Green Infrastructure Guide Project (Davies Et Al, 2006)
Green Infrastructure Guide Project (Davies Et Al, 2006)
Green Infrastructure Guide Project (Davies Et Al, 2006)
Planning Guide
Project
Final Report
May 2006
Report Structure
Main report
1. Introduction
2. The Project Brief
3. Approach to Project: Principles & conceptual basis
4. Green Infrastructure Context
5. Overview of the Green Infrastructure Planning Guide
6. How can the Green Infrastructure Planning Guide be used in the ‘real world’?
Appendices:
1) Green infrastructure and City Regions Workshop (Sept 2005) Report
2) Green Infrastructure Planning Seminar Flyer
3) GI Seminar Timetable
4) Green Infrastructure Planning Seminar Workshop (April 2006) Group Feedback
5) Presentation to Green Infrastructure Seminar # 1 (April 2006)
6) Presentation to Green Infrastructure Seminar # 2 (April 2006)
7) Briefing Paper for Regional Spatial Strategy EiP
8) Bibliography
1
1. Introduction
Green Infrastructure (GI) is what might be termed a developing concept. It might also be defined a contested
concept i.e. it means different things to different people. It is for this reason that any project to move forward on
GI planning needs to ensure that the key interest and stakeholder groups are effectively engaged with the
project and that their differing priorities and appreciations of GI as a concept and as environments on the ground
are accounted for.
This project was primarily exploratory to try to understand the concept and contribute to discussion with regard to
methodologies by which the practice of GI planning can be developed. The project was undertaken by an
interdisciplinary team led by Clive Davies and Chris McGloin at the North East Community Forests (NECF), and
including Rob MacFarlane from the Centre for Environmental & Spatial Analysis at the University of Northumbria,
and Maggie Roe from the Landscape Research Group at Newcastle University. The project relied heavily on
guidance and discussion between stakeholders during its inception, development and investigation. This report
then represents a body of work which should be regarded as contributing to ‘work in process’ rather than a
finished product. We are indebted all those who took part in this process.
2. The Project Brief
2.1 Background
Discussion with the Countryside Agency concerning a possible project developed from attention drawn to
collaborative work carried out by the same team in relation to strategic thinking in relation to community forestry
in the North East. GI thinking was at the heard of forward thinking in relation to this third generation of
community forest plans and their linkage with other policy areas. Based on the history of collaboration in this
field, the three parties were also awarded a research studentship from the Economic and Social Research
Council (ESRC) to examine the application of GI principles to community forest planning and management.
A Steering Group for the project was established led by the Countryside Agency. Other members were: English
Nature, The Woodland Trust, The Forestry Commission, the Rural Development Service, ONE North East, the
Wildlife Trusts and the Groundwork Trust. The final brief was developed and a final format agreed in conjunction
with this Group.
At a general level four broad sets of interests in GI were initially identified which helped the development of the
brief:
i. Nature conservation – the literature on wildlife corridors, ecological networks and the wider discipline of
landscape ecology emphasises the value of connectivity at a variety of scales from the continental to the
local;
ii. Recreation – greenways have been promoted as routes, dominantly for noncar transport, that
emphasise the quality of the route as well as more basic issues of welfare and safety. This has become
increasingly engaged with interests around public health and quality of life;
iii. Landscape – although this is intimately related to (a) and (b), landscape architects and designers have
long been involved in the identification, establishment and development of green spaces and corridors in
urban areas. This was separated out here as the rationale employed is often different, taking a
dominantly aesthetic and experiential, rather than purely functional, view on such resources;
iv. Regional development and promotion – Regional Development Agencies have an interest in the
environmental quality of regions. This is driven by a range of primary interests, primarily its relationship
with quality of life and enhancement of the external image of the region. GI is a critical element of
environmental quality.
It was seen as is crucial to link these interests to the Countryside Agency’s Countryside Around Towns
programme which focuses on multifunctionality and identifies a wider set of potential functions for
development and enhancement in the urban fringe and areas of land that link urban and rural areas
(including green corridors and ‘wedges’). These include:
2
· Town and Country linkages · Sustainable agriculture & forestry
· Public health interests · Social and economic regeneration
· Educational opportunities · Housing & transportation
· Recycling possibilities · Nature conservation
· Sustainable energy resource · Heritage conservation & promotion
development
It was agreed that achieving perfect consensus across the different interest groups that represent these land
uses and users would be extremely difficult. Identifying common ground to move forward on was seen as less
difficult, but these debates were to be opened up with:
(i) A clear rationale – why it is happening;
(ii) A defined outcome – a set of principles and tools for GI planning;
(iii) A clear timescale – an end point, not to stifle a longerterm debate, but to focus minds and energy to take
the first steps.
2.2 Implementation & GIS issues
It was recognised in the brief that a GIS is a set of tools that can translate principles, priorities, rules and
assumptions into spatial plans. GIS operates in a highly mechanistic way and models which combine and
analyse datasets must be effectively informed by subject experts and wider interest groups. It was agreed that
the issues that needed to be addressed in the GI Model phase included:
a) Principles – principles needed to be clearly established. It was important to acknowledge the need and
ability to differentiate between different needs within GI as a whole.
b) Data – the project was likely to be a very datahungry exercise and the amount of effort involved in
identifying, accessing, formatting and integrating required datasets should not be underestimated.
c) Rules – rules are derived from the principles and they set out how the priorities and issues around
spatial layout were to be implemented. It was envisaged a move away from the grid cell based approach
to a vector approach where individual parcels of land are separately identified within the GI modelling
process. This would move the approach from strategic overview to sitespecific analysis and
assessment.
d) Outputs – it was envisaged that the primary output would be a series of GIS data layers, which could be
combined in a model to assess areas and sites with regard to the principles and guidelines for GI
development. Development of this was regarded as an iterative process, so that feedback could help
refine the final outputs.
2.3 Actual brief/project proposal/objectives
The three main aims of the project were:
i. Define the functions of GI, with reference to a wide range of stakeholder groups;
ii. Define the components, parameters and indicators to be used in a model for GI planning;
iii. Define and assess the usefulness of the City Regions for the purposes of GI planning.
The short term objectives of the project were:
i. Facilitate a debate about the nature and potential of GI for promoting a multipurpose urban fringe;
ii. Develop a GISbased tool to support informed decisions in urbanfringe planning and management and
the longer term development of GI plans.
3. Approach to Project: Principles & conceptual basis
The project was based on a number of clearly defined stages. Within each stage discussion, consultation and
feedback sessions took place with the core Steering Group and with the wider group of stakeholders. The
3
principles were therefore to combine a consultative process using expertise and analysis based on academic
rigour and experience and understanding from practice. It was understood that a strong academic basis for the
project would provide important information concerning existing initiatives and understandings and provide a
robust methodological approach to the exploration of GI potential. This, combined with the knowledge and
experience of those in practice, would provide the best possible opportunity to move thinking forward in relation
to GI given the time and financial constraints of the project.
A number of discussion papers were produced during the project in order to obtain feedback from the Steering
Group and Stakeholders. Some of these papers have been edited and now form part of this report.
4
4. Green Infrastructure Context
4.1 Introduction
A review of the academic literature and policy documents reveals a plethora of seemingly overlapping
‘green’ concepts. These include:
· Nearby nature · Greenway skeletons
· Sustainable cities · Recreational corridors
· Sustainable greening · Parkways
· Green cities · Rail trails
· Green space · Ecological corridors
· Green structure · Ecological networks
· Green lanes · Wildlife corridors
· Green spokes · Landscape planning
· Green wedges · Linked landscapes
· Green belts · Urban forests
· Green lungs · Community forests
· Green exercise · Ecological footprints
· Green corridors · Green infrastructure
· Greenways
These are variously associated with a range of benefits, which include:
· Recreation and exercise opportunities
· Landscape enhancement
· Nature conservation benefits
· Conservation of cultural heritage
· Sympathetic management of sites of geological significance
· Defragmentation of green spaces/patches within the urban landscape
· Provision of trees in the urban landscape – aesthetic and cultural dimension
· Public health (physiological and psychological)
· Water management (e.g. flood mitigation through increased porosity of land cover)
· Amelioration of climatic extremes
· Pollution control and buffering
· Development buffers and visual screening
· Noise abatement
· Noncar transportation opportunities (with an emphasis on quality and safety)
· Education – the “outdoor classroom”
· Provision of space for public art
· Land reclamation
· Linking town and country and integrating the urban fringe into urban networks
· A recognition of the multiple values of ‘unbuilt’ land in urban and urban fringe areas
· Economic development through regional image enhancements
· Locally grown food and the provision of fresh food in areas of deprivation
· Farm diversification opportunities and the wider rural economy
· Localisation of supply chain linkages
· Overarching quality of life gains
This almost sounds too good to be true; a winwin solution at the landscape scale. In reality, of course,
attaining multiple benefits is extremely problematic. In spite of the undoubted difficulties of achieving
multiple benefits – environmental, economic and social – the concept of multifunctionality is now at the
heart of Countryside Agency thinking, perhaps most notably in the context of the Countryside In and
Around Towns (CAIT) (Gallent et al., 2004). This discussion paper introduces the concept of Green
Infrastructure (GI) as a concept, a tool and a framework for planning a multifunctional countryside.
5
4.2 Green Infrastructure and Multifunctionality
4.2.1 Background
‘Green’ and ‘Infrastructure’ are two very widely understood terms and, individually, their essential
meaning is subject to relatively little dispute. In conjunction however there is a danger that the term
could mean all things to all people, so one of the objectives of this discussion paper is to propose a
perspective on the term that underpins ongoing work by North East Community Forests (NECF) in
conjunction with the Universities of Northumbria and Newcastle.
Green infrastructure is an interconnected network of green space that conserves natural
ecosystem values and functions and provides associated benefits to human populations. Green
infrastructure is the ecological framework needed for environmental, social and economic
sustainability (p.12).
We would perhaps dispute the centrality of the terms ‘natural’ and ‘ecological’ and it is, of course,
relatively vague and terms such as ‘associated benefits’ are wideopen. However, the range of benefits
that can accrue from well planned and managed GI is extremely broad and they are also specific to local
conditions, histories and demands. A definition from the UK is from TEP (2005):
Green infrastructure: the physical environment within and between our cities, towns and
villages. The network of open spaces, waterways, gardens, woodlands, green corridors, street
trees and open countryside that brings many social, economic and environmental benefits to
local people and communities (p.1).
This definition is even more allembracing, but they share an emphasis on the interconnectedness of the
elements and this interconnectedness if of course both functional and physical; it is not just about spatial
organisation and physical integration, but it concerns interaction as well.
In respect of spatial patterning, an appreciation of geography is critical to an informed understanding of
GI: where resources are located, how demands are distributed and how priorities work out on the
ground. The concept of scale is also important: at the end of the day plans become realities through
transformations of form and function on specific plots, or parcels of land. These parcels may be large or
small, linear features or developments may be short or long and timescales for realisation may be
immediate or long term. Generally, the larger something is the more strategic it is in concept, design,
decisionmaking, funding and operational support, but infrastructures are, by their very nature,
hierarchical. You may take the A1 from London to Newcastle but it is along trunk, A, B and minor roads
that you reach your destination, and it is the design and implementation of these ‘branches’ and ‘twigs’
that can ensure (or not) a smooth and pleasant journey. The history of transportation infrastructure is
that most routes started out to meet local needs, merged, were integrated and complemented by
strategic links over time. Fabos (1995) suggests that greenways developed in the same way, and over
time a greater degree of attention has been paid to the higher levels of the network, or infrastructure.
It has been suggested that GI is ‘old wine in new bottles’. A more positive view might be that GI has its
roots in thinking that go back several decades. It is not the purpose of this paper to carry out a detailed
genealogy of the concept, but the most significant antecedents are as follows.
4.2.2 Basic connectivity studies
Basic connectivity studies in Geography used links, segments and nodes to describe networks, a
language that is still alive and well in the field of Geographical Information Systems (GIS). Concepts of
6
connectivity also underpin studies of infrastructure (e.g. roads, water supply networks) where things
need to get from A to B (nodes) along specified routes (links).
4.2.2 The Tradition of Urban Parks
The development of urban parks really originates in the midnineteenth century when areas of land in or
close to cities were allocated for public use. Early parks were based on the pastoral model and
developed by people such as John Nash (17521835) and Joseph Paxton (180365) in the UK, and the
Frederick Law Olmsted (18221903), who extended the idea to create a series of linked parks in his
famous ‘Emerald Necklace’ around Boston, USA. The approach to urban park establishment can be
said to be humancentred – for improving health, increasing access to wildlife, or providing scenic
settings. However the development of the Amsterdam Bos Park in the 1930s had considerable
influence on later ‘ecological’ approaches developed in the UK in the 1970s and 1980s which produced
‘naturelike’ landscapes focused very much on providing a green structure based on ecological
principles. An important part of the ecological movement was also the understanding that children in
particular benefit from access to natural surroundings in urban areas.
Parks went through a period of the doldrums in the middle of the last century, but better funding and
research have brought about a renewed vigour in the development of parks and a greater understanding
of their benefits. The psychological benefits have always been particularly important and with this the
understanding that green space needs to be near to where people live and work. Although there has
also been a move towards highly designed hard landscaped parks – such as can be seen clearly in
Barcelona and Paris, generally the ‘green’ component of parks in the UK is still seen as of primary
importance. Parks are increasingly seen as a fundamental part of the green infrastructure of urban areas
and their value is reflected in the fact that they remain, even though they often occupy areas of
considerable land value in city centres.
4.2.3 Urban Forestry
Urban forestry has been defined as “the art, science, and technology of managing trees and forest
resources in and around urban community ecosystems for the physiological, sociological, economic and
aesthetic benefits trees provide society” (Helms, 1998). Although the term is used relatively
interchangeably in Europe and the UK in particular with the term Community Forests, the terms have
differing meanings in North America where CFs are dominantly recognised to be in a rural setting.
At the outset of the UK Community Forest Initiative in the 1980s the Amsterdam Bos Park was seen as a
key example of what could be achieved. In common with North American experience urban forestry is
seen as not just being about trees and thinking from elsewhere in Europe is raising interest in natural
processes of establishment rather than tree planting per se. Recent shifts in community forest policy in
the UK reflect this diversification.
4.2.5 Landscape Ecology,
Landscape ecology is a discipline that takes a multiscaled view of human, biotic and abiotic influences
on the development and planning of landscapes. There have been multiple definitions, but the
consideration of interacting systems across multiple scales and both human and nonhuman systems
(and values) are characteristic. Although this runs the risk of oversimplifying a multifaceted and
increasingly wellestablished discipline, connectivity is a key interest in landscape ecology.
4.2.6 Ecological Networks
The literature on ecological networks is extensive and Jongman et al, (2004) and Jongman and Fungetti
(2004) provide a thorough overview of its origins and current status. Interest in ecological corridors dates
back to a realization that designated conservation sites alone were no longer enough to ensure the long
term conservation of key species. The relatively small size of sites and the encroachment of an ever
growing range of threats such as pollution, land improvement and climatic change led early landscape
ecologists to raise the scale of their thinking and consider individual components (such as Ancient Semi
Natural Woodland or designated nature reserves) in their landscape setting. The terms siteincontext
and landscapeecological matrix were increasingly widely used to foster approaches that sought to
tackle problems at a similar spatial scale to the factors that were causing them. The need to support
7
migration and dispersal processes led to the development of ecological corridor concepts which is ‘today
recognised as a framework of ecological components, e.g. core areas, corridors and buffer zones, which
provides the physical conditions necessary for ecosystems and species populations to survive in a
humandominated landscape’ (Jongman and Fungetti, 2004. p.3).
4.2.7 Greenways and Green corridors
These two concepts are treated effectively as one, as they are both focused on the provision of
opportunities and routes for recreation and commuting. Groome (1990) identifies a number of
characteristics of such linear routeways:
a) They can provide open space in which people can escape the ‘harshness … and aggravation …
of the urban environment’ (p.383)
b) They have a potential role to play in urban design, fostering many attributes of more sustainable
cities
c) They can enhance recreational opportunities, not only by the route itself, but also through use of
the route to access other opportunities and other parts of the wider network
d) They can provide a spatial framework for balancing conservation interests with development
initiatives
e) Linear routes are of particular interest to recreational users for whom active movement (e.g.
walking, running, cycling or canoeing) is the objective, and disused canals and railway lines are
especially important in this regard
f) Linear open spaces provide long ‘edges’ at which the relationship between built up and open
spaces can be experienced and explored – again the idea of contrast with the built environment
and everyday life is important.
Other authors have allied greenways with ecological corridors (e.g. Jongman et al, 2004), emphasising
that the concepts of connectivity which are now central to landscape ecology were initially set down from
a human perspective in the early greenway plans and papers. However, the emphasis in much of this
work focuses on how to achieve nature conservation objectives between and around the spatial and
other constraints imposed by human development and activities.
In respect of social inclusion, research from the US (Moore et al., 1992) which reports that the
demographic profile of greenways users in any given area was strongly representative of the
demographic profile of the area the route was passing through is important. Although this is not
necessarily transferable to a NE England context, the fact that empirical evidence and standards alike
support local use of local resources is a strong argument for the spatial targeting of GI investments
where social as well as environmental needs are high. The link to social capital is also significant; if
social capital is a measure of individuals, social groups and communities to positively effect changes
that benefit them, then the evidence that environmental enhancements can improve community
cohesion and strengthen sense of worth, opportunity and control of is significant.
4.2.8 Ecological footprints
‘The ecological footprint is an accounting tool for ecological resources. Categories of human
consumption are translated into areas of productive land required to provide resources and assimilate
waste products. The ecological footprint is a measure of how sustainable our lifestyles are’
(Wackernagel, M and Rees, W., 1995).
It is a concept that has recently attracted increased attention (e.g. www.myfootprint.org and WWF
Northern, 2005 and WWF, 2005), not least because it is an effective way to encourage people to
visualise the environmental impacts of their lifestyles. Figure 1 is drawn from some WWF work in the
North East and it illustrates that the average ecological footprint of a resident of the region is in the order
of three times the ‘fair share’ (and therefore globally sustainable) footprint for all humans. Many of the
actions that can reduce this figure relate to personal behaviour (e.g. reducing electricity and water
consumption), but others interface directly with public policy areas where provision (and GI) has a key
role to play. Examples of these areas are local allotments, purchasing locally grown produce, noncar
transport and participation in recycling and composting schemes.
8
Figure 1: Ecological footprints (source: WWFNorthern, 2005)
4.2.9 Sustainable development
Although this is not directly an antecedent to GI, the language of sustainable development sets the wider
frame. This is not the place to get into wider debates about the definition, salience or attainability of
sustainability, although Gallent et al. (2004) page 4 is a neat review of its problems. Rather than claim
that GI is the key to sustainable cities and their environs, it is suggested here that GI should be seen in
the context of initiatives that aim to render current land use patterns and practices more sustainable.
Figure 2, based on Rannikko (1999), emphasises that sustainability is multidimensional. It is not simply
about the viability of environmental systems (e.g. hydrology, climate, nutrients, soils and vegetation), but
it recognises that the protection and conservation of those systems must be based on economic viability,
social welfare and human quality of life.
Figure 2: dimensions of sustainable development (after Rannikko, 1999)
4.3 The Multifunctional Countryside
9
The CIAT vision (Countryside Agency and Groundwork, 2004) focuses on multifunctionality and
identifies a wider set of potential functions for development and enhancement in the urban fringe and
areas of land that link urban and rural areas. These include:
· A bridge to the country
· A gateway to the town
· A health centre
· A classroom
· A recycling centre
· A power plant
· A productive landscape
· A place to live sustainably
· An engine for regeneration
· A nature reserve
· A heritage resource
Many of these should be familiar, although the language is different, from the earlier list of benefits
associated with GI. GI should therefore be seen as a key delivery mechanism for multifunctionality in
the CIAT.
The Countryside Agency is seeking to guide the creation of a network of green space where these
functions are combined. Although in general terms the concept of multifunctionality supports the
provision of a greater rather than a lesser number of functions from any given area of green space, it
cannot be simply be boiled down to a ‘more is better’ principle and there are instances where desirable
functions are mutually exclusive with other desirable functions. In this respect the important distinction
between integration and interaction needs to be established. Integration concerns the spatial patterning
of landuses and activities (and, where appropriate their integration through timing). Interaction
concerns the ‘beneficial interaction between [these functions and components to serve the requirements
of] local economies, the environment and social objectives’ (Gallent et al., 2004, p.100). Multi
functionality is defined as’ an integration of and interaction between the 10 functions set out in
Unlocking the Potential’ (p.100).
The success of any strategy for the countryside around towns will, in part, be judged in terms of
successful spatial integration between land uses and activities. The coordination of different
policy strands is therefore an essential component (and indeed a prerequisite) in securing
mutually beneficial interaction between the ten functions set out in Unlocking the Potential
(Gallent et al., 2004, p.112)
Multifunctionality and meaningful steps towards GI that contributes to a more sustainable future cannot
just be seen in terms of spatial planning; spatial integration is a prerequisite for multifunctionality but
how functions (social, cultural, economic and environmental) are understood to interact must inform
spatial planning, something that has to lie at the core of GI planning.
Cutting across these functions identified above are a range of commonalities:
· Aesthetics: developments should be appropriate and of a high quality
· Enjoyment: ideally ‘people will wish to linger rather than move through and exit as rapidly as
possible’ (Gallent et al., 2004, p.iv)
· Partnership: defining and realising objectives must be done in partnership with local
communities and other interest groups
· Balance: potential conflicts must be identified and managed
· Linkages: physical linkages lie at the heart of GI but linkages between dimensions of
sustainability, QoL and policy areas must also be identified and fostered
· Functionality: the CIAT is not, and should not be, a museum
· Meaning: developments that have little resonance or relevance for local communities are not
sustainable
10
· Opportunity: opportunity is the precursor to use and it relates to access
· Image: how things look is important, both internally and externally
· Viability: this relates closely to meaning and functionality, but developments have to be
sustainable in practice as well as attractive in principle
· Vision: GI is more than the sum of its parts and multifunctionality goes beyond coexistence, to
consider integration, interaction and inclusion.
GI is being promoted as a concept to underpin the further development of Community Forests (CFs) in
urban fringe environments. A number of significant developments have led to this focus:
· An appreciation of the multidimensional significance of urban fringe areas for many people, and
a recognition of the constrained access, degraded landscape and ecology and depressed
productive value of such areas;
· The range of hard benefits of GI can tackle priority policy areas including tackling accelerating
climate change effects, improving social structures and reviving local economies;
· The development of landscape ecology as an integrative framework for the analysis and design
of more sustainable, meaningful, aesthetically appealing and accessible landscapes and the
associated focus on connectivity as a principle for the planning, design and management of
landscapes, for the integrated pursuit of ecological, aesthetic and utilitarian objectives;
· A fundamental shift in forest policy, away from timberoriented productivism, towards multi
functionality, and most recently, explicit direction from government that new woodlands should
be planned and managed with the accretion of social benefits as the primary consideration.
Connecting green spaces is an integrating framework: at a conceptual level it relates to the principles of
landscape ecology, and the allied concepts of greenways, wildlife corridors, recreational networks and
riparian corridors, and at a practical human level it is the framework through which people can access
spaces that enhance their quality of life and access to new opportunities. GI is inherently spatial. It is an
infrastructure of green spaces (‘nodes’) and routes and corridors (‘links’) between them. A focus on GI
demands that attention is paid to the sufficiency and suitability of both the ‘nodes’ and the ‘links’ for
achieving the multiple objectives that are defined for them; it is not just about green spaces or
greenways, but about the way these relate in functional and experiential terms for users of this
significant resource.
Hubs anchor green infrastructure networks, providing origins and destinations for the wildlife
and ecological processes moving to or through them. Links are the connections tying the
system together and enabling green infrastructure networks to work (Benedict and McMahon,
2002, p.12).
Again, Benedict and McMahon’s language is ecological in its focus, but the concepts are directly
transferable to human interests in, and movements through, the landscape.
In the existing literature, the science of landscape ecology establishes a framework for the integrated
pursuit of ecological, aesthetic, cultural, social and economic objectives but is unable to establish
detailed templates for their integration ‘on the ground’, and the appreciation of the principles of
connectivity amongst planners and allied professionals has been shown to be highly variable (Dover,
2000; Turner, 2004). The reality of networks such as greenways or wildlife corridors is that they have
usually been developed in an opportunistic fashion, linking such areas of open and green space as was
costeffectively and politically possible, without either a systematic approach to planning or design in
pursuit of the multiple benefits that such connectivity may confer. Furthermore, the UK landuse planning
system lacks the statutory tools and focus to establish and implement truly integrated spatial landuse
plans (Selman, 1997). This is to say, there has been relatively little attention paid in the UK to green
infrastructure planning at the strategic scale, although there are pressures to change this, and CF plans
are at the forefront of this.
Recent shifts in forest policy have considerable relevance here: the UK government has long been
committed, for various reasons, to driving up the proportion of land under trees and the current
11
emphasis in policy and practice is on integrating woodland with other landuses rather than the
replacement of other landuses with woodland. The integration of forest planning with urban and urban
fringe planning and management is the context for the forthcoming development of the third generation
of CF plans, which are adopting the theme of GI, underpinned in the North East with a study to target
investment at a regional scale (MacFarlane & Roe, 2004).
CFs are spatially defined zones on the edges of 12 major towns and cities. They are intended to
promote an increase in tree cover within these areas, but the emphasis is on realising multiple benefits
for local communities, economies, landscape and conservation interests through well designed,
accessible, interesting and safe woodlands that are embedded in their landscape context. The future of
CFs is to extend outside of the spatially defined boundaries and take on a greater role in urban fringe
planning and management; connectivity and spatial integration is at the core of the GI concept.
As set out above, the GI concept is not new, it is strongly related to the wellestablished concept of
greenways, but it is one that has attracted a great deal of interest in recent years, within the Countryside
Agency, English Nature, Forestry Commission and Woodland Trust amongst others. So, at the moment
GI is what might be termed a developing concept. It might also be defined a contested concept i.e. it
means different things to different people. This discussion paper and the wider project of which it forms a
part, are intended to establish a consensus about what GI is and how it can be practically used to
promote multifunctionality in urban and urban fringe areas.
However, multifunctionality is also contested, not so much at a conceptual level as at a practical one.
For example, although greenways (with a recreational emphasis) and ecological networks (with a habitat
and species conservation emphasis) may, at a very basic level, seem similar – they are linear features
dominated by vegetation rather than hard human developments – in reality they may be largely mutually
exclusive in their detailed prescriptions, especially where species are disturbancesensitive. This is by
no means always the case, but the point is made to emphasise that you can’t please all the people (and
any other interest groups) all the time and detailed GI planning needs to accommodate competing
priorities through spatial planning that is informed and systematic.
At a general level six broad sets of interests in GI might be identified, although there are of course strong
interlinkages between these categories:
i. Nature conservation – the literature on wildlife corridors, ecological networks and the wider discipline
of landscape ecology emphasises the value of connectivity at a variety of scales from the continental
to the local.
ii. Recreation – greenways have been promoted as routes, dominantly for noncar transport, that
emphasise the quality of the route as well as more basic issues of welfare and safety. This has
become increasingly engaged with interests around public health and quality of life.
iii. Landscape – although this is intimately related to (a) and (b), landscape architects and designers
have long been involved in the identification, establishment and development of green spaces and
corridors in urban areas. This is separated out here as the rationale employed is often different,
taking a dominantly aesthetic and experiential, rather than purely functional, view on such
resources.
iv. Sustainable resource management – GI has a potentially extremely significant role to play in the
sustainable management of land and water resources, including production (e.g. energy and food
crops) and pollution control.
v. Economic development and regeneration – development and regeneration agencies have an
interest in the environmental quality of regions. This is driven by a range of primary interests,
primarily its relationship with quality of life and enhancement of the external image of the region. GI
is a critical element of environmental quality which has been shown to be related to inward
investment decisions as well as the residential choices of key workers in local economic sectors.
vi. Sustainable communities – many of the attributes of more sustainable communities can be provided
and supported through a strong GI, for example green space for recreation, education and health,
shading, increased porosity of land cover, provision for noncar transport and shortened supply
linkages.
12
Although these different dimensions of GI and the rationale to promote and develop GI are separate 1 ,
they do of course interrelate, as policy areas and as lived experiences of people in local areas. Figure 3
is based in the concepts of human ecology, but variants of this from many other sources identify the
interrelationships between people, their environment and the economic context (for example Ian
Thompson’s Ecology, Community and Delight). Gallent et al. (2004), in the same vein, uses the
metaphor of a threelegged stool for sustainability; if any one of the legs comes off then the whole stool
topples over.
Figure 3: A human ecological perspective on the factors that contribute to
community quality of life (Shafter et al., 2000)
Measures of quality of the environment underpin documents and initiatives such as state of the
environment reports and the Countryside Quality Counts (www.cqc.org.uk). Quality of life is now
embedded in government thinking about sustainability and social inclusion alike and a range of
indicators have been developed to assess quality of life and improvements over time. The concept
‘quality of place’ is less well known, but it is used, for instance, by Regional Development Agencies as
an overarching term to indicate the attractions of an area for economic development such as inward
investment or the attraction and retention of key workers. It is a concept that overlaps and interrelates
with quality of environment and quality of life and indeed the three dimensions of quality relate directly to
the dimensions identified in figure 3.
4.4 Livability of Cities of the Future
Livability has been defined in terms of interaction between a community and the environment (Shafer et
al., 2000). Access and positive engagement with local environments that service the range of
communities’ wants and needs imply livable areas. Problematic access, poor engagement, depressed
value and low quality environments imply areas that are less livable. This is not just about green spaces
to fly kites and walk dogs, it is far broader, embracing the range of environmental services such as heat
and flood mitigation and safe journeys to school.
Overarching concepts (Green Infrastructure and Sustainable Cities included) need to be analysed,
defined and disaggregated if their attainment is to be expressed through (spatially specific) plans. Such
1
For example Gobster and Westphal (2004) define six interdependent human dimensions of greenways: cleanliness,
naturalness, aesthetics, safety, access and appropriateness of development and Bischoff (1995) defines the purposes of
greenways as environment, ecology, education, exercise and expression.
13
plans need to address both personal objectives (e.g. an attractive, accessible and meaningful local
environment) and wider social and governmental objectives (e.g. promoting healthy living and managing
the long term finances of health care for an ageing population). However, this is precisely what multi
functionality can address. For example, climatic change predictions for the UK indicate wetter winters,
drier and warmer summers and an increasing incidence of extreme weather events, for instance flash
flooding. Under such conditions the argument for increased woodland cover in urban areas takes on
additional strength: a more porous urban landcover is better able to mitigate extreme rainfall events and
enhanced shading controls extremes of temperature, in turn reducing the demand for (energy hungry
and carbon generating) airconditioning in buildings.
This is what Jongman and Fungetti (2004) and others have termed the ‘hypothesis of cooccurance’, the
ability of GI (although their point of reference was greenways in particular) to service multiple demands.
This ability can only be achieved through insightful and informed planning and careful delivery
processes. Section 3 goes on to introduce some of the methodological issues involved in GI planning.
4.5 Concluding comments
‘Quality’ is a pervasive word. Three key qualities are used to audit and measure progress towards
various targets, including the overarching pursuit of sustainable development. These are quality of place,
quality of life and quality of environment. Quality of place is used, for example by Regional Development
Agencies, to embrace many of the characteristics of an area that will be attractive to existing and
potential investors, employers and employees. Quality of environment, embracing tangible indicators
such as hedgerow quality and more experiential dimensions such as tranquillity, is also multi
dimensional. Quality of life has been defined in terms of a series of indicators including for example
employment, health, housing, risk of crime, noise, access to services and environmental pollution. It is
clear that these three dimensions interrelate and attainment of high quality on one dimension is
dependent upon ‘performance’ on the other dimensions.
We place three key ideas at the heart of thinking about GI:
· Sustainability
· Liveability
· Viability
For communities to be sustainable their economies must be viable and their local environments must be
liveable, that is accessible, attractive and supporting a wide range of services that enhance quality of
life, promote sustainable use of resources and enhance the ability of the area to attract, retain and grow
economic opportunities. The interdependence is clear. Green infrastructure is not the answer, it is
however a framework for bringing together thinking about multifunctionality and planning for the future
of the countryside in and around towns
14
5. Overview of the Green Infrastructure Planning Guide
The GI Planning Guide is included in this report at Annex 1. This section is intended to provide a brief overview
of what it contains, although the Guide itself stands as a completely selfcontained document.
Fundamentally, the GI Planning Guide is intended to embed an awareness of and application of some of the
principles of green infrastructure thinking into landuse planning and management decisions at differing spatial
scales. This is not to say that the Guide is only aimed at landuse planners; a wide range of agencies (for
instance Regional Development Agencies, Government Offices, Forestry Commission, Natural England,
DEFRA, Sport England, Environment Agency, Wildlife Trusts and the Woodland Trust) and many professionals
within those have responsibilities which directly or indirectly shape the provision, quality and connectivity of
green infrastructure. So, its focus and intended audience is wide.
The Guide contains much of the material that appears in this final report, but where this is the case the material
in the Guide is synthesised (more notably the literature review). The Guide balances three primary elements:
i. what green infrastructure is and why it matters – essentially, ‘selling’ its significance;
ii. a technical, GISbased, element that establishes how green infrastructure may be inventoried, analysed
and planned for;
iii. a section which discusses the ‘real world’ context and application issues arising – delivery issues.
The Guide is heavily illustrated with case study materials from the North East, in particular provided with the
support of the Borough of StocktononTees.
15
6. How can the Green Infrastructure Planning Guide be used in the Real World?
Application
The primary application of the GI Planning Guide is to facilitate forms of Green Infrastructure Planning at
different geographical levels; these key levels are:
§ Regional level e.g. North East England
§ County, subregion or city region level e.g. Tees Valley
§ Borough or District level e.g. North Tyneside
§ Neighbourhood level e.g. West Middlesbrough Neighbourhood Renewal Area
It is anticipated that the majority of users of the GI Planning Guide will be ‘professionals’ engaged with aspects
of spatial or functional based planning. These professionals will include:
§ Strategists and policymakers in the public sector
§ Town and country planners (engaged in local authority planning 2 and in private practice 3 )
4
§ Environmental and sustainable development professionals
§ Landscape architects, planners, managers and scientists
§ Regeneration specialist’s e.g. urban design, housing renewal, community development.
§ Consultants offering services to public and private sector clients
§ Academics and research students
The GI planning guide facilitates the production of geographically based Green Infrastructure Plans. By
convention, plans normally include a proposals map supported by other mapped outputs, a descriptive
narrative and policy proposals. Based on our research we see no particular reason for GI plans to vary from
this convention. It is however necessary for GI plans to embrace contemporary planning techniques for them to
widely accepted, in particular they must not appear to be ‘top down’ documents. Key amongst these is the
movement towards broadbased planning frameworks and ‘customer’ or ‘community’ led planning based on a
high degree of participatory involvement. We therefore recommend that the GI Planning Guide is marketed as a
flexible tool intended for moulding by professionals to meet the ‘real world’ requirements they are dealing with.
In view of this adaptability a wide range of Green Infrastructure Planning outputs is anticipated which can
include:
§ Spatial Green Infrastructure Plans based on the geographical levels referenced above
§ Strategic GI guidelines that steer decision making in the development control process
§ Supplementary planning documents
§ Policies embedded within Local Development Frameworks
§ Statutory and nonstatutory plans produced by organisations including Natural England and Environment
Agency.
§ Proposals included within local Area Based Initiatives
§ Proposals included within regional strategic documents
The GI Planning Guide follows an iterative ‘step by step’ process and as far as possible been made accessible
to users and adaptable by them. We believe that the guide will be enhanced by the production of an HTML
version, which would bring several accessibility benefits.
Professional Support System
However, it is recognised that green infrastructure planning; a holistic approach to green area connectivity;
requires professionals to have (a) a conceptual understanding of environmental systems (b) knowledge of multi
2
This can be subdivided into Forward Planning and Development Control
3
Generally as advisors to developers or working within development based businesses
4
For instance LA21, environment city.
16
functionality as it applies to green areas (c) understanding of how environmental, economic and social issues
intermingle in relation to sustainable development and sustainable communities.
These aspects are outside the scope of the GI Planning Guide but are very important. Professional training
support is required to overcome perceived and actual knowledge gaps hence we believe that in association with
the guide there should be a Professional Support System moderated by a lead organisation 5 . A support
system could offer:
§ Regionally relevant GI planning training based on the Planning Support Guide (this could be delivered in
association with RTPI and/or other professional bodies)
§ A draw down contract to provide ‘consultant mentors’ to support professionals in organisations
embarking on Green Infrastructure Planning.
