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Enzymes: Diploma Program Group 4: Experimental Sciences Biology Course

Here are three points addressing the questions: 1. Lactose tolerance was traditionally viewed as normal because milk consumption in adulthood is common in some populations. However, lactose intolerance is more common globally and may better reflect typical human physiology after weaning. 2. Terms like "normal" and "abnormal" can promote harmful value judgments when describing natural human variation. It is better to describe traits as common or uncommon rather than labeling people. 3. Milk consumption in adulthood likely drove the evolution of lactose tolerance, not the other way around, as tolerance allows people to benefit nutritionally from this dietary change. Genetic selection increased tolerance frequencies where dairy remained part of the adult diet.

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59 views16 pages

Enzymes: Diploma Program Group 4: Experimental Sciences Biology Course

Here are three points addressing the questions: 1. Lactose tolerance was traditionally viewed as normal because milk consumption in adulthood is common in some populations. However, lactose intolerance is more common globally and may better reflect typical human physiology after weaning. 2. Terms like "normal" and "abnormal" can promote harmful value judgments when describing natural human variation. It is better to describe traits as common or uncommon rather than labeling people. 3. Milk consumption in adulthood likely drove the evolution of lactose tolerance, not the other way around, as tolerance allows people to benefit nutritionally from this dietary change. Genetic selection increased tolerance frequencies where dairy remained part of the adult diet.

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caroline_amideast8101
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
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Diploma Program

Group 4: Experimental Sciences


Biology Course

Chapter 5.5
Enzymes
Enzymes
Enzyme: a globular protein functioning as a
biological catalyst, speeding up reaction rates
by lowering activation energy

Active site: the site on the surface of an


enzyme to which substrate(s) bind
Enzyme-substrate specificity

 Each globular enzyme includes an active site with a


specific, three-dimensional shape which is
complementary to the shape of the substrate .

 The globular enzyme active site also includes a


specific set of charges which are complementary to
the charges of the substrate.
Enzyme-substrate specificity

Through complementary of shape and charge, the


substrate is attracted to, and fits precisely into, the
active site

The precise interactions between enzyme active


site and substrate are essential for the catalytic
properties of enzymes to funciton; the
complementary is often referred to as analogous
to the fit between a lock and a key

Enzymes vary in specificity from being exclusive


to a single substrate to being generalized to accept
any molecule of a certain type, but are usually
specific to one single molecule.
Denaturation

A change in the structure of an enzyme


so that it can no longer carry out its
function.
Enzymes are altered by environmental
conditions
each enzyme active site best fits its
substrate at a set of optimum
conditions.

deviation from optimum conditions


alter the structure of the enzyme, thus
altering the shape of the active site and
its complementary fit to its substrate.
Agents that affect enzyme activity

temperature,
pH
substrate concentration
pH
 both acids and alkalis denature enzymes
 stomach pepsin is optimized at pH=2
 pancreatic lipase is optimized at pH=8
2. PH D ifferent kinds of enzym es function at certain ph ranges

ENZYM E B O D Y L O C A T IO N PH

P epsin S tom ach 2-3


T rypsin S m all Intestine 9-10

T hree dem entional shape o f a protein m ay be altered w hen in the w rong ph. T he
enzym es shape of active site changes (D enatures ) due to the change in hyprox ide and
hydrogen ions the h ydrogen bonds are effected.
Temperature
at lower temperatures, all chemical
reactions proceed more slowly, with a
general rule of doubling reaction rates
with each 10 degrees Celcius increase .

at higher temperatures, the excessive


energy breaks bonds that would otherwise
create the shape of the active site; this
denaturing the enzyme
Substrate concentration
At low to medium substrate
concentrations, enzyme activity
is directly proportional to
substrate concentration; this is
because random collisions
between substrate and active site
happen more frequently with
higher substrate concentrations.

At high substrate concentrations,


all the active sites of the
enzymes are fully occupied, so
raising the substrate
concentration has no effect
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E90D4BmaVJM&feature=related
Uses of lactase
Lactase in producing lactose-reduced milk

 lactose is the sugar that is naturally present in milk


 lactase is obtained by artificially culturing a yeast,
Kluveromyces lactis
 the yeast grows naturally in milk where it uses lactase
to hydrolyze lactose into glucose and galactose
 biotechnology companies culture the yeast, extract the
lactase from the yeast, and purify it for sale to food
manufacturing companies
Critical Consideration: Attitud to
Lactose Intolerance
In some adult humans, levels of lactase are too low
to digest lactose in milk adequately. Instead,
lactose passes through the small intestine into the
large intestine, where bacteria feed on it,
producing CO2, H and CH4. These gases cause
some unpleasant symptoms, discouraging
consumption of milk. The condition is known as
lactose intolerance. It has sometimes in the past
been regarded as an abnormal condition, or even
as a disease, but it could be argued that lactose
intolerance is the normal human condition.
The first argument for this view is a biological one.
Female mammals produce milk to feed their
young offspring. When a young mammal is
weaned, solid foods replace milk and lactase
secretion declines. Humans who continue to
consume milk into adulthood are therefore
unusual. Inability to consume milk because of
lactose intolerance should not therefore be
regarded as abnormal.
The second argument ia a simple mathematical one:
90-95% of humans are lactose intolerant.
The third argument is evolutionary. Our ancestors
were almost certainly all lactose intolerant, so this
is the natural or normal state. Lactose tolerance
appears to have evolved separately in at least three
centers: Northern Europe, parts of Arabia, the
Sahara and eastern Sudan, and parts of East Africa
inhabited by the Tutsi and Maasai people.
Elsewhere, tolerance is probably due to migration
from these centers.
1. Explain why lactose tolerance has been thought
of as normal, rather than lactose intolerance,
2. Discuss whether the terms “normal” and
“abnormal” are ever appropriate in descriptions
of people.
3. Lactose tolerance is correlated with traditional
consumption of milk. Is either of the following
statements correct?
 Lactose tolerance caused milk consumption in
adulthood to begin.
 Milk consumption in adulthood caused lactose
tolerance to develop.

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