Keegan Pillay

Master of Business Administration

4230B – MBA 4281B – OBD

Total number of pages 26

11 April 2011

Mr Brett Cousins
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Contents
Introduction.................................................................................................................3
Question 1: Define what Organisational Behaviour is and what Organisational
Development is...........................................................................................................4
Definition of Organisational behaviour (OB).............................................................4
Definition of Organisation development (OD)..........................................................5
Highlight the key elements and principles which may be part of OB and OD studies. 5
Key elements of OB.................................................................................................5
Key Principles of OB.................................................................................................5
The disciplines that contribute to OB include:......................................................5
Key elements of OD.................................................................................................5
Key Principles of OD.................................................................................................6
Question 2: Explanations of why an understanding of culture can assist an OD
consultant facilitate change in an organisation...........................................................6
What is culture?.......................................................................................................6
What is an OD consultant?.......................................................................................6
What is a change agent?..........................................................................................7
Organisation culture................................................................................................7
Why an understanding of culture can assist an OD consultant facilitate change in
an organisation?......................................................................................................7
Consider how culture is created and sustained; how employees learn culture; and
what organisational values tell us about culture.........................................................8
How culture is created?...........................................................................................8
How culture is sustained?........................................................................................8
How employees learn culture?.................................................................................8
What organisational values tell us about culture.....................................................9
Question 3: Theories and models of OD....................................................................10
Selection of two models of organisational development...........................................10
The model of stress...................................................................................................10
Figure 1: A Model of Stress.......................................................................................11
Explanation of the various process and elements associated with the stress model 12
The elements involved with the Model of stress....................................................12
The three potential sources of stress explained....................................................12
Individual differences and experiencing stress......................................................13
The consequences of stress...................................................................................14
Justification as to why the model is important as part of an understanding of OD?. .15
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The pro’s and con’s of the stress model...................................................................15

Provide a scenario where the model can be applied and motivate why?..................15
Does this Model fit into the South African (SA) context.............................................16
Professor John Kotter’s 8 – step change model.........................................................16
Figure 2 John Kotter’s 8 step change model..............................................................17
Explanation of the various process and elements associated with Kotter’ 8 step
change model...........................................................................................................17
The elements involved with John Kotter’s 8 step change model............................17
The eight step change model explained................................................................17
Step one: create urgency....................................................................................17
Step two: form a powerful coalition....................................................................18
Step three: create a vision for change................................................................18
Step four: communicate the vision.....................................................................18
Step five: remove obstacles................................................................................19
Step six: create short-term wins.........................................................................19
Step seven: build on the change........................................................................19
Step eight: Anchor the changes in corporate culture..........................................20
Justification as to why the model is important as part of an understanding of OD....20
The pro’s and con’s of the model..............................................................................21
Provide a scenario where the model can be applied and motivate why?..................21
This scenario in relation to Kotter’ s model............................................................21
Does this Model fit into the South African context?..................................................23
Conclusion.................................................................................................................23
Reference list............................................................................................................24
Reference list

Introduction
An organisation provides people with the structure and place for working and achieving goals set within
the organisation. The structure must be controlled and this is achieved by people in managerial positions.
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Management defines the goals that need to be achieved; the establishment of the strategy and set of plans
to achieve these goals is also part of the managers’ tasks of planning. The structure incorporates; what
tasks need to be done, who does these tasks, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom and
where the decisions are made. Controlling by management facilitates the monitoring, comparing, and
potential correcting of significant deviations when previous and current goals are compared. Managers
need specific set of skills to perform their tasks competently. These are technical skills which is the
ability to relate their specialized knowledge or expertise to a given task. Human skills incorporate the
ability to understand, work and motivate people, both in a group and individual setting. Conceptual skills
are the ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations (Robbins, Judge, Odendaal, Roodt, 2009: 5, 6).

According to Fred Luthans and his associates managers who moved up the quickest within an organisation
engaged in four managerial activities. Traditional management entails the actual decision making,
planning and controlling of the organisation. Communication within an organisation includes the task of
exchanging routine information and processing paper work within the organisation. Human resource
management involves its self with motivating, disciplining, managing conflict, staffing and training of the
employees. Networking entails socializing, politicking, and interacting with outsiders this managerial
activity relates to both the organisation and the managers personal networking (Robbins et., al 2009: 6).

The focus within this assignment includes the definition of what is organisational behaviour and
organisational development? An explanation of why an understanding of the organisations culture can
assist an organisation development consultant facilitates change within the organisation? The choice of
two models in relation to organisational development within organisations was selected and explained.

Question 1: Define what Organisational Behaviour is and what

Organisational Development is.
Definition of Organisational behaviour (OB)
Organisational behaviour is the investigation related to the impact individuals, groups and structure has on
the behaviour within the organisation. Organisational behaviour is also related to the environment in
which the organisation operates. OB is also the analysis of peoples’ actions within an organisation and, if
their behaviour affects the organisation’s performance positively or negatively. Organisational behaviour
emphasizes behaviour related to jobs, work, absenteeism, employment turnover, productivity, human
performance, and management; this is due to the specific relationship OB has with employment related
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situations. The information acquired relating to the individuals, groups and structure within the
organisation becomes useful for the process of making the organisation more effective (Robbins et., al
2009: 7).

Definition of Organisation development (OD)

Organisational development is defined as a team used to include a collection of planned change
interventions or collection of actions derived from humanistic – democratic values. These planned change
interventions or actions try to establish methods to improve organisational effectiveness and employee
well being. Organisational development is an important focus for discussions on managing change within
an organisation (Robbins et., al 2009: 490). This is the action phase where the organisation uses the
information from OB and implements the required or desired change.

Highlight the key elements and principles which may be part of OB

and OD studies.
Key elements of OB
This is the field of study that that investigates three determinants of behaviour relating to; individuals,
groups and structure. The knowledge gained from the investigation, when applied makes the organisation
more effective. The environment in which the organisation operates is also concerned with OB
(Regenesys Masters of Business Administration. 2011. Using the Organisational behaviour and
development study guide. Page 13).

