479-1);
– resistance between the body contact points and return paths
(e.g. remote earth, earth electrode);
– fault duration;
– fault current magnitude.
It must also be recognized that fault occurrence, fault current magnitude, fault duration and
presence of human beings are probabilistic in nature.

Re. Annex A
(normative)
Values of rated insulation levels and minimum clearances based on
current practice in some countries
Table A.1 – Values of rated insulation levels and minimum clearances in air for
1 kV < Um ≤ 245 kV for highest voltages for equipment Um not standardized
by the IEC based on current practice in some countries
Rated short-
Nominal Rated lightning
Highest duration power-
voltage impulse Minimum phase-to-earth and
voltage for frequency b
of withstand phase-to-phase clearance, N
Voltage equipment withstand a
system voltage
range voltage
Un Um 1,2/50 µs Indoor Outdoor
r.m.s.
r.m.s. r.m.s. (peak value) installations installations
kV kV kV kV mm mm
30 60 120
2,75 15 45 70 120
60 90 120
4,76 19 60 90 120
45 70 120
5,5 19 60 90 120
75 120 120
60 90 120
8,25 27 75 120 150
95 160 160
26 75 120 150
8,25
35 95 160 160
35 95 160 160
15
I 50 110 180 180
75 120 150
15,5 35 85 150 160
110 180 180
110 180
15 17,5 38
125 220
22 (20) 24 50 150 280
95 190 290
22 25 50 125 210
150
50 125 220
25,8
70 150 280
95 160
27 50 125 220
150 280
a
The rated lightning impulse is applicable phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth.
b
For rod-structure

19. INDEX
abb power technology distribution distribution transformer accessories ........ 109
transformers ................................................ 6 doc........................................................... 169
abb-group.................................................... 6 documentation ......................................... 116
abbreviations and acronyms ................... 181 drives transformer...................................... 15
ability to withstand short circuit currents.. 149 dry type...................................................... 14
accessories ............................................. 104 dry-type transformers............................... 133
ageing ..................................................... 117 earth quake withstand ability ..................... 91
agricultural ester...................................... 161 earthing.................................................... 115
alarm and trip signals from the earthing systems ..................................... 207
transformer ............................................. 121 earthing transformers (neutral couplers).... 46
allocation of responsibilities between eddy current losses.................................. 142
supplier and purchaser............................ 110 effect of electromagnetic fields
anomalous losses.................................... 143 on humans............................................... 179
arc suppression reactors ........................... 47 efficiency.................................................. 141
automatic voltage regulation ................... 104 electrical and magnetic quantities............ 179
basic physics of the transformer.............. 136 electrical clearances in air ....................... 113
basic sl units............................................ 179 electromagnetic compatibility................... 176
bibliography ............................................. 184 electromagnetic disturbances
built in current transformers..................... 105 on transformers ....................................... 176
bushings .................................................... 92 electromagnetic field in the vicinity
bushings and joints.................................. 132 of transformers ........................................ 178
cable connections...................................... 95 electromagnetic induction ............................ 7
capacitor damping reactors ....................... 45 emc.......................................................... 176
capitalisation of auxiliary power energizing ................................................ 115
consumed in the cooling equipment .......... 71 environment............................................... 60
capitalisation of load loss .......................... 69 equipment................................................ 201
capitalisation of no load loss ..................... 65 equivalent diagram .................................. 138
ce marking............................................... 169 erection at site ......................................... 112
cellulose materials............................117, 159 fans............................................................ 97
cenelec.................................................... 185 fault localisation advice,
cenelec standards ................................... 192 dry type transformer................................. 126
choice of system voltage ......................... 136 fault localisation advices
combustible gas detector ........................ 107 oil immersed transformers ....................... 127
commissioning......................................... 115 feedback .................................................. 183
common rules for power installations flow indicator............................................ 107
exceeding 1 kv ........................................ 199 fluids ........................................................ 160
common transformer features ..................... 7 forced oil, forced air heat exchangers........ 97
comparison between ieee/ansi foreword....................................................... 2
standards and iec standards ................... 186 frequency................................................. 121
condenser bushings .................................. 93 frequency variation .................................. 178
conductor materials ................................. 158 function of transformer protective
connecting transformer terminals equipment................................................ 130
to the networks ........................................ 113 fundamental requirements ....................... 199
contributors ............................................. 183 furnace transformer ................................... 32
convertor station........................................ 28 gas actuated relay ................................... 104
convertor transformer ................................ 33 gas bubbles ............................................... 18
coolers................................................96, 133 gaskets .................................................... 133
copyright note.......................................2, 210 general electrotechnical formulas ............ 180
core materials.......................................... 158 generator step up transformer ................... 18
cores ......................................................... 77 handling, lifting......................................... 111
core-type ..................................................... 9 harmonics ................................................ 176
corrugated tanks........................................ 97 high current bushings ................................ 95
current limiting reactors ............................. 42 hse, health, safety and environment .......... 60
customer review of the management hvdc transformers ...................................... 28
systems ..................................................... 60 identifying terminals ................................. 172
d-connection............................................ 156 iec ............................................................ 184
declaration of conformity ......................... 169 iec standards ........................................... 189
declaration of conformity (doc) ................ 181 ieee standards ......................................... 185
definition of power rating ieee standards ......................................... 194
(rated kilovoltamperes)............................ 186 incoterms ................................................. 110
degrees of protection against indoor installations in electrical
solid objects ............................................ 170 power systems......................................... 203
degrees of protection against water ........ 171 industrial transformers ............................... 32
dehydrating breathers ............................. 105 information required with enquiry
dielectric stress.......................................... 18 and order ................................................... 73
dielectric testing....................................... 187 inrush currents ......................................... 143
differential protection ............................... 121 inspection during operation...................... 125
dimethyl silicone ...................................... 160 inspection in de-energised condition ....... 126
disposal after use .................................... 135 installation........................................ 110, 201
distribution of energy ................................... 7 installation and commissioning ................ 110

insulation ................................................. 199 operational safety .................................... 201
insulation materials.................................. 159 ordering copies ........................................ 183
insulation resistance................................ 115 other fluids ............................................... 160
interharmonics......................................... 177 outdoor installations................................. 202
internal overvoltages caused by high over voltage protection ............................ 122
frequency oscillations .............................. 167 over voltage protection devices ............... 106
introduction.................................................. 6 overcurrent protection.............................. 121
investigation of transformer disturbances 126 overcurrents............................................. 177
ip-classification ........................................ 170 overvoltages ............................................ 177
landfill ...................................................... 135 overvoltages and overvoltage limitation... 163
large distribution transformers ................... 10 overvoltages caused by atmospheric
lca............................................................ 135 phenomena.............................................. 163
ldt .............................................................. 10 overvoltages due to earth-fault ................ 164
life cycle assessment (lca) ...................... 135 overvoltages due to ferroresonance ........ 165
lifetime..................................................... 117 overvoltages generated within
lightning impulse........................................ 17 the power system .................................... 163
limitation of temporary overvoltages........ 164 padmounted transformer ..................... 11, 12
limitation of transient overvoltages .......... 166 padmounted transformer ........................... 13
line-feeder transformers ............................ 35 painted surfaces ...................................... 134
liquid conservator with parallel operation ............................... 76, 121
rubber diaphragm .................................... 133 pcb-contaminated oil................................ 135
litterature ................................................. 198 phase-shifting transformers ....................... 24
load loss .................................................... 64 physical fundamentals ............................. 136
load losses .............................................. 146 plywood ................................................... 159
load rejection overvoltages...................... 165 polemounted transformer........................... 13
local regulations ...................................... 135 porcelain .................................................. 159
loss capitalization and optimum power rating limitations .............................. 18
transformer design .................................... 62 power transformer and oil immersed
low voltage bushings ................................. 92 reactor accessories.................................. 107
magnetic leakage field............................... 18 power transformers.................................... 17
maintenance............................................ 126 pressure relief devices............................. 106
maintenance in de-energised condition... 126 protection against fire .............................. 202
maintenance in energised condition ........ 126 protection, control
mathematical symbols for and auxiliary systems .............................. 207
alternating-current quantities protective equipment ............................... 114
and network quantities ............................ 181 pt 100 element......................................... 104
mathematical symbols for electrical pttr ............................................................... 6
quantities (general).................................. 180 pulse .......................................................... 29
mathematical symbols for magnetic quality ........................................................ 60
quantities (general).................................. 181 radiators..................................................... 96
measurements......................................... 130 rating plate............................................... 174
mechanical checks .................................. 115 receiving the transformer at site .............. 112
mechanical forces ..................................... 18 recording of disturbances ........................ 130
mechanical forces in the windings........... 151 reference temperature for load losses ..... 187
medium distribution transformers .............. 11 resibloc ...................................................... 15
mineral oil................................................ 160 resin........................................................... 14
miscellaneous.......................................... 169 reuse........................................................ 135
monitoring ............................................... 122 routine tests ............................................. 162
monitoring and control systems............... 207 safety criteria ........................................... 207
motor drive unit........................................ 133 safety measures ...................................... 201
multiples and sub-multiples of units......... 179 safety precautions ..................................... 60
nema ....................................................... 171 sdt.............................................................. 12
network connection ................................. 113 sf6 connections.......................................... 96
network transformer .................................. 12 shell-type ..................................................... 9
neutral earthing reactors ........................... 44 short circuit requirements and testing ...... 187
no load (magnetising) current short-circuit impedance............................ 146
and no load losses .................................. 141 shunt reactors ............................................ 37
no load loss ............................................... 63 single phase transformer ................... 13, 172
normal information..................................... 73 small distribution transformers................... 12
objective ...................................................... 2 smoothing reactors .................................... 57
off circuit tap changer .............................. 132 solid insulation materials.......................... 159
off circuit tap changers .............................. 99 solid synthetic insulation materials .......... 159
off-circuit/on-load tap changer ................. 115 sources of sound generation ................... 154
oil filtering unit ......................................... 133 spark gaps ............................................... 106
oil level indicators .................................... 106 special information..................................... 74
oil preservation systems.......................... 105 special precautions for dry-type
oil pumps ................................................... 99 transformers ........................................... 167
oil-water coolers ........................................ 99 special tests............................................. 162
on line monitor systems........................... 107 stationary transformers .............................. 35
on load tap changers............................... 100 step-down transformer............................... 20
on-load tap changer ................................ 133 storage..................................................... 112
operation ................................................. 117 sub sea transformer................................... 16
operation, monitoring and maintenance .. 117 substation .................................................... 7

substation and unit substation ................... 10 transformer sound ................................... 152
sudden pressure relief devices................ 106 transformer types and their application........ 7
surface protection.................................... 134 transformer-relevant standards................ 184
sustainability development ........................ 60 transient overvoltages................................ 17
synthetic ester ......................................... 161 transmission of energy................................. 7
synthetic hydrocarbon ............................. 161 transport .................................................. 111
system intertie transformer ........................ 20 transport wheels/skids ............................. 107
tank ........................................................... 90 tuning (filter) reactors................................. 45
temperature rise and load capacity ......... 120 type tests ................................................. 162
terminal designation ................................ 172 uncertainty in measurements................... 187
terminals.................................................... 92 underground transformer ........................... 17
testing of transformers............................. 162 units and conversion tables ..................... 179
thermometers .......................................... 104 vacuum cast .............................................. 14
three phase transformer .......................... 173 vacuum pressure encapsulated................. 15
three-phase transformer connections...... 156 vacuum pressure impregnated .................. 15
tightening torque...................................... 113 voltage ratio and voltage drop (or rise) .... 138
traction transformer ................................... 35 voltage regulation equipment..................... 99
transfer of responsibility .......................... 110 voltage unbalance ................................... 177
transferred overvoltages in transformers. 168 wind turbine ............................................... 16
transformer components ........................... 92 windings..................................................... 79
transformer design .................................... 77 y-connection ............................................ 156
transformer liquid and insulation ............. 132 z-connection ............................................ 156
transformer materials .............................. 158 zinc coated surfaces ................................ 134
Note:
We reserve the right to make technical changes or modify the contents of this document without prior notice.
With regard to purchase orders, the agreed particulars shall prevail.
ABB does not accept any responsibility whatsoever for potential errors and or possible lack of information
in this document.
We reserve the rights in this document and in the subject matter and illustrations contained therein.
Any reproduction – in whole or in parts – is forbidden without ABB’s prior written consent.
Reference is also made to copyright notes contained in the text, e.g. to Copyright © IEC, Geneva,
Switzerland. www.iec.ch.
ABB 2004.

1LAC000010 - 04
Business Unit Transformers

Affolternstrasse 44
8050 Zürich
SWITZERLAND
http://www.abb.com/transformers Copyright© 2004 ABB
e-Mail: [email protected] All rights reserved.

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What is the purpose and scope of the handbook?

What is the purpose and scope of the handbook?

What topics does the handbook cover?

What topics does the handbook cover?

Transformer Handbook

Transformer Handbook Page 2

2. TRANSFORMER TYPES AND THEIR APPLICATION 7

3. QUALITY, INTERNAL CONTROL, SUSTAINABILITY 60

4. LOSS CAPITALISATION AND OPTIMUM TRANSFORMER DESIGN 62

5. INFORMATION REQUIRED WITH ENQUIRY AND ORDER 73

Page 3 Transformer Handbook

9. OPERATION, MONITORING AND MAINTENANCE 117

10. DISPOSAL AFTER USE 135

11. PHYSICAL FUNDAMENTALS 136

12. THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS 157

13. TRANSFORMER MATERIALS 159

14. TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS 163

Transformer Handbook Page 4

16. MISCELLANEOUS 170

17. BIBLIOGRAPHY 185

18. EXTRACTS FROM IEC 61936-1 (2002-10) POWER INSTALLATIONS

RE. 4 FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS 201

RE. 5 INSULATION 201

RE. 6 EQUIPMENT 202

RE. 7 INSTALLATIONS 202

RE. 8 SAFETY MEASURES 202

RE. 9 PROTECTION, CONTROL AND AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 208

RE. 10 EARTHING SYSTEMS 208

19. INDEX 210

Page 5 Transformer Handbook

1.2. ABB Power Technologies Business Unit Transformers

Transformer Handbook Page 6

Page 7 Transformer Handbook

Transformer Handbook Page 8

Core type Shell type

Figure 2-1 Figure 2-2

Page 9 Transformer Handbook

2.3.1. Large distribution transformers, LDT

Transformers of this type are used for receiving the

ANSI / IEEE Standard

The Substation and Unit Substation Transformer are

Transformer Handbook Page 10

This type of transformers is designed for shopping centres,

The design provide a resistant robust construction with no

2.3.2. Medium distribution transformers, MDT

Transformers of this type are used to step down three-phase

Page 11 Transformer Handbook

Power range 300 kVA - 2500 kVA

Networks transformers are commonly used in a grid-type secondary

This type of transformer is designed for shopping centres, apartment and

The design provide a resistant construction with no externally accessible

2.3.3. Small distribution transformers, SDT

Transformers of this type are used to step down three-phase high

Transformer Handbook Page 12

ANSI / IEEE Standard

The Mini-Three Phase Padmounted Transformer (MTP) is designed for

The Polemounted distribution transformers are specifically

Page 13 Transformer Handbook

2.3.4. Dry-type distribution transformers