Microprocessor: 4th & 5th Assignment
Microprocessor: 4th & 5th Assignment
Submitted By:-
Sanjeev Agarwal
CS-2,6th sem
0112CS081091
EISA Bus
Extended ISA (EISA) has a 32-bit data bus but still operates at
8MHz.
It is rarely used -- mainly as a disk controller or video graphics
adapter.
New pins for EISA bus are interspersed with the older pins in
the 16-bit ISA connector to
preserve compatibility with the old standard.
Most of the new EISA connections are used for the 32-bit data
and 32-bit latch address bus
VESA Local Bus
VESA (VL bus) is a 33MHz extension of the ISA bus used of
high-speed data transfer
applications.
It contains 32-bit address and data bus and is mainly used for
video and disk interfaces.
Requires a third connector (VESA connector) to be added b8-
Bit ISA Bus Output Interface
4, 8-bit latches interfaced using an ISA interface for 32 bit
parallel data.
74LS244 buffers used to ensure only one lower power TTL load
on the bus.
Loading is important as many cards can be connected on the
bus.
The DIP switch can be used to change the address thus avoiding
address conflicts with
other cards in the system.
See text for examples of output interface using a PLD and also
an ISA bus input interface
for A-to-D converters.
16-bit ISA bus has an additional connector attached behind the
8-bit connector.
Although 8 additional data bits, D8-D15, are available, the features
most often used are the
additional interrupt request and DMA request signals.ehind the
standard 16-bit ISAit latched address bus
parallel printer interface bus
A parallel port is a type of interface found on computers (personal and otherwise)
for connecting various peripherals. In computing, a parallel port is a parallel
communication physical interface. It is also known as a printer port or Centronics
port. The IEEE 1284 standard defines the bi-directional version of the port, which
allows the transmission and reception of data bits at the same time
Before the advent of USB, the parallel interface was adapted to access a
number of peripheral devices other than printers. Probably one of the
earliest devices to use parallel were dongles used as a hardware key
form of software copy protection. Zip drives and scanners were early
implementations followed by external modems, sound cards, webcams,
gamepads, joysticks and external hard disk drives and CD-ROM drives.
Adapters were available to run SCSI devices via parallel. Other devices
such as EPROM programmers and hardware controllers could be
connected parallel.
Current use
For consumers, the USB interface—and in some cases Ethernet—has
effectively replaced the parallel printer port. Many manufacturers of
personal computers and laptops consider parallel to be a legacy port and
no longer include the parallel interface. The guidelines for Microsoft's
Windows Logo Program[5]"strongly discourages" systems builders from
including parallel ports. USB-to-parallel adapters are available that can
make parallel-only printers work with USB-only systems.
RAM (Random Access Memory) is your computers "thinking space" and only functions
while your PC is turned on. Contemplate yourself in the morning when you wake up and
start loading programs you have developed over the years (like "get out of bed", "walk
to the shower", "take shower", etc. etc.) from your own 'hard drive' to your own `RAM'
and you will understand how your PC works. The part of your brain that, in PC
vernacular, is `RAM', clears all information stored in it as you fall asleep and (unless you
are prone to personal dreaming) does not `come alive' until you wake up the next
morning.
RAM (also called "Real Memory") performs the critical function in your PC of absorbing
data and interacting with your processor on all programs (operating system and
applications) while your PC is turned on doing it's thing (or your thing). While you are
creating a document (making `inputs’ from your keyboard and mouse), it is temporarily
stored in real memory and exists only in RAM until you save it to your secondary
memory device (hard drive). Simply, Primary Memory assembles data from
secondary memory and user inputs, provides the data input `to' and receives data
output `from' your Central Processing Unit, and temporarily stores your work. If you
lose power before you have `saved' your work, it's history!!
The main memory of the computer is also known as RAM, standing for Random Access
Memory. It is constructed from integrated circuits and needs to have electrical power in order to
maintain its information. When power is lost, the information is lost too! It can be directly
accessed by the CPU. The access time to read or write any particular byte are independent of
whereabouts in the memory that byte is, and currently is approximately 50 nanoseconds (a
thousand millionth of a second). This is broadly comparable with the speed at which the CPU
will need to access data. Main memory is expensive compared to external memory so it has
limited capacity. The capacity available for a given price is increasing all the time. For example
many home Personal Computers now have a capacity of 16 megabytes (million bytes), while 64
megabytes is commonplace on commercial workstations. The CPU will normally transfer data to
and from the main memory in groups of two, four or eight bytes, even if the operation it is
undertaking only requires a single byte
PROGRAM MEMORY .
The program memory is divided into pages of 512 words. If the device has more than one page
of program memory, the page is selected with the page bits (PA0 and PA1) in the STATUS
register.
Page bits are only evaluated when a branch instruction is encountered.
If a part has only one page of program memory, the page bits are ignored. If the device has only
two pages of program memory, only PA0 is used. If the device has four pages, only PA0 and PA1
are used. Page bit PA2 is not currently implemented in the PIC16C5X architecture so it is always
ignored.
The Program Counter, when no branch instruction is encountered, will increment normally
through the entire program memory array. When it reaches the last program memory location, it
will wrap around to 0.
The page select bits are not automatically updated by the processor when program execution
flows onto another page
DATA MEMORY
The data memory is located on a physically separate internal bus from the program memory. This
means that instructions cannot be executed from data memory.
Some devices that have more than one bank of data memory.
The considerations for changing pages in program memory have nothing to do with the
considerations for changing pages (called banks) in data memory. They are separate operations
and are handled with different register page select bits located in the FSR.
Data memory banks are selected with bits 5 and 6 of the FSR.
The lower half of data memory (00h to 1Fh) is never banked for any device. No matter what
value is in the FSR, the lower half of the data memory can always be read.
For devices that have only one bank of upper data memory, the entire data memory array can be
read without regard for the value in FSR
secondary memory
Secondary memory (or secondary storage) is the slowest and cheapest form of memory. It cannot be processed
directly by the CPU. It must first be copied into primary storage (also known as RAM ).
Secondary memory devices include magnetic disks like hard drives and floppy disks ; optical disks such as CDs and
CDROMs ; and magnetic tapes, which were the first forms of secondary memory.
Secondary storage (also known as external memory or auxiliary storage), differs from primary storage in
that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its input/output channels to
access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage.
Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is powered down—it is non-volatile. Per unit,
it is typically also two orders of magnitude less expensive than primary storage. Consequently, modern
computer systems typically have two orders of magnitude more secondary storage than primary storage
and data is kept for a longer time there
A CPU cache is a cache used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the average
time to access memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores copies of the data
from the most frequently used main memory locations. As long as most memory accesses are
cached memory locations, the average latency of memory accesses will be closer to the cache
latency than to the latency of main memory.
When the processor needs to read from or write to a location in main memory, it first checks
whether a copy of that data is in the cache. If so, the processor immediately reads from or writes
to the cache, which is much faster than reading from or writing to main memory.
Most modern desktop and server CPUs have at least three independent caches: an instruction
cache to speed up executable instruction fetch, a data cache to speed up data fetch and store,
and a translation lookaside buffer (TLB) used to speed up virtual-to-physical address translation
for both executable instructions and data. Data cache is usually organized as a hierarchy of more
cache levels
A memory device, such as a floppy disk, a hard disk, or a removable cartridge, that is covered with a
magnetic coating on which digital information is stored in the form of microscopically small, magnetized
needlesThe primary computer storage device. Like tape, it is magnetically recorded and can be
re-recorded over and over. Disks are rotating platters with a mechanical arm that moves a
read/write head between the outer and inner edges of the platter's surface. It can take as long as
one second to find a location on a floppy disk to as little as a couple of milliseconds
The disk surface is divided into concentric tracks (circles within circles). The thinner the tracks,
the more storage. The data bits are recorded as tiny magnetic spots on the tracks. The smaller the
spot, the more bits per inch and the greater the storage