Key Principles of OB
OB is an applied behavioural science that is derived from a number of behavioural disciplines. Robbins
et., al (2009: 11) states that, “There are few, if any, simple and universal principles that explain
organisational behaviour.” However OB ideals must reflect on the direct situational, or contingency,
conditions to be able to offer reasonably accurate explanations or even make valid predictions, pertaining
to human behaviour. The science or disciplines of OB was developed by using general concepts to a
particular situation, person, or group.

The disciplines that contribute to OB include:

Psychology is the study that tries to find or establish methods to measure, and explain and sometimes
change behavioural patterns in humans and other animals. This is achieved when the psychologist
involves themselves with studying and attempting to understand individual behaviour. Sociology involves
the studies of an individual; it investigates how people interact with their social environment or culture.
This is achieved by the study of a group or an individual’s behaviour, by the sociologist. Social
psychology has a mixture of concepts from both psychology and sociology, this discipline generally is
associated with psychology. The focus within this discipline is the influence people have on one another.
An area within this discipline receiving extensive research is how to implement change and how to reduce
barriers to accepting change. Anthropology is the study that is associated with learning about human
beings and their activities from their societies. This discipline is associated with the understanding of
differences in basic values, attitudes and behaviour between people from different countries and different
organisations (Robbins et., al 2009: 9-10). Political science involves the investigation of the behaviour of
individuals and groups within a political environment. This study provides insight in relation to the
development and modification of organisational behaviour in relation to political sciences
(http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Topic:Organizational_behavior#Political_science).
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Key elements of OD
Organisational development is the action the OD practitioner takes after establishing and analyzing the
organisational behaviour thus initiating the change process that will more than likely make the
organisation more effective. Organisational development focuses on culture and processes and
incorporates the collaboration between top management and employees in managing the culture and
processes, this is an important feature in OD as it aids with participation and involvement of problem
solving and decision making at all levels of the organisation. Teams are also important for OD activities
for establishing methods to improve organisational effectiveness and employee well being. There is also a
focus on the human and social aspect of the organisation in relation to OD, this also impacts and considers
the technological and structural aspects of the organisation. OD also has a focus on total system change.
The ability of the client system for OD to be able to solve its problems on its own is a goal of OD this
goal. These goals can be achieved by using an OD practitioner who are facilitators, collaborators and co –
learners. OD tries to find methods or ways to achieve the betterment of individuals and the organisation;
it also relies on an action research model (Regenesys Masters of Business Administration. 2011. Using the
Organisational behaviour and development study guide. Page 14-15).

Key Principles of OD
The following are the main principles or values involved with most OD practitioners work. Respect for
people is portrayed where an individual is perceived as being responsible, conscientious, and caring.
People should be treated with respect and dignity. Trust and support are the characteristics of an effective
and healthy organisation that includes trust, authenticity, openness, and a supportive climate within an
organisation. Power equalization is involved where the organisations have a hierarchical authority and
controlling the employees this way is considered to be effective. Confrontation is a method where the
problems within an organisation need to be discussed and solutions for resolving them obtained, the
problems should not be ignored. Participation of the employees allows for commitment in implementing
the change process and will be directly related to the participation of individuals involved in making the
decisions affecting that change (Robbins et., al 2009: 490).

Question 2: Explanations of why an understanding of culture can

assist an OD consultant facilitate change in an organisation.
An understanding of some terminology becomes mandatory, for the ability to answer this question, so as
to have a framework of what culture, an OD consultant, change agent, and organisation culture are.

What is culture?
“The shaping of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from those of
another” (Grobler, Warnich,Carrell, Elbert, Hatfield, 2011: 638). Culture is the characteristic between
members of a group that is expressed as the collective; values, norms, traditions, and myths within
institutions. It defines people, context, human relationships and leaderships and incorporates close to all
aspects of business within an organisation (Grobler et., al 2011: 638).
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What is an OD consultant?
OD consultants provide the organisation with expert advice for adapting an established social science
theory and model for increasing profitability, productivity, and quality of work life
(http://www.odnetwork.org/odnc/whatis.htm)

What is a change agent?

This is a behavioural scientist that is competent in engaging people in an organisation to solve their own
problems. The change agent can either be an employee with expertise in behavioural sciences and
intervention technology of OD or the change agent can be from outside the organisation
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_development#Change_agent)

Organisation culture
Organisational culture involves the perception employees have of the characteristics of the founder’s
vision that influences organisational culture in relation to what the founders want the culture to represent.
Organisational culture is also the ability to distinguish one organisation from another when comparing the
structure of shared meaning held by members of the same organisation with structure of shared meaning
held by members of a different organisation. The structure of shared meaning is actually a set of
important characteristics that an organisation values. The real meaning of organisational culture can be
represented by seven crucial characteristics. The characteristic that incorporates innovation and risk
taking where authority is given to individuals to be innovative and take risks in line with organisation’s
policies. Attention to detail is a characteristic that involves the competency to which employees
demonstrate precision, analysis, and attention to detail in relation to their work. The characteristic of
outcome orientation is the amount of emphasis management concentrates on outcomes rather than the
techniques and processes used to reach the specified or desired outcome. People orientation is a
characteristic that determines the effect of the outcomes on people within an organisation in relation to the
decisions taken by management. The team orientation characteristic is the measure of work activities
organized around teams rather than individuals. The characteristic depicting aggressiveness is the
measure of how aggressive or competitive people are in relation to be easy going within the organisation.
Stability is the characteristic where the determination to which the organisational activities concentrate on
preserving the status quo in comparison with organisational growth is reflected. These characteristics are
represented on a scale from low to high. For the OD consultant to have a clear understanding of the
organisational culture he or she should appraise the organisation on these seven characteristics (Robbins
et., al 2009: 424).

Why an understanding of culture can assist an OD consultant facilitate change

in an organisation?
It is important for the OD consultant to acquire an understanding of the culture that the employees within
the organisation has, as well as the organisations culture, so that the consultant can accurately predict and
manage the reactions of the employees relating to the change intended for the organisation. In support of
this statement, people who share the same culture do not have to be constantly aware of the implications
of their behaviour. This is because they can accurately predict the reaction of the people they react with.
This view has been supported in the work of Grobler et., al (2011).

Therefore if the OD consultant has an understanding of the cultures of the organisation and the employees
that make up the organisation he/she can predict if the employees will be receptive or hostile to the
planned changes and processes desired for the organisation. With this information that, the OD consultant
has acquired he or she can try an effectively manage the change process within the organisation.
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Consider how culture is created and sustained; how employees learn

culture; and what organisational values tell us about culture.
An understanding of some concepts such as; how culture is created? How culture is sustained? How
employees learn culture? Provides a framework that helps conceptualise what organisational values reveal
about culture.

How culture is created?

Most aspects of organisational culture are determined by the vision the founders of an organisation has.
The founders have their specific emotions, egos and complex personalities that create a common ideology
or identity for an organisation http://www.hrprofessor.com/article2.html. Ideologies that pertain to
humanness or principles of what is right or good, does affect OD as “most text books about OD propose
that it is guided by a set of values.” (Regenesys Masters in Business Administration. 2011. Using the
Organisational behaviour and development study guide. Page 15).

Within the organisation the founders hire people who think and feel the way that they feel. The founders
also indoctrinate and socialize these employees to their way of thinking and feeling. They also apply the
ability to internalize the employees beliefs, values, and assumptions, the founders accomplish this with
their behaviour acting as a role model to the employees, so that it encourages employees to identify with
the founders (Robbins et., al 2009: 428).

How culture is sustained?

Once the culture is defined and implemented within the organisation, the organisation emphasises similar
experiences for the employees. These experiences ensure that the employees fit into the organisation and
can include the selection process, performance evaluation criteria, training and career development
activities, and promotion procedures. There are three main influences on sustaining culture. The selection
practices influences the sustainability of organisational culture with the process of identifying and
appointing individuals with the required competencies to perform their jobs within the organisation
successfully. The actions of top management have direct influences on sustaining organisational culture
by what they say and how they behave within and outside of the organisation. The senior executives
define the standards of the organisation that determine whether risk taking is desirable; the amount of
freedom the managers should give their employees. Socialisation method assists in sustaining
organisation culture with the process where the organisation identifies the organisational culture for new
employees and helps them adapt or conform to the organisational culture. The reason the organisation
uses this approach is because of the different values that new employees may have, and these new values
can disturb the beliefs and customs that have been established within the organisation (Robbins et., al
2009: 428).

How employees learn culture?

Within the organisation employees learn the culture of the organisation from the founder’s vision and by
the process where the employees hired has a similar culture to the founder of the organisation. Where the
organisation is large and the not all the employees have the similar cultural values, the employees learn
the organisational culture through a number of methods that include: the cultural process which
incorporates the regulations for interpreting the environment, attaching values and priorities to these
regulations, the ability to classify behaviour as being acceptable or not and recognising social rank. These
elements of the cultural process is passed from one generation to the next (Grobler et., al 2011: 638).
Stories told to new employees about the organisation represent the sequence of events that the founders
have achieved in relation to the organisation such as rags–to–riches successes. These stories support the
present in the past and provide explanations and legitimacy for current practices, as well as teaching the
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new employees about the organisational culture. Rituals is also a method to teach the new employees the
organisational culture that basically emphasizes the repetition of activities that supports and demonstrates
the key values of an organisation, the goals that have high priority status, and the people who are
important and not expendable within the organisation. The material symbols are items such as the size of
the office, the executive, and dress attire perks. These symbols allow employees to determine who is
important, the degree of egalitarian wanted by top management, and the type of behaviour that is
appropriate. Language is also used to identify members of a culture or sub–culture. Members who learn
the languages used demonstrate that they accept the culture demonstrated and help preserve it (Robbins
et., al 2009: 433).

What organisational values tell us about culture

Values represent individuals’ ideas as to what is right, good or desirable. Values have both content and
intensity attributes. The content attribute pertains to the importance of the mode of conductor and end –
state of existence. The intensity attribute pertains to an individuals’ value system which is a hierarchy of
values based on relative importance individuals assign to values. In relation to organisational behaviour
values are important because, this is where the foundation for understanding people’s attitudes and
motivation arises, and this influences perception people have within the organisation (Robbins et., al
2009: 100).

The organisational values and beliefs should be depicted in a way that the organisations employees
endeavor to meet the specified organisational goals, as well as the ideas the employees have for the
standard of behaviour they should maintain in attaining these goals. These organisational values and
beliefs help establish guidelines and expectations that stipulate the behavioural patterns appropriate for
employees for particular situations. Thereby guiding and controlling the interactions of all members
within the organisation (http://www.decurro.co.uk/samples/orgcul.pdf).

The organisational values are determined by the founder’s perception of his or her understanding of what
is right, good or desirable for the organisation. The organisations values therefore influence the
organisations culture, based on the fact that the founders of the organisation tend to hire people with
similar values as themselves so as to maintain their organisation culture. In large organisations where the
employees do not all have similar values, the organisational values are taught to these employees through
the cultural process, stories, rituals, material symbols and language. It is the values of the founders,
individuals, groups of individuals, and the mixture of different race groups that determine the culture
within the organisation, because people have their own specific emotions, egos and complex personalities.
An example of complex personalities within South Africa is due to the different cultures due to the
diversity of language, religion and race of the people that occupy South Africa.
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Question 3: Theories and models of OD

Selection of two models of organisational development

A model of stress (Robbins et., al 2009: 500-506) and Professor John Kotter’s 8 – step change model
(http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newPPM_82.htm). Both stress and change are present in a basic
organisational behaviour model, stage II where these concepts are depicted as affecting the overall
organisational behaviour due to the interaction of stress and change that affects the independent variables,
that are the individual level, group level, and organisational systems level (Robbins et., al 2009: 21). The
models that are selected provide a framework where an understanding of these concepts will ensure an
effective and efficient implementation of the OD intervention throughout the organisational behaviour.

The model of stress

"Everyone knows what stress is, but nobody really knows." (Selye: http://www.stress.org/topic-definition-
stress.htm). The definition of stress is difficult. The reason for this is that the same set of conditions that
is stressful for one person might not be considered to be stressful for another person. The term stress was
first coined by Hans Selye in 1936, it was defined as the non-specific response of the body to any demand
for change. The term stress was also used to describe an unpleasant situation that people were subjected
to. Most people viewed stress as an unpleasant threat therefore Seyle created a new word stressor which is
used to distinguish the stimulus from the response to stress. The term stress was considered to be
synonymous with distress and was defined as a feeling experienced when an individual understands that
the demands required by them exceeds the personal and social resources that is available to attain the
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demands specified (http://www.stress.org/topic-definition-stress.htm). According to Robbins et., al

(2009: 500) Stress is an individuals’ response to a set of challenging events. The interpretation by an
individual of certain environmental stressors as stress inducing represents the nature and effect of stress.

Figure 1: A Model of Stress

(Robbins et., al 2009: 501)
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Explanation of the various process and elements associated with the

stress model
The elements involved with the Model of stress
The environmental, organisational, and individual factors are considered to be potential sources of stress
within this model. For an individual to experience stress; depends on their individual differences. The
consequences of stress being experienced are manifested as symptoms such as physiological,
psychological, and behavioural outcomes (Robbins et., al 2009: 500-506).

The three potential sources of stress explained

Environmental factors have influences on both the organisation structure as well as the stress levels of the
employees in the organisation. Economical uncertainty is defined as a change in business process and this
change generally assists in creating economical uncertainty. For example when the country’s currency
exchange rate fluctuates it creates a sense of economical unrest and the employees become anxious about
their job security. Political uncertainty occurs when political systems are not stable and when the
implementation of these systems is not performed in an orderly manner. For example some foreign
businesses may experience difficulty in accepting the ruling party demands, and many choose to relocate
operations to another country. This becomes a stress factor that not only affects the employees of the
organisations but also the family and friends of the employees. Technological uncertainty is directly
related to the environmental factors. The advent of the implementation of new innovations can result in
the skills of existing employees becoming obsolete in a short period of time. For example the
implementation of computers, robotics, automation, and other forms of technological innovations tend to
pose a threat to many people and cause stress.

Organisational factors can cause stress as there is hardly ever a shortage of these factors. Examples of
these factors include but are not limited to; pressures caused by trying to avoid errors or trying to complete
tasks in a limited time period. These sorts of factors have been categorized. The task demand is a factor
that influences the job design of employees. An example of task demands can include but are not limited
to working conditions and the physical work layout of a task. The factor role demands is influenced by
the pressure associated with an individual’s role played in the organisation. An increase in stress can
result in one of three forms with this factor; that is role ambiguity which occurs when the employees are
not sure of what is expected of them. Role conflict with this factor the employee needs to fulfill two
expectations, but by fulfilling one expectation makes fulfilling the other expectation more difficult. Role
overload incorporates the concept where employees are expected to accomplish more than what time
allows.

Interpersonal demands are influenced by pressure created by other employees. Lack of social support
from colleagues and poor interpersonal relationships causes interpersonal demands and stress, especially
with employees with a high social need. Organisational structure this is where the level of differentiation
within the organisation, where the decisions and where the rules and regulations are defined. This factor
is associated with potential stress when the decisions and rules and regulations are taken without
consulting the employees. Organisational leadership has a focus on the managerial style of the
organisation’s senior executive has on creating stress for employees. In some organisations the senior
executives create a culture characterized by tension, fear and anxiety, where they impose unrealistic
pressures to perform in the short run, tight control, and if the employees cannot cope with these pressures
then they are fired. Organisation’s life stage this is basically the point where the organisation is positioned
in the process of the four stage organisation cycle of; being established, the organisation growing, the
organisation becoming mature, and where the organisation declines. This factor creates different
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problems and pressures for employees. The most stressful part of the cycle is the establishment and
decline phase of the cycle. The establishment phase is usually characterized by excitement and
uncertainty. The decline phase usually includes the process of cut–backs and lay–offs, and uncertainty
such as job insecurity. When employees take on extra responsibilities and work late to try and promote
their desirable image they subject themselves to an increase in their stress levels, which ultimately has an
impact on long term psychological and physical problems.

Individual factors take the employees personal life experience and associate, that to stress in relation to the
individual’s family issues, personal economic problems, and inherent personality characteristic. The
family issues relate to relationship problems that creates stress for the employee because, the stress is not
left behind when the employee arrives at work. Examples that can create this type of stress include but are
not limited to marital difficulties and discipline troubles with children. Economic problems occur when
individuals overextend their financial resources stress is created and distracts the employee’s attention
from their work. An illustration of this is when an individual has wants that always seem to exceed their
earning capacity. Inherent personality characteristic, this basically introduces the concept of an individual
that experiences elevated stress levels before actually staring their job at an organisation. According to
researchers an individuals’ personality may actually be the originator of stress expressed at work (Robbins
et., al 2009: 500-506).

Individual differences and experiencing stress

Individual differences relates to the research where the emphasis is on understanding individual
differences between people and their perception and reaction to stress, as well as what distinguishes
people in terms of their ability to cope with stress. There are at least five variables that may protect
individuals from stress. The stress-buffering (moderating) hypothesis is commonly used to describe these
variables. Perception is a variable where people react to their own perception of reality rather than reality
itself, due to this fact an individuals’ perception controls the relationship between potential stress
situations and the individuals’ reaction to it. The stress potential relies on an individuals’ interpretation
of objective conditions to specific situations. An example the fear that an individual has that they are
going to lose their job can be perceived by another person as, receiving a severance allowance that can be
used to start their own business. Job experience is a variable that is more likely to be negatively related to
work stress; there are two reasons for this. Voluntary turnover occurs when people who experience more
stress tend to gravitate toward this reason for resignation. The people who work for an organisation for
long periods of time have more stress resistant qualities. This however takes time, and it is therefore the
senior members of the organisation that have adapted and should experience less stress.

Social support this is the effect of the level of support from supervisors, family and friends that is
available for an individual to manage the relationship between stressors and strains. People who receive
high levels of social support experience less strain than those that do not receive social support. This is
because the people who receive social support change their perception so that they realize that stressors
are damaging to their well being. Belief in locus of control this is an individuals’ perception of either
being in control (internal locus of control) or not being in control (external locus of control) of a situation.
Research identifies that people with an internal locus of control, generally have greater well being and
experience less stress at work. People with external locus of control tend to acquire illnesses more
frequently and experience job dissatisfaction. Hostility this pertains to a personality trait with a high level
of anger and hostility. Research show that people with this character trait increases a person’s stress
levels and also the risk of heart disease.

Self–efficacy relates to the belief an individual has relating to his or her own capabilities in performing a
challenging and demanding task. People with a high self–efficacy have a tendency to meet the job
demands even with the stressors present within the working environment. Research shows that
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individuals with a high self – efficacy has high levels of personal accomplishment in their jobs.
Experiencing stress is directly related to the individual differences mentioned above. When stress is
experienced it manifests itself as symptoms such as physiological, psychological, and behavioural
outcomes (Robbins et., al 2009: 500-506).

The consequences of stress

This is the result of stress experienced by an individual or a group of people where the stressor was based
on environmental factors, organisational factors and individual factors coupled with the individuals’
differences. The physiological, and psychological, and the behavioural symptoms are the noticeable
consequences of stress.

Physiological symptoms are the physical strain due to the stress processes that can be divided into short
and long term strain. Short term strain includes but is not limited to, reactions such as headaches and high
blood pressure. Long term strain includes but is not limited to, reactions such as heart diseases.
Psychological symptoms are a result that is influenced greatly by job dissatisfaction. Job stress and job
dissatisfaction is increased due to but not limited to factors such as; a lack of clarity of roles, lack of job
control and low level of variety. Behavioural symptoms are related to work stressors that require large
expenses on work organisations, and affect both the individual’s behaviour on job and away from it. The
distinctive behavioural symptom of stress, include the work role disruptions that is performance, mistakes
and accidents. The job flight behavioural symptom represents the staff turnover as well as absenteeism.
Aggressive behaviour at work includes vandalism and stealing from the organisation. Disruptions of
home life relating to the individuals experiences, difficulties with relationships, both martial and
friendship as well as community difficulties. Self damaging behaviours manifests itself when the
individual involves themselves with substance abuse and accidents (Robbins et., al 2009: 500-506).

Justification as to why the model is important as part of an

understanding of OD?
With the visualisation and an understanding of the of the basic OB model stage II depicted in (Robbins et.,
al 2009: 17-21), one can understand that stressors manifest itself through the independent variables such
as the individual level, the group level, and the organisational systems level. These stressors ultimately
have an effect on the human output represented by the dependable variables that are productivity where
the organisation achieves its goals and is concerned with effectiveness and efficiency. Absence this is the
failure of an employee to report to work. Turnover is the voluntary and involuntary removal of an
individual from an organisation. Deviant workplace behaviour is voluntary behaviour that defies
important organisation norms, thereby threatening the optimum functions of the organisations and the
members in the organisation. Organisation citizenship behaviour is discretionary behaviour that is not
part of an employee’s formal job requirement, therefore promoting the effective functioning of the
organisation. Job satisfaction represents peoples’ attitudes rather than behaviour. It is a variable because
it shows the relationship between the performance factors and value preferences.

With the ability to identify and address the sources or stressors of stress adequately within the
organisation, management benefits with an overall increase in productivity as well as the organisation
becoming more effective and efficient by implementing work environmental changes so as to reduce
stress. This is one of many desired outcomes of OD. With the result of the steps the organisation
implements to facilitate the work environment change to reduce stress among the employees, can
ultimately reduce some if not all the symptoms discussed under physiological, psychological and
behavioural consequences relating to stress induced by the working environment. This particular aspect
 Page 15 of 24

facilitates in making the organisation an organisation that is a desirable for employees to work at reducing
staff turnover.

The pro’s and con’s of the stress model

The advantages or factors that are in support of this model help understand stress and its consequences in
relation to the following questions like what causes stress, what are the consequences for individual
employees, Why the same set of conditions creates stress for one person and seems to have little or no
effect on other individuals (Robbins et., al 2009: 504)?

The disadvantage of this model is that the model for stress discussed does not recognize the good or
positive effect of stress that was defined by Selye as eustress. For example winning a race can be just as
stressful as losing the race. Good or positive stress can be helpful and good when it motivates people to
accomplish what is required and if possible achieve more than what is expected by the organisation
(http://www.stress.org/topic-definition-stress.htm). A balance of stress that was represented within the
model that affected the employees facilitates for effective and efficient productivity within the
organisation. The introduction of good or positive stress will also facilitate effective and efficient
productivity within the organisation.

Provide a scenario where the model can be applied and motivate

why?
This model can be represented within an organisation where excessive stress levels are experienced and
the stress is manifested with the stress consequences as physiological, psychological and behavioral
symptoms. An illustrative example where this model can be used could be a stock brokerage organisation,
where the stock brokers invest in shares on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange using finance provided by
the organisations clients. The stressors here would influence the employees if for example the stock
invested in, starts to lose value and goes against the trends predicted by the research conducted before the
actual investment of the clients’ finances takes place.

Since this model is designed to identify major sources of stress affecting the employees within the
working environment, the model can assists the organisation with managing the stress experienced by the
employees and increase productivity. This is achieved by changing the working conditions so that the
employees experience less stress at work. The employee can also take personal responsibility in reducing
stress experienced at work. Management can utilize interventions to reduce stress within the workplace.
These interventions can be directed either directly to the work situations or the ability of the employee to
cope with the stress.

