.

Introduction

Buying a plastic injection moulding machine (PIMM) is not a small

investment. Too much machine for the job at hand is wasteful; too
little machine does not get the job done. Careful matching of the
job's needs and the attributes of a PIMM is well worth the effort.

A good PIMM produces consistent parts from shot to shot, and does so
in re-runs of the same job. Choosing a PIMM simply on the basis of
shot weight is too simplistic. Neither is clamping force alone
sufficient. This article attempts to show the importance of other
attributes to consider. The article 'How a plastic injection moulding
machine works' is good pre-reading for the present one.

The attributes are classified into quantifiable attributes, on-off

attributes and non-quantifiable attributes. The first two types could
be obtained from the specification and description of the machine,
the last type could only be determined by user's measurement, usage
or words of mouth.

2. The quantifiable attributes

The quantifiable attributes are usually found in the specification of

a PIMM. They should be considered together instead of individually in
considering a selection. The significance of each is explained below.
In short, this section steps the readers through how to read a PIMM's
sspecification table.

Most quantifiable attributes in a specification table are the maximum

the machine is capable of. If so, a value at or below the maximum
could be used. Table 1 lists the quantifiable attributes and whether
they are specified as a maximum in a specification table.

Quantifiable Maximum? Comments

attribute
Shot weight Yes
Clamping force Yes
EUROMAP size Inapplicable
rating
International size Inapplicable
rating
Screw diameter Inapplicable Choice available
Screw L/D ratio Inapplicable Choice available
Injection pressure Yes
Injection stroke Yes
Injection volume Yes
Injection speed Yes
Injection rate Yes
Screw rotary speed Yes
Screw motor torque Yes
Plasticizing capacity Yes
Mould opening stroke Yes
Maximum mould Yes
height
Minimum mould No, minimum
height
Maximum daylight Yes
Space between tiebars Yes Mould length and width could be
smaller
Platen size Yes Optional bigger platens available
Platen thickness Inapplicable
Tiebar diameter Inapplicable
Ejector stroke Yes
Ejector force Yes
Carriage stroke Yes
Carriage force Yes
Dry cycle time No, minimum
Electric motor rating Nominal More power is used when overloaded
value
Electric heater power Yes Maximum used at power on
Total power Nominal More power is used when motor is
value overloaded
Number of heating Inapplicable
zones
Oil tank capacity Yes
Hopper capacity Yes
System pressure Yes
Machine dimension Inapplicable
Machine weight Inapplicable

Table 1. Quantifiable attributes

2.1 Shot weight

Shot weight is an important attribute of the injection unit of a

PIMM. Expressed in ounces or grams, this is by far the most commonly
used single attribute to select a plastic injection moulding machine.
It is not unreasonable to say that it has been abused.
The reason is simple. A moulder has an article at hand to be moulded.
Once the plastic material is selected, it has a weight. A PIMM with
sufficient shot weight is then selected.

2.1.1 Definition of shot weight

The shot weight is the measured (therefore actual) weight of the

plastic 'injected' when the nozzle is free-standing (not held against
the mould). The plastic used is usually polystyrene with a specific
gravity (S.G.) of 1.05. This is specified in the specification as PS.

2.1.2 Shot weight in terms of the resin to be used

If the article to be moulded is made of a resin different than PS,

then the shot weight in the specification could not be used
immediately, but must be calculated as follows:

Shot weight in terms of a resin = c * b/1.05

where b = S.G. of the resin,
c = shot weight in terms of PS (S.G. = 1.05)

Table 2 lists the S.G. of some common resins.

Example 1: POM has an S.G. of 1.42. It is to be moulded in a PIMM

with a shot weight of 8 oz (in PS). This machine has a shot weight of
8 * 1.42 / 1.05 = 10.8 oz of POM.

Example 2: PP has an S.G. of 0.86. It is to be moulded in a PIMM with

a shot weight of 8 oz (in PS). This machine has a shot weight of
8 * 0.86 / 1.05 = 6.6 oz of PP. An 8 oz. (in PS) PIMM would not have
provided the capacity needed by 8 oz. of PP.

Resin Abbreviation S.G. at room

temperature
General Purpose Polystyrene GPPS (PS) 1.04 - 1.09
High Impact Polystyrene HIPS 1.14 - 1.20
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ABS 1.01 - 1.08
Acrylonitrile Styrene AS (SAN) 1.06 - 1.10
Low Density Polyethylene LDPE 0.89 - 0.93
High Density Polyethylene HDPE 0.94 - 0.98
Polypropylene PP 0.85 - 0.92
Plasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (soft) PPVC 1.19 - 1.35
Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (rigid) UPVC 1.38 - 1.41
 Polyamide-6 PA-6 1.12 - 1.15
Polyamide-66 PA-66 1.13 - 1.16
Polymethyl Methacrylate PMMA 1.16 - 1.20
Polycarbonate PC 1.20 - 1.22
Polyoxymethylene (Polyacetal) POM 1.41 - 1.43
Polyethylene Terephthalate PET 1.29 - 1.41
Polybutylene Terephthalate PBT 1.30 - 1.38
Cellulose Acetate CA 1.25 - 1.35
Polyphenylene Oxide, modified PPO-M 1.04 - 1.10
Polyphenylene Sulfide PPS 1.28 - 1.32

Table 2. Specific gravity of resins at room temperature

2.1.3 Relation of shot weight to injection volume

Shot weight is not equal to injection volume times the S.G. of PS.
Shot weight is measured. Injection volume (see section 2.9) is
theoretical. Injection volume times the S.G. of PS provides a higher
value than shot weight due leakage pass the screw during injection.
Also, the non-return valve at the tip of the screw moves backward a
little before it reaches the closed position.

Some manufacturers prefer to use injection volume as the starting

point to state the shot weight of their machines, instead of using
measured shot weight. See section 2.9.

2.1.4 Selecting a machine with sufficient shot weight

Shot weight should not be equal to the combined weight of the article
(or articles for a multicavity mould) plus runners that could be
injection moulded. The latter is set at 85% of the shot weight for
articles with low requirement, e.g. figurines; 75% of shot weight for
articles with high requirement, e.g. crystal parts. The discrepancy
is due the much higher injection pressure when there is a mould. High
requirement moulding uses high injection pressure.

Example 3: Figurines made of UPVC (S.G. 1.38) with a combined weight

of figurine plus runners of 4 oz. are to be moulded. What size of
machine is sufficient?

Shot weight in terms of PS = 4 * 1.05/1.38 = 3.04 oz. Using the 85%

guide line, the machine shot weight needed = 3.04/0.85 =3.58 oz.
2.1.5 Selecting a machine which is not too big

An injection moulding machine of a specified shot weight can be used

to mould article(s) including the runners weighing from 35% to 85% of
the shot weight. The lower limit comes from bending on the platens,
barrel resident time of the resin and electric power consumption per
kg of processed material.

A small article using a small mould puts undue bending on the mould
platens, causing them to deflect (which affects product quality), and
to break in the extreme.

If a big machine is used to mould small articles, the melt in the

barrel could degrade due to unduly long residence time. Barrel
residence time could be estimated as follows.

Barrel residence time =

(weight of melt in barrel * cycle time) / (actual shot weight)

Weight of melt in the barrel is estimated to be the weight in two

times the injection volume.

Moulding small parts with a big machine is inefficient in energy

usage per kg of material processed, also known as specific power
consumption.

Example 4: The same figurine in example 3 is to be moulded in a big

machine. What is the biggest machine that could be used?

Using the 35% rule, the biggest machine that could be used has a shot
weight = 3.04/0.35 = 8.7 oz.

Example 5: What is the residence time of UPVC (S.G. 1.38) in a

machine with screw diameter of 55 mm, injection stroke of 250 mm,
shot weight (PS) of 567 g, and a cycle time of 10 s moulding shots
weighing 260 g?

Volume of melt in the barrel is estimated to be two times the

injection volume = 2 * 3.1416 * 5.5 * 5.5 * 25 / 4 = 1188 cm3

Barrel residence time = 1188 * 1.38 * 10 / 260 = 63 s

Having multicavities per mould to increase the articles' weight and

to increase the mould size are solutions to using bigger machines.
Alternatively, lowering the barrel temperature would help avoid
degradation due to long residence time.

2.2 Clamping force

Clamping force is an important attribute of the clamping unit of a

PIMM. It is the maximum force the machine is capable of to keep the
mould closed against the cavity pressure during injection.
Insufficient clamping force gives rise to flash at the mould joint.
Most PIMMs today use their clamping force (in tonnes) in their model
name, e.g. ME125III.

It is advisable to use a sufficient clamping force below the maximum.

See section 3.11.8. The sufficient clamping force is proportional to
the projected area of the cavity. Projected cavity area is the cavity
area projected onto the plane at the mould parting surface.

In this article, tonne is used to denote metric tonne (which is 1000

kg) to distinguish it from (short) ton (which is 2000 lb.) used in
USA. Machine specifications use ton in both cases. One can tell them
apart by the use of Imperial or metric system for the rest of the
specifications. See section 5.

The clamping force needed could be estimated in several ways.

The conservative method is to multiply the projected cavity area by a

constant which is different for each material. For example, for GPPS,
the constant is 1.0 to 2.0 tonnes/in2 for thick wall articles, 3.0 to
4.0 tonnes/in2 for thin wall articles. 1.0 tonne/in2 = 0.155 tonne/cm2
= 15.4 MN/m2. Table 3 lists the constants for commonly used resins.

Example 6: A GPPS cup of diameter 79 mm is to be moulded. The cup is

0.6 mm at its thinnest section. Find a conservative clamping force
which would be sufficient.

The projected area of the cup (and runner) is 3.1416 * 7.92 / 4 = 49

cm2. This cup belongs to the thin wall domain. The conservative
clamping force is 0.62 * 49 = 30.4 tonnes

A more accurate method takes into account the flow path length and
wall thickness. Flow path is the length travelled by the resin from
the sprue gate to the furthest point in the mould cavity. See Figure
1. If the wall thickness of a part varies, take its minimum wall
thickness.
Example 7: The same GPPS cup has a flow path length of 104 mm. Find a
more accurate clamping force needed.

Flow path to thickness ratio = 104 / 0.6 = 173. From Figure 2, at 0.6
mm wall thickness, the cavity pressure is 550 bar. From the
conversion tables in section 5, 1 bar = 1.02 kg/cm2. The clamping
force = 550 * 1.02 * 49 = 27,500 kg = 27.5 tonnes.

The above calculation has not accounted for viscosity. It turns out
to be still correct as the viscosity factor for GPPS is 1.0. The
viscosity factor for common resins is listed in Table 4.

Example 8: The same cup as in the above example is to be made out of

ABS. Find the clamping force needed.

Using the viscosity factor of 1.5, the clamping force needed = 1.5 *
27.5 tonnes = 41.3 tonnes.

The most accurate estimate of clamping force is done by computer

simulation after the mould is designed. An example of such a package
is C-MOLD. A simplified version called Project Engineer is available
for downloading for a 30-day trial period from AC Technology's web
site at http://www.cmold.com.

Resin tonnes/in2 tonnes/cm2 MN/m2

PS (GPPS) 1.0 - 2.0 0.155 - 0.31 15.4 - 30.9
PS (GPPS) (thin walls) 3.0 - 4.0 0.465 - 0.62 46.3 - 61.8
HIPS 1.0 - 2.0 0.155 - 0.31 15.4 - 30.9
HIPS (thin walls) 2.5 - 3.5 0.388 - 0.543 38.6 - 54.0
ABS 2.5 - 4.0 0.388 - 0.62 38.6 - 61.8
AS (SAN) 2.5 - 3.0 0.388 - 0.465 38.6 - 46.3
AS (SAN) (long flows) 3.0 - 4.0 0.465 - 0.62 46.3 - 61.8
LDPE 1.0 - 2.0 0.155 - 0.31 15.4 - 30.9
HDPE 1.5 - 2.5 0.233 - 0.388 23.2 - 38.6
HDPE (long flows) 2.5 - 3.5 0.388 - 0.543 38.6 - 54.0
PP (Homo/Copolymer) 1.5 - 2.5 0.233 - 0.388 23.3 - 38.6
PP (H/Co) (long flows) 2.5 - 3.5 0.388 - 0.543 38.6 - 54.0
PPVC 1.5 - 2.5 0.233 - 0.388 23.3 - 38.6
UPVC 2.0 - 3.0 0.31 - 0.465 30.9 - 46.3
PA6, PA66 4.0 - 5.0 0.62 - 0.775 61.8 - 77.2
PMMA 2.0 - 4.0 0.31 - 0.62 30.9 - 61.8
PC 3.0 - 5.0 0.465 - 0.775 46.3 - 77.2
POM (Homo/Copolymer) 3.0 - 5.0 0.465 - 0.775 46.3 - 77.2
 PET (Amorphous) 2.0 - 2.5 0.31 - 0.388 30.9 - 38.6
PET (Crystalline) 4.0 - 6.0 0.62 - 0.93 61.8 - 92.6
PBT 3.0 - 4.0 0.465 - 0.62 46.3 - 61.8
CA 1.0 - 2.0 0.155 - 0.31 15.4 - 30.9
PPO-M (unreinforced) 2.0 - 3.0 0.31 - 0.465 30.9 - 46.3
PPO-M (reinforced) 4.0 - 5.0 0.62 - 0.775 61.8 - 77.2
PPS 2.0 - 3.0 0.31 - 0.465 30.9 - 46.3

Table 3. Simple clamping force estimation

Figure 1. Flow path length is measured from tip of sprue to an

extremity of the article
 Figure 2. Cavity pressure as a function of wall thickness and flow
path length

Thermoplastics Viscosity factor

GPPS (PS) 1
PP 1 - 1.2
PE 1 - 1.3
Nylons (PA6 or PA66), POM 1.2 - 1.4
Cellulosics 1.3 - 1.5
ABS, ASA, SAN 1.3 - 1.5
PMMA 1.5 - 1.7
PC, PES, PSU 1.7 - 2.0
PVC 2

Table 4. Viscosity factor

Section 2.3 to 2.15 describe other attributes of the injection unit.

2.3 EUROMAP size rating

EUROMAP size rating is a standard way for specifying the size of the
clamping unit and the injection unit of a machine. EUROMAP is a the
European Committee of Machinery Manufacturers for Plastics and Rubber
Industries. It publishes a number of recommendations.
The rating is made up of two numbers: xxx-yyy. xxx is the clamping
force of the clamping unit in kN. yyy is the product of injection
pressure (in kbar) and injection volume (in cm3). Hence, xxx is the
rating of the clamping unit, yyy is that of the injection unit. For a
given injection unit, yyy is constant with respect to the choice of
screw diameter.

Some manufacturers provides several injection units for a machine of

a certain clamping force. The different injection units are specified
by their yyy rating. The higher is yyy, the more powerful is the
injection unit.

Example 9: Tat Ming's ME75 has the following specifications.

Clamping force 75 tonnes,
Injection pressure (screw B) 1264 kg/cm2,
Injection volume (screw B) 215 cm3.

xxx = 75 * 9.807 = 736,

yyy = 1264/(1.02*1000) * 215 = 266.

The ME75's EUROMAP size rating is 736-266. Using the approximation

that 1 tonne = 10 kN, and 1 kg/cm2 = 1 bar, the EUROMAP size rating
is 750-272. See section 5.3 for unit conversion.

2.4 International size rating

In the Far East where kN and kbar are less well-known than tonne and
kg/cm2, an alternative size rating is used instead of that by
EUROMAP. It is made up of two numbers: aaa/bbb. aaa is the product of
injection pressure (in kg/cm2) and injection volume (in cm3) divided
by 1000. bbb is the clamping force of the clamping unit in tonnes.
Note the order of the two numbers are reversed from those in the
EUROMAP counterpart.

Example 10: Find the International size rating of ME75.

aaa = 1264 * 215 /1000 = 272,

bbb = 75.

ME75's International size rating is 272/75.

2.5 Screw diameter

For a given injection unit, most manufacturers offer a choice of
screw diameters. The screw diameter directly affects the L/D ratio,
and the injection volume (and hence the shot weight.)

2.6 Screw L/D ratio

For machines that provide a choice of screws, the screw diameter and
hence the L/D ratio is an important attribute in the selection
process.

A high L/D ratio of 22:1 or above provides better mixing and more
uniform heating due to compression in the transition section of the
screw. It is selected for moulding parts with high requirement, e.g.
moulding engineering thermoplastics, or high precision, e.g. within
0.01mm dimension tolerance. For a given L, a higher L/D ratio
translates to a smaller screw diameter. The injection pressure is
increased, the injection volume and the shot weight are reduced.

A medium L/D ratio of 20:1 is used for general applications with

medium requirement.

A low L/D ratio of 18:1 or lower is used for low requirement where
shot weight is the more dominant selection criterion. The injection
pressure is low.

2.7 Injection pressure

As stated in a PIMM specification, injection pressure means the

maximum pressure in the barrel during injection, not the maximum
hydraulic pressure. The two are related by the ratio of the screw
cross section area to the injection cylinders area. Usually,
injection pressure is higher than the maximum hydraulic pressure by
about 10 times. Where there is a choice of screws for a given
injection unit, the smaller diameter screw produces the higher
injection pressure. A high injection pressure helps in moulding
engineering thermoplastics. Material manufacturers publish minimum
and maximum injection pressures in the specification of the
materials.

2.8 Injection stroke

For a given screw diameter, injection volume (see next section) could
be increased by injection stroke. Increasing injection stroke,
however, lengthens the injection time and hence the cycle time. It
also reduces the effective screw length and hence the effective L/D
ratio. Hence, the advantages of a high L/D ratio is lost.

From the statistics of machine specifications for L/D ratio of 18:1,

injection stroke is about 4 diameters.

Example 11: The data for screw C in the three injection units of Tat
Ming's ME series are tabulated below.

Injection unit rating 272 860 1603

Screw C diameter (mm) 43 60 70
Screw C L/D ratio 18:1 18:1 18:1
Injection stroke (mm) 180 250 300
Injection stroke/diameter 4.19 4.17 4.29

Table 5. Injection stroke/diameter ratios of Tat Ming's ME series

One should watch out for excessive injection stroke for the purpose
of increasing injection volume and hence shot weight, at the expense
of injection time and L/D ratio.

2.9 Injection volume

Injection volume is theoretical. It equals the cross section area of

the screw times the injection stroke.

Injection volume (cm3) = 3.1416 * (d2 / 4) * i

where d = diameter of screw , in cm
(~= diameter of barrel)
i = injection stroke, in cm

Due to leakage pass the screw tip and the backward movement of the
non-return valve, the actual injection volume is about 90% of the
theoretical injection volume. To convert the actual injection volume
to shot weight, the resin S.G. at plasticizing temperature is used.
See Table 6.

Resin Abbreviation S.G. at plast.

temperature
General Purpose Polystyrene GPPS (PS) 0.886 - 0.901
High Impact Polystyrene HIPS 0.895 - 0.917
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ABS 0.895 - 0.908
 Acrylonitrile Styrene AS (SAN) 0.907 - 0.917
Low Density Polyethylene LDPE 0.730 - 0.740
High Density Polyethylene HDPE 0.752 - 0.772
Polypropylene PP 0.712 - 0.737
Plasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (soft) PPVC 1.050 - 1.389
Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (rigid) UPVC 1.134 - 1.219
Polyamide-6 PA-6 0.958 - 0.995
Polyamide-66 PA-66 0.958 - 0.995
Polymethyl Methacrylate PMMA 0.996 - 1.012
Polycarbonate PC 1.018 - 1.037
Polyoxymethylene (Polyacetal) POM 1.187 - 1.214
Polyethylene Terephthalate PET 1.129 - 1.172
Polybutylene Terephthalate PBT 1.102 - 1.113
Cellulose Acetate CA 1.074 - 1.104
Polyphenylene Oxide, modified PPO-M 0.873 - 0.890
Polyphenylene Sulfide PPS 1.075 - 1.109

Table 6. Specific gravity of resins at plasticizing temperature

Instead of using shot weight and the 35% to 85% rule in selecting a
PIMM, some manufacturers recommend using injection volume and the
following rule.

For low requirement moulding, use between 20% to 80% of the injection
unit injection volume. For high requirement, use between 40% to 60%.

2.10 Injection speed

As stated in a PIMM specification, injection speed is the maximum

speed of the screw the machine is capable of during injection. It is
expressed in cm/s.

Injection speed affects the injection time. Moulding thin-walled

articles requires high injection speed so that the melt does not
solidify before the cavity is completely filled. Through controlling
hydraulic oil flow, some machines have multiple injection speeds
available during injection. The constant melt front theory stipulates
the best moulding occurs when the leading edge of the melt (the melt
front) moves in the cavity at constant speed. Since the mould cavity
varies in cross sectional area, this requires multiple injection
speeds during injection. Some machines have as many as ten.

2.11 Accumulator
Some PIMMs have an accumulator as an option to boost injection speed.
An accumulator is an energy storing device that stores up pressurized
hydraulic oil in a phase of low demand to be used in the injection
(high demand) phase. It evens out the load on the electric motor and
reduces its overloading. While increasing the electric motor and
hydraulic pump sizes (available as an alternative by some
manufacturers) does increase injection speed by about 25%, an
accumulator does so with about three times increase.

Figure 3. Accumulator

2.12 Injection rate

As an alternative to injection speed, some PIMM specifications use

injection rate. Injection rate is the maximum volume swept out by the
screw per second during injection. It is expressed in cm3/s.

Injection rate = injection speed * 3.1416 * (d/2)2,

where d = screw diameter in cm.

Note that injection speed is independent of screw diameter, but

injection rate is.

2.13 Screw rotary speed

Screw rotary speed is specified as a range in rpm. Screw rotary speed

by itself is not as critical as screw surface speed. The two are
related by the screw diameter.
Screw surface speed (mm/s)
= 3.1416 * screw diameter (mm) * screw rotary speed (rpm) / 60

Each plastic material has a recommended maximum screw surface speed

which must not be exceeded. For example, UPVC should not experience a
screw surface speed of higher than 200 mm/s.

Abbreviation Optimum surface speed Maximum surface speed

(mm/s) (mm/s)
GPPS (PS) 800 950
HIPS 850 900
ABS 550 650
AS (SAN) 400 450
LDPE 700 750
HDPE 750 800
PP 750 850
PPVC 150 200
UPVC 150 200
PA-6 400 500
PA-66 400 500
PMMA 350 400
PC 400 500
POM (Copolymer) 200 500
POM (Homopolymer) 100 300
PET 300 400
PBT 300 350
CA 400 500
PPO-M 400 500
PPS 200 300

Table 7. Optimum and maximum surface speed of resins

Example 12: What is the maximum rpm for a 60 mm diameter screw

injecting UPVC?
Maximum rpm = 60 * 200 / (3.1416 * 60) = 64.

2.14 Screw motor torque

The hydraulic motor that turns the screw has a rated torque,
expressed in Newton-meter (Nm) in SI unit. It represents the maximum
amount of turning moment the motor can produce at the specified
hydraulic pressure. A viscous material needs a high torque and a low
rotary speed, vice versa for an easy-flowing material.
A higher torque is needed for screw C (large diameter) than screw A
(small diameter). The proportional pressure valve is used to adjust
the motor torque to the needed value during feeding.

2.15 Plasticizing capacity

Plasticizing capacity is the amount of PS that a PIMM can uniformly

plasticize, or raise to a uniform moulding temperature, in one hour
at maximum screw rotary speed and zero back pressure. Since it is
rated in PS, an amorphous material, a higher plasticizing capacity is
needed for semi-crystalline materials. Although the barrel heaters
also contribute to melt the plastic, their capacities are not counted
in plasticizing capacity.

To check if the plasticizing capacity of a PIMM is not being

exceeded, calculate the weight of component and sprue per shot W (g)
divided by screw rotation time t (s), and convert the quotient to
kg/hour:

W * 3600/(t * 1000).

This must be less than the plasticizing capacity of the machine.

Since cycle time is longer than screw rotation time, the shot weight
S (g) of a machine and its plasticizing capacity G (kg/hr) set a
lower limit on cycle time Tmin (s) as follows.

Tmin = S * 3600/(G * 1000).

It is particularly important to match shot weight and plasticizing

capacity in the case of fast cycling machines producing thin walled
or closed tolerance components.

Plasticizing capacity could be increased by a larger electric motor

and hydraulic pump.

Section 2.16 to 2.27 describe other attributes of the clamping unit.

The next five attributes relates to the dimensions of the mould the
machine could accommodate. They indirectly relate to the maximum
dimension of the moulded part.

2.16 Mould opening stroke

Mould opening stroke is the displacement of the moving platen from
mould close to mould open. Mould opening stroke determines the
maximum height H of the moulded part the machine is capable of. The
relationship is

mould opening stroke >= 2H + sprue length L

In a hot runner system, L = 0.

The inequality allows for a clearance for gravity, the robot arm or
human hand to remove the part.

Figure 4. Mould opening stroke

2.17 Mould height (thickness)

Mould height is left over from the days when presses are vertical. In
a horizontal press, a more appropriate description is mould
thickness.
 Figure 5. Mould height, width and length

In a toggle clamp PIMM specification, mould height is expressed as a

range, from the minimum to the maximum mould height the machine could
accommodate. The difference is the mould height adjustment the
machine is capable of.

In a direct hydraulic clamp PIMM specification, mould height is

expressed as a number, the minimum mould height the machine could
accommodate.

The actual mould height must be bigger than the machine minimum mould
height for the mould to be closed and clamped. Otherwise, a smaller
machine (to be exact, a smaller clamping unit) is called for.

The actual mould height must be less than the machine maximum mould
height for the mould to fit in. Otherwise, a bigger machine is called
for.

Figure 6. Mould height

2.18 Maximum daylight

The maximum opening between the fixed and moving platens when the
clamp is wide open. It is related to mould opening stroke and
minimum/maximum mould height as follows.

For a toggle clamp machine,

maximum daylight = mould opening stroke + maximum mould height.

For a direct hydraulic clamp machine,

maximum daylight = mould opening stroke + minimum mould height.

2.19 Space between tiebars

The mould must fit within the space between tiebars. This space is
expressed in horizontal and vertical dimensions.

Refer to Figures 5 and 7. The mould width must fit within the
horizontal space between tiebars if the mould is lowered from above.
The mould length must fit within the vertical space between tiebars
if the mould is slit in from the side. It is advised that there is a
clearance of 25 mm on each side for a small mould, and 50 mm for a
big mould. This is to avoid banging of the heavy mould against the
tiebars during loading, denting them and subsequently affecting the
bearing in the moving platen which travels over them.

Figure 7. Space between tiebars

Tiebarless PIMMs do not have this restriction.

2.20 Platen size

The platens are thick steel plates to back up the moulds with. It is
advisable that the moulds do not protrude beyond the platen limits to
avoid bending the moulds during injection. Too small a mould would
put undue bending stress on the platens, breaking them in the extreme
case. Some manufacturers offer a choice of platen sizes for machine
of a given clamping force. A car bumper is an example where a very
wide platen is needed.

2.21 Platen thickness

The moving platen and fixed platen must have sufficient stiffness to
transmit the forces of the tiebars to the mould with minimum
deflection. For a given geometry, a flat platen 抯 deflection is
proportional to the cube of its thickness. Especially for the moving
platen, a compromise has to be struck between weight and thickness.
Space between tiebars is related to platen size. If this space is
increased without increasing the platen thickness, the platen under
the same load deflects more . In short, one must not consider space
between tiebars alone, but must consider it together with platen
stiffness.

Platen deflection causes the mould to deflect which in turn changes

the shape and dimensions of the moulded article.

Figure 8. Platen deflection is affected by platen thickness and size

Some machine makers put ribs on a platen to increase its stiffness

while minimizing its weight. Since there is no standard rib patterns,
comparison of platen stiffness across manufactures is not easy.
 Figure 9 Ribbed stationary platen

2.22 Tiebar diameter

Most PIMMs with tiebars have four of them, except small machines
below about 20 tonnes, which have two. Together, their tension forces
hold the mould halves together against cavity pressure during
injection.

If the tiebar tensions are even, the stress in each of them is given
by

stress = clamping force * 1000/(3.1416 * (d2/4) * 4)

= clamping force * 1000/(3.1416 * d2),
where stress is in kg/mm2
clamping force is in tonnes,
diameter d in mm.

High tensile steel has a breaking stress of more than 90kg/mm2. Mild
steel has a breaking stress of 20kg/mm2. A tiebar breaks if its
stress exceeds the breaking stress.

More often then not, a tiebar breakage is due to uneven tensions

among them. This is caused by

a. non-parallel mould faces,

b. non-symmetrical cavity with respect to the sprue,
c. misadjustment of the mould height adjustment
mechanism of a toggle clamp machine.

When the mould expands due to higher temperature, it stretches the

tiebars more than when the mould was set up when it was at room
temperature.

Example 13: Tat Ming's ME125 has four tiebars, each with diameter 75
mm. The clamping force is 125 tonnes. High tensile steel is used.
What is the safety factor built into tiebars of this machine?

Assuming even tension, each tiebar has

stress = 125 * 1000/(3.1416 * 752) = 7.07 kg/mm2.

The safety factor is 90/7.07 = 12.7.

Usually a safety factor of 10 or more is common in an industrial
design. An example is the stress in the cables hauling a fully loaded
lift up and down. Tiebar breakage occurs at the root of a thread
where the radius is smaller and there is stress concentration.

Please see section 3.11.8 on tiebar tension measurement.

2.23 Ejector stroke

The ejector moves forward to eject the article from the mould. A long
part requires a long ejector stroke.

2.24 Ejector force

When a part cools, it shrinks around the mould and may need a big
force to eject. This is especially so for a container with a small
slanting angle. Sometimes, a (smaller) retraction force is also
quoted.

2.25 Carriage stroke

The carriage moves back to allow servicing of the nozzle, nozzle

heater and the front end of the barrel. Sufficient space behind the
screw motor must be allowed for.

2.26 Carriage force

The carriage moves forward so the nozzle press against the sprue
bush. Carriage force seals the interface from melt dripping. It is
also called nozzle contact force.

2.27 Dry cycle time

plasticizing. Dry cycle time is the mould closing time plus mould
opening time plus idle time. It is defined by EUROMAP 6
recommendation. Dry cycle time is the ultimate cycle time as there is
no cooling period. An alternative expression is cycle rate, the
number of cycles per minute.

Running a machine at the maximum possible cycle rate is not desirable

if the machine is not running smooth and stable. This is another
example why an attribute should not be evaluated by itself alone.

2.28 Electric motor rating

The hydraulic system is driven by an electric motor. It converts
electrical energy to mechanical energy at a certain efficiency. An
electrical motor is rated in terms of kW or hp which denotes its
maximum power delivery under the specified conditions like
temperature of its windings. Some manufacturers offer a bigger pump
size as an alternative. The motor size is also increased.

It is important not to confuse the power rating of the electric motor

to energy efficiency. A lower power does not by itself mean a PIMM is
more energy efficient than another with a higher rating. It means it
is overloaded more during the moulding cycle. A three-phase motor is
about 90% efficient over a wide range of power rating.

The moulding cycle demands widely varying hydraulic power in its

different phases. At the electric motor, this translates to a similar
demand in electrical power. Usually, the injection phase is the most
demanding phase of the cycle. An electric motor is rated at below
that power, requiring it to run above its rating in the injection
phase.

For a PIMM without an accumulator, the injection phase presents an

overload to the electric motor. Most motors could be overloaded to
two times its rated torque for short periods. Since a three phase
motor runs at a relatively constant speed, even at overload, the
extra power comes from increased torque. Because power = rotary speed
* torque, the extra power comes from increased torque. Since motor
current is proportional to torque, an overloaded motor heats up
(proportional to the square of current) more than it is rated at,
reducing its long-term reliability. A motor with a higher power is
overloaded less.

The story is different if the PIMM has an accumulator which does

allow the electric motor to have a lower rating. Hydraulic energy is
stored into the accumulator in phases of low demand to be used in the
injection phase. In short, it evens out the motor loading during the
cycle and reduces its overloading.

A motor with a high rating does not use up more energy. How much
energy is used depends on the load (the work to be done) which in
turn depends on the electric drive, hydraulic drive and hydraulic
circuit design. See section 3.12.

The current per phase drawn by a three phase motor at its rated power
is
im (A)
= motor power rating (kW)*1000 / (3*single phase power voltage(V)
*efficiency*power factor)
= motor power rating (hp)*746 / (3*single phase power voltage(V)
*efficiency*power factor)

For most three phase motors,

efficiency = 0.88 - 0.91,
power factor = 0.84 - 0.88.

Example 14: Tat Ming's ME175 is driven by a 30 hp three phase motor.

Find the current per phase it draws when the single phase power
voltage is 220 V.

Assume an efficiency of 0.91 and a power factor of 0.88. The current

drawn per phase at the rated power of 30 hp is
im = 30*746/(3*220*0.91*0.88) = 42.3 A.

Figure 10 Power demand during the moulding cycle

2.29 Electric heater rating

Electric band heaters along the barrel provides the initial heat up
to the resin at start up. It also supplements the heating by
plastication (when the screw rotates) during the moulding cycle. A
higher rating per heater has the advantage of shortening the initial
heat up time.

Usually, there are one to two band heaters per heating zone. As much
as possible, the heaters are evenly distributed among the three
phases.
The maximum current drawn by the band heaters is

ih (A) = electric heater rating (kW)*1000 / (3*single phase

voltage(V)).

Example 15: Tat Ming's ME175 has 6 band heaters each rated at 1.2 kW.
The 6 heaters are distributed 2 to a phase in the three phase
electrical system. Find the maximum current per phase it draws when
the single phase power voltage is 220 V.

ih = 6*1.2*1000 / (3*220) = 10.9 A.

2.30 Total power

This equals the electric motor rating plus the electric heater
rating. It is for planning the current in the electric power
connection. However, motor overloading is not accounted for in total
power as the motor rating is used.

it = im + ih.

Example 16: What is the total current per phase needed when
installing Tat Ming's ME175?

it = 42.3 + 10.9 = 53.2 A.

2.31 Number of heating zones

The number of heating zones is defined by the number of thermocouples

installed on the barrel. If discrete temperature controllers are
used, it is the same as the number of temperature controllers.
Usually, a temperature controller controls one to two electric band
heaters.

More heating zones provide better control of temperature along the

barrel length. Since a bigger machine has a longer barrel, it also
has more heating zones.

2.32 Oil tank capacity

Oil tank capacity has significance in cooling and number of barrels

of oil to purchase.
More oil in a bigger tank reduces the temperature of the oil since
the heat generated is spread out more. Furthermore, a bigger tank has
a bigger cooling surface.

Hydraulic oil comes in 200 litre barrels. An oil tank of 220 litre
capacity requires the user to purchase two barrels.

2.33 Hopper capacity

Once a hopper is filled to capacity, for how long could it be left

alone before refilling? A bigger hopper capacity requires less
attention by the operator.

However, when moulding hygroscopic resin, a hopper must not be filled

for the resin to remain in the hopper for more than an hour. The
weight of resin (kg) to be fed into the hopper should be less than

actual shot weight (g) * 3600 / (cycle time (s) * 1000).

Example 14: The weights of each component and the runners are 14g and
12g respectively. The machine is producing 6 components per cycle
with a cycle time of 24s. How much should a hopper be filled so that
the resin does not stay in the hopper for more than an hour?

The required weight = (6 * 14 + 12) * 3600 / (24 * 1000) = 14.4kg

Since plastic materials comes in 25-kg bags, half a bag would sastify
the requirement.

2.34 System pressure

The most common hydraulic system pressure used in PIMMs is 140 bars,
which approximately equals to 140 kg/cm2. This is limited by the vane
pump. By its very design, vane pump has unbalanced pressure within,
which limits it from reaching a higher pressure.

A higher system pressure of 170 bars or even 200 bars are used with
piston pump, which demands cleaner hydraulic oil to work with. At a
high system pressure, either cylinder diameter could be reduced to
get the same force or higher force could be obtained from the same
cylinder diameter. With a higher force, response to the control
signals is faster.

2.35 Machine dimensions

The dimensions of a machine has significance in shipping in a
container and in the floor space it takes up.

Containers come in discrete sizes like 20-foot and 40-foot. If two

machines could fit within one container, the shipping charge is
almost halved. In places like Hong Kong and Singapore where rent is
at a premium, smaller machines are always welcome.

2.36 Machine weight

The weight of a machine has significance in hoisting, shipping by

truck and in floor loading.

Cranes and trucks are rated by the load they can carry. If a PIMM is
not situated on the ground floor, the floor loading by the machine
must be considered.

3. The on-off attributes

A PIMM either has each of the following attributes or not. Hence they
are termed on-off attributes. This section shows the readers how to
read the features section of a PIMM specification.

3.1 Nitrided screw and barrel

To protect the screw and barrel from wear and corrosion by the melt,
especially acidic plastic materials like PVC and acetate, nitride
treatment of the screw and barrel is common. Nitriding hardens the
screw and barrel surface.

3.2 Bimetallic screw and barrel

Glass fibre is getting popular as a material mixed with other resins.

It is very abrasive. Bimetallic screw and barrel are used in this
case. For the barrel, an inner tube of tungsten carbide (Xaloy 800)
is used. For the screw, Colmony is sprayed onto the flight and
tungsten carbide onto the land to protect the metal below from
abrasion. Naturally, the non-return valve needs similar protection
against abrasion. Bimetallic screw and barrel is about 3 times more
expensive than nitrided screw and barrel.
 Figure 11. Bimetallic screw

3.3 Honed and chrome plated tiebars made of tensile steel

The moving platen slides on the tiebars back and forth every cycle.
Having a honed and chrome plated surface reduces wear.

Held by the nuts at both ends of each tiebar, the tiebars provide the
tensile force to the clamping cylinder to hold the mould halves
together. Tiebars made of high tensile steel could provide the tons
of force needed. It has a higher breaking stress than mild steel.

3.4 Cold start interlock

When starting up the heaters and before the barrel temperature

reaches the set temperature, it is important that the screw does not
turn to feed and to plasticize as the screw and barrel could be
damaged by the pellets. Many machines have such an interlock to
prevent the screw from turning before the set temperature is reached.

3.5 Low pressure mould protection

A part moulded in the previous cycle that has not been properly
ejected could damage the mould when it closes again. Low pressure
mould protection closes the mould at low pressure. Opposed by the
jammed article, the mould mould not close completely in the preset
time. This function would stop the closing and sound an alarm. It is
not designed to protect the human body part, which is done by the
interlocks at the safety gates.
3.6 Nozzle type

Simple nozzle, spring shut-off nozzle and hydraulic shut-off nozzle

are the common types. Simple nozzle is suited to plastic materials
that degenerates with heat, e.g. PVC. Being simple, it does not have
stagnation points to accumulate stale plastic.

Spring shut-off nozzle is suited to plastics with low viscosity, e.g.

nylon. The spring action closes the nozzle during feeding. Springs
tends to lose its elasticity over time when strained at high
temperature.

Hydraulic shut-off valve provides a positive shut-off through

actuating a hydraulic cylinder.

3.7 Number of injection speeds

The more capable machines provide multiple injection speeds during

injection. They are used to advance the melt front at a constant
speed as the cavity is filled.

3.8 Number of injection pressures

The more capable machines provide multiple injection pressures during

injection. They are used to overcome the varying resistance to melt
flow as the cavity is filled. Sometimes, holding pressure is counted
as one injection pressure.

3.9 Number of holding pressures

The more capable machines provide multiple holding pressures during

the holding phase. As the melt cools and shrinks during the holding
phase, its pressure is reduced. It is better that the holding
pressure is also reduced in synchronism.

3.10 Temperature controllers

In order of increasing sophistication are on-off, proportional, PD,

PID and PID fuzzy temperature controllers. The more sophisticated
temperature controller gets the barrel temperature closer and faster
to the desired temperature during startup and on the face of
disturbances. Larger machines have longer barrels which require more
heaters, thermocouples and temperature controllers.
3.11 Sophistication of closed loop control

Nowadays, PIMM barrel temperature control are always closed loop.

Occasionally, nozzle temperature control uses a simpler temperature
controller and may even be open loop.

Time control is considered open loop, e.g. the control of injection

time.

In the control of PIMM, there are many variables that could be

controlled in closed loop. By measuring the controlled variable and
taking control action to correct any deviation from the set value,
closed loop control guarantees good repeatability of the controlled
variable despite changes in the uncontrolled variables, e.g.
variation in the quality of reground materials, humidity of the
plastic pellets.

3.11.1 Position control

In a PIMM, screw position, mould position, ejector position and mould

height adjust position are measured, either by limit switches,
proximity switches or potentiometers. Potentiometers offer position
measurement throughout the whole stroke, while the former two only
measure whether discrete positions have been reached. Depending on
the stroke, a resolution of 0.1 mm is expected from potentiometer
(the limit actually comes from the resolution of the A/D (analog to
digital) converter).

Some manufacturers use a rotary encoder and rack and pinion to

measure movement in order to avoid the cost of the A/D converter. In
this case, the resolution of the encoder and the rotary to linear
conversion factor determine the resolution of the movement.

Screw position is measured to break down the injection stroke into

stages each with a different speed/pressure. It is also used to
measure shot size during feeding and decompression.

Mould position is measured to break down the mould movement into

slow-fast-slow stages to reduce vibration in mould closing and mould
opening. Mould position is also used in low pressure mould
protection.

Ejector position is measured to short cycle the ejection stroke,

especially in multiple ejection.
In a toggle clamped PIMM, the stroke of the mould height adjust
mechanism could be measured by a potentiometer.

3.11.2 Injection speed control

It is important that injection speed is controlled to obtain a high

quality part. This could be done in open loop, semi-closed loop or
closed loop.

The open loop approach uses the ordinary proportional flow valve. A
voltage proportional to the desired flow rate is applied. Through the
injection cylinder, the desired flow rate is mapped into the desired
injection speed.

The semi-closed loop method uses the closed-loop proportional flow

valve. The loop is closed as far as the spool position is concerned.
The movement of the spool within the valve controls the rate of oil
flow through it.

The closed loop method uses the linear screw speed to close the loop.
Either a velocity transducer is used or the screw speed is derived
from potentiometer readings in fixed intervals of time. The
proportional flow valve is adjusted to nullify any deviation from the
desired speed. Unless the control is done by dedicated electronics,
closed loop speed control demands very much of the machine
controller.

3.11.3 Screw rotary speed control

Screw rotary speed is monitored or controlled so as to control the

screw surface speed to below a value appropriate for the resin. A
speedometer, the kind used in a bicycle, is the usual analog
measuring device. A chart converts screw rotary speed to screw
surface speed which is a function of screw diameter. See section
2.13.
 Figure 12. Screw rotary speed to screw surface speed chart

3.11.4 Hydraulic pressure control

Closed loop hydraulic pressure control provides more consistent

injection pressure, holding pressure and back pressure from cycle to
cycle. Note that hydraulic pressure control is not a good substitute
for melt pressure control or cavity pressure control.

The signal from the pressure sensor adjusts the proportional pressure
valve to nullify any deviation from the desired value.

3.11.5 Back pressure control

As the screw rotates, it is forced backward by the melt at the tip of

the screw. This backward motion forces oil out of the injection
cylinders through a flow control valve, which creates a back pressure
on the screw.

The back pressure sensor is mounted at the back of the injection

cylinder. The same sensor is used for hydraulic pressure control. See
Figure 20.
 Figure 13. Hydraulic/back pressure transducer location

3.11.6 Nozzle pressure/temperature control

Pressure and temperature are the two most important measurable

process variables in injection moulding. It could be used to control
the injection fill, pack and hold pressures.

Figure 14. Nozzle pressure sensor

3.11.7 Cavity pressure control

Located where the action is, cavity pressure control provides the
most accurate injection fill, pack and hold pressures. In some cases,
a temperature sensor is located within the same housing, providing
temperature of the melt in the cavity as well.

Figure 15. Cavity pressure sensor location

The cavity pressure curve clearly shows the injection fill, pack, and
hold phases. In Figure 23, 1-2-3 is the injection phase, 3-4 is the
pack phase and 4-5-6 is the hold phase.

Point 3 is when the mould is completely filled. As the screw advances

beyond 3, cavity pressure rises steeply as the melt is being
compressed. At 4, injection pressure is reduced to holding pressure
which keeps the mould filled as it cools and shrinks. At 5, the melt
at the gate is frozen and the hold pressure could be removed.
 Figure 16. Cavity pressure curve

3.11.8 Tiebar tension measurement

Tiebar tension measurement is used for clamping force control and for
avoiding tiebar breakage.

Clamping force control is more appropriate for a toggle clamp than a

hydraulic clamp as the toggle amplification of roughly 22 times makes
adjustment of hydraulic pressure a poor gauge of clamping force. This
is on top of the fact that the amplication is not known. It allows
adjustment of the clamping force to a value that is needed (see
section 2.2) instead of always at its maximum. The fatigue life of
the mould, tiebars and toggles are increased. With the correct
clamping force, flashing does not occur.

Clamping force adjustment is done during mould setup. As the mould

heats up, it expands, increasing the clamping force. Therefore it may
be necessary to readjust the clamping force during moulding.

For clamping force measurement, as few as one tiebar tension sensor

is sufficient.

Tiebar tension control avoids tiebar breakage. An alarm is raised

when a tiebar is over stressed which is usually caused by unparallel
mould face, mould with an asymmetric cavity or an out-of-
synchronization mould height adjustment mechanism.

To avoid tiebar breakage, as few as two sensors on diagonal tiebars

could be used.
 Figure 17. Piezoresistive gauge in tiebar

3.11.9 Hydraulic oil temperature control

Hydraulic oil must be maintained at between 40 and 50oC. This is done

by control of the cooling water flow.

Too high an oil temperature reduces the oil viscosity, and ages the
rubber sealing rings faster. For consistent product quality and to
improve the PIMM's reliability, it is worth investing in the closed
loop temperature control of hydraulic oil, if it is available as an
option.

3.11.10 Hydraulic oil level control

In case the hydraulic system leaks, hydraulic oil level in the tank
provides an indication. At its simplest, it is a visual level
indicator. Alternatively, it could be a float, which activates a
switch when the oil level is low. The switch sets off an alarm.

3.11.11 Hydraulic oil contamination control

Contamination and metal filings from cylinder/piston wear degrade the

hydraulic oil. Hydraulic oil is filtered at the pump inlet and
optionally filtered on return. A differential pressure sensor across
the filter raises an alarm when the oil is too contaminated and must
be replaced. Alternatively, an optical device immersed in the oil
detects how dirty the oil is.

3.12 Energy efficiency

During the design of the machine, what considerations are made to

save energy? Some areas include insulation around the band heaters,
using proportional valve instead of pressure relief valve, using a
variable displacement pump, using a variable speed pump motor.

The simplest drive is made up of a constant speed motor and a

constant displacement pump

driving against a constant system pressure (set by the system

pressure relief valve). The load to the electric motor is constant
throughout the moulding cycle since flow rate and the pressure are
constant. In phases of low flow demand, the excess pressurized oil
flows back to the tank. When the pressure needed is below the system
pressure, excess pressure is dropped at a relief valve or pressure
reducing valve. In both cases, energy turns to heating up the oil.

An energy efficient design varies the load to the electric motor as

the demand varies in the moulding cycle phases. The proportional
valve sets a different system pressure at each phase. However,
excessive flow still drains the pressurized oil to the tank. Variable
displacement pump and variable speed drive/motor does better by
varying the oil flow delivery, further reducing the load to the
motor.

By itself, variable displacement pump is less efficient than fixed

displacement pump. Similarly, variable speed motor is less efficient
than fixed speed motor. However, by generating only the hydraulic oil
flow that is needed, overall efficiency is increased.

Piston pump has a higher efficiency than vane pump but demands
cleaner hydraulic oil to work well.

In short, an energy efficient design trades higher initial equipment

cost for lower operating cost.

3.13 Safety features

The safety gate protects the human operator from mould closing. Once
the safety gate is opened, a mechanical stop is lowered and/or
electrical and/or hydraulic circuits are broken to prevent the mould
from closing. The more methods of interlocking the safer is the
machine. Some manufactures only provide mechanical and/or hydraulic
locks as options.

Some machines provide the same safety features at the front as well
as the back safety gates.

3.14 Metal detector option

When a resin is recycled, it may be contaminated with pieces of

metal. A magnetic grating in the hopper prevents ferromagnetic metals
from entering the barrel. Even better, a metal detector signals even
when non-ferromagnetic metal passes through the hopper. A pump then
removes the contaminated pellets.

3.15 Apple to apple comparison

While the discussion so far is centered on technology of the PIMM, it
should not be overlooked that price is also an important
consideration in machine selection. One must be cautioned of what
options are included for that price.

There is almost a standard set of features most machine manufacturers

would consider as options. This includes accumulator, core pull,
pneumatic ejector, etc. However, there are deviations. Hydraulic
safety interlock, cooling water flowmeters, automatic mould height
adjustment could be standard in one machine but are options in
another.

4. The non-quantifiable attributes

The following attributes of a PIMM is not easy to quantify. However,

they should play an important part in the machine selection process.

4.1 Noise and vibration

Heavy masses are accelerated and decelerated during mould opening and
closing. If speed control is not done well, they give rise to noise
and vibration which affects the life of the machine and also the
quality of the parts to be moulded. This is especially so in mould
opening when the elastic energy stored in the tiebars, the toggles
and the mould are released in a very short period. A good design
absorbs the shock.

4.2 Cycle time

Cycle time is the sum of mould closing time, injection time, cooling
time and mould opening time. Cooling time is not so much a PIMM
attribute as a mould and moulded part attribute. It could be a
substantial part of the cycle time. Cycle time is to be as short as
possible without affecting the rejection rate of the moulded parts
and the long-term reliability of the machine.

4.3 Availability of spare parts

Off-the self electrical relays, timers, temperature controllers that

the user could purchase locally helps to reduce the duration and
expense of machine down time. PLC controller and computer controller
goes against such convenience as they are proprietary, at least the
programs in them are.
4.4 Reliability

Tiebar breakage, platen breakage or toggle failure are catastrophic

as their replacement is usually beyond the means of a moulder.
Reliability could be measured by mean time between failure (MTBF). It
could also be measured by availability which is the percentage of the
machine up time. Both could only be measured by the user over a
number of years of use. Nevertheless, it could be the most important
non-quantifiable attributes of all.

5. Unit conversion

When comparing PIMMs from Europe, Japan and the USA, one needs to
convert among the various systems used in the specifications. The SI
system is the preferred one.

5.1 The SI system

The SI system is used by European manufacturers. It is a metric

system, distinguished by the use of Newton for force, and bar for
pressure.

5.2 The Metric system

The Metric system is used by Japan and Far Eastern manufacturers. It

is a metric system using gravitational kg (kgf to be exact) for force
and kg/cm2 (kgf/cm2 to be exact) for pressure. One tonne is one
thousand kg.

5.3 The Imperial system

The Imperial system is used by USA manufacturers. It is not a metric

system. It is characterized by the use of oz (ounce) for shot weight,
in (inch) for dimension and stroke, in3 for injection volume, gal
(gallon) for oil tank capacity, lb. (pound) for force and hopper
capacity, psi (pound per square inch) for pressure, kW for heating
capacity, hp (horse power) for electric motor power and oF
(Fahrenheit) for temperature. One oz is one sixteenth of a pound, one
(short) ton is 2000 lb.

SI Metric Imperial
Dimension, stroke mm, m mm, m in
3 3
Injection volume cm cm in3
 Capacity l (litre) l (litre) in3, gal
Weight g, kg g, kg oz, lb.
oz, lb. N, kN kg, t (tonne) lb., (short) ton
Torque Nm kg-m in-lb.
2
Pressure bar, kbar kg/cm psi
Power W, kW W, kW kW, hp
o o o
Temperature C C F

Table 8. Three common measurement systems

5.4 Unit conversion

The conversion between SI system and Metric system is related to the

gravitational constant. The approximation listed below are commonly
used.

1 N = 1/9.807 kg = 0.102 kg ~= 1/10 kg

1 kN = 1/9.807 tonne = 0.102 tonne ~= 1/10 tonne
1 Nm = 1/9.807 kg-m = 0.102 kg-m ~= 1/10 kg-m
1 bar = 1.020 kg/cm2 ~= 1 kg/cm2

1 kg = 9.807 N ~= 10 N
1 tonne = 9.807 kN ~= 10 kN
1 Mp = 1/10 kN
1 kg-m = 9.807 Nm ~= 10 Nm
1 kg/cm2 = 0.9807 bar ~= 1 bar
Occasionally, Pa (Pascal) or MPa is used. 1 MPa = 10 bar.

1 in = 25.4 mm
1 in3 = 16.4 cm3 = 0.0164 litre
1 gal = 3.785 litre
1 oz = 28.4 g
1 lb. = 0.454 kg = 4.448 N
1 (short) ton = 0.908 tonne
1 in-lb. = 0.01153 kg-m = 0.1131 N-m
1 psi = 0.07031 kg/cm2 = 0.06895 bar
1 hp = 0.7457 kW

1 g = 0.0352 oz
1 kW = 1.341 hp
1 kg/cm2 = 14.22 psi
1 bar = 14.5 psi
o
F = oC * 9/5 + 32
o
C = (oF - 32 ) * 5/9

6. Some mistakes

Some mistakes moulders have made selecting PIMMs are listed below.

6.1 Incorrect shot weight

Is an ounce of gold heavier than an ounce of cotton? The answer to

this trick question is very often incorrect. (The correct answer is
no.)

Many a moulder who selects PIMM by shot weight alone often thinks an
ounce of PP is the same as an ounce of PS, which is not the case.

The injection unit of a PIMM has an injection volume which is

constant irrespective of the type of material used. The shot weight
of a PIMM is roughly the weight of PS in this injection volume, which
is different than the weight of PP in the same volume. Eight ounces
of PS in the shot volume is only 6.6 ounces of PP in the same volume.
Selecting an 8-ounce machine would not be adequate for moulding 8
ounces of PP. See Example 2 in Section 2.1.2.

'Experienced' moulders take care of such discrepancies by oversizing

a PIMM, which is inaccurate and could be wasteful in investment and
in the energy cost running it.

6.2 Wrong screw selected

A moulder is moulding ABS articles with a total weight of 4.5 oz. In

order to be sure, he specified a 'more powerful' machine with shot
weight of 9 oz. During moulding, it was discovered that there was
excessive shrinkage.

A portion of the machine specification is shown in Table 9.

Screw A B C
Screw diameter (mm) 35 39 43
L/D ratio 22 20 18
Injection volume (cc) 173 215 261
Shot weight (PS) (g) 145 181 220
Shot weight (PS) (oz) 5.5 7 9
 Injection pressure (kg/cm2) 1569 1264 1039

Table 9. Machine with three screws

What the moulder should have selected is screw A with a shot weight
of 5.5 oz since injection pressure is high. To be 'safe', screw C was
selected which has a shot weight of 9 oz, but has a lower injection
pressure. The low injection pressure caused the excessive shrinkage.

The moulder was correct in that a more powerful selection puts him on
the safe side. However, a higher shot weight is not more powerful; a
smaller screw diameter giving an adequate shot weight but higher
injection pressure is what should be considered more powerful.

6.3 Mould height neglected

A moulder has only considered the space between tiebars and has found
a certain model of PIMM could accommodate his mould. When installing
the mould, it was then discovered that the mould was too high for the
machine. It often helps to send the mould to the manufacturer to
mount it before a decision is made.

6.4 Mould mounting holes too far apart

A moulder sent his mould to the manufacturer to do test shots. Then

it was discovered the mould mounting holes are too far apart for the
mould. A smaller machine was selected, which did the job and saved
the moulder a bunch.

6.5 Wrong interpretation of electric motor rating

A moulder finds the higher wattage electric motor in a PIMM of one

brand 'uses up more energy' than a lower wattage one of another
brand. A higher wattage by itself does not use up more energy.
Rather, the overload to the motor is reduced. A misunderstanding on
electric motor rating turned a good attribute into a bad one. See
Sections 2.28, 3.12.

6.6 Misinformation in the machine specification

Due to typographic error or otherwise, the data in a machine

specification may not reflect the capability of the machine. Some
errors could be discovered by cross checking redundancy data.
Examples are

injection unit size rating = injection volume * injection pressure,

(see Sections 2.2, 2.3)
injection volume = (injection stroke) * 3.1416 * (screw diameter)2/4,
(see Section 2.9)
injection rate = (injection speed) * 3.1416 * (screw diameter)2/4,
(see Section 2.12)
injection pressure inversely proportional to the square of screw
diameter,
shot weight (g) numerically less than injection volume (cm3),
clamping unit size rating = clamping force, (see Section 2.2, 2.3).

Data for which there is no redundancy could not be checked easily. An

example is if clamping unit size rating is not specified, maximum
clamping force could not be checked. In this case, the following
checks could be done.

In a toggle clamped machine, assuming toggle magnification is 22,

maximum clamping force =
system pressure * clamping cylinder area * 22.

In a direct hydraulic machine,

maximum clamping force =
system pressure * clamping cylinder(s) area(s).

Measurement of maximum clamping force by load cell or measurement of

tiebar tension could be done on a PIMM, although a moulder may not
necessarily want to spend the effort.

7. Selection example

Assume a moulder is making PET preforms each at 33.5 mm diameter and

103.5 mm long. Each preform weighs 15 g. There are four cavities per
mould.

His selection is narrowed down to three machines from three different

manufacturers. The machine specification is shown in Table 10. Based
on quantifiable attributes alone, which one would you have chosen?

Machine brand Brand A Brand B Brand C

International size rating 137/56 181/54 198/50
Injection unit
 Screw diameter (mm) 25 28 31 30 33 36 28 30 32
Screw L/D ratio 22 19 17 22 20 18
Injection vol. (theor.) (cm3) 63 80 98 84.8 102.6 122.1 92 106 120
Shot weight in PS (g) 55 69 85 71.3 86.2 102.6 82 95 108
2
Injection press. (kg/cm ) 2150 1715 1400 2133 1763 1481 2142 1866 1640
Plasticizing capacity (g/s) 5 6.4 8.1 6.4 7.2 8.3
3
Injection rate (cm /s) 78 94 120 58 67 76
Injection stroke (mm) 130 130 130 120 120 120
Injection stroke/screw 5.2 4.64 4.19 4 3.64 3.33 5.36 5 4.69
diameter
Nozzle force (tonnes) 2.2
Nozzle retraction stroke (mm) 219 180
Cylinder heating power (W) 3X1000
Nozzle heating power (W) 500
Hopper capacity (l) 31
Clamping unit
Clamping method toggle direct hy toggle
Clamping force (tonnes) 56 54 50
Space between bars (mm) 310X310 320X320 305X220
Platen daylight (mm) 540 550 530
Opening stroke (mm) 220 400 220
Max. mould height (mm) 320 310
Min. mould height (mm) 80 120 75
Ejector stroke (mm) 75 75 65
Ejector force push/pull 2.9 2
(tonnes)
General
Dry cycle time(/min) 37.5
Installed driving power (kW) 7.5 11 7.5
Installed total power (kW) 12.3 11.1
Hydraulic pressure (kg/cm2) 145 160
Oil tank capacity (l) 150 180

Table 10. Choosing from three 50-ton models

It is quite common that not all parameters are listed. For example,
brand C does not list screw L/D ratio, brand B does not list
plasticizing capacity. Unless one calls the manufacturer for further
information, comparison is done based on partial information.

7.1 Shot weight

PET has an S.G. of 1.35 vs PS's 1.05. The shot weight (in PS)
equivalent to 4 x 15 g = 60 g of PET is 60 * 1.05/1.35 = 46.7 g.
Using the 80% rule, a shot weight (in PS) of 58.3 g should be chosen.
All screws, except the 25mm screw of Brand A, give sufficient shot
weight.

7.2 Clamping force

Neglecting the unknown runner projected area, the projected cavity

area is 3.1416 * 3.352 = 35.3cm2. Using the high estimate from table
3, the clamping force needed is 35.3 * 0.93 = 33 tonnes. All three
brands are adequate.

7.3 International size rating

The first figure in the International size rating is the power of the
injection unit. In increasing order of power are Brand A, B and C.

7.4 Screw L/D ratio

Since PET is an engineering thermoplastic, a high L/D ratio is

needed. Screw diameter 31 mm of Brand A (L/D ratio 17) and screw
diameter 36 mm of Brand B (L/D ratio 18) were eliminated. Since the
screw L/D ratio of Brand C screws is not stated, no screws could be
excluded on this count.

Machine brand Brand A Brand B Brand C

International size rating 137/56 181/54 198/50
Injection unit
Screw diameter (mm) 25 28 31 30 33 36 28 30 32
Screw L/D ratio 22 19 17 22 20 18
3
Injection vol. (theor.) (cm ) 63 80 98 84.8 102.6 122.1 92 106 120
Shot weight in PS (g) 55 69 85 71.3 86.2 102.6 82 95 108
Injection press. (kg/cm2) 2150 1715 1400 2133 1763 1481 2142 1866 1640

Table 11. Elimination based on screw L/D ratio

7.5 Injection pressure

PET needs a high first stage injection pressure of 1600 bars. The
screws eliminated for low L/D ratio were confirmed to have
insufficient injection pressure. Screw diameter 33 mm of Brand B is
further eliminated.

Machine brand Brand A Brand B Brand C

International size rating 137/56 181/54 198/50
Injection unit
 Screw diameter (mm) 25 28 31 30 33 36 28 30 32
Screw L/D ratio 22 19 17 22 20 18
Injection vol. (theor.) (cm3) 63 80 98 84.8 102.6 122.1 92 106 120
Shot weight in PS (g) 55 69 85 71.3 86.2 102.6 82 95 108
2
Injection press. (kg/cm ) 2150 1715 1400 2133 1763 1481 2142 1866 1640

Table 12. Further elimination based on injection pressure

7.6 Injection stroke

Brand C does not specify injection stroke in its specification.

However, it could be deduced from injection volume and screw diameter
since

injection volume (cm3)

= 3.1416 * (screw diameter(cm))2 * (injection stroke (cm)) / 4.

Taking the 30 mm screw as an example,

injection stroke (cm) = 106 * 4 / (3.1416 * 32) = 15.

The injection stroke of the three brands are 130, 120 and 150 mm.
Brand A and especially Brand C designers have opted for longer
injection stroke instead of bigger screw diameter to increase
injection volume (and hence shot weight) as is explicit from the
injection stroke/screw diameter ratios. A big ratio takes away the
advantages offered by a high L/D ratio at the start of injection as
the screw is so much retracted as to reduce its effective length and
reduces its effective L/D ratio.

Machine brand Brand A Brand B Brand C

International size rating 137/56 181/54 198/50
Injection unit
Screw diameter (mm) 25 28 31 30 33 36 28 30 32
Screw L/D ratio 22 19 17 22 20 18
Injection vol. (theor.) (cm3) 63 80 98 84.8 102.6 122.1 92 106 120
Shot weight in PS (g) 55 69 85 71.3 86.2 102.6 82 95 108
2
Injection press. (kg/cm ) 2150 1715 1400 2133 1763 1481 2142 1866 1640
Plasticizing capacity (g/s) 5 6.4 8.1 6.4 7.2 8.3
Injection rate (cm3/s) 78 94 120 58 67 76
Injection stroke (mm) 130 130 130 120 120 120 150 150 150
Injection stroke/screw 5.2 4.64 4.19 4 3.64 3.33 5.36 5 4.69
diameter
 Table 13. Further elimination based on injection stroke/screw
diameter ratio

7.7 Injection rate

Despite the more powerful injection unit of Brand C, its injection

rates for the three screws are less than those of Brand B, diameter
for diameter. The designer of Brand C has traded off higher injection
pressure for lower injection rate. Given that injection pressure is
satisfied, one opts for a higher injection rate.

7.8 Mould opening stroke

The PET preforms are each 103.5 mm long. Assuming there is no sprue,
the mould opening stroke should be at least 207 mm. The machines have
at least 220 mm maximum opening stroke and all would qualify.

7.9 Maximum mould height

Unlike Brand A and Brand C which are toggle clamped, Brand B is a

direct hydraulic clamp machine. For such machines, the maximum mould
height is usually not specified, but it always equals the maximum
platen daylight (= maximum opening stroke + minimum mould height)
which is 550 mm. For machines of similar clamping force, a direct
hydraulic clamp machine has a much bigger maximum mould height than a
toggle clamp machine.

No mould dimensions are provided but they could be estimated from

those of the moulded article. Since the PET preform is 103.5 mm long,
all three machines should have sufficient maximum mould height.

7.10 Minimum mould height

Since the PET preform is 103.5 mm long, the minimum mould height
(which must be bigger than 103.5 mm) exceeds those of Brand A and C
which are 80 mm and 75 mm respectively. The minimum mould height is
expected to exceed the 150 mm specification of Brand B.

7.11 Space between tiebars

The four cavities for the preforms are expected to be arranged in a 2

by 2 fashion. The mould length and width are expected to be
accommodated in the space between tiebars of all three machines.
7.12 Electric motor rating

At 7.5 kW, the electric motor of Brand A and C is less powerful than
that of Brand B which is at 11 kW. This is so despite the fact that
the injection unit of Brand C is more powerful. On this count, Brand
B is preferred to the other two brands.

7.13 The final selection

Every attribute considered, screw diameter 30 of Brand B is the clear

choice. It has a high L/D ratio, a high injection pressure, a high
injection rate, a low injection stroke/screw diameter ratio, and a
powerful electric motor