§ Open access training support provided by the regions Universities.
This professional support system will also help to overcome potential concerns that this emerging area is too
costly to pursue since the support costs would be met by the lead organisation.
Delivery
It is imperative for there to be a robust policy framework if Green Infrastructure Planning is to significantly
progress in the North East region. Ideally this should include:
§ A Green Infrastructure Chapter in the Regional Environmental Strategy (NESE) – making Green
infrastructure a key component of environmental thinking in the region for at least the next 10 years
§ A Green infrastructure policy or supportive policies in the Regional Spatial Strategy and association
of this with sustainable communities as well as environmental policies
§ Lead plans which serve as exemplars to the rest of the region (e.g. Tees Valley Green Infrastructure
City Region Plan or Strategy)
§ Commitment to fund the professional support system
A multi speed approach to Green Infrastructure planning is nevertheless inevitable and regional stakeholders
6
should be prepared for this. Given the ‘hard pressed’ status of relevant local authority departments detailed
regional GI plan coverage is not foreseen in the immediate future. Nevertheless it would be beneficial for
NESE to state a realistic timescale 7 for comprehensive coverage of the region by different types of
Green infrastructure plans.
Translating Green Infrastructure Plans into delivery is however the critical task and must be addressed as part
of the GI planning process and not as an after thought. Discussions held by the North East Environment
8
Forum suggest that at a strategic geographical level , that Landscape Scale partnerships represent the best
delivery mechanism. Local authorities will play a lead role in these partnerships along with other bodies such
as Groundwork Trusts, North East Community Forests (NECF) NGO’s, Community based organisations etc.
Fortunately, the North East Region is reasonably well serviced by Landscape Scale initiatives which include
Great North Forest, The Tees Forest and the Mineral Valley’s Project, elsewhere notably in Northumberland
coverage is sparse or absent. At the neighbourhood scale, Area Based Initiatives (ABI’s) such as
Groundwork Trusts are best placed to lead on delivery.
It is recommended that the funding of GI delivery should account for the following spatial properties:
§ Place a high value on existing green areas, prevent deterioration of these and seek quality
improvements.
5
We suggest that Natural England are seen as a ‘lead body’ for Green Infrastructure Planning
6
Local authorities will undoubtedly continue to prioritise Development Plans and Economic regeneration
7
five to seven years is suggested
8
considered as all levels of District and above
17
§ Improve the diversity of these areas to address local needs by addressing the potential to deliver multi
functional benefits generally achieved through landscape led improvements.
§ Connect ‘green areas’ areas together to achieve a ‘strategic whole’ and create connectivity benefits
§ Seek cooperative management of joined green areas whether they are in private ownership (such as
gardens) with adjoining public areas (such as parks or the street scene)
§ Prioritise the creation of new landscapes that connect existing landscapes together, unless there are
compelling reasons not to do so (for example a biodiversity constraint)
§ Select areas for green infrastructure improvements that protect or enhance natural resources (for
example through protection of soils)
§ Activities that aid delivery of existing local priorities (for example that release more land for tree planting
in community forest areas)
But how can this be funded? There is not a single answer to this question but there are two clear characteristics
of this funding:
§ Grant type funding funding based around providing additional public benefits
§ Value added type funding secured through the increased value of land through the spatial
planning/development process.
It is recommended that action research is undertaken to explore the extent to which ‘value added’ funding
can deliver GI benefits.
Need for a Regional and National Advocate
We recommend that a strategic organisation becomes advocate for Green Infrastructure Planning. The
component parts of Green Infrastructure appear to overlap with the work of several national bodies with regional
structure, namely:
st
§ Natural England (from 1 October 2006) brought about by the merging of Countryside Agency LAR,
RDS and English Nature
§ Environment Agency
§ Forestry Commission
§ Land Restoration Trust
§ Regional Development Agencies
Based on an analysis of this report we believe that the best match would appear to rest with Natural England
taking on this role. Green Infrastructure Planning is a natural extension to the existing work of all three
constituent organisations. For example the management of ‘farmland’ is a key aspect of GI planning. There is a
key role also Environment Agency and it is also recommended that close liaison takes place at a regional and
national level between these two bodies over GI planning.
In the North East region we recommend that a Regional Stakeholder group is former with represents of the
above named bodies along with key NGO’s and that this group is serviced by Natural England. The terms of
reference for this group would be to:
§ Hold an overview of GI in the region and ensure coordination of effort
§ Facilitate and enable activities at all geographical levels
§ Manage the support programme
§ Keep abreast of new developments and ensure that they are used regionally
§ Seek to update the Planning Support Guide within three years.
A further opportunity exists to merge existing Countryside Agency and English Nature policy streams
together and meld them into a Green infrastructure policy stream. The most notable being English Nature’s
‘urban programme’ and Countryside Agency’s ‘Countryside in and around town’s policy’. The Countryside
Agency CIAT policy stream is built upon multifunctionality and this is highly complementary to GI planning.
18
HTML Version of the GI Planning Guide
The GI Planning Guide is iterative and as far as possible it has been made easy for professional users to
understand and adapt. To enhance its usability we believe that the GI Planning Guide will be enhanced by
developing it into an HTML document. There are a number of benefits that can flow from this:
§ Ease of access to potential users
§ Low cost CDR format
§ Ability to ‘post on the web’ as a microsite.
§ Easily adapted by professional users with rudimentary ICT knowledge to meet their own requirements.
§ Print outs or screen shots for use in exhibitions and reports.
§ Easily updated to incorporate new knowledge and correct omissions.
§ The master CD can be ‘owned’ by the project funders.
Recommendations Summary
1. The GI Planning Guide (output from this work programme) will be enhanced by developing it into an
accessible menu driven HTML document, with regular updating and posting on the internet.
2. Merge existing Countryside Agency (CIAT) and English Nature (Urban) policy streams together and meld
them into a new Green infrastructure policy stream.
3. That a strategic organisation becomes the regional/national advocate for Green Infrastructure Planning and
we believe that the best match would appear to rest with Natural England.
4. That action research (learning and change through doing) is undertaken to explore the extent to which ‘value
added’ funding can deliver GI benefits especially through (a) grant type funding funding based around
providing additional public benefits and (b) value added type funding secured through the increased value
of land through the spatial planning/development process.
5. That landscape Scale partnerships (e.g. Community Forests) represent the best delivery mechanism
excepting at the neighbourhood scale, where Area Based Initiatives (ABI’s) such as Groundwork Trusts may
be best placed to lead on delivery.
6. That a Green Infrastructure chapter in the Regional Environmental Strategy is produced accompanied by
support from a wide range of regional environmental bodies.
7. Seek supportive policies in the Regional Spatial Strategy (and future revision thereof) especially in
association with sustainable communities as well as environmental policies.
8. That ‘lead’ regional GI spatial plans are produced as pilot documents to serve as exemplars to other public
sector organisations in the rest of the region
9. Establish and maintain a professional support system [PSS] (to support planning professionals) with a
commitment from Natural England to fund the PSS
10. Establish a regional Green Infrastructure steering group to facilitate and enable future regional GI
developments and seek a mandate from lead partner bodies for it to coordinate a regional GI delivery plan
11. Develop the academic resource in the region and offer teaching and research opportunities. Maintain
existing academic links and seek to develop new ones.
19
Appendices
20
Appendix One
Green Infrastructure and City Regions: Workshop Report
1.0 Introduction
Three workshop sessions were held during September 2005 with stakeholders concerned with the North East
region at a local and regional scale (see Appendix A for a list of attendees). A briefing paper was precirculated
(see Appendix B) and three major questions were posed:
· What are the functions of Green Infrastructure in the City Region?
· Where do City Region boundaries lie in respect to green infrastructure planning?
· What are the components, parameters and indicators required for green infrastructure planning in the
City Region using GIS?
A wideranging discussion took place around these questions. Participants were asked to consider briefly the
definition of Green Infrastructure as an introductory exercise, but this was not dwelt upon in great depth (see
Appendices C & D). During the discussion a number of themes emerged and the following report summarises
the comments made:
2.0 Green infrastructure generally and as a concept
There was considerable enthusiasm for the idea of green infrastructure and for using it as a way to progress
thinking in relation to the issues it raises. It emerged that a key issue was to develop green infrastructure as an
attitude or ideology. Progressing thinking about green infrastructure was seen as a potential mechanism for
breaking down physical (political) boundaries in the landscape and psychological boundaries in the minds of
policymakers and planners. The main point was how to ensure that this was brought onto the political and
practical agendas at all levels thereby ensuring that green infrastructure is at the forefront of people’s thinking in
order that they can use it in their professional daytoday work. Although this was widely agreed to be of critical
importance by participants it was identified as likely to be the most difficult aspect of green infrastructure
planning. It was suggested that raising green infrastructure awareness and understanding should not be an
afterthought but an integral part of developing a green infrastructure framework. It could be attractive to local
planners as concept because it provides a more integrative than traditional nature conservation frameworks, but
the capacity of Local Authorities to grasp green infrastructure as a planning tool was likely to be a stumbling
block. The functionality of the idea was considered important particularly as competing demands for land (e.g.
landfill sites) and commercial or political demands may counteract green infrastructure planning objectives.
However it may also provide opportunities as has been shown by North East Community Forest (NECF)
initiatives. A decisionmaking framework to establish the priorities for competing interests and green
infrastructure is needed. It was felt that priorities for green infrastructure could be based on user benefits. In
physical terms it would be important to determine the potentials and constraints or the fragments and gaps of the
present green infrastructure particularly the gaps and the quality of the existing areas. In general, quality of
the provision emerged as a critical issue in the discussion, as did green infrastructure as a longterm concept. In
particular the importance of planning green infrastructure for tomorrow's city, especially in relation to
ameliorating the effects of climate change and as a forward thinking mechanism for quality of life improvement.
One participant suggested that green infrastructure could be seen as the “sense of the natural” i.e. “It is in your
head and everything else follows”.
3.0 The issue of scale and coverage of the project
The key idea emerged that green infrastructure is hierarchical. There was a general feeling that it was important
to consider the whole picture of the North East region within the concept of green infrastructure and particularly
with regard to natural ecosystem processes at the larger scale. It was agreed that this could be done through a
hierarchical concept of the region focusing on the two city regions as the core areas. This focus on the areas of
high population would provide financial and delivery potential for maximum real public benefit and the
opportunity to make the most difference to people’s lives. Using the two city regions will help balance what
21
each has to offer and reinforce the recognition that each has a different identity. The city region approach was
seen to be valuable because it allows planners to break out of existing boundaries (physical, political and
psychological) and to encourage a more outwardlooking approach.
It was felt that a tiered approach might work best – regional scale, city regional scale and intraurban scale. The
term ‘nesting’ was also used. However, it was felt that small areas – particularly in the cities should not be
ignored, as these are often the most important in people’s everyday lives. It was felt however that analysis of
green infrastructure at the different scales could be difficult, for example at the larger scale green infrastructure
planning is already often based on catchment areas, but this would be difficult at the city region scale. It was felt
that different principles and criteria would need to be developed for the different scales. A flexible transboundary
planning approach is needed to create a toolkit to address green infrastructure planning needs.
The city region scale was felt generally to be a particularly useful scale to concentrate the examination of green
infrastructure in the North East. Although human boundaries may not always be useful for ecological processes,
it was felt important that the green infrastructure project had the potential to influence political procedures and
policies, so that as a ‘planning tool’ it needed to be able to respond to the Regional Spatial Strategy (RSS) and
this would be best done by relating to the city regions.
(a) Particular points for green infrastructure consideration at the regional scale
At a regional level it includes both linear ‘human’ features (e.g. nationally or regionally significant recreational
networks such as NCN and Long Distance Footpaths), linear ‘natural’ features (e.g. main river corridors
connecting the coast to the uplands, the coastal strip) and ‘environmental resources’ that may have intrinsic
value (e.g. places for wildlife as shown by biodiversity mapping), instrumental or contingent values (e.g. flood
mitigation) or human values (e.g. local National Park and other protected areas in the uplands which provide
recreation for many city dwellers and places to interact with nature). It was suggested that since there was
already a considerable amount of work done at the regional scale, that this data should be used and interpreted.
Other data, which should be useful, include:
· Landscape character area assessments
· Catchment areas and hydrological networks/groundwater resources
· Links between urban areas and into villages as well as the broader countryside
· Landscape character areas
· Strategically significant transport corridors
· Climate change issues
(b) Subregional scale (city region scale)
Consideration at the subregional scale would mesh with recent political thinking and initiatives that concentrate
on the ‘city region’. It would also help break down barriers and communications with other regions. Crossborder
thinking was seen as important as was permeability within the city region areas. Subregional and strategic
planning needs to ensure transport works with the idea of green infrastructure – with links into and throughout
the city. It was felt that there are considerable opportunities e.g. on Teesside for exindustrial sites or
contaminated land sites. Other data for consideration at this scale includes:
· Large brownfield areas and coalmining regeneration areas along rivers etc.
· Travel to work/distance to work information
· Local radio boundaries may be useful, particularly to provide the idea of ‘fuzzy edges’ and overlap between
subregional areas.
· Understanding and use of connections between city and countryside.
· Quality of life issues
(c) Neighbourhood scale (intraurban scale)
At the local level green infrastructure becomes much more focused on direct human use values (e.g. perhaps
the emphasis is on places to see wildlife as distinct from places for wildlife). In terms of administration and
implementation of green infrastructure planning, this level, i.e. not bigger that the size of local authorities, was
seen as likely to be convenient. Green infrastructure here should embrace spaces of landscape, recreational,
amenity and nature conservation significance and the links between the various types. Interaction between
22
spaces is of particular importance, and there is need to get urban areas ‘working better’ to provide a number of
benefits (e.g. so people do not journey into the wider countryside to find quality green space and recreation; to
provide people with the ability to walk and cycle from home). More efficient use of green areas within the city
where there is a high population could have the maximum benefit. It was suggested that green infrastructure
resources in relation to scale of space needed to be clarified e.g. what size of pocket park = a greenspace and
could or how should it be linked to other such spaces? It was felt important that the ‘bits and pieces’ of
greenspace should not be lost in the big picture just because they may not have the opportunity to be linked to a
green infrastructure framework. However generally it was felt that there pockets need to be linked and linkable
because isolated pockets are of less value than a number in the same area.
Adjacency of green infrastructure in deprived urban areas was regarded as particularly important. Raising green
infrastructure capital by creation of new green infrastructure in such areas would provide the greatest benefit to
the maximum number of people. In redevelopment and regeneration schemes opportunities should be made to
create green infrastructure benefits in areas where buildings are demolished.
It was felt that although access to and through green infrastructure is a central, even a defining, principle, not all
areas included as green infrastructure must be accessible. So, private spaces such as gardens have
significance in amenity and conservation terms and ‘the view’ can be an element of green infrastructure, perhaps
qualitatively enhancing a site that is otherwise relatively ordinary. Included in this might be approaches such as
‘Britain in Bloom’ where some pedestrian public spaces can be significantly enhanced through coordinated
private actions in private or publicfacing spaces (hanging baskets, front gardens, window boxes, etc).
4.0 ‘Grey’ and ‘Green’ Infrastructure
There was lively debate concerning ‘grey’ versus ‘green’ infrastructure. There seemed to be an appreciation
and support that green could be used to denote the function or facility provided by an element, even if it was not
strictly ‘green’ i.e. green used to denote sympathy with the wider structure and functioning of the green
infrastructure network. There was some uncertainty over whether the yellow buses of the Quayside are green
infrastructure, but the strictly ‘grey’ infrastructure of cycle paths represent consistency of purpose and
connectivity in a physical and opportunity sense with ‘green’ green infrastructure. It was suggested therefore
that the definition of ‘grey’ as fundamentally distinct from ‘green’ is not altogether helpful, and that, like a colour
chart, we can move through a range of shades: in the middle is grey/green e.g. cycleways (see Figure 1).
Therefore elements that are grey, but which contribute to the wider functioning of green infrastructure should be
treated as part of the green infrastructure network. Grey infrastructure, such as bus routes, should be made to
integrate with green infrastructure networks rather than viceversa.
On the other hand however it was agreed that comparisons between grey and green infrastructure might be
useful in that grey infrastructure is considered as essential and part of the initial and normal planning process at
all scales. It was generally agreed that green infrastructure should be considered in this light. The ‘lack of
obviousness’ of green infrastructure was seen as a problem, contrasting unfavourably with the very accessible
concept of grey infrastructure. These links (wildlife, flood mitigation, etc) may not be accounted for properly as
they are hard to visualise.
23
Figure 1: The GreenGrey Continuum
A list was compiled of what participants felt green infrastructure included (see Appendix E). The discussion
concentrated on the issue of quality, which was felt to be more important than getting too hung up on what
should or should not be included in any list of physical areas.
5.0 Services or Functions of green infrastructure
Some participants were confused with the term ‘services’ so it was confirmed that in this context it is used as
functions or benefits of green infrastructure. A wide range of potential functions was defined (see Appendix F)
relating to present services and potential future services. Services could be divided into physical functions and
those which support approaches, ideology or principles of green infrastructure. It was observed that principles of
service or function rather than the definition of services were of primary importance. Intellectual accessibility to
areas was raised as being of equal importance to physical accessibility.
6.0 Data
A discussion concerning data availability took place. It was felt that although data is generally available the
quality and coverage as well as the boundaries used are very variable. There is generally less available data in
rural areas. Some local authorities have already carried out Green Space Strategies and Open Space
Strategies. Sustrans holds a comprehensive database relating to present and future walking, cycling and
vehicular use including travel to work, schools, tourism etc. The Environment Agency also has a useful
database concerning various projects and related areas e.g. the EA/RSPB Wetland Restoration project in the
North East. It was suggested that data such as areas of deprivation filtered to take account of adjacency could
be useful. Some analytical data such as Newcastle City’s exercise measuring the benefits of greenspace would
be useful.
24
7.0 Priorities for green infrastructure
The key priorities were identified. These were not put in any particular order.
(a) Gain support for green infrastructure at all levels.
There was a general consensus that green infrastructure would remain as a ‘nice idea’ unless it was mandated
in some way. At the very least, regional strategies must strongly support the concept significance and the
creation of green infrastructure plans. ‘Pitching’ the significance of green infrastructure is a highly political issue,
but green infrastructure thinking and planning must be infiltrated at a variety of scales. It was felt that it was
important to engage support and ownership from communities in order to gain support for the financial aspects
of green infrastructure. This was also true in relation to the ‘unconverted’ policymakers and planners to help
develop engagement with the idea of environmentally led regeneration to increase money flow in the region. It is
important to promote adherence to the principles of green infrastructure and promote Local Development
Frameworks (LDF) and Development Control planners and others to pay due heed to them. It was felt that there
is already support from development organisations (e.g. house builders) for a green infrastructure approach in
the Northeast as an imagebuilder for the region.
The development of a green infrastructure framework that everyone could ‘buyinto’ would be important. This
would need to filter down to local plan level, as it is important to address those at the ‘sharp end’ who are
actually implementing proposals. Statutory ‘sticks’ can be very useful and it may be that this needs to be
incorporated into green infrastructure framework thinking.
(b) Address quality of life/liveability issues
Quality was at the core of much of the observations provided by participants. It was agreed that finance should
be put into quality rather than quantity and there was now a general political will to do this. Multiple green areas
and sites covering large expanses that are homogeneous, of little interest and weakly or poorly managed have
relatively little value. Quality of the management of the physical features of green infrastructure and footing the
bill for better management was a key point. It was felt that developing thinking about and support for green
infrastructure generally would help support the likelihood of funding for management and maintenance. It is
important to try and determine indicators for green infrastructure’s role in addressing quality of life issues and
action on the ground.
Various dimensions and potential measures of quality were identified:
· Diversity of use (relating to multifunctionality)
· The fit with demand (local and higher)
· Meets biodiversity objectives
· Makes money
· Engagement with local (and wider) communities
· Fulfils sustainability objectives (e.g. Newcastle’s quality audit was based on the Green Flag assessment
for urban parks)
· Perceptions of safety/self policing and quality of place perceptions for locals and visitors were seen as
important issues
· Development of popular access networks
· Is it valued?
· Quality can be defined in respect of the site, but it can also be defined (or affected by) context – views,
vandals, latent demand, etc.
· Health and deprivation issues
· Education
· Raising awareness
(c) Provide for multifunctionality/multipleuse
25
The identification of mechanisms to change singleuse sites to multipleuse sites was seen as important. What
facilities (e.g. meeting rooms café, adventure playground etc) are needed to create multifunctionality?
Investment in infrastructure and facilities was seen as particularly important. The National Trust initiative at
Gibside was used as an example of providing a range of objectives for the same site including education and
heritage. NECF have also demonstrated the potential of multiple use sites and are helping to push forward
thinking in relation to multifunctionality. It was felt that single use sports pitches are a particular problem and
could provide for other uses (such as wildlife) with fairly simple alterations to management.
(d) Identify and Address Vulnerability Issues by increasing and improving green links
The vulnerability of existing green infrastructure and potential links to development pressures was seen as a
very significant issue. Provision of new links between spaces, particularly within urban areas was seen as
important e.g. creation of a wider and more dense network of green routes to encourage more use. There is a
need to increase connectivity generally at the landscape scale to aid landscape and habitat restoration. It was
felt that development pressure as a result of town cramming may be increased as a result of the Northern Way
and it is important not to lose existing green infrastructure capital through urban compaction particularly at the
city region scale. It might be possible to balance development pressures against each other and policymakers
and planners could use this in their strategic thinking as a positive way to create links and corridors. Where
need suggests provision (even in the absence of any Green or GreenGrey Infrastructure) this should be
addressed.
The approach must incorporate a scaling that ensures sites that are vulnerable by virtue of their (potential) use
and location are accorded heightened significance as is illustrated schematically below (see Figure 2): the red
area below is ‘the weakest link’ in the green infrastructure illustrated by the green areas. While pragmatic voices
recognised that a level of flexibility would be required in respect of ‘trading’ some of the less critical elements
(‘net environmental capital’), loss of certain features would have a disproportionate effect and this must be
reflected and addressed.
Figure 2: Links and site vulnerability
(f) Provide for Future Change and Needs
There was an emphasis on the need to consider sustainability issues in relation to green infrastructure which
should respond to the need for longterm visionary and strategic thinking. This particularly emphasised the need
for a change in policy, attitude, knowledge and values. A vision for green infrastructure needs to be defensible
and therefore needs ‘teeth’. A good evidence base to show the potential increase in relative benefits is therefore
important. It was felt that some spatial and visual ideas to show the status quo versus what it could be like
would be useful. Assumptions should be challenged e.g. does urban sprawl have to be bad?
It was important that the city is not seen as a fixed object but needs to be flexible in order to respond to change,
particularly in relation to global change. An example of this was the practical application of temporary woodland
establishment (e.g. phytoremediation of contaminated land or planting for leachate control).
26
The ‘bigger picture’ needs consideration and perhaps cities could be seen as a life support system with a
corresponding need to consider longevity. Permeability as a concept was also seen as useful e.g. in respect of
viewsheds, physical accessibility, etc.
(g) Provide Maximum Benefit
The idea of maximum benefit was closely related to that of multifunctionality and gaining political support for
green infrastructure. Behind the thinking was the fundamental belief in the importance of understanding
interactions between human and natural communities. Green infrastructure should be seen as a tradable and
dynamic commodity for development that needs to be flexible and realistic. Protection of everything was not
seen as feasible so the question needs to be asked: could you create something of more quality elsewhere?
The net capital of green infrastructure should increase and change, but not reduce. green infrastructure could be
seen as a marketing exercise it needs to be able to generate money and counteract undesirable development
pressure. Green infrastructure thinking and development could provide numerous additional benefits or services
(see Appendix F) but key issues were:
· Inclusivity by helping to target areas of deprivation for enhancement
· Providing associated training, job creation etc.
· Provide a vehicle for volunteering
· Provide health and occupational benefits for an increasingly ageing population
· Increase cooperation
· Maintain and improve net capital of greenspace
· Provide ‘teeth’ for planners for the argument with developers
· Provide arguments for a change the existing system so that green infrastructure cannot be swapped for
swimming pools thus reducing the overall green infrastructure capital.
· Provide a new dynamic to change values and provide a new approach to development.
(e) Mesh with Existing Political Boundaries and Planning Frameworks
It was widely felt that the project needs to mesh with and pay due heed to existing planning policy, initiatives and
spatial frameworks (e.g. City Regions, Catchment Management Plans, Biodiversity mapping exercises,
Community Forest Plans, landscape character areas, etc.) particularly with regard to implementation.
It was felt that it is important to link to existing structures so that it can become a valuable and useful tool for
policymakers – particularly the implications of the identification and use of the ‘city regions’. Capacity is needed
to develop green infrastructure planning further. It is not presently seen as mainstream and needs to be
incorporated as an integral part of the planning process. It was felt that green infrastructure has considerable
potential but that implementation needs to be through the RSS and Northern Way. It was felt that green
infrastructure should have a stronger emphasis within the RSS and it would help if the city regions were defined.
In order to implement green infrastructure thinking, funding sources and land management agencies need to be
brought together. It is important to gain a ‘shared vision’ for green infrastructure through partnerships and that
getting some kind of consensus on a definition for green infrastructure is important because at present green
infrastructure as a planning and policy mechanism is not generally accepted. In particular the multifunctional
approach was highlighted. It was felt that there might be a variety of answers for implementation and funding
mechanisms depending on the area richness. The need to engage with other interested organisations such as
CABESpace was identified.
8.0 Summary and Next Steps
This report distils information gained through the workshops. It does not provide an analysis of that information.
Such analysis is now being carried out and will feed into the development of the GIS ‘toolkit’ and will be set out
in the final report.
27
The project team will now be examining issues of data access and identifying the potential of and possible case
studies for more detailed exploration of the green infrastructure issues as identified by the workshop participants.
Any further comments on the issues identified in this report are welcome and should be sent to NECF.
9.0 Appendices:
Appendix 1A: List of Attendees
15 th September 2005:
Nicola Melville RSPB
G. Thomasson (for Jan Arger), CPRE NE Regional Group
Vicki Sixmith, Great North Forest
Brett Grimm, PhD Candidate (Exchange Programme Adelaide University), Newcastle
University
Colin Percy, Newcastle City Council, Senior Policy Officer planning & transportation
Edwina Symonds, Newcastle City Council
Nina Barr, Newcastle City Council
Bryn Dowson, Sustrans
Susan Clark, Countryside Agency
16 th September 2005:
Katie Wellstead Great North Forest
Nick Brodin Biodiversity Forum
Mike Boase, Gateshead Council
Lindsay Perks LAF
M. Gibson, Chester le Street District Council
M. Goldsmith, Chester le Street District Council
Jeff Singleton Derwentside District Council
Steve Scoffin, Great North Forest
Jim Marshall, The Tees Forest
David M. Walton Durham City Council
Della Marian North East Community Forest
Jill Antrobus, Blyth Valley Borough Council
Mick Sharpe, Blyth Valley Borough Council
Sam Talbot, Castle Morpeth Borough Council
19 th September 2005:
Timothy Crawshaw, Darlington BC
Rob George, Darlington BC
Sam Wilson Garside, Middlesbrough Council
Fiona Gillespie, District of Easington
Graham Clingan, Countryside Agency
28
Glenn McGill, North East Community Forest
Martin Coleclough, Middlesbrough Council
Ged Demoily, Redcar and Cleveland BC
Appendix 1B: Precirculated paper
Green Infrastructure and the City Regions
Workshop Paper No. 1: Preliminary Discussion Paper
September 2005
Introduction
This short paper aims to be a catalyst for the discussion which will take place during the three workshop
sessions on Green Infrastructure planning with regard to City Regions in the Northeast. It is not meant as
homework! The idea in producing this is to get participants mulling over the subject of Green Infrastructure (GI)
shortly before and as a preliminary to the workshop sessions. A further and more detailed discussion paper with
a bibliography will be provided at the end of each workshop session.
Three main questions will be addressed during the workshop sessions. The first relates to the definition of
elements of a GI model by examining the functions of GI. This will help us to establish what comprises GI and
match them to the relevant GIS datasets. The second is to define the ‘City Region’ in relation to GI, and the third
is to define the priorities and parameters for the model and to consider indicators, improvements and other
issues of relevance to the project. Broadly speaking we need to define what data we need and then consider
what we should be doing with the data.
What does Green Infrastructure mean to you?
Here are some key terms and buzzwords extracted from the literature to help you
think about this issue:
Interconnected, networks, holistic, proactive, multiscale, coherent, overarching framework, strategic planning
and delivery, complex interdependency, collaborative, unified action, wideranging benefits, urbanrural
interface, political horizons, core areas, corridors, links, nodes, communication, emotional wellbeing, emotional
development, green apprenticeships, cognitive skills, physical development, urban renaissance, the grain of
nature, liveability, environmental services, accessible greenspace, green wedges, urban river valleys,
community gardens, landscape assets, environmental comfort, multiple benefits, greenways, multifunctional,
integrative, interaction.
1. What are the functions of Green Infrastructure in the City Region?
Recent focusing on GI as a potential planning tool can be seen as a response to concerns relating to quality of
life, quality of environment and quality of place issues. This perhaps is indicative of a general development in
thinking in relation to green issues from a concentration on the ‘how much?’ (or quantitative) questions to
perhaps a more complex concern over a ‘what is the quality?’ (or qualitative) type questioning.
Words such as ‘integration’, ‘interaction’ and ‘multifunctional’ are also commonly used when discussing GI and
these are key issues to consider. But how can these relate to GI in City Regional planning? What are the
implications for planning methods, tools and practice of thinking about the issues that arise from these
concepts? Is GI more than the physical environment? If so, how can we use GI as a tool for positive change in
City Region planning? How far can or should the concept be taken as a planning framework?
Different professionals and representatives of interest groups will have very different values with response to the
functions of GI in City Regions. How can we consider these? Is it possible to agree to priorities for all regions,
or any region in particular?
29
Many functions of GI can be identified and there are a number of different definitions of GI that can be used as a
starting point for our discussion. GI thinking has perhaps proved to be of relevance to a wide range of interest
groups precisely because it encompasses a ‘broad church’ of ideas and definitions – but is it possible to identify
more clearly what is important in relation to City Regions in terms of the functions of GI? Is it perhaps most
useful to try and define the purpose rather than the meaning of GI?
Recent thinking in relation to GI can be seen to have grown out of a number of subject areas such as green
space planning, nature conservation, landscape ecology, infrastructure and engineering planning, recreation
planning, health and safety concerns, socioeconomic issues, heritage protection, accessibility issues, and so
on. Sustainable development is also now an important framework within which GI planning sits. But how do all
these concerns and issues relate to GI planning in City Regions? Are there others issues that should be
considered? How can we break down these concerns into more detailed functions relevant to GI planning at the
City Region scale?
2. Where to City Region boundaries lie in respect to GI planning?
The present project focuses on GI planning at the City Region level using GIS to develop a tool to explore the
possibilities of GI. In order to carry out GIS analysis it is important to establish a clear boundary for the City
Regions in relation to the needs of GI. A series of questions can be asked in order to help determine these
boundaries: In what way would GI plans be used at the City Region level? Does this help us to determine
where the boundaries need to be? Boundaries may be determined by physical and/or political criteria. What are
the criteria that should be used for determining the boundaries for this project? What about ‘gaps’ between the
city boundaries under consideration in this region? Are there existing models for boundary decisionmaking for
city regions? If so, are these appropriate for the purposes of this project? How can we consider crossboundary
working in the context of GI?
Scale is an important point to consider when working with GIS. GIS analysis depends on the quality of the data
that is available for manipulation, and this data is available at a variety of different scales or resolutions. What is
the appropriate scale to be thinking about GI Planning for City Regions? How much detail is needed? How do
you feel you might use a GIS decisionsupport tool in relation to GI planning and does this help to define the
parameters needed for creating a useful GIS model?
3. What are the components, parameters and indicators required for GI planning in the City Region
using GIS?
In order to create the proposed GIS model, we need to define as clearly as possible the components and
parameters for consideration. A range of benefits can be identified for GI – but what are the most important
components for GI planning in the NE City Regions? What are the components we need to consider for the
practical purposes of GI Planning in this context and which components would you give priority to?
Should parameters be defined by existing information – or is there additional information we need? Should we
or how should we be considering the longterm environmental issues such as climate change, flooding, CO2
reduction? How can such considerations be turned into ‘components’ for the GIS model? Similarly, how can
‘big’ social issues such as financing of health care for ageing populations be turned into a ‘component’? What
are the most important components in terms of community, environment and economics?
A number of indicators have been developed to assess quality of life. Are existing indicators useful to help us
examine how successful GI planning will be in the City Region, or is a new set of indicators needed? How can
we assess quality of place and quality of environment in relation to GI? Are there useful measures already in
place at the City Region level that could be used?
Can consideration of the likely delivery structure and mechanisms for GI in City Regions help us to
define exactly what components should go into the model?
Appendix 1C: Definition exercise question sheet
30
Green Infrastructure and the City Regions
Definition exercise
Green infrastructure is a term that can mean different things to different people. We would like your assistance
to shape a definition of green infrastructure that is applicable to Green Infrastructure as it impacts upon city
regions.
Instructions
Three existing definitions are given below, please annotate these definitions with your amendments (or if you are
in total agreement – indicate this with a largeü). There is also space for you to write your own definition. When
completed please hand this sheet to a workshop organiser.
What happens to your input?
All contributions are unattributable. They will be used in developing the Green Infrastructure definition used in
the project, be presented to the project steering group and may appear in the final report.
Definitions
Green infrastructure provides a network of multifunctional green spaces that contributes to the
high quality natural and built environment required for existing and new sustainable
communities, consisting of both public and private assets, with and without public access, and
in both urban and rural locations.
Source: city region park draft paper 2005
Green infrastructure is an interconnected network of green space that conserves natural eco
system values and functions and provides associated benefits to human populations.
Source: Benedict Mark A, and McMahon, Edward T;
Renewables Resources Journal, Autumn 2002
Green infrastructure is the physical environment within and between our cities, towns and
villages. It is a network of multifunctional open spaces, including formal parks, gardens,
woodlands, green corridors, waterways, street trees and open countryside. It comprises all
environmental resources, and thus a green infrastructure approach also contributes towards
sustainable resource management.
Source: Countryside Agency discussion paper 2005
Appendix 1D: Green Infrastructure Definition Exercise Results
(Comments have been anonymised)
(a) Regional Stakeholders Exercise 15 th September 2005
Contributor 1 GI provides a network of multifunctional green spaces within and between our
cities, towns and villages. It is a biodiverse network that helps conserve wildlife
and the natural environment whilst providing space for public access. It
contributes to a high quality environment that attracts people to live and work
within the city region.
Contributor 2 Definition no 3:Greenbelt/green wedge (RPGI) issues. These green spaces
probably need protection in Regional Plans (RSS) and local planning
frameworks. “Green Lungs” for Urban dwellers – link to urban/rural/fringes.
Could be used to ameliorate brownfield contaminated land.
Contributor 3 Definition 1 (with amends). GI provides a network of multifunctional green
spaces that contributes to the high quality seminatural and built environment
31
required for existing and new sustainable communities, consisting of both
public & private assets, with and without public access, from urban to rural
locations.
Contributor 4 Definition 3 addition ‘ GI is the physical & psychological environment’
Contributor 5 Comment on Definition 3: “ Nearly there”
Own def: GI comprises the natural and seminatural network of links and
spaces. The links and spaces are predominantly but not always open and
green, but many include hard features such as cycle tracks and water carrying
structures where they support the green network. The network is used in many
ways generally supportive of sustainable resource management.
Contributor 6 Definition 1: GI provides a network of multifunctional green spaces that
contributes to the high quality natural and built environment required for
existing and new sustainable communities and comprises all environmental
resources, consisting of both public & private assets, with and without public
access, within and between our cities, towns and villages.
Contributor 7 Definition 3 with amendments: GI is the physical environment within and
between our cities, towns and villages. It is a network of multifunctional green
spaces, including formal parks, private gardens, woodlands, road verges,
green corridors, cemeteries, allotments, street trees and open countryside. It
contributes to the high quality natural and built environment required for
existing and new sustainable communities.
Contributor 8 Definition 3 with amendments: GI is the physical environment within and
between our cities, towns and villages. It is a network of multifunctional green
spaces, including formal parks, gardens, woodlands, road verges, green
corridors, trafficfree routes, street trees and open countryside. It comprises all
environmental resources, and thus a GI approach also contributes towards
sustainable resource management.
Contributor 9 Ticked Definition 1
Amended Definition 2: “provides associated socioeconomic benefits to human
populations.”
Own definition: Would like to see a succinct definition that encompasses the
components (what it is) and how to use it (functions/benefits). How it is
managed will determine whether or not it contributes to sustainable
development.
th
(b) Tyne & Wear Stakeholders 16 September 2005
Contributor 1 Definition 3: with comments “This definition is possible the most
encompassing. Needs to draw attention to different scales – local, district,
regional etc & building design – not just about green environment.
Contributor 2 No selection but amendments to all definitions:
Definition 1: GI provides a network of multifunctional green spaces that
contributes to the high quality natural and built environment required for
existing and new sustainable communities and the maintenance of natural
ecosystem processes, consisting of both public & private assets, with and
without public access, and in urban and rural locations.
Def 2: GI is an interconnected network of green space including gardens,
parks, disused or derelict land, woodlands, ‘Green’ transport corridors
and open countryside and moorland, consisting of both public and private
assets, with and without public access, and in both urban and rural locations.
Def 3: GI is the physical environment within and between our cities, towns and
villages. It is a network of multifunctional green spaces, including formal parks,
gardens, living roofs and built environment with environmental functions
e.g. as bat roosts or bird nesting sites woodlands, road verges, green
corridors, waterways brownfield sites and derelict land of nature
32
conservation interest (including, for example, upland areas that have a
role as natural stores of floodwater) towards, street trees and open
countryside. It comprises all environmental resources, and thus a GI approach
also contributes towards sustainable resource management.
Contributor 3 No selection but added:
It also provides an essential contribution to the well being of those individuals
with the settlements it serves and a contribution to the local economy. (All 3
definitions have useful elements.
Contributor 4 Def 3: GI is the physical environment within, between and around our cities,
towns and villages. It is a network of multifunctional open spaces, including
formal parks, gardens, woodlands, green corridors, waterways, street trees,
footpaths, bridleways, cycle routes and open countryside. It comprises all
environmental resources, and thus a green infrastructure approach also
contributes towards sustainable resource management. Comments: all must
be accessible
Contributor 5 Own def: Green Infrastructures form interconnected networks of multi
functional green spaces that support a diverse ranges of activities and
purposes. They provide an important function in the natural and built
environment helping to create high quality spaces in both urban and rural
locations.
Contributor 6 Own def: GI is the network of green spaces which provide social, economical
and health benefits to the population in rural and urban settings. And
ecological benefits for species).
Contributor 7 Definition 3 with amendments: GI is the physical environment within and
between our cities, towns and villages within the city region. It is a network of
multifunctional green spaces, including formal parks, gardens, woodlands,
green corridors, waterways, street trees and open countryside. It contributes
to the high quality natural and built environment of sustainable
communities.
Contributor 8 Definition 3 with amendments: GI is the physical environment within and
between our cities, towns and villages. It is a network of multifunctional green
spaces, including formal parks, gardens, woodlands, road verges, green
corridors, trafficfree routes, street trees and open countryside. It comprises all
environmental resources, and thus a GI approach also contributes towards
sustainable resource management.
Contributor 9 Own Definition: ‘ A systematic approach to the integration of ecological
principles and the development planning process.”
Contributor 10 Own Def: GI is a network of existing and planned spaces which soften grey
infrastructure and contribute and enhance an ecologically modern urban or
rural environment from a local to global scale.
Contributor 11 Def 3: GI is the physical environment within and between our cities, towns and
villages. It is a network of multifunctional open spaces, including formal parks,
gardens, woodlands, green corridors, waterways, street trees, footpaths,
bridleways, cycle routes and open countryside. It aims to improve quality of
life for communities as well as to the environment at landscape level.
Contributor 12 Selected Def 2: GI is an interconnected network of green space that conserves
natural ecosystem values and functions and provides associated benefits to
human population. Plus from def 3: It is a network of multifunctional open
spaces, including formal parks, gardens, woodlands, green corridors,
waterways, street trees and open countryside. It comprises all environmental
resources.
Doesn’t like “sustainable communities” – too ambiguous
Qu: Does green infrastructure include rivers themselves? Not just the green
bits on the side?? I would prefer it if it did.
Contributor 13 Selected definition 3 with “small” network
Contributor 14 Selected definitions 2 and 3
33
Parts of all 3 – GI includes open spaces etc (as in Def 3), it can be in any
ownership with varying levels of public access and value as this can lead to
varying levels of natural ecosystem values and functions, The benefit to
communities is important but incidental.
th
(c) Tees Valley Stakeholders 19 September 2005
Contributor 1 Def 1 with amendments
GI provides a network of multifunctional green spaces including formal
parks, private gardens, woodlands, road verges, green corridors, street
trees and open countryside
That contributes to a high quality natural and built environment required for
existing and new sustainable communities. Consisting of both public and
private assets, with and without public access, and in urban, urban fringe
and rural locations. (GI is a means of managing resources for the future.)
Contributor 2 Own def: GI is the network of urban parks and countryside that together
allow free passage of people around the built environment while keeping
them in touch with a sense of the natural world.
Contributor 3 Def 3: GI is the physical environment within and between our cities, towns
and villages. It is a network of multifunctional open spaces, including
formal parks, gardens, woodlands, green corridors, waterways, street trees
and open countryside. It comprises all environmental resources, and thus
a green infrastructure approach also contributes to sustainable resource
management.
Contributor 4 Def 3: GI is the physical environment within and between our cities, towns
and villages. It is a network of multifunctional open spaces, including
formal parks, gardens, woodlands, green corridors, waterways, street trees
and open countryside. It comprises all environmental resources, and thus
a green infrastructure approach also contributes to sustainable resource
management (in an ideal world).
Contributor 5 Comment on Definition 1: GI provides a network of multifunctional green
spaces that contributes to the high quality natural and built environment
required for existing and new sustainable communities.…with and without
public access, and in urban, urban fringe and rural locations.
Def: 2 GI is an interconnected network of green space that conserves and
enhances natural ecosystem values and functions and provides
associated benefits to human populations. (lack of built environment
greening/trees.)
Def: 3 Overly long.
Own definition: GI is an interconnected network of open space that
conserves and enhances natural ecosystems, and provides leisure and
recreation opportunity.
Contributor 6 Definition 2: add in Urban Fringe
GI is the physical environment within and between our cities, towns and
villages. It is a network of multifunctional green spaces, including formal
parks, private gardens, woodlands, green corridors, waterways, street
trees and open countryside. It comprises all environmental resources, and
thus a green infrastructure approach also provides a framework for
sustainable resource management and contributes towards sustainable
development.
Contributor 7 Own Def: GI provides a network of multifunctional green spaces, including
formal parks, gardens, woodlands green corridors, waterways, street trees
and open countryside that contributes to the high quality natural and built
34
environment required for new and existing and sustainable communities. It
characterises both the public and private realm with and without public
access in urban, urban fringe and rural locations.
Contributor 8 Mix of Def 1 and 3:GI provides a network of multifunctional green spaces
meeting local and social economic needs that contributes to the high
quality natural and built environment required for new and existing and
sustainable communities, consisting of both public and private assets, with
and without public access, and in both urban fringe and rural locations. It
comprises all environmental resources, and thus a green infrastructure
approach also contributes towards sustainable resource management.
35
Appendix 1E: Green infrastructure components – group feedback
(a) Regional Stakeholder Workshop
§ Playing Fields & School Grounds amenity
§ Land – not built on
§ Gardens
§ Road Verges
§ Trees, hedges, vegetation
§ Rights of Way Network
§ Signed Walking & Cycling Routes
§ Country Parks and Nature Reserves
§ Rivers, Water e.g. ponds
§ Surface water and culverted water courses
§ Farmland, producers
§ Treelined streets
§ Brownfield land
§ Contaminated land
§ Allotments and cemeteries
§ Moors including Town Moor
§ Golf Courses
§ Institutional grounds egg Hospitals
§ Business parks
§ Race courses
§ Coast, beaches & dunes
§ Roads, Highways green routes e.g. electric buses/tramways
§ Woodland cover, forests
§ Housing estates
§ Green roofs
§ Airport land
(b) Tyne & Wear Stakeholder Workshop
§ Allotments. Gardens. Parks, green lanes
§ Ground water, rain drainage and sewage
§ Water courses
§ Beaches
§ Recreational paths, Rights of Way
§ Treelined avenues
§ Footpaths, bridleways
§ Derelict land, brownfield & post industrial
§ Motorway and railway sides and verges
§ Wildlife corridors
§ Designated sites SSSIs
§ Burial cemeteries
§ Heathland, scrub, hedgerows
§ Seminatural habitats
§ School grounds, playing fields
§ Woodlands
§ Local paths, cycle ways and travel routes
§ Golf courses
§ Land – not built on
§ Designs of buildings and water drainage and landscapes, planting
§ Future development and approach ideology
§ Flood buffers and drainage
§ (Air quality and dark skies)
§ Quality is important, local standards function and protection
§ Transport routes – grey to green and green bridges
36
(c) Tees Valley Stakeholder Workshop
§ Playing Areas & Fields
§ Golf Courses
§ Beaches, coastal areas
§ Littoral zone, estuaries
§ Private clubs egg Bowls, Rugby etc
§ Country House Grounds
§ Sight miles
§ Seascapes
§ Senses – natural space
§ Hedgerows
§ Quarries
§ Street furniture
§ Groundwater resources
§ Street trees
§ Wasteland
§ Woodland
§ Moorland
§ R.O.W and byways
§ Cemeteries & churchyards
§ Green roofs
§ Wetlands
§ Waterways rivers etc
§ Reservoirs
§ Geological exposures
§ Verges
§ Farmland
§ Parks – urban and Country
§ Allotments
§ SSSIs and Local Nature Reserves
§ Wind Turbines
§ Private gardens
§ Air quality
§ Bogs
§ Energy crops
§ Recreation sites – public open space
§ Urban fringe
§ Floral displays/baskets etc
§ Greenbelt
§ Roundabouts, highways
§ Screening belts
§ Culverted waterways
§ Habitats for bats, birds
§ Road and rail verges
§ Hotel, hospital, school grounds
37
Appendix 1F: Green infrastructure functions – group feedback
(a) Regional Stakeholder Workshop
§ Recreation
§ Mental & Physical well being
§ Exercise and Health
§ Travel to work, anti congestion
§ Biodiversity & habitats
§ Meeting places
§ Climate change management: 1. Biomass fuel production etc 2. Flood plains/measures etc
§ Flood management
§ Burial
§ Food production & Energy production e.g. biofuel
§ Farming Livelihoods
§ Employment
§ Formal Sport
§ Sense of space and place
§ View & outlook
§ Defining and protecting character and identity
§ Heritage & archaeology
§ Cultural values
§ Event venues
§ Tourism
§ Noise reduction
§ Smell senses
§ Water quality
§ Education
§ Transport
§ Play
§ Carbon/pollutant fixing
§ ROW improvement plan
§ Shade provider
§ Defining development e.g. Greenbelt
§ Composting/waste/recycling
(b) Tyne & Wear Stakeholder Workshop
§ Not necessarily ‘green’ – bat bricks
§ Information, education, signage and interpretation
§ GI by design
§ Climate change – flood management
§ Accessibility – travel & transport
§ Public access & local green space
§ Public and private land
§ Wetland preservation of habitat – balance biodiversity
§ Visual, hearing and ‘sense’ accessible
§ Amenity value of space between areas
§ Ecological capacity
§ Management and maintenance – different regimes to include different habitats
§ Wasteland – diverse greenspace
§ Hierarchy of open space – recreation, leisure and nature
§ Assessing local needs financial coast and benefits of recreation
§ Future needs and capacity of GI e.g. Climate change benefits
§ Define use of green space must be multifunctional
38
(c) Tees Valley Stakeholder Workshop
§ Public Health Mental & Physical
§ Sense of place
§ Air quality – pollution, dark skies
§ Informal and formal recreation and sport
§ Social understanding between urban and rural
§ Fresh water
§ Social identity
§ View – landscape
§ Setting for investment
§ Training – skills gap ILMs alternative employment
§ Education facilities formal/informal
§ Knowledge Lifelong learning
§ Volunteering opportunities
§ Event venues and community spaces for activity
§ Global benefits – environmental capital
§ Climate change – shade, porosity – flood drains etc
§ Social inclusion
§ Community identity
§ Noise absorption
§ Grey/green integration
§ Criminal rehabilitation, antisocial behaviour
§ Sustainable solutions demonstration areas on urban fringe
§ Land use, horticulture
§ Production of food and energy crops
§ Nutrient transfer – geo/water
§ Desirable journeys by foot, bike or horse
§ Green burial sites
§ Free food – hedgerows etc
§ Buffering protection of SSSIs and LNRs
§ Shortterm space planning – green space
§ Timber production
§ ‘Cleaning’ previously developed land
§ Sustainable access to greenspace
§ Prevent leaching problems, fixing benefits
§ biodiversity
39
Appendix Two: Green Infrastructure Planning Seminar Flyer
40
Appendix Three: GI Seminar Timetable
rd
Monday 3 April 2006 at the LIFE Centre, Newcastle upon Tyne
09.30 – 10.00 arrival, coffee and registration
10.00 10.20 Clive DAVIES, Green Infrastructure in context – the development of ideas, key
principles and important antecedents.
10.20 – 10.40 Susan CLARK, Multifunctionality and the public benefits that accrue from the
countryside in and around towns
10.40 – 11.00 Ian PRESTON, growth and sustainable communities how green infrastructure can
support the Northern Way
11.15 – 12.00 Rob MacFarlane, the green infrastructure planning guide from A to Z.
12.00 – 12.15 Questions on the Green Infrastructure Planning Guide moderated by Clive Davies.
12.15 – 13.15 LUNCH and opportunity for delegates and speakers to network
13.15 – 15.15 Workshop carousel – delegates have the opportunity to attend three workshops with a
change over every 40 minutes.
Green infrastructure – principles, overlapping concepts and use in spatial
planning strategies. FACILITATOR: Susan Clark, RAPORTEUR: Ingo Schuder
Green infrastructure – mapping and GIS (geographical information systems) as a
tool to GI Plan production FACILITATOR: Rob MacFarlane, RAPORTEUR: Chris
McGloin
Green infrastructure – bringing about delivery ‘making it happen’ FACILITATOR:
Clive Davies RAPORTEUR: Ian Mell/Penny Sinclair
15.15 – 15.30 Feedback from raporteurs
15.30 Summing up moderated by Clive Davies
15.45 DEPART
NB: The feedback from the workshop sessions will be used to inform v1.1 of the Green Infrastructure Planning
Guide and be incorporated in the Regional Green infrastructure Report. Delegates are thanked for their
contribution to this.
41
Appendix Four: Green Infrastructure Planning
Seminar Workshop Group Feedback
Group A
Topic 1: Delivery Priorities: Are they the right ones? What should be added or removed?
Topic 2: At what level(s) should delivery occur? Are landscape scale partnerships key?
Group A1
1) Priorities in Section 16:
· May be too much overlap.
· May be too wordynot sufficiently specific.
· Could be improved by an overall structure, e.g. within themes such as Biodiversity, Health, etc.
· Could be related back to underlying principles earlier in document.
· Biodiversity and sustainability agenda not sufficiently prioritised.
· Could be more specifically aligned to targets and an action plan.
General Points
· Local authority planners need help/input on nonstatutory issues e.g. G.I., to develop LDFsneed
partnership support.
· NECF will develop a support system with online help and guidance.
· Need to debate potential conflicts between wildlife and peoplecentred approaches, protection vs.
accessibility& connectivity.
· Need to consider how real projects can be linked to the priorities.
2) Delivery levels
· Appropriate delivery level should relate to funding opportunities, from micro to city regional.
· Need more emphasis on bottomup delivery, including role of community/vol. Sectors.
· Land ownership problems not being addressedthis limits area of influence. Need to consider greater
use of C.P.O.s.
· Need to take holistic view of deliverynot merely linkages between spaces.
· Need to have hierarchy of policy to support delivery, from RSS, down to LDFs.
Group A2
1) Priorities in Section 16:
· Priorities should be realistic, and allow for opportunism.
· Will vary according to different levels of decisionmaking.
· Need to operate within a strategic framework.
· Need to be flexible to unlock funding.
· Need to combine best of bottom up and topdown strategies.
42
General Points
· Need to win “hearts and minds” within partner organisations.
· Need to embed G.I. thinking in L.A. Departments.
· Not clear what G.I. plans will look like.
· Should spatial planning or project planning be the main aim?
· Does the Guide produced by NECF overemphasise G.I.S.?
2) Delivery levels
· Appropriate levels for landscape level delivery include CFs, & Sub regional partnerships, e.g. Mineral
Valleys Project, Hedgerow Partnership.
· Landscapescale delivery can be hampered by political boundary issues.
· Innovation in projects more common at micro level.
· Delivery needs to be embedded in agendas of nonL.A. partners, and LSPs.
· Need to put delivery in rural areas within strategic framework.
· Question for regional decision makersHow can the delivery of G.I. be resourced on a sustainable basis?
Group A3
1) Priorities in Section 16:
· The emphasis on connectivity must be appropriate to, and relate to, the context of the site.
· Connectivity may be assisted by new planning systemnew potential for creative solutions.
· Need to build consensus on concept of wider access rights to open space.
· Need to consider historic context of development patterns e.g. river catchments.
· Need to consider tradeoffs between competing priorities.
· Need caution on definitions of “quality”, and “high value”for whom?
· Management issues will be critical in ensuring sustainable delivery.
2) Delivery levels
· Delivery at strategic level will depend on availability of funding from partners.
· Section 106 arrangements only provide limited resources.
· Delivery of G.I. needs to be built into Urban Design Guidance.
43
Group B
Key Issues
Data Accessibility/Availability
External Outside organisations/consultants had difficulties accessing data from Local Authorities and other
agencies. This was partly due to Ordnance Survey licensing issues and also establishing who the main contact
was for acquiring data.
Determining the level of provision of data/information to the public and its detail was a discussion point.
Cost of establishing a GIS i.e. licences for software, data and skilled staff proved an obstacle for smaller lesser
funded district bodies.
Use of Aerial photography as an alternative to mastermap for assessing typology was also discussed. Use of
both mastermap and aerial photography together was a more effective method for data capture, as aerial
photography is not as frequently updated as OS Mastermap.
Consistency of Data
Quality of data and information regarding how it was captured (metadata) was a big issue. Not knowing the
source of data, what baseline it had been captured on, and its accuracy proved to be something which
delegates, whether from a public or private background, found that it could prove misleading and provide
inaccuracies in the decision making process.
Assessment of typology differed within organisations. This proved an issue when it came to cross boundary
working and consultation with neighbouring bodies. There did not appear to be a consistency across
organisations.
Implications of Scales
Issues arose around determining which type of data should be used at what level of scale. i.e. Local to
Regional.
When does OS Mastermap stop from becoming useful?
Mastermap can be used to capture a baseline inventory however its visual significance can be lost in small scale
mapping i.e. at a local authority level, sub regional level. Size thresholds can be used to help manage this in
order to display this and other organisations data at different scales.
44
Group C
Facilitator: Susan Clark
Raporteur: Ingo Schüder
Key points reported in plenum session in bold
NB: answers are still structured in three blocks (= groups) for each question
1 Green Infrastructure principles
Q1.1: What makes GI important?
· Important to range of professionals, not just planners
· Strategic framework applicable to projects and plans
· Common agreed terminology – greater understanding of concept
· More important for RUF/ UF
· For issues such as housing/development and related commuting
· For recreation, health and biodiversity
· Open spaces are under urban pressure
· limited/ no natural places in densely populated areas, so we have to protect/ enhance seminatural/
manmade green spaces
· some remote seminatural/ wild areas need protection, so people need to experience “nature” elsewhere
· seminatural/ wild areas are not easily accessible for some (deprived) communities, so they need green
spaces closer to where they live
· contribute to QoL in RUF/ UF
· common sense starting point based on green intelligence
· needs common terminology
· strategic management of development/ sustainable urban extension
· lack of conceptual thinking in current planning system
· access from City centre to rural areas (and vice versa –green spines)
· neutral concept (i.e. no one agency/ organisation involved/leading)à buyin
· delivering benefits/ targets (already made in existing documents) and possibly developing more
· general allembracing concept
· not additional burden
· driving new benefits and targets
· contribution to SD & Northern Way
Q 1.2 Why is it different from other planning approaches (tools)
· jointup à get more synergies
· own language/jargon/ terminology
· lack of planners in process
· those involved in GI lack knowledge/experience/understanding of landscaping & planning process on
ground
· only covers a part of the country (i.e. not strong rural focus)
· no common agreed language/terminology
· issues with coherence (i.e. not universally established under same name (“GI”)
· offers quality rather than quantity
· consistent approach
· collaborative approach
· operates in RUF interface
· can work across rural –urban spectrum
45
2.Overlapping concepts & use in spatial planning strategies.
Q2.1 Do you agree that GI planning should be mainstreamed into the spatial planning system?
· keep focus on specific areas/scales (i.e. RUF/UF)
· link ruralurban work
· Within RSS, there are a large number of hooks for GI
· add coastal access
· Yes, regionally and nationally
· Get into RSS à more implementation due to statutory function EiP
· RSS will give opportunity for more radical thinking
· RSS should have policy on GI
· Yes, but need evidence base “/green intelligence”/baseline information
· Should be incorporated in RSS > statutory role > LA, e.g. LDFs
· Timing of mainstreaming should be considered (LA have got their plans out)
· Needs buyin from LA
· GI as cross cutting aspect to be incorporated/ embedded in other areas of work/strategies (i.e. to avoid
silothinking, GI should not be separate chapter in RSS)
Q2.2 what are appropriate scales for GI plans?
· Boundary issues Yorkshire, Cumbria and Scotland
· Different scales depending on area characteristics (e.g. hard/ soft boundaries between rural – urban)
· Landscape scale appropriate for strategic linked networks
· Need to consider linkages between urban and rural to avoid separate planning
· LSPs, e.g. access/cycling networks
· Scope at all levels
Questions/comments from participants:
· How can rural communities be (better) involved in GI agenda?
· How does GI fit into Northern Way?
· Has everybody signed up to GI? (or is this event preaching to the converted?)
· What do we want? What are the aims and ambitions?
· Is this initiative different/ new to previous initiatives?
· public has generally an antidevelopment attitude, so even GI planning will be viewed with(some
scepticism)
· Multifunctionality is viewed critically by those not involved in GI/ other LA departments. ( e.g.
multifunctionality can cause conflicts, e.g. vandalism, esp. when increased access of mixed use groups)
· Will future development leave us with any “rural” areas? (i.e. do we need to rethink RUF definition?)
· How can we give incentives for GI planning?
· Is CIAT = GI?
· There is an issue with rural areas/ land supply
· How can we get buyin from nonconverted?
· GI should be already incorporated/ embedded in SD parts of strategies/projects/plans anyway (i.e we do
not need separate GI planning[?])
· Timing is difficult (LDFs are all in preparation)
46
What may be important at a local level may not show as a priority at a regional scale. i.e. public rights of way –
higher importance at local level, less at a regional scale, when comparing to National Cycle Networks or Long
distance footpaths.
Need for Coordination of Core datasets
There was a general feeling that, across the region, a coordinated approach to centrally holding GI data would
be beneficial. This could be a web based approach similar to www.magic.gov.uk (Multi agency Geographic
Information for the Countryside)
This would also help assist in respect of cross boundary working if specific standards of typology and metadata
were introduced.
Other non GIS points made.
Is the method of GI Planning suggested in the guide, as effective in rural areas?
It was felt that the guide was more applicable to the urban and urban fringe. However some the process
of creating a baseline GI map
It appeared there was a potential for opportunity for local developers to provide local development. There
was more likelihood of local developers working closely with planners in delivering a higher quality of Green
Infrastructure, than some of the larger national housing developers.
Non cross boundary working often led to short term planning in provision Green Infrastructure.
47
Appendix Five: Presentation to Green Infrastructure Seminar # 1
48
49
50
51
Appendix Six: Presentation to Green Infrastructure Seminar # 2
52
53
54
55
56
57
Appendix Seven: Briefing Paper for Regional Spatial Strategy EiP
GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE PLANNING
NORTH EAST REGION
BRIEFING PAPER FOR
Regional spatial strategy EIP
MARCH 2006
58
INTRODUCTION
A Green Infrastructure Planning guide commissioned by regional agencies including English Nature, Forestry
Commission and Countryside Agency has been developed to support the planning and delivery of green
infrastructure in the North East region. The guide has been produced by a consortium of Northumbria University
(Centre for Spatial Analysis), Newcastle University (Landscape School) and North East Community Forests
(Local authority partnership) in conjunction with the commissioning bodies. Additional oversight of the guide has
been provided by ONE NE, North East Environment Forum, The Northern Way, Rural Development Service and
NGO’s. The planning guide will be launched on the 3 rd April 2006.
SUMMARY OF REGIONAL FINDINGS
GI 9 is a widely accepted term backed by a robust evidence base plus ample national and regional research.
There is an imprecision to the definition but wide regional stakeholder agreement of the components included
within Green Infrastructure. It is being viewed by many professionals as a mainstream concept allied to ‘city
region’ and ‘sustainable communities’ planning. Existing datasets and domain analysis provide a strong
framework for developing GI Plans. Delivery is through the work of existing landscape scale partnerships, for
which the two city regions are well provided for.
AVAILABLE DEFINITIONS
Green infrastructure provides a network of multifunctional green spaces that contributes to the high quality
natural and built environment required for existing and new sustainable communities, consisting of both public
and private assets, with and without public access, and in both urban and rural locations.
Source: City Region Park draft paper 2005
Green infrastructure is an interconnected network of green space that conserves natural ecosystem values and
functions and provides associated benefits to human populations.
Source: Benedict Mark A, and McMahon, Edward T; Renewables Resources Journal, Autumn 2002
Green infrastructure is the physical environment within and between our cities, towns and villages. It is a
network of multifunctional open spaces, including formal parks, gardens, woodlands, green corridors,
waterways, street trees and open countryside. It comprises all environmental resources, and thus a green
infrastructure approach also contributes towards sustainable resource management. Source: Countryside
Agency discussion paper 2005
REGIONAL GI STANDARDS
There are widely accepted existing standards available to benchmark GI in the North East region (see appendix
1). Of these those relating to PPG17 (COMPANION GUIDE) and English Nature: ACCESSIBLE GREENSPACE
STANDARDS MODEL are highly tailored for this purpose.
DEVELOPED THROUGH A STAKEHOLDER LED APPROACH
The regional GI Planning Guide has been developed through a stakeholder led approach involving
representative from regional agencies as well as those from the two city regions. A comprehensive list of GI
types has been secured through this process (see appendix 2). These can be shaped into recognised domains
(groupings of GI by type).
GI PLANS
Can exist in several forms but a robust yet flexible methodology described in a GI planning guide has been
devised to provide a consistent framework for these. This is based on the use of available data, the digital
national framework, GIS techniques (which automates much of the process) and a consultative approach to
planning, review and delivery – (see appendix 4)
9
GI is an accepted abbreviation for Green Infrastructure
59
The GI planning guide facilitates the production of geographically based Green Infrastructure Plans but is a
flexible tool that can be modified by the user to meet the ‘real world’ situations they are dealing with.
The range of Green Infrastructure Planning outputs that the Support guide can assist with include:
§ Spatial Green Infrastructure Plans in for instance the two NE City Regions
§ Strategic GI guidelines that steer decision making in the development control process
§ Supplementary planning documents
§ Policies embedded within Local Development Frameworks
§ Statutory and nonstatutory plans produced by organisations including Natural England and Environment
Agency.
§ Proposals included within local Area Based Initiatives
§ Proposals included within regional strategic documents
APPLICATION OF THE REGIONAL GI PLANNING GUIDE
The primary application of the GI Planning Guide is to facilitate all forms of Green Infrastructure Planning at
different geographical levels; these key levels are:
§ Regional level e.g. North East England
§ County, subregion or city region level e.g. Tees Valley
§ Borough or District level e.g. North Tyneside
§ Neighbourhood level e.g. West Middlesbrough Neighbourhood Renewal Area
The county, subregion and city region level is viewed as a ‘critical’ level for GI Planning since it at this
scale that the essential components of Green infrastructure especially connectivity are maximised.
The guide is a practical tool for ‘professionals’ engaged with all aspects of spatial or functional based
planning. These professionals include:
§ Strategists and policymakers in the public sector
10 11
§ Town and country planners (engaged in local authority planning and in private practice )
12
§ Environmental and sustainable development professionals
§ Landscape architects, planners, managers and scientists
§ Regeneration specialist’s e.g. urban design, housing renewal, community development.
§ Consultants offering services to public and private sector clients
§ Academics and research students
A Professional Support System, moderated by Natural England, can provide support for professionals
involved in GI planning, to include:
§ Regionally relevant GI planning training based on the Planning Support Guide
§ A draw down contract to provide ‘consultant mentors’ to support professionals in organisations
embarking on Green Infrastructure Planning.
§ Open access training support provided by the regions Universities.
This professional support system will also help to overcome potential concerns that this emerging area is too
costly to pursue since the support costs would be met by the lead organisation.
REGIONAL STRATEGY
It is imperative for there to be a robust policy framework if Green Infrastructure Planning if it is to significantly
progress in the North East region. Ideally this should include:
10
This can be subdivided into Forward Planning and Development Control
11
Generally as advisors to developers or working within development based businesses
12
For instance LA21, environment city.
60
§ A Green infrastructure policy (preferable) or supportive policies (at least) in the Regional Spatial
Strategy and association of this with sustainable communities as well as environmental policies
§ A Green Infrastructure Chapter in the proposed Regional Environmental Strategy (NESE) –
making Green infrastructure a key component of environmental thinking in the region for at least the next
10 years
§ Lead plans which serve as exemplars to the rest of the region (e.g. Tees Valley Green Infrastructure
City Region Plan or Strategy)
§ Commitment to long term funding of the professional support system
DELIVERY
Translating Green Infrastructure Plans into delivery is a critical task and must be addressed as part of the GI
planning process and not as an after thought. Discussions held by the North East Environment Forum
suggest that at a strategic geographical level 13 , that Landscape Scale partnerships represent the best
delivery mechanism. Fortunately the North East Region is well serviced by Landscape Scale initiatives
which include Great North Forest, The Tees Forest and the Mineral Valley’s Project with additional delivery
capacity provided for by local Groundwork Trusts.
The priorities for delivery include
§ Placing a high value on existing green areas, prevent deterioration of these and seek quality
improvements which directly benefit communities whose local environment is deficient in the qualitative
benefits of access to improved environments. Deficiency includes lack of access, lack of knowledge and
lack of amenity.
§ Green infrastructure that increases participation in exercise and tackle ‘health of the nation’ targets and
increases the health and motivation of the regional workforce (for example by providing green routes to
work)
§ Improve the diversity of green areas to address local needs by realising the potential to deliver multi
functional benefits generally achieved through landscape led improvements.
§ Connect ‘green areas’ areas together to achieve a ‘strategic whole’ and create connectivity benefits
§ Seek cooperative management of joined green areas whether they are in private ownership (such as
gardens) with adjoining public areas (such as parks or the street scene)
§ Prioritise the creation of new landscapes that connect existing landscapes together, unless there are
compelling reasons not to do so (for example a biodiversity constraint)
§ Select areas for green infrastructure improvements that protect or enhance natural resources (for
example through protection of soils)
§ Activities that aid delivery of existing local priorities (for example that release more land for tree planting
in community forest areas)
13
considered as all levels of District and above
61
APPENDIX 1: DISTANCE AND ACCESS TO GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE STANDARDS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
§ Accessible Natural Greenspace Standards l Promoting the Natural Green structure of Towns and Cities,
English Nature
§ Green space Strategies: A Good Practice Guide, CABE Space
§ Planning Policy Guidance 17: Assessing needs and opportunities (Companion Guide).
§ Six Acre Standard: National Playing Fields Association
§ Space for People Targeting action for woodland access: Woodland Trust
PROMOTING THE NATURAL GREEN STRUCTURE OF TOWNS AND CITIES: ENGLISH NATURES
ACCESSIBLE GREENSPACE STANDARDS MODEL
§ No person should live more than 300 m from their nearest area of natural greenspace of at least two (2)
hectares in size;
§ There is provision of at least two (2) hectares of Local Nature Reserve per 1,000 population;
§ That there should be at least one accessible 20 ha site within two (2) km from home
§ That there should be one accessible 100 ha site within five (5) km;
§ That there should be one accessible 500 ha site within (10) km.
GREEN SPACE STRATEGIES: A GOOD PRACTICE GUIDE – CABE SPACE
None specific
62
PLANNING POLICY GUIDANCE 17
Example from South Tyneside (Tyne and Wear City Region): Chapter 6.13
District parks and open spaces: all dwellings should be within 3 km of an open space of at least 30 ha which
provides general facilities for recreational activity within a landscaped setting.
Neighbourhood Parks and Open Spaces: all dwellings should be within 1 km of an open space of between 10
and 30 ha which provides general facilities for recreational activity within a landscaped setting.
Local parks and open spaces: all dwellings should be within 400 m of an open space of between 2 and 10 ha
which provides facilities for recreation within a localised area, catering for the specific informal needs of
occupants of the immediate vicinity.
Pocket parks and small open spaces: all dwellings should be within 200 m of a small formal or informal area of
open space of between 0.2 and 2 ha that is suitable for informal use and has high amenity value.
Minimum Acceptable Size Component – Good Practice Example: Fareham Borough Council Chapter
6.16
§ Pitches: a minimum of two pitches plus changing and parking
§ Other outdoor sports facilities: a minimum of 0.65 ha
§ Local equipped areas for play: a minimum of 0.5 ha
§ Neighbourhood Equipped Areas for Play: a minimum of 1.0 ha
§ Informal play spaces: a. minimum of 0.1 ha, with no dimension less than 10 m
SIX ACRE STANDARD: NATIONAL PLAYING FIELDS ASSOCIATION
A minimum standard for outdoor playing space of 2.4 hectares (6 acres) for 1000 people, comprising 1.6
hectares (4 acres) for outdoor sport and 0.8 hectares (2 acres) for children's play.
Outdoor equipped playgrounds for children of whatever age; other designated facilities for children which offer
specific opportunity for outdoor play, such as adventure playgrounds; casual or informal playing space within
housing areas 0.60.8 ha (1.52 acres)
SPACE FOR PEOPLE TARGETING ACTION FOR WOODLAND ACCESS: WOODLAND TRUST
“Woodland Access Standard” that no person should live more than 500m from at least one area of accessible
woodland of no less than 2ha in size and that there should also be at least one area of accessible woodland of
no less than 20ha within 4km (8km roundtrip) of people’s homes.
63
APPENDIX 2: REGIONAL STAKEHOLDERS LIST OF GI COMPONENTS INCORPORABLE INTO DOMAIN
ANALYSIS
This information was produced to help inform and develop the conceptual basis for the regional approach to
Green Infrastructure and as a discussion paper to engage regional stakeholders.
A review of the academic literature and policy documents reveals a plethora of seemingly overlapping ‘green’
concepts. These include:
§ Nearby nature § Greenways
§ Sustainable cities § Greenway skeletons
§ Sustainable greening § Recreational corridors
§ Green cities § Parkways
§ Green space § Rail trails
§ Green structure § Ecological corridors
§ Green lanes § Ecological networks
§ Green spokes § Wildlife corridors
§ Green wedges § Landscape planning
§ Green belts § Linked landscapes
§ Green lungs § Urban forests
§ Green exercise § Community forests
§ Green corridors § Ecological footprints
§ Green infrastructure
These are variously associated with a range of benefits, which include:
§ Recreation and exercise opportunities § Noise abatement
§ Landscape enhancement § Noncar transportation opportunities (with
§ Nature conservation benefits an emphasis on quality and safety)
§ Conservation of cultural heritage § Education – the “outdoor classroom”
§ Sympathetic management of sites of § Provision of space for public art
geological significance § Land reclamation
§ Defragmentation of green spaces/patches § Linking town and country and integrating
within the urban landscape the urban fringe into urban networks
§ Provision of trees in the urban landscape – § A recognition of the multiple values of ‘un
aesthetic and cultural dimension built’ land in urban and urban fringe areas
§ Public health (physiological and § Economic development through regional
psychological) image enhancements
§ Water management (e.g. flood mitigation § Farm diversification opportunities and the
through increased porosity of land cover) wider rural economy
§ Amelioration of climatic extremes § Localisation of supply chain linkages
§ Pollution control and buffering § Overarching quality of life gains
§ Development buffers and visual screening
Attaining the potential multiple benefits that these benefits indicate is extremely problematic. However, in spite of
the undoubted difficulties of achieving multiple benefits – environmental, economic and social – the concept of
multifunctionality is now at the heart of Countryside Agency thinking, perhaps most notably in the context of the
Countryside Around Towns (CAT) (Gallent et al., 2004) and the following discussion concerning the context for
green infrastructure planning therefore examines the concept of Green Infrastructure (GI) as a concept, a tool
and a framework for planning a multifunctional countryside.
Green Infrastructure and Multifunctionality
‘Green’ and ‘Infrastructure’ are two very widely understood terms and, individually, their essential meaning is
subject to relatively little dispute. In conjunction however there is a danger that the term could mean all things to
all people. Although the term has gained increasing use in recent years, green infrastructure sits within the
semantic pickandmix that appears above, sometimes roughly equated with other terms, at other times used in
an overarching sense and sometimes used interchangeably with other terms. Although the academic literature
65
on greenways in particular (primarily from the United States) is now relatively well established (the seminal
publications date back to the 1980s) green infrastructure itself has only emerged alongside in the last three to
four years. Benedict and McMahon (2002) commit themselves to a definition:
Green infrastructure is an interconnected network of green space that conserves natural
ecosystem values and functions and provides associated benefits to human populations.
Green infrastructure is the ecological framework needed for environmental, social and economic sustainability
(p.12).
Although we would perhaps dispute the centrality of the terms ‘natural’ and ‘ecological’, the authors support this
definition. It is, of course, relatively vague and terms such as ‘associated benefits’ are wideopen. However, the
range of benefits that can accrue from well planned and managed green infrastructure is extremely broad and
they are also specific to local conditions, histories and demands.
Later sections will elaborate on this point, but an appreciation of geography is critical to an informed
understanding of green infrastructure: where resources are located, how demands are distributed and how
priorities work out on the ground. The concept of scale is also important because plans become realities through
transformations of form and function on specific plots, or parcels of land. These parcels may be large or small,
linear features or developments may be short or long and timescales for realisation may be immediate or long
term. Generally, the larger something is the more strategic it is in concept, design, decisionmaking, funding and
operational support, but infrastructures are, by their very nature, hierarchical. You may take the A1 from London
to Newcastle but it is along trunk, A, B and minor roads that you reach your destination, and it is the design and
implementation of these ‘branches’ and ‘twigs’ that can ensure (or not) a smooth and pleasant journey. The
history of transportation infrastructure is that most routes started out to meet local needs, merged, were
integrated and complemented by strategic links over time. Fabos (1995) suggests that greenways developed in
the same way, and over time a greater degree of attention has been paid to the higher levels of the network, or
infrastructure.
It has been suggested that green infrastructure is ‘old wine in new bottles’. A more positive view might be that
green infrastructure has its roots in thinking that go back several decades. The most significant antecedents are:
Basic connectivity studies in Geography which used links, segments and nodes to describe networks, a
language that is still alive and well in the field of Geographical Information Systems (GIS).
The Tradition of Urban Parks: The development of urban parks really originates in the midnineteenth century
when areas of land in or close to cities were allocated for public use. Early parks were based on the pastoral
model and developed by people such as John Nash (17521835) and Joseph Paxton (180365) in the UK, and
the Frederick Law Olmsted (18221903), who extended the idea to create a series of linked parks in his famous
‘Emerald Necklace’ around Boston, USA. The approach to urban park establishment can be said to be human
centred for improving health, increasing access to wildlife, or providing scenic settings. However the
development of the Amsterdam Bos Park in the 1930s had considerable influence on later ‘ecological’
approaches developed in the UK in the 1970s and 1980s which produced ‘naturelike’ landscapes focused very
much on providing a green structure based on ecological principles. An important part of the ecological
movement was also the understanding that children in particular benefit from access to natural surroundings in
urban areas.
Parks went through a period of the doldrums in the middle of the last century, but better funding and research
have brought about a renewed vigour in the development of parks and a greater understanding of their benefits.
The psychological benefits have always been particularly important and with this the understanding that green
space needs to be near to where people live and work. Although there has also been a move towards highly
designed hard landscaped parks – such as can be seen clearly in Barcelona and Paris, generally the ‘green’
component of parks in the UK is still seen as of primary importance. Parks are increasingly seen as a
fundamental part of the green infrastructure of urban areas and their value is reflected in the fact that they
remain, even though they often occupy areas of considerable land value in city centres.
Urban Forestry: Urban forestry has been defined as "the art, science, and technology of managing trees and
forest resources in and around urban community ecosystems for the physiological, sociological, economic and
aesthetic benefits trees provide society" (Helms, 1998). Although the term is used relatively interchangeably in
Europe and the UK in particular with the term Community Forests, the terms have differing meanings in North
66
America where CF's are dominantly recognised to be in a rural setting. At the outset of the UK Community
Forest Initiative in the 1980s the Amsterdam Bos Park was seen as a key example of what could be achieved. In
common with North American experience urban forestry is seen as not just being about trees and thinking from
elsewhere in Europe is raising interest in natural processes of establishment rather than tree planting per se.
Recent shifts in community forest policy in the UK reflect this diversification.
Landscape Ecology, a discipline that takes a multiscaled view of human, biotic and abiotic influences on the
development and planning of landscapes. There have been multiple definitions, but the consideration of
interacting systems across multiple scales and both human and nonhuman systems (and values) are
characteristic. Although this runs the risk of oversimplifying a multifaceted and increasingly wellestablished
discipline, connectivity is a key interest in landscape ecology.
Ecological Networks: the literature on ecological networks is extensive and Jongman et al. (2004) and
Jongman and Fungetti (2004) provide a thorough overview of its origins and current status. Interest in ecological
corridors dates back to a realization that designated conservation sites alone was no longer enough to ensure
the longterm conservation of key species. The relatively small size of sites and the encroachment of an ever
growing range of threats such as pollution, land improvement and climatic change led early landscape ecologists
to raise the scale of their thinking and consider individual components (such as Ancient Semi Natural Woodland
or designated nature reserves) in their landscape setting. The terms siteincontext and landscapeecological
matrix were increasingly widely used to foster approaches that sought to tackle problems at a similar spatial
scale to the factors that were causing them. The need to support migration and dispersal processes led to the
development of ecological corridor concepts which is ‘today recognised as a framework of ecological
components, e.g. core areas, corridors and buffer zones, which provides the physical conditions necessary for
ecosystems and species populations to survive in a humandominated landscape’ (Jongman and Fungetti, 2004.
p.3).
Greenways and Green corridors: these two concepts are treated effectively as one, as they are both focused
on the provision of opportunities and routes for recreation and commuting. Groome (1990) identifies a number of
characteristics of such linear routes:
§ They can provide open space in which people can escape the ‘harshness … and aggravation … of the
urban environment’ (p.383)p;
§ They have a potential role to play in urban design, fostering many attributes of more sustainable cities;
§ They can enhance recreational opportunities, not only by the route itself, but also through use of the
route to access other opportunities and other parts of the wider network;
§ They can provide a spatial framework for balancing conservation interests with development initiatives;
§ Linear routes are of particular interest to recreational users for whom active movement (e.g. walking,
running, cycling or canoeing) is the objective, and disused canals and railway lines are especially
important in this regard;
§ Linear open spaces provide long ‘edges’ at which the relationship between built up and open spaces can
be experienced and explored – again the idea of contrast with the built environment and everyday life is
important.
Other authors have allied greenways with ecological corridors (e.g. Jongman et al., 2004), emphasising that the
concepts of connectivity which are now central to landscape ecology were initially set down from a human
perspective in the early greenway plans and papers. However, the emphasis in much of this work focuses on
how to achieve nature conservation objectives between and around the spatial and other constraints imposed by
human development and activities. In respect of social inclusion, research from the US (Moore et al., 1992)
which reports that the demographic profile of greenways users in any given area was strongly representative of
the demographic profile of the area the route was passing through is important. Although this is not necessarily
transferable to a NE England context, the fact that empirical evidence and standards alike support local use of
local resources is a strong argument for the spatial targeting of green infrastructure investments where social as
well as environmental needs are high. The link to social capital is also significant; if social capital is a measure of
individuals, social groups and communities to positively effect changes that benefit them, then the evidence that
environmental enhancements can improve community cohesion and strengthen sense of worth, opportunity and
control of is significant (REF).
Ecological footprints: ‘The ecological footprint is an accounting tool for ecological resources. Categories of
human consumption are translated into areas of productive land required to provide resources and assimilate
67
waste products. The ecological footprint is a measure of how sustainable our lifestyles are’ (Wackernagel and
Rees, 1995). It is a concept that has recently attracted increased attention (e.g. www.myfootprint.org and WWF
Northern, 2005 and WWF, 2005), not least because it is an effective way to encourage people to visualise the
environmental impacts of their lifestyles. Figure 1 is drawn from some WWF work in the North East and it
illustrates that the average ecological footprint of a resident of the region is in the order of three times the ‘fair
share’ (and therefore globally sustainable) footprint for all humans. Many of the actions that can reduce this
figure relate to personal behaviour (e.g. reducing electricity and water consumption), but others interface directly
with public policy areas where provision (and green infrastructure) has a key role to play. Examples of these
areas are local allotments, purchasing locally grown produce, noncar transport and participation in recycling and
composting schemes.
Sustainable development: although this is not directly an antecedent to green infrastructure, the language of
sustainable development sets the wider frame. This is not the place to get into wider debates about the
definition, salience or attainability of sustainability, although Gallent et al. (2004) page 4 is a neat review of its
problems. Rather than claim that green infrastructure is the key to sustainable Cities and their environs, it is
suggested here that green infrastructure should be seen in the context of initiatives that aim to render current
land use patterns and practices more sustainable. Figure 2, based on Rannikko (1999), emphasises that
sustainability is multidimensional. It is not simply about the viability of environmental systems (e.g. hydrology,
climate, nutrients, soils and vegetation), but it recognises that the protection and conservation of those systems
must be based on economic viability, social welfare and human quality of life.
68
Multifunctionality of green infrastructure
The Countryside Around Towns (CIAT) vision (Countryside Agency and Groundwork, 2004) focuses on multi
functionality and identifies a wider set of potential functions for development and enhancement in the urban
fringe and areas of land that link urban and rural areas. These include:
69
§ A bridge to the country
§ A gateway to the town
§ A health centre
§ A classroom
§ A recycling centre
§ A power plant
§ A productive landscape
§ A place to live sustainably
§ An engine for regeneration
§ A nature reserve
§ A heritage resource
Many of these should be familiar, although the language is different, from the earlier list of benefits
associated with green infrastructure.
Green infrastructure the key delivery mechanism for realising multifunctionality in both urban
and rural green areas
Cutting across these functions are a range of commonalities:
§ Aesthetics: developments should be appropriate and of a high quality
§ Enjoyment: ideally ‘people will wish to linger rather than move through and exit as rapidly as
possible’ (Gallent et al., 2004, p.iv)
§ Partnership: defining and realising objectives must be done in partnership with local communities
and other interest groups
§ Balance: potential conflicts must be identified and managed
§ Linkages: physical linkages lie at the heart of green infrastructure but linkages between
dimensions of sustainability, quality of life and policy areas must also be identified and fostered
§ Functionality: the CAT is not, and should not be, a museum
§ Meaning: developments that have little resonance or relevance for local communities are not
sustainable
§ Opportunity: opportunity is the precursor to use and it relates to access
§ Image: how things look is important, both internally and externally
§ Viability: this relates closely to meaning and functionality, but developments have to be
sustainable in practice as well as attractive in principle
§ Vision: green infrastructure is more than the sum of its parts and multifunctionality goes beyond
coexistence, to consider integration, interaction and inclusion.
Green infrastructure as a concept
Is being used the further development for Community Forests (CF’s) and other landscape scale
partnerships. A number of significant developments have led to this focus:
§ An appreciation of the multidimensional significance of urban fringe areas for many people, and
a recognition of the constrained access, degraded landscape and ecology and depressed
productive value of such areas;
§ The range of hard benefits of green infrastructure can tackle priority policy areas including
tackling accelerating climate change effects, improving social structures and reviving local
economies;
§ The development of landscape ecology as an integrative framework for the analysis and design
of more sustainable, meaningful, aesthetically appealing and accessible landscapes and the
associated focus on connectivity as a principle for the planning, design and management of
landscapes, for the integrated pursuit of ecological, aesthetic and utilitarian objectives;
§ A fundamental shift in forest policy, away from timberoriented productivism, towards
multifunctionality, and most recently, explicit direction from government that new woodlands
70
should be planned and managed with the accretion of social benefits as the primary
consideration.
Connecting green spaces is an integrating framework: at a conceptual level it relates to the principles of
landscape ecology, and the allied concepts of greenways, wildlife corridors, recreational networks and
riparian corridors, and at a practical human level it is the framework through which people can access
spaces that enhance their quality of life and access to new opportunities. green infrastructure is inherently
spatial. It is an infrastructure of green spaces (‘nodes’) and routes and corridors (‘links’) between them. A
focus on green infrastructure demands that attention is paid to the sufficiency and suitability of both the
‘nodes’ and the ‘links’ for achieving the multiple objectives that are defined for them; it is not just about
green spaces or greenways, but about the way these relate in functional and experiential terms for users
of this significant resource.
Hubs anchor green infrastructure networks, providing origins and destinations for the wildlife and
ecological processes moving to or through them. Links are the connections tying the system together and
enabling green infrastructure networks to work (Benedict and McMahon, 2002, p.12). Again, Benedict and
McMahon’s language is ecological in its focus, but the concepts are directly transferable to human
interests in, and movements through, the landscape. In the existing literature, the science of landscape
ecology establishes a framework for the integrated pursuit of ecological, aesthetic, cultural, social and
economic objectives but is unable to establish detailed templates for their integration ‘on the ground’, and
the appreciation of the principles of connectivity amongst planners and allied professionals has been
shown to be highly variable (Dover, 2000; Turner, 2004). The reality of networks such as greenways or
wildlife corridors is that they have usually been developed in an opportunistic fashion, linking such areas
of open and green space as was costeffectively and politically possible, without either a systematic
approach to planning or design in pursuit of the multiple benefits that such connectivity may confer.
Furthermore, the UK landuse planning system lacks the statutory tools and focus to establish and
implement truly integrated spatial landuse plans (Selman, 1997). This is to say, there has been relatively
little attention paid in the UK to green infrastructure planning at the strategic scale, although there are
pressures to change this, and CF plans are at the forefront of this.
Recent shifts in forest policy have considerable relevance here: the UK government has long been
committed, for various reasons, to driving up the proportion of land under trees and the current emphasis
in policy and practice is on integrating woodland with other landuses rather than the replacement of other
landuses with woodland. The integration of forest planning with urban and urban fringe planning and
management is the context for the forthcoming development of the third generation of CF plans, which
are adopting the theme of green infrastructure, underpinned in the North East with a study to target
investment at a regional scale (MacFarlane & Roe, 2004). CF’s are spatially defined zones on the edges
of 12 major towns and cities. They are intended to promote an increase in tree cover within these areas,
but the emphasis is on realising multiple benefits for local communities, economies, landscape and
conservation interests through well designed, accessible, interesting and safe woodlands that are
embedded in their landscape context. The future of CF’s is to extend outside of the spatially defined
boundaries and take on a greater role in urban fringe planning and management; connectivity and spatial
integration is at the core of the green infrastructure concept.
At a general level six broad sets of interests in green infrastructure might be identified, although there are
of course strong interlinkages between these categories:
1. Nature conservation – the literature on wildlife corridors, ecological networks and the wider
discipline of landscape ecology emphasises the value of connectivity at a variety of scales from
the continental to the local.
2. Recreation – greenways have been promoted as routes, dominantly for noncar transport, that
emphasise the quality of the route as well as more basic issues of welfare and safety. This has
become increasingly engaged with interests around public health and quality of life.
3. Landscape – although this is intimately related to (a) and (b), landscape architects and designers
have long been involved in the identification, establishment and development of green spaces
and corridors in urban areas. This is separated out here as the rationale employed is often
71
different, taking a dominantly aesthetic and experiential, rather than purely functional, view on
such resources.
4. Sustainable resource management – green infrastructure has a potentially extremely significant
role to play in the sustainable management of land and water resources, including production
(e.g. energy and food crops) and pollution control.
5. Economic development and regeneration – development and regeneration agencies have an
interest in the environmental quality of regions. This is driven by a range of primary interests,
primarily its relationship with quality of life and enhancement of the external image of the region.
green infrastructure is a critical element of environmental quality which has been shown to be
related to inward investment decisions as well as the residential choices of key workers in local
economic sectors.
6. Sustainable communities – many of the attributes of more sustainable communities can be
provided and supported through a strong green infrastructure, for example green space for
recreation, education and health, shading, increased porosity of land cover, provision for noncar
transport and shortened supply linkages.
Although these different dimensions of green infrastructure and the rationale to promote and develop
green infrastructure are separate14, they do of course interrelate, as policy areas and as lived
experiences of people in local areas. Figure 3 is based in the concepts of human ecology, but variants of
this from many other sources identify the interrelationships between people, their environment and the
economic context (for example Ian Thompson’s Ecology, Community and Delight). Gallent et al. (2004), in
the same vein, uses the metaphor of a threelegged stool for sustainability; if any one of the legs comes
off then the whole stool topples over.
Liveability of Cities in the Future
Liveability has been defined in terms of interaction between a community and the environment (Shafer et
al., 2000). Access and positive engagement with local environments that service the range of
communities’ wants and needs imply liveable areas. Problematic access, poor engagement, depressed
value and low quality environments imply areas that are less liveable. This is not just about green spaces
to fly kites and walk dogs; it is far broader, embracing the range of environmental services such as heat
and flood mitigation and safe journeys to school.
Overarching concepts (Green Infrastructure and Sustainable Cities included) need to be analysed,
defined and disaggregated if their attainment is to be expressed through (spatially specific) plans. Such
plans need to address both personal objectives (e.g. an attractive, accessible and meaningful local
environment) and wider social and governmental objectives (e.g. promoting healthy living and managing
the long term finances of health care for an ageing population). However, this is precisely what multi
functionality can address. For example, climatic change predictions for the UK indicate wetter winters,
drier and warmer summers and an increasing incidence of extreme weather events, for instance flash
flooding. Under such conditions the argument for increased woodland cover in urban areas takes on
additional strength: a more porous urban landcover is better able to mitigate extreme rainfall events and
enhanced shading controls extremes of temperature, in turn reducing the demand for (energy hungry and
carbon generating) airconditioning in buildings.
This is what Jongman and Fungetti (2004) and others have termed the ‘hypothesis of cooccurance’, the
ability of green infrastructure (although their point of reference was greenways in particular) to service
multiple demands. This ability can only be achieved through insightful and informed planning and careful
delivery processes.
14
For example Gobster and Westphal (2004) define six interdependent human dimensions of greenways:
cleanliness, naturalness, aesthetics, safety, access and appropriateness of development and Bischoff
(1995) defines the purposes of greenways as environment, ecology, education, exercise and expression.
72
APPENDIX 4: METHOD FOR PRODUCING GI PLANS IN NORTH EAST ENGLAND
STAGE 1: Mapping Green Infrastructure based on the digital national framework
OS Mastermap data
Select out features
corresponding to XYX
Input from NLUD Classification:
Attribute each polygon Land Cover and
with type Land Use Classifications
Baseline GI Mapping
Example from StocktononTees Tees Valley City Region
© Crown copyright. Ordnance Survey. Countryside Agency no. 100018881
73
STAGE 2: GI strategy formulation supported by Geographical Information system and a domain
analysis developed by regional stakeholder involvement and existing guidelines
Range of additional
GIS datasets Baseline GI
Mapping
Domain Analysis
CONTEXT ANALYSIS
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS LINKAGE ANALYSIS
Establish the landscape,
Categorised assessment nature and human setting for Establish the degree of
of the landscape, nature each site (e.g. rarity, access, Positive connectivity that
and human significance pop density and deprivation) exists for individual sites
of individual sites and and elements in the
elements GI network
PLANNING GUIDE
OUTPUTS
Thematic GI maps
Network maps
Vulnerability maps
Targeting maps
Examples of existing GIS data
§ Nature Conservation Sites
§ National Cycle Network
§ Important Bird Areas
§ Public Rights of Way network
§ Accessible Woodlands
§ Woodland Grant Schemes
§ Countryside Stewardship Schemes
§ Sport Pitches & Tracks
§ Local Plans
§ Heritage
§ Floodplains
§ OS Points of Interest
§ Archaeological sites
§ Landscape character
§ Index of multiple deprivation
§ Census data
§ Population
74
Sample area based on range of population density.
© Crown copyright. Ordnance Survey. Countryside Agency no. 100018881
Identification of Linkages
© Crown copyright. Ordnance Survey. Countryside Agency no. 100018881
© Crown copyright. Ordnance Survey. Countryside Agency no. 100018881
75
STAGE 3: Consultation and delivery
PLANNING GUIDE OUTPUTS
Thematic GI maps
Network maps
Vulnerability maps
Targeting maps
Local knowledge Environmental Planner
of sites Input plus stakeholder
Involvement.
GI Plan including Opportunity
Map and Strategic Narrative
Partnership
Delivery Group
Costed Delivery
Plan
Implementation
76
Appendix Eight: Bibliography
Landscape
Bussey, S.C. (1996). Public uses, preferences and perceptions of urban woodlands in Redditch. Doctoral
Dissertation. University of Central England. (Unpublished.)
Dai, L. (2000). Public perception of naturalistic herbaceous vegetation in urban landscape and key
elements that determine response. Master's dissertation. University of Sheffield Department of
Landscape. (Unpublished.)
Dowse, S. (1987). Landscape design guidelines for recreational woodlands in the urban fringe. Master's
dissertation. University of Manchester. (Unpublished.)
Givoni, B. (1991). Impact of planted areas on urban environmental quality: a review. Atmospheric
Environment, 25B(3): 289299.
Kaplan, R. and Kaplan, S. (1989). The Experience of Nature. Cambridge University Press.
Leopold, R. (1996). A provider of opportunities. Landscape Design, May: 4144.
Communities, Welfare and Quality of Life
Burgess, J., Harrison, C.M. and Limb, M. (1988). People, parks and the urban green: a study of popular
meanings and values for open spaces in the city. Urban Studies, 25: 455473.
Coley, R.L., Kuo, F.E. and Sullivan, W.C. (1997). Where does community grow? The social context
created by nature in urban public housing. Environment and Behaviour, 29(4): 468494.
Faber Taylor, A., Wiley, A., Kuo, F.E. and Sullivan, W.C. (1998). Growing up in the inner city green
spaces as places to grow. Environment and Behaviour, 30(1): 327.
Faber Taylor, A., Kuo, F.E. and Sullivan, W.C. (2001). Coping with ADD. The surprising connection to
green play settings. Environment and Behaviour, 33(1): 5477.
Fjortoft, I. and Sageie, J. (2000). The natural environment as a playground for children. Landscape
description and analyses of a natural playscape. Landscape and Urban Planning, 48: 8397.
Francis, K. (1996). Physical activity in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Physical Therapy, 76(5):
456468.
Hull, R.B., Lam, M. and Vigo, G. (1994). Place identity: symbols of self in the urban fabric. Landscape and
Urban Planning, 28: 109120.
Jorgensen, A., Hitchmough, J. and Calvert, T. (In press). Space and edge interaction and its impact on
perception of safety and preference in urban parks and greenspaces. Landscape and Urban Planning.
Kuo, F.E. (2001). Coping with poverty. Impacts of environment and attention in the inner city.
Environment and Behaviour, 33(1): 534.
Kuo, F.E., Bacaicoa, M. and Sullivan, W.C. (1998). Transforming innercity landscapes. Trees, sense of
safety and preference. Environment and Behaviour, 30(1): 2859.
77
Kweon, B., Sullivan, W.C. and Wiley, A.R., (1998). Green common spaces and the social integration of
inner city older adults. Environment and Behaviour, 30(6): 832858.
Lindsey, G., Maraj, M. and Kuan, S.C. (2001). Access, Equity and Urban Greenways, Professional
Geographer, 53(3), 332346
Leather, P., Pyrgas, M., Beale, D. and Lawrence, C., (1998). Windows in the workplace sunlight, view
and occupational stress. Environment and Behaviour, 30(6): 739762.
MaAuley, E., Blissmer, S., Marquez, D.X., Jerome, G.J., Kramer, A.F. and Katula, J. (2000). Social
relations, physical activity, and wellbeing in older adults. Preventive Medicine, 31(5): 608617.
Moore, E.O. (1982). A prison environment's effect on health care service demands. Journal of
Environmental Systems, 11(1): 1734.
Palleschi, L., De Gennaro, E., Sottosanti, G., Vetta, F., Ronzoni, S., Lato, P.F.A. and Marigliano, V.
(1998). The role of exercise training in aged subjects with anxietydepression syndrome. Archives of
Gerontology and Geriatrics, 381384, Suppl. 6.
Paluska, S.A. and Shwenk, T.L. (2000). Physical activity and mental health current concepts. Sports
Medicine. 29(3): 167180.
Parsons, R. (1991). The potential influences of environmental perception on human health. Journal of
Environmental Psychology, 11:123.
Parsons, R., Tassinary, L.G., Ulrich, R.S., Hebl, M.R. and GrossmanAlexander, M. (1998). The view from
the road: implications for stress recovery and immunization. Journal of Environmental Psychology,
18:113139.
Rennie, L. (1993). A controlled trial of exercise by residents of old people's homes. Age and Aging, 22(1):
1115.
Ruuskanen, J.M. and Ruoppila, I. (1995). Physical activity and psychological wellbeing among people
aged 65 to 84 years. Age and Aging, 24(4): 292296.
Satoh, T., Sakurai, I., miyagi, K. and Hoshaku, Y. (1995). Walking exercise and improved neurological
functioning in elderly patients with cardiac disease. Journal of Internal Medicine, 238(5): 423428.
Ulrich, R.S. (1984). View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science, 224: 420421.
Ulrich, R.S. Simons, R.F., Losito, B.D., Fiorito, E., Miles, M.A. and Zelson, M. (1991). Stress recovery
during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11: 201230.
Weyerer, S. and Kupfer, B. (1994). Physical exercise and psychological health. Sports Medicine, 17(2):
108116.
Planning
Ahern, J. (1995). Greenways as a planning strategy Landscape and Urban Planning, 33 (13), 131155
Finco, A. and Nijkamp, P. (2003). Pathways to urban sustainability, Journal of Environmental Policy and
Planning, 3, 289302.
Flink, C.A. and Searns, R.M. (1993). Greenways: a Guide to Planning, Design and Development, Island
Press, Washington.
78
Helms, J.A. (Ed.). 1998. The Dictionary of Forestry. Society of American Foresters.
Jim, C.Y. (2004). Greenspace preservation and allocation for sustainable greening of compact cities,
Cities, 21(4), 311320.
Luymes, D.T. and Tamminga, D. (1995). Integrating public safety and use into planning urban greenways.
Landscape and Urban Planning, 33: 391400.
MacFarlane, R. and Roe, M. (2004). Strategic Planning for the Development of North East Community
Forests: a GIS Study, North East Community Forests
Moore, R. L., Graefe, A.R., Gitelson, R.J., and Porter, B. (1992).The Impacts of RailTrails, A Study of
Users and Nearby Property Owners from Three Trails. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior,
National Park Service, Rivers, Trails, and Conservation Assistance Program, February 1992.
Parsons, R. (1995). Conflict between ecological sustainability and environmental aesthetics: conundrum,
canärd or curiosity. Landscape and Urban Planning, 32: 227244.
Selman, P. (1997). The role of forestry in meeting planning objectives, Land Use Policy, 14(1), 5573
TEP (2005). Advancing the delivery of green infrastructure: targeting issues in England’s Northwest, The
Environment Partnership.
Turner (in press). Greenway planning in Britain: recent work and future plans, Landscape and Urban
Planning
Wackernagel, M and Rees, W. (1995). Our Ecological Footprint; Reducing Human Impact on the Earth,
New Society Publishers
WWF Northern (2005). The world is not enough… but it is all we have, WWF in association with
Sunderland City Council, Government Office North East, NE Assembly, One North East and Stockholm
Environment Institute.
WWF (2005). Regional Footprints: solutions to reduce our global impact, WWFUK.
Ecology
Ash, H.A., Bennett, R. and Scott, R. (1992). Flowers in the Grass. English Nature, Peterborough,
England.
Cook, E. (2002). Landscape structure indices for assessing urban ecological networks, Landscape and
Urban Planning, 58, 269280.
FerndándezJuricic, E. (2000). Avifaunal use of wooded streets in an urban landscape, Conservation
Biology, 14, 512521.
Gordon, D. (Ed.) (1990). Green Cities: Ecologically Sound approaches to Urban Space, Black Rose,
Montreal.
Jongman R.H.G. & Pungetti, G. (Eds.) (2004) Ecological networks and greenways; concept, design,
implementation (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).
Lickorish, S., Luscombe, G. and Scott, R. (1997). Wildflowers Work. Landlife, Liverpool, England.
79
Purcell, A.T. and Lamb, R.J. (1998). Preference and naturalness: an ecological approach. Landscape and
Urban Planning. 42: 5766.
Multifunctionality
Shafter, C.S., Lee, B.K., & Turner, S. (2000). A tale of three greenway trails: User perceptions related to
quality of life. Landscape and Urban Planning, 49, 163178.
Barker, G. (1997). A framework for the future: green networks with multiple uses in and around towns and
cities. English Nature, Peterborough, England.
st
Benedict, M.A. and McMahon, E.T. (2002). Green Infrastructure: smart conservation for the 21 Century,
Renewable Resources Journal
Bradley, G.A. (Ed.) (1995). Urban Forest Landscapes: Integrating Multidisciplinary Perspectives,
University of Washington Press, Seattle.
Dover, J. (2000). Human, Environmental and Wildlife Aspects of Corridors, Landscape Research, Volume
25(3), 333 44
Gallent, N., Anderson, J., Bianconi, M. and Osment, F. (2004). Vision for a sustainable, multifunctional
ruralurban fringe, Barlett School of Planning and LDA Design. Final report to the Countryside Agency.
Rannikko, P. (1999). Combining Social and Ecological Sustainability in the Nordic Forest Periphery,
Sociologia Ruralis, 39(3), pp. 394410.
Recreation
Bristol Cycling Campaign (1997) Integrating Pedal Power and Pedestrians. Bristol: Bristol Cycling
Campaign.
Burgess, J. (1995) Growing in Confidence: Understanding People’s Perceptions of Urban Fringe
Woodlands. Publication CCP 457. Cheltenham: Countryside Commission .
Centre for Leisure and Sport Research (2002) Count Me In. Report to the Department for Culture, Media
and Sport. Leeds: Centre for Leisure and Sport Research, Leeds Metropolitan University .
Commission for Integrated Transport (2001) Study of European Best Practice in the Delivery of Integrated
Transport. Summary Report. London: Commission for Integrated Transport
(www.cfit.gov.uk/research/ebp/exec/index/htm).
Countryside Commission (1998) Greenways. Research Notes Issue CCRN4. Cheltenham: Countryside
Commission .
Crawford, D.W. and Godbey, G. (1987) ‘Reconceptualising Barriers to Family Leisure’ , Leisure Sciences
9: 119–128 .
Crawford, D.W., Jackson, E.L. and Godbey, G. (1991) ‘A Hierarchical Model of Leisure Constraints’ ,
Leisure Sciences 13: 309–320 .
Curry, N. and Ravenscroft, N. (2001) ‘Countryside Recreation Provision in England: Exploring a Demand
Led Approach’ , Land Use Policy 18(3): 281–291 .
80
Curry, N.R., Joseph, D.H. and Slee, W. (2001) ‘To Climb a Mountain? Social Inclusion and Outdoor
Recreation in Britain’ , World Leisure Journal 43(3): 3–15 .
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (1999) Cycling for Better Health. Traffic
Advisory Leaflet 12/99. London: Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions .
Department of Transport (1996) The National Cycling Strategy. London: Department of Transport .
Department of Transport and Welsh Office (1986) Shared Use by Cyclists and Pedestrians, Local
Transport Note 2/86. London: HMSO .
Department of Transport and Welsh Office (1989) Making Way for Cyclists. Local Transport Note 1/89.
London: HMSO .
Downward, P. and Lumsdon, L. (2001) ‘The Development of Recreational Cycle Routes: an Evaluation of
User Needs’ , Managing Leisure 6: 50–60 .
Edensor, T. (2000) ‘Walking in the British Countryside: Reflexivity, Embodied Practices and Ways to
Escape’ , Body and Society 6(3/4): 81–106 .
Inland Waterways Amenity Advisory Council (2001) The Inland Waterways: Towards Greater Social
Inclusion. London: Inland Waterways Amenity Advisory Council .
Jackson, E.L. (1988) ‘Leisure Constraints: A Survey of Past Research’ , Leisure Sciences 10: 203–215 .
Jackson, E.L. (1993) ‘Recognising Patterns of Leisure Constraints: Results from Alternative Analyses’ ,
Journal of Leisure Research 25: 129–149 .
Jackson, E.L., Crawford, D.W. and Godbey, G. (1993) ‘Negotiation of Leisure Constraints’ , Leisure
Sciences 15: 1–11 .
Land Use Consultants (1997) Greenways: Consensus Building and Conflict Resolution. Report to the
Countryside Commission. Bristol: Land Use Consultants .
London Walking Forum (2000) Walking: Making it Happen. London: Pedestrian Association .
Madge, C. (1997) ‘Public Parks and the Geography of Fear’ , Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale
Geographie 88: 237–250 .
Nair, G., Ditton, J. and Phillips, S. (1993) ‘Environmental Improvements and the Fear of Crime’ , British
Journal of Criminology 33: 555–561.
Nasar, J.L. and Jones, K.M. (1997) ‘Landscapes of Fear and Stress’ , Environment and Behaviour 29(3):
291–323 .
Nicholls, S. (2001) ‘Measuring the Accessibility and Equity of Public Parks: A Case Study Using GIS’ ,
Managing Leisure 6: 201–219 .
Nottingham City Council (1999) New Deal for Transport: Walking and Cycling Strategy. Nottingham:
Nottingham City Council (www.nottscc.gov.uk/walkweb4.htm).
Oc, T. and Tiesdell, S. (1997) ‘Towards Safer City Centres’, in T. Oc and S. Tiesdell (eds) Safer City
Centres: Reviving the Public Realm. London: Paul Chapman Publishing .
Ravenscroft, N. (1998) ‘Rights, Citizenship and Access to the Countryside’ , Space and Polity 2(1): 33–49
.
81
Ravenscroft, N. (2000) ‘The Vitality and Viability of Town Centres’ , Urban Studies 37(13): 2533–2549 .
Ravenscroft, N., Uzzell, D. and Leach, R. (2002) ‘Danger Ahead? The Impact of Fear of Crime on
People’s Recreational Use of NonMotorised Shared Use Routes’ , Environment and Planning C:
Government and Policy 20(5): 741–756 .
Searle, M.S. and Jackson, E.L. (1985) ‘Socioeconomic Variations in Perceived Barriers to Recreation
Participation among WouldBe Participants’ , Leisure Sciences 7: 227–249 .
Stemerding, M., Oppewal, H. and Timmermans, H. (1999) ‘A ConstraintsInduced Model of Park Choice’ ,
Leisure Sciences 21: 145–158 .
Sustrans (1999) Shared Use Routes. Information Sheet FF04. Bristol: Sustrans .
University of Brighton Consortium (2001) WaterBased Sport and Recreation: The Facts. Bristol:
Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (www.defra.gov.uk/wildlife
countryside/resprog/findings/watersport.pdf).
Uzzell, D.L., Groeger, J., Leach, R., Parker, G., Ravenscroft, N. and Wright, A. (2000) User Interactions
on Unsegregated NonMotorised Shared Use Routes. Report to the Countryside Agency. Guildford:
Department of Psychology, University of Surrey .
Uzzell, D.L., Leach, R., Hunt, L., Ravenscroft, N. and Rogers, G. (2002) User Interactions in Non
Motorised Shared Use Environments — Phase II: Looking for Trouble. Report to the Countryside Agency.
Guildford: Department of Psychology, University of Surrey . Summary now also published by the
Countryside Agency, How People Interact on OffRoad Routes: Phase II. Research Note CRN 69.
Cheltenham: Countryside Agency, 2003.
82