Does this Model fit into the South African (SA) context
Yes this model fits into the South African context, as stressors are a part of every culture and every
organisation and it influences stress associated with employees within an organisation. This model is
interchangeable in different organisations around the world as well and can assist the managers with
dealing with the overall stress related to work and improve the effective and efficient productivity of the
organisation.
 Page 16 of 24

Professor John Kotter’s 8 – step change model

“It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor the most intelligent that survives. It is the one that
is the most adaptable to change.” Charles Darwin (http://thinkexist.com/quotes/charles_darwin/). A
similar concept can be applied to the change of an organisations’ behaviour. Change is a process that can
take place between one or two processes, or a system wide change for the entire organisation. The feeling
of intimidation and being uneasy among the employees is common and usually related to the challenge
associated with the change processes.

Figure 2 John Kotter’s 8 step change model

(http://www.expertprogrammanagement.com/2010/11/kotter-change-how-to-lead-change/)
 Page 17 of 24

Explanation of the various process and elements associated with

Kotter’ 8 step change model
The elements involved with John Kotter’s 8 step change model
Organisation knows change needs to take place. However when top management within the organisations
does not know; how to deliver the change concepts? Where do they start with the change process? Whom
do they involve with implementing the change processes? And how do the managers see the change
process to fulfillment or how are the desired outcomes achieved? There are eight steps that constitute this
model and can address these questions and provide a guideline as to achieving desired organisational
change (http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newPPM_82.htm).

The eight step change model explained

(http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newPPM_82.htm)
http://www.kotterinternational.com/KotterPrinciples/ChangeSteps.aspx) According to Kotter the eight
step change model incorporates the following steps.

Step one: create urgency

The ability to develop an impression that represents urgency for the need of change to occur is important.
When the whole company wants the change process to take place, can help to get the employees
motivated so as to attain the organisational change outcomes. Some processes to help create urgency
within an organisation include but are not limited to identifying with the SWOT analysis. The SWOT
analysis is the evaluation of the organisations strengths, weakness, opportunities, and threats and
developing and describing scenarios of what could happen in the future. Engaging the employees to begin
talking and thinking about the possible outcomes of the change process by starting honest discussions and
providing dynamic and convincing reasons to implement the change process.

Step two: form a powerful coalition

The ability to convince people that change is important for the survival of the organisation. This step
includes the visibility of strong leadership and support of an influential team of people within the
organisation. The reason for this is that no individual no matter how competent they are is capable of
single handedly developing the vision, communicating it to the employees, and eliminating all the
obstacles so as to achieve short term gains as well as leading and managing change projects that will
influence the organisations culture. The main objective of this coalition is to build on the need for
urgency and momentum around the change process. Some processes to help formulate and maintain this
coalition within an organisation include but are not limited to identifying the true leaders in the
organisation and gaining their emotional commitment to the change process. The process of having the
ability so that the coalition can conduct team building and evaluate the team for any weak areas. The
process of ensuring a good mix of people from different departments and different levels within the
organisation so that they are visible in all areas of the organisation.

Step three: create a vision for change

The ideas and solutions relating to change that were developed when the initial change concept started,
must be linked to an overall vision for the employees to easily grasp and remember. A clear vision
facilitates in helping the employees concerned with understanding why the change is taking place and
caters for three important purposes. The vision simplifies the detailed decisions that must be taken. The
motivation that inspires people to take action in the right direction, even if these actions are not desired by
the individual. Lastly the vision assists in the co-ordination of actions performed by different people in a
fast and efficient way. Some processes to help create and maintain the vision within an organisation
 Page 18 of 24

include but are not limited to the determination of values that are central to the change process. The
development of a short summary that highlights the direction of the future of the organisation. A strategy
to execute the vision and ensuring that the change coalition is able to describe the vision in five minutes or
less.

For an effective vision, six important characteristics need to be incorporated into the vision. Imaginable
characteristics of the vision communicates’ a clear picture of what the future of the organisation will look
like. Desirable characteristics of the vision facilitate the change needs to be attractive and interesting in
the view of the employees, customers, shareholders and others who have a stake in the organisation.
Feasible characteristics of the vision must portray realistic and attainable goals. Focused characteristics of
the vision must be clear enough to provide guidance in decision making. Flexible characteristics’ of the
vision needs to be able to allow for individual initiative and alternate responses in relation to changing
conditions. The ability of communicating the characteristics of the vision must ensure that the vision is
easily communicated and can be explained quickly.

Step four: communicate the vision

The ability to communicate the vision of the company will determine the success of the planned change.
The actual process of communicating the vision needs to be done frequently and in a powerful manner
because of the competition of other day to day communications within the company. Some processes to
help communicate the vision within an organisation include but are not limited to talking often about the
change vision, address peoples’ concerns and anxieties openly and honestly. Leading by example in
relation to the change vision is important because actions are more important and believable, than what
people actually say. The application of all the aspects of the vision, from training to performance reviews
must all relate back to the vision created.

Step five: remove obstacles

For this step to have been reached the communication of the change vision to all levels of the organisation
was fairly successful. With this success the employees should want to start and achieve the benefits that
represent the successful change implementation. To achieve success in removing the obstacles in this
step, the identification of anyone, or processes, or structures that get in the way or blocks the change
process is important. The reason for this is by removing these obstacles can actually empower people
within the organisation to execute the vision and assist in moving the change process forward. Some
processes to help create and maintain the vision within an organisation include but are not limited to the
review of organisational structure, job descriptions, and performance and compensation systems so that
they are in line with the vision of the change. Rewarding individuals that were identified as assisting in
making the change process take place. Change leaders should be identified or hired so as to deliver the
actual change process. The people that are resistant to the change need to be assisted in understanding
why and what the change process is needed. Decisive action needs to eliminate or remove barriers that
prevent the change process, this can include but is not limited to human and structural barriers.

Step six: create short-term wins

The primary objective of this step is to create motivation among the people that have accepted and assisted
with the change. With the creation of short-term wins within the organisation the people that have bought
into the change process experiences successful results early in the implementation of the change process.
These successful results will ultimately be acknowledged by all the employees within the organisation and
the perception of any critics and people that had negative attitudes toward the change process will not
stagnate the process. These short term wins need to be achievable, with little or no room for failure.
Some processes to help create short-term wins within an organisation include but are not limited to the
process of short-term wins that need to be planned carefully so that there is little or no room for failure, if
 Page 19 of 24

the short-term wins fail then the people involved with the change will experience a sense of loss in
urgency to implement the change process. Early targets that are expensive should be avoided in the initial
implementation phase as justification of the investment needs to be clarified. Rewarding of individuals
that help meet certain targets pertaining to the short-term wins also helps with the motivation to see the
change process to the end.

Step seven: build on the change

Building on change incorporates the investigation that determines improvements on the processes, so that
each success presents an opportunity to reinforce the factors that contributed to the success of the short-
term wins and identify where improvements can be implemented. The short-term wins is only a prelude
in ensuring long-term success, the new behaviours and practices of the employees must be further
motivated in creating the urgency to accomplish the change process. The reason for this is that once
regression of the urgency to change begins, the ability to motivate employees becomes difficult. With the
successful implementation of step seven the advent of additional people with the intent of helping with the
change process will be hired or appointed, senior leadership will provide clarity to an aligned vision and
shared purpose. Some processes to help build on change within an organisation include but are not
limited to the analysis of what went right with the achieved short-term win and where improvements can
be made. Utilizing new change agents and new leaders within the coalition team to facilitate in the new
innovations and ideas for the change process. Understanding the idea of continuous improvement, the
Kaizen concept, which basically is the continuous improvement of processes in a small but meaningful
way within an organisation (http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newPPM_82.htm) &
(http://www.kotterinternational.com/KotterPrinciples/ChangeSteps.aspx)&(http://www.
makemylink.com/blog/2010/05/09/kaizen/).

Step eight: Anchor the changes in corporate culture

To successfully implement and maintain the change process, it needs to be instilled into the organisational
culture. The process of indoctrinating new employees to the traditional organisation culture occurs
generally without the employees realizing it. The organisational culture is often the deciding factor that
determines what objectives are desired; therefore the value behind the vision should be visible in the daily
activities of the organisation. The concept of traditional organisational culture is considered to be
powerful and difficult to change. However implementing new change processes with an equally
supportive and adequately strong organisational culture allow for the change process to occur. The
powerful coalition alone will not suffice in changing the organisation culture no matter how competent
they are with handling their tasks. For the actual change of the organisational culture to occur a majority
of the organisations employees need to truly relate with the new culture, to cater for the success of the
change process. Some processes to help anchor the changes in the corporate culture within an organisation
include but are not limited to communicating the progress of the change process at every available chance
as well as telling and repeating success stories of the implementation of the change processes. Publicly
acknowledge the members of the coalition and their achievements during the change process, so that the
employees new and old remember their contributions. To make sure that the legacy of change is not lost
or forgotten, plans for replacing the key leaders as they move on is essential.
(http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newPPM_82.htm)
(http://www.kotterinternational.com/KotterPrinciples/ChangeSteps.aspx).
 Page 20 of 24

Justification as to why the model is important as part of an

understanding of OD.
“In the long history of humankind (and animal kind, too) those who learned to collaborate and improvise
most effectively have prevailed” Charles Darwin (http://thinkexist.com/quotes/charles_darwin/). This
quote by Darwin is applicable to the entire concept of Kotter’s eight step change model in relation to
prevailing with the change process, but the steps that mainly reflect on this quote are steps two and step
five. Step two (formation of a powerful coalition) incorporates the concept of collaboration of employees
with specific characteristics so as to achieve the facilitation of the vision of the change process, by
building urgency and momentum among the employees around the change process. The concept of
collaboration and improvising by the people within the organisation in order to achieve the change process
within the organisation is depicted in step five (remove obstacles), where most of the employees
improvise and collaborate as they are now motivated enough to start and achieve the goals so as to attain
the benefits as a result of the change process.

OD is a result of an interpretation of the organisations behaviour, where the organisational behaviour is

sufficient to maintain the organisation but not as an effective and efficient organisation. By implementing
a change process to the OB within the organisation, the OD intervention (Kotter’s 8 step change model)
should help the organisation become more effective and efficient. The reason the word should was used
in the previous sentence, is because this model depends greatly on the coalition team in facilitating the
change process. If the coalition team fails to implement the change process adequately, this model will
not be able to assist in making the organisation more effective and efficient.

The pro’s and con’s of the model

Advantages of Kotter’s 8 step change model include but are not limited to being one of the best known as
well as one of the most commonly applied models primarily used for implementing change. The focus is
on achieving the acceptance of the change process from the key employees to ensure successful
implementation. This model is very well adapted to a top down management hierarchy that decides the
change vision that is required by the organisation. This model helps management approach technical
questions on change, such as how to deliver the change concepts, where do they start with the change
process, whom do they involve with implementing the change processes and how do the managers see the
change process to fulfillment or how are the desired outcomes achieved?
The disadvantages of Kotter’s 8 step change model are that the decisions of the actual change vision
originate or are initiated from top management, and not all the employees are involved with the creation of
the vision thereby missing important ideas or concepts relating to the organisational change. Resistance
and resentment from the employees can be a factor that affects the change process if an understanding of
how the employees react to major change in the organisation
(http://www.expertprogrammanagement.com/2010/11/kotter-change-how-to-lead-change/). The
implementation of this model’s likely hood of failing is very high if all eight of these steps are not
implemented effectively (http://www.kotterinternational.com/KotterPrinciples/ChangeSteps.aspx).

Provide a scenario where the model can be applied and motivate

why?.
This model can be applied in a political environment where a country’s inhabitants want to be liberated
from oppression or control and governance from an external country. An example would be when
 Page 21 of 24

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi also known as Mahatma Gandhi desired a change that
India was to become independent from British control. This was because of World War II where Nazi
Germany invaded Poland. The British included India in the war, without consulting India’s inhabitants.
According to Gandhi India could not be involved in a war where the war was for freedom, and India
herself did not have freedom (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi).

This scenario in relation to Kotter’ s model

Step one: create urgency – Gandhi achieved the state of urgency from India’s people for independence of
India from British control, when the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre also known as the Amritsar Massacre
occurred, were the British troops killed civilians causing deep distress with the nation. Step two: form a
powerful coalition – In December 1921, Gandhi was granted executive authority on behalf of the Indian
National Congress (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi). The Indian National
Congress was the most popular party that was making an attempt for the independence of India
(http://www.mapsofindia.com/personalities/gandhi/role-in-indian-national-congress.html).
Step three: create a vision for change – The change of attaining complete self governance and control of
all Indian government institutions allowing for Swaraj or complete individual, spiritual, and political
independence. The motive behind this change was because of the Amritsar Massacre and these values
were experienced by the entire nation (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi).
Gandhi’s vision for the Indian National Congress was to re-organize the party according to the goal of
self-governance through individuals and community building, a concept called Swaraj
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swaraj).
Step four: communicate the vision – Gandhi communicated his vision for India’s independence through
the Indian National Congress and through the public acts such as the Non-cooperation movement and the
Salt Satyagraha (Salt March) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi). Step five:
remove the obstacles - Gandhi urged all Indian men and women rich or poor to spin khadi (homespun
clothes) and that this should be worn by the people to boycott British made textiles. This request was a
strategy used by Gandhi to induct discipline and dedication so as to identify those that was unwilling and
ambitious and indoctrinate them to the Indian National Congress party values of changing India to an
independent country (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi). Gandhi had an
altercation with Subhas Bose the elected president in 1938, about Bose’s lack of commitment to
democracy and his lack of faith in non violence. Bose however won the following election, but resigned
when the All-India leaders resigned en masse protest, because Bose abandoned the principles introduced
by Gandhi (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi). Step six: create short-term
wins – The Non-cooperation movement was basically a campaign of mass civil disobedience, and
benefited the cause due to the success in increasing the excitement and participation from all areas of
Indian society. The Salt March was also one of the short term-wins were Gandhi walked 388 kilometers
from Ahmedabad to Dandi to make salt himself. This was the most successful campaign and resulted in
Britain imprisoning over sixty thousand people. Step seven: build on the change – the Gandhi-Irwin Pact
was signed in March 1931. The British government decided to release all the political prisoners in return
for the suspension of the Non-cooperation movement, with the British coming to a compromise with
Gandhi can be interpreted as their impending relinquishment of India to the people of India. Gandhi was
also invited to attend the Round Table Conference in London as the sole representative of the Indian
National Congress. On the 14th and 15th of August 1947 the Indian Independence Act was passed and the
separation of India and Pakistan resulted in the displacement of 12.5 million people. During this division
process there was an estimated loss of life of several hundred thousand to a million people
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi).
 Page 22 of 24

Step eight: Anchor the change in corporate culture – Gandhi has failed at this step in the change process to
maintain the cultural change and implement the independence for the whole country ounce called the
British Indian Empire. The reason this statement was made because the British Indian Empire was united
and Gandhi’s insight and values that he had, was based on India as a whole country and not segregated by
religion http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi. However the actual change did
occur but not exactly according to Gandhi’s perception because the governance of India was given to
Indians by the British. Now India and Pakistan are independent neighboring countries.

Does this Model fit into the South African context?

Yes this model can be used in the South African context both in business and politics. This model was
developed to be used within a business oriented environment, but can also be adapted to politics as
explained in the scenario above. In relation to the South African politics this model can also be used to
describe the change process that has occurred with the apartheid government and the African National
Congress (ANC) today. Step one and two are represented by the ability of the ANC to have created
urgency in involving people within SA to want to change the apartheid system as well as for a powerful
coalition formation that was represented by The Congress of the People whom adopted the freedom
charter that opposed the apartheid policy. The vision for change of the apartheid system included that of
Gandhi’s non violence approach used in India against the British, but after the Sharpville Massacre in
1960 the non-violent values was abandoned and Umkhonto we Sizwe faction of the ANC was formed.
Instep four and five for communicating the vision and removing the obstacles the ANC resorted to
guerrilla tactics by bombing facilities that were regularly visited by apartheid military and political
personal. An example was the 1983 Church Street bombing in Pretoria, which killed 16 and wounded 130
people. The short-term wins included the financial and tactical support from the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics. The unbanning of the ANC and other banned organisations on the 2 February 1990. Step
seven builds on change relating to SA includes the negotiations of the settlement to an end of the
apartheid. Step eight anchoring the changes in corporate culture, the concept of apartheid that was
introduced in 1948 by the Afrikaner led National Party is now over, people now interact freely with other
race groups in and around South Africa
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_African_National_Congress).

Conclusion
In conclusion of this assignment, the understanding of the definitions of what organisational behaviour
and organisational development are, together with the understanding of organisational culture can help
assist management in changing certain aspects of the organisational behaviour and with the actual change
process of the organisation. For management to facilitate the organisational change, the employment of
OD consultant will help guide the employees in accepting and working toward achieving the goal of the
organisational change.

The understanding of the models selected and explained facilitate in providing a framework that the OD
consultant can use in understanding the employees stress levels and their fears associated with the change
process of the organisation. These models can also be utilized within a political environment. The stress
model can be used to assess the stressors among the people involved with the change process and a
method can be formulated to deal or cope with the stress experienced. Kotter’s 8 step change model can
be reflected upon the past change process involving the past such as Gandhi and the Indian National
 Page 23 of 24

Congress and their endeavor to achieve an independent India. The 8 steps of Kotter’s change model can
also be perceived to being relevant to the method the ANC used to influence the changing of our nation.

Reference list
Grobler, P.A. et al. 2011. Human resource management in South Africa. 4th Edition. United Kingdom:
Cengage Learning EMEA.
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http://www.hrprofessor.com/article2.html searched 31 March 2011

http://www.kotterinternational.com/KotterPrinciples/ChangeSteps.aspx searched 4 April 2011

http://www.makemylink.com/blog/2010/05/09/kaizen/ searched 8 April 2011

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2011

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 Page 24 of 24

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Regenesys Masters of Business Administration year one semester one. 2011. Using the organisational
behaviour and development study guide.

Robbins, S.P. et al. 2009. Organisational behaviour global and Southern African perspectives. 2nd Edition.
South Africa: Pearson Education South Africa.