Modern Physics

An excursion into the

development of new ideas
 BBR
Things to know

• What is a black body

• Sketch the spectrum of BB at different
temperatures
• Note that
– Wavelength at peak intensity
(maxdecreases with increase temperature
• Relationship maxis proportion to absolute
Temperature Wien’s law (constant 2.898x10-3 m.K)
 Black Body Radiation

Credits

http://rh5.clemson.edu/ropermtn/naturalEM.php
 – Total power per unit area is the area under the curve
– This increases with temperature
– Stefan’s law gives the relationship (P = 
• I = T4
• Rayleigh-Jean Law
– Attempt to derive spectral intensity by considering
standing waves in the cavity

2 c k B T
I ( , T ) 
4
• Ultraviolet catastrophe (small wavelength)
• Infinite total power
 Planck’s Solution
• Assumptions
– Cavity Walls are oscillators
– Oscillators have range of fundamental frequencies
– Oscillators exchange radiation with cavity
– Each oscillator of fund. Freq. f can absorb or emit
energy
E =nhf where n = 0,1,2,3
Novel Idea
Led to the correct eqn
2hc 2
I ( , T ) 
 hc
5   k BT

 e  1
 
 
 Photoelectric Effect

Credits
http://www.physics.umd.edu/perg/qm/qmcourse/NewModel/research
/pe_jcmst/Jcmst00.htm
 Classical Expectations
• Light is a wave so its energy must depend
on the intensity and independent of its
frequency.
• Emission of photoelectrons should not
depend on the frequency, but on the
intensity
• KE should depend on its intensity
• A delay should be expected as electrons
absorb enough energy from the wave
 Graphs

Credits

http://phycomp.technion.ac.il/~webteach/phys3/ph114053/adler/photo.html
http://library.thinkquest.org/28383/nowe_teksty/htmla/1_8a.html
 Observations
• No current for frequency below threshold (Cutoff)
frequency. Independent of intensity
• The amount of saturation current depends on the light
intensity
• The maximum kinetic energy (or stopping voltage ) is
proportional to frequency, independent of intensity
• Threshold frequency depends on the metal
• Stopping voltage depends only on metal and frequency ,
not on intensity
• Instantaneous emission of electrons on illumination
 Conclusions
• Light consists of discrete photons
• Energy of a photon E = hf
• Atom absorbs total photon
• Energy equal to the work function needed
to remove electron from atom
• WF depends on the metal used
• Energy of photon in excess of WF goes
into K.E of electron (Cons. Of Energy)
 Compton Effect
• Monochromatic X-rays scattered from
electrons in Graphite
• Observed change in wavelength which
varied with scattering angle
• (not expected)

h
2  1  1  cos( )
me c
Diagram
 Explanation
• Light consists of discrete particles
• These particles collide with the stationary
electrons of the graphite
• Relativistic energy and momentum are
conserved (similar to particle-particle
collision)
 Class Exercises
• The Sun emits energy at a rate of 3.9x1026 W.
(i) If the radius is 6.96x108 m, determine the
mean temperature.(ii) If the average
wavelength of its radiation is 550 nm,
determine the average number of photons
emitted by the sun in a second.

• The wavelength associated with the cutoff

frequency of silver is 325 nm. Find the
maximum kinetic energy and the stopping
potential for electrons emitted when silver is
illuminated by ultraviolet light of wavelength
 Atomic Spectra
• Sunlight has continuous spectrum

• When electric arc passed through gas, the gas

emits a line (emission) spectrum
• White light passing through low density gas results
in absorption spectrum

www.prophotolife.com
http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio111/metabolism.htm
 Atomic Spectra
The Absorption and
emission spectra
are characteristic of the
element.

Applications:
•Study of elements in The
Sun and Stars
•Analysis of heavy metal
contamination in food
•Neon Signs
•Fluorescent lamps

http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~mcannon/Research%20Home/Research%20Home%20Pictures/
Spectrum.jpg
 Spectral Series of Hydrogen
1  1 1 
 RH  2  2 
 n ni 
 f

• RH is Rhdberg constant = 1.097373x107 m-1

• nf = 2 Balmer series ( first observed and equation
deduced by school teacher)
• nf = 1 Lyman series (UV range)
• nf = 3 Paschen Series
• Note ni > nf
• Note n <> 0
• Equation was empirical (not based on Theory)
 Bohr’s Postulates
• Atom consists of electrons in circular orbits around
positive nucleus with Newtonian physics applying to
orbit.
• The electron can only exist in stationary states. In these
states no energy is emitted
• If an electron moves from one stationary state to that of
lower energy a photon is emitted with
E1 - E2 = h f (f is the frequency of the photon)
• The stationary states are such that angular momentum is
quantised mvr = n h/2(pi) n = 1,2,3,4,….
 Derivation of Bohr’s atom
• Coulomb Force
• Centripetal Acceleration

• Energy E = PE + KE
• Fourth Postulate

• Obtain

• rn = a n2 a = 52.92 pm En= 13.60 eV /n2

 Class Exercises
• Determine the energy required to ionise a
hydrogen atom from the state n= 3. A
photon transitions from n=6 to n= 2.
Calculate the (i) Energy (ii) Wavelength of
the emitted photon.
• Discuss ground state, excited states

• Draw the energy level diagram, the

ionisation energy and the first Bohr radius
for Singly ionised helium (-54.4eV n =1)
 Limitations of Bohr Atom
The Bohr Model
• has flat circle but observation shows spherical
electronic orbit
• Has minimum angular momentum of h/2
however Lmin = 0
• Cannot explain spectra of more complex atoms
• Cannot account for the variation of intensity or
splitting of spectral line under magnetic fields
• Cannot account for the wave nature of the
electron
 Nature of Light
• Interference of light seemed conclusive
evidence for wave nature of light
• Photoelectric effect– discrete localised
energy
• Compton Effect proved localised p, E…
• Both confirm particle nature of light
• Reduce light intensity in Young’s experiment
– Individual particles detected on screen
• Conclude wave-particle duality for light
 De Broglie
• Particle has a wavelength
λ = h/p
• Observed by Davisson Germer
• Interference pattern observed for e, p, n, I2
& buckyballs
• Applications
– Electron & Neutron diffraction used to
determine atomic structure liquids &solid
– Electron diffraction used to study surfaces of
solids
 Class Exercises
• In the typical television set the electrons
are accelerated through a potential
difference of 25.0kV. Ignoring relativistic
effect, determine their De Broglie
wavelength and compare it to that of a
tennis ball served by Serena Williams
(m=56.7 g v= 120 mph)
• 1 mph = 0.447 m/s
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZUI3lhRje_0

• Observe
– Individual particles at detector
– Low intensity area has low probability
of particle
– Interference pattern emerge over
time

• Deduce
– e- detected as particles, but their
probability of arrival at a point on the
screen is determined by the
interference of a pair of waves
Image Credit
http://scienceblogs.com/startswithabang/upload/2009/05/
a_tale_of_two_slits/electron_two_slit.jpg
 Complimentarity
• The double slit experiment with reduced
particle number showed that the electron is
detected as a particle but their arrival at a
point on the screen is determined by the
interference of two waves.
• Thus both wave and particle properties are
required to explain the “particle”.
• Cannot observe both properties
simultanteously
• Cover one slit
– No interference

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DfPeprQ7oGc
 Quantum Mechanics
• Matter wave?
– Is complex
– Has everything knowable about particle
• Satisfy Schrödinger Equation
• Interpretation of wave function
•
 Poetry in Physics
• Origin German
– Erwin kann mit seinem Psi
kalkulieren wie noch nie.
Doch wird jeder gleich einsehn:
Psi lässt sich nicht recht verstehn
• English translation that does not run as
smoothly, but may be easier to understand for
some. :-)
– Erwin with his psi can do
calculations quite a few.
But one thing has not been seen:
Just what does psi really mean?
 What Psi means

2
P( x ) dx   ( x ) dx
 Review Standing Wave
• Standing wave on a string of length L
  = 2L/n with n = 1,2,3
• Note wavelengths are quantised
• For standing wave y = sin(kx)

• Express y in terms of L & n

 Particle in a box
• Particle in 1-D box with Infinitely hard walls
– Infinite potential well
– Width of well L
– Mass of particle m
• Particle exists only in certain stationary states
• Stationary states are standing waves
• Determines the possible wavelengths
• L =  n/2 n = 1,2,3…
• The wave function is standing wave
• Wave-function defines the probability distribution
of the particle
 Quantised Energy Levels

• By DeBroglie the wavelength determines

the momentum
• p determines KE for that state
• Recall V= 0 so total E =
• Derive E
• Only quantised energy possible
• Note n<> 0 thus lowest energy state n = 1
ground state energy.
 Wave Function for PiB
• Sketch
 (x)

 2
 Class Exercises
• An electron is trapped in an infinite potential well
(particle in 1-D box) 250 pm wide and is in the
ground state. How much energy must it absorb if it is
to jump to the state n = 4. Determine the wavelength
of the photon emitted when it subsequently drops
back down to the n = 2 energy level.
•  
• A particle of mass m is in an infinite potential well of
width L. The particle is in the first excited state. Find
the ratio of the probability of finding the particle in a
small interval about point x = L/3 to that of finding
the particle in an interval of equal size around the
point x = L/4.
• Black Body Radiation
• Temperature Wien’s law
• Stefan’s law
• Planck’s Solution
• Photoelectric Effect
• Experiment
• Classical Expectations
• Graphs
• Observations
• Einstein’s Solution
• Compton Effect
• Experiment
• Results
• Explanation
• Atomic Spectra
• Emission/Absorption
• Spectral Series of Hydrogen
• Bohr’s Postulates
• Bohr’s atom
• De Broglie’s Hypothesis
• Quantum Mechanics
• Wave function
• Wave function interpretation
• Particle in a box
•