CHAPTER III

MECHANICAL DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT

3.1 REACTOR 1, R1

3.1.1 INTRODUCTION
In the mechanical design of process equipment, there are many aspects of
design and reactor safety factors should be considered. Among these is the stress
analysis, the burdens imposed on the reactor and the reactor design supporters. All
these aspects are based on a standard code of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME).
Tube and shell reactor was operated in the gas phase and liquid phase at a
temperature of 185 0C and pressure of 6.5 bar (650 kPa) design pressure, P took a
safety factor of 10% above the operating pressure.

3.1.2 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION

Materials selection was based on the consideration of four main factors:

resistance to ammonia, nitric acid and ammonium nitrate vapours and condensate,
strength, ease of fabrication, and low cost. Much of the vessel (both the shell and
the tubes) will be in continuous contact with ammonium nitrate aqueous at high
temperatures. Therefore, particular attention was given to corrosion resistance
under those conditions. The tubes are in direct contact with both the cooling medium
and the reaction gases.
The preferred construction material for the reactor is stainless steel 16Cr-
2Mo-8Ni (316), which is described by the materials specification given in Table 5.2
and composition of material in Table 5.3. Ammonium nitrate, ammonia and nitric
acid are not particularly corrosive to most steels. The average corrosion rates are
generally less than 0.001 per year. The addition of chromium also improves the
mechanical properties at high temperature. Several stainless steels, notably type
316, satisfy all the material requirements. However, A387 is substantially cheaper
and can be used with little penalty to the corrosion rate. At high pressures (and,

1
hence, large wall thicknesses), cladding is normally recommended in order to
reduce the vessel cost when alloy steels are used.
Reactor construction material used is stainless steel 16Cr-2Mo-8Ni (316). By
referring to the standard code The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME), the maximum stress is 133.5 N/mm2.

By linear interpolation
Tem
150 155 200
perature, C
S,
135 S 120
N/mm2

Table 3.1 Typical mechanical properties for 316 stainless steel alloys
Property Value
Melting Point 1375-1400°C
Modulus of Elasticity 193 GPa
Electrical Resistivity 0.074x10-6 Ω.m
Thermal Conductivity 16.3 W/m.K at 100°C
Thermal Expansion 15.9x10-6 /K at 100°C
Tensile Strength (MPa) 515
Compression Strength (MPa) 170
Melting Point 1375-1400°C

Table 3.2 Typical chemical composition for 316 stainless steel alloys
% 316
C 0.08max
Mn 2.0
Si 0.75
P 0.045
S 0.03
Cr 16-18

2
 Mo 2-3
Ni 10-14
N 0.1

3.1.3 THE EFFICIENCY OF WELDED JOINT

There are several methods to make welded joints. In particular case the
choices of a type from the numerous alternatives depend on:
1. The circumstances of welding.
In many cases the accessibility of the joint determines the types of welding.
In a small diameter vessel (under 18-24 inches) from the inside, no manual welding
can be applied. Using backing strip it must remain in place. In larger diameter
vessels if a manway is not used, the last (closing) joint can be welded from outside
only. The type of welding may be determined also by the equipment of the
manufacturer.
2. The requirements of the code.
Regarding the type of joint the Code establishes requirements based on
service, material and location of the welding. The welding processes that may be
used in the construction of vessels are also restricted by the Code as described in
paragraphUW-27.
3. The aspect economy.
If the two preceding factors allow free choice, then the aspect of economy
must be the deciding factor.
Some considerations concerning the economy of welding’s:
1. V-edge preparation, which can be made by torch cutting, is always more
econornical than the use of J or U preparation.
2. Double V preparation requires only half the deposited weld metal required for
single V preparation.
3. Increasing the size of fillet weld, its strength increases in direct proportion,
while the deposited weld metal increases with the square of its size.
4. Lower quality welding makes necessary the use of thicker plate for the
vessel. Whether using stronger welding and thinner plate or the opposite is
more economical, depends on the size of vessel, welding equipment, etc.
This must be decided in each particular case
The strength of a welded joint depends on the type and quality of welding
joint. Then, for design purposes weld joint efficiency, J = 1.0 was chosen. This
selection is based on ASME UW-2 stated that:

3
 “… all butt welded joints shall be fully radiographe, except under provision
OS UW-2(a)(2) and UW-2(a)(3) below and UW-4(a)(4)….”
This statement is clarifying the requirement of welded joint that fully
radiograph when pressure vessel containing lethal substances. So, all main
category A and B welds must be fully radiographed. But category B and C welds in a
nozzle and communicating chambers that are not larger than 10 inch nominal pipe
size and do not exceed 1to 1/8 inch thick are exempt. Based on the fluid
composition contain in the reactor for this design, ammonium nitrate could be a
dangerous and lethal substance if leaking to the atmosphere. Furthermore,
ammonia also potentially dangerous substance. The location of A, B and C shown in
Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3 Welded joint locations

3.1.4 DETERMINATION THICKNESS OF REACTOR SHELL AND HEAD

3.1.4.1 Design Pressure
From table 13.2 (R.K. Sinnot, 1999. Chemical Engineering Design), typical
design stress = 133.5 N/mm2
Operating pressure for reactor is 6.5 bar.

The pressure given in the table only design stress for selected material but
for design stress pressure that generated by the fluid also need to take into
consideration. From book of Pressure Vessel Handbook 10th edition page 29 giving

4
 the pressure of water that will emit at different length. But for other material, the
value needs to multiply with specific gravity of fluid or other calculation is:

Value above is for the water. To get the pressure in the reactor emit by the
fluid is multiply value get by specific gravity of fluid. Specific gravity for the fluid in
the reactor is 0.1067.

So design pressure should be taken is:

Taking 10 per cent above as design pressure

3.1.4.2 Design temperature

Operating temperature = 185 0C
Take 10 percent above operating temperature,

3.1.4.3 Thickness of cylindrical vessel

Data required to performed calculation
Cylinder length, L = 15 m
Design pressure, P = 0.778 N/mm2
Inside diameter, Di = 4.80 m
Inside radius of reactor, R = 2.4 m
Allowable stress, S = 133.5 N/mm2
Joint efficiency, J = 1.0
DO
0
Determination of reactor thickness, assume t for cylinder wall
i) Tangential stress with condition t < R/2 and P< 0.385SE

where
P = Design pressure, N/mm2

5
 R = Inside radius, m
S = Stress value of material, N/mm2
E = Joint efficiency
t = Wall thickness
So the wall thickness is

ii) Longitudinal stress with condition t < R/2 or P < 1.25 SE

where
P = Design pressure, N/mm2
R = Inside radius, m
S = Stress value of material, N/mm2
E = Joint efficiency
So the wall thickness is

By comparing those two values, resulting maximum value of

reactor thickness. Hereby, minimum thickness of the reactor cylinder is, t min=14.04
mm with 4 mm corrosion allowance because expecting the severe operating
conditions where erosion will occur, tdesign = 18.0 mm.

3.1.4.4 Domed head

(i) Try standard dished head (torisphere)
Crown radius Rc = Di = 4.80 m
Knuckle radius = 6 percent Rc = 0.288 m
A head of this size would be formed by pressing: no joints, so J=1

Where
P = Design pressure, N/mm2
D = Inside diameter, m
f = Stress value of material, N/mm2

6
 = Stress concentration factor for torispherical heads
Therefore,

(ii) Try a “standard” ellipsoidal head, ratio major : minor axes = 2 : 1

Where
P = Design pressure, N/mm2
D = Inside diameter, m
f = Stress value of material, N/mm2
J = Joint efficiency
Therefore,

So an ellipsoidal head would probably be the most economical. Take as

same thickness allowance of 4 mm as wall 18.0 mm.

Flat head

Where
P = Design pressure, N/mm2
De = Bolt diameter, m
f = Stress value of material, N/mm2
Cp = Joint efficiency
Use bolted cover with a full face gasket Cp = 0.4
De= bolt circle diameter, take as approx. 4.80 m.
Therefore, from equation 5.46

This shows the inefficiency of a flat cover. It would be better to use a

flanged domed head. So, ellipsoidal head will be used as domed head for reactor.

7
3.1.4.5 Tube sheet (plate)
Tube sheet forms the barrier between shell and tube fluids, and where it is
essential for safety or process reason to prevent any possibility of intermixing due to
leakage at the tube sheet joint, double tube-sheets can be used, with the space
between the sheet vented. The thickness of tube sheet will reduce the effective
length of the tube slightly, and this should be allowed for when calculating the area
available for heat transfer. The thickness of tube sheet calculation given by the
TEMA standard as below
Thickness of tube sheet

Where

and

Where
= Outlet diameter of shell, mm
= Outlet diameter of tube, mm
= Number of tube
= Thickness of tube, mm
= Thickness of shell, mm
= Design pressure, N/mm2
= Design stress, N/mm2
= Elastic modulus of shell, N/mm2
= Elastic modulus of tube, N/mm2
Therefore, from equation 5.49

Substituted k value into equation 5.48

Substituted F value inside equation 5.47

8
 3.1.4.6 Reactor load
3.1.4.6.1 Weight of a cylindrical vessel with domed end

Where
Wv = total weight of the shell, excluding internal fittings, such as plates, N,
Cv = a factor to account for the weight of nozzles, man ways, internal supports,
etc; which can be taken as
= 1.08 for vessels with only a few internal fittings,
= 1.15 for distillation columns, or similar vessels, with several man ways,
and with plate support rings, or equivalent fittings,
Hv = height, or length, between tangent lines (the length of the cylindrical
section) = 15 m
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2,
t = wall thickness = 18.0 mm
pm = density of vessel material = 7787 kg/m3,
Dm = mean diameter of vessel D =4.818 m.
Cv taken is 1.08 for a few internal fittings.
Therefore, from equation 5.47

3.1.4.6.2 Weight of tubes

Density of stainless steel 316 = 7787 kg/m3
(Obtain from Incropera De Witt, Heat and Mass Transfer)
From Pressure Vessel Handbook 10th Edition
For 2-in tube, 1 foot of pipe has weight 3.652 lb (Properties are based on ANSI B-
36.19)
0.3048 m = 1 ft
3.652 lbm=1.6565 kg

Therefore for 15m length = 81.5207 kg

Where
= Mass of single tubes, kg

9
 = Gravitational force, m/s
= Number of tubes
Therefore,

3.1.4.6.3 Weight of fluid in the tube

Total volume of fluid inside tube

Where
di = Inside diameter of tubes, m
= Length of reactor, m
= Number of tubes inside reactor
Therefore from equation 5.49

Weight of fluid inside the tubes

Where
= Density of fluid, kg/m3
= Volume of tube, m3
= Gravitational force, 9.81 m/s2
Therefore, from equation 5.50

3.1.4.6.4 Weight of tube sheet

Thickness of tube sheet = 25mm
Volume of tube sheet

Where
= Diameter of tube sheet = inside diameter of shell, m
= Length of tube sheet = tube sheet thickness, m

10
 Therefore, from equation 5.51

There are 2 tube sheet been used in the reactor. So, volume of tube sheet multiplied
by 2=0.9048 m3
Weight of tube sheet

Where
= Density of fluid, kg/m3
= Volume of tube, m3
= Gravitational force, 9.81 m/s2
Therefore, from equation 5.52
Density of stainless steel 316 = 7787 kg/m3

3.1.4.6.5 Baffle weight

Volume of baffle, = 1.06 m3

3.1.4.6.6 Total weight

Therefore,

3.1.4.7 Analysis of shear stress and direct stress

3.1.4.7.1 Shear stress
i) Tangential stress

Where
= Design stress, N/mm2
= Inside diameter, mm
= Thickness of shell, mm
Therefore, from equation 5.56

11
 ii) Longitudinal stress

Where
= Design stress, N/mm2
= Inside diameter, mm
= Thickness of shell, mm
Therefore, from equation 5.57

3.1.4.7.2 Direct stress

Direct stress is the stress that generated by the fluid inside vessel and its
vessel weight

Where
= Total weight of reactor (shell), kN
= Inside diameter, m
= Thickness of shell, m
Therefore, from equation 5.58

3.1.4.8 Support
Support saddle used to support the container in a horizontal reactor. The
former is supported by two saddles can be considered as a simple supported beam
with uniformly distributed load. The distribution of the longitudinal axis of the bending
moment is shown in the diagram below:

12
 The maximum point occurs on both sides and support the middle range. In
theory, the optimum support position, giving rise to the maximum bending moment is
the lowest position when the magnitude of the maximum value on both sides is
equal to the value of support in the middle of the range of:

M L1  2M L 2

Where
A = Distance from the tangent to the saddle support, m
L = Length of the container, the tangent line, m
H = column depth, m
= 1.218 m
Q = Total weight/saddle, N
= Total weight/2
= 1144.6171 kN
R = Radius of reactor
= 2.4 m
b = width of saddle, m
Bending moments at the two saddle supports, and bending in the middle of
the range, can be determined using the following equations:

13
 Balance from the bending moment:

Solving from above equation, value for A =3.97m

Therefore

3.1.4.9 Stresses in vessel wall

Bending stress is a stress that cause by the bending moment in the shell
(vessel), bending moment is classified as the stress generated as a resultant to the
dead weight of reactor in horizontal position supported by the saddle support.
Bending stress longitudinal to the cross sectional area of shell as

Where
M L1 = Longitudinal bending stress at mid-span
Ih
= Second moment of area of the shell
D = Shell diameter
t = Shell thickness
Therefore,

Resultant axial stress due to bending and pressure is given by:

Where
= Longitudinal bending moment at the support
= an empirical constant: 1

14
  Downwind stress

Therefore,

 Upwind stress

Therefore,

Principal stress,

Longitudinal stress,

The difference in principal stresses and the longitudinal stress resultant,

Because of the stress difference is <the maximum stress, S, the design is

acceptable.
The magnitude of the longitudinal bending stress on the strengthening of
support will depend on the local shell. If the shell does not remain round when
loaded, this means that some of the top cross section is not effective against
longitudinal bending. This stress is given as follows:

Where
= Longitudinal bending moment at the support
= an empirical constant: 1.0 for stiffened shell.
Therefore,

Because the value of b, 2 is smaller than the maximum design stress
allowable S, then the pressure vessel design of the heat exchanger is acceptable.

15
3.1.4.10 Saddle design
Saddle must be designed to withstand heavy loads caused by the container
and its contents. This saddle is made of stainless steel plate. Typically, the contact
angle cannot be less than 120° and not more than 1500. Smooth plates (wear plate)
are usually welded to the shell wall to reinforce the wall area in contact with the
saddle.
Saddle support design procedure given by Brownell and Young (1959) and
Megyesy (1977), the former equal to the diameter of 4.86 m, standard steel saddles
to container with a diameter of 4.8 m is used after interpolation been made as
shown in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3 Standard steel saddle

V Dimension (m) mm
essel B B
Diameter tolt t olt
(m) V Y C E J 2G 1 diameter hole

4 4 0 6 3 1 0 1 1 2 3
.80 .303 .525 .99 .07 .852 .150 6 2 7 3

16
3.1.4.11 Design bolt flange connection
Flange can be used in the body of the container when the container must
be divided into several sections for easy removal and maintenance. Flange
connection used to connect pipes to other equipment such as pumps and valves.
Typically used for connecting the connection of bolt with small diameter pipes, less
than 40 mm. Flange connections are also used to attach sections of pipe on the
installation and opening of facilities needed for maintenance, but the structure of the
pipe is usually welded to reduce costs.
Flange sizes vary, from a few millimeters in diameter for small pipes to
several meters in diameter for use as a body or head flange on the container. There
are four openings in the design of the reactor tube and shell, which requires the use
of connection, namely:
1. Welding-neck flanges.
2. Slip-on flanges, hub and plate types.
3. Lap-joint flanges.
4. Screwed flanges.
5. Blank, or blind, flanges.

Welded-neck flange type (steel) used for opening the input and output
openings for the connection and the nozzle of the reactor tube and shell. Given the
pressure vessel is operated under the operating pressure of 6.5 bar (650 kPa) at a
temperature of 155 C design, the flange of this type is selected for its ability to
withstand extreme operating conditions likely to be exposed to temperature loading,
shear, and vibration.
Optimum size for the flange to the nozzles feed (input) and the output of the
shell and tube can be determined using the following equation proposed by Sinnot:

17
 Optimum pipe diameter at inlet stream from reactor 1
Data required:
G = 10313.2838 kg/hr= 2.8648 kg/s
= 7.471 kg/m3

Pipe Raised
Nom. Flange Drilling Neck
o.d face Bolting
size
d1 D b h1 d4 f No. d2 k d3 h2 r
200 219.1 320 20 55 258 3 M16 8 18 280 236 15 10

Optimum pipe diameter at inlet stream from splitter

Data required:
G = 7787.8489 kg/hr= 2.1633 kg/s
= 1301.2 kg/m3

Pipe Raised
Nom. Flange Drilling Neck
o.d face Bolting
size
d1 D b h1 d4 f No. d2 k d3 h2 r
25 33.7 100 14 35 60 2 M10 4 11 75 42 6 4

18
 Optimum pipe diameter at outlet stream of reactor
Data required:
G = 18101.1257 kg/hr= 5.0281 kg/s
= 77.74 kg/m3

Pipe Raised
Nom. Flange Drilling Neck
o.d face Bolting
size
d1 D b h1 d4 f No. d2 k d3 h2 r
125 139.7 240 18 48 178 3 M16 8 18 200 155 10 8

Optimum pipe diameter at outlet from reactor for cooling system

Data required:
G = 5526.327 kg/s
= 1001.1462 kg/m3

Pipe Raised
Nom. Flange Drilling Neck
o.d face Bolting
size
d1 D b h1 d4 f No. d2 k d3 h2 r
200 219.1 320 20 55 258 3 M16 8 18 280 236 15 10

Pipe thickness. Equation below is follow British Standard 5500.

Where
P : Internal pressure,bar
D : Pipe outer diameter, mm
: Design stress at working temperature, N/mm2

Inlet from reactor 1

From equation 5.65, thickness of nozzle is

19
 Inlet from splitter
From equation 5.65, thickness of nozzle is

Outlet from reactor

From equation 5.65, thickness of nozzle is

Optimum pipe diameter at outlet from reactor for cooling system

From equation 5.65, thickness of nozzle is

Equipment no.:Plug flow reactor (PFR-101)

Plug flow reactor data Description : Convert ammonia and nitric acid to
sheet ammonium nitrate
Sheet no:

Operating Data

No.
1 Capacity 109.87 m3
Required.
Specific
gravity of 0.107 Computed (yes or no)
content
Shell
Content Ammonia, water, nitric acid and ammonium nitrate
Length 15 m
Max.
working 133.5 N/mm2
pressure
Design
0.778 N/mm2
Pressure

20
 Working
458.15 K
temp.
Design
203.5 0C
temp.
Material Stainless steel 16Cr-2Mo-8Ni (316)
Joint factor 1.0
Corrosion
4 mm
allowance
Shell
18.00 mm
thickness
Type of Elipsoid
Thickness 18.00 mm
head al
Reactor load 2289.2342 kN
Tangetial
51.8667 N/mm2
stress
Longitudina
103.733 N/mm2
l stress
Direct stress 8402.3555 N/mm2
Type of
Saddle
support
Distance of
tangent to
3.97 m
saddle
support
Tube
Tube outside
2.735 in
diameter
Tube inside
2.067 in
diameter
Wall
0.154 in
thickness
Number of
1933
tube

21
 required
Area of tube 0.003790 m2
Volumetric
0.08776 m3/hr
flow rate
Bundle
4.30 m
diameter
Shell inside
diameter-
diameter- 0.50 m
bundle
diameter
Shell
4.80 m
diameter
Number of
8
baffle
Distance
between 1.92 m
baffle
Pitch
0.0868 m
diameter
Tube sheet
0.1795 m
thickness
Cooling system
Fluid Water
Velocity of
3 m/s
fluid
Flow rate 5526.327 kg/hr
Fluid inlet
25 0C
temperature
Fluid outlet
81.70 0C
temperature
Tube side
3715.3883 W/m2.K
coefficient

22
Shell side
14885.00 W/m2.K
coefficient
Tube side
pressure 0.46 bar
drop
Shell side
pressure 8.458 bar
drop

23
3.2 REACTOR 2, R2

3.2.1 Design Pressure

A vessel must be designed to withstand the maximum pressure to which it

is likely to be subjected in operation. For vessels under internal pressure, the design
pressure is normally taken as the pressure at which the relief device is set. This will
normally be 5 to 10 per cent above the normal working pressure, to avoid spurious
operation during minor process upsets. In this design, considering 10 % safety
factor so that the design pressure become as below:
(1.36)

3.2.2 Design Temperature

The operating temperature of our reactor is taken as 185 0C. For safety
reason, the design pressure of this reactor is taken as 10% above the operating
temperature to avoid spurious operation during minor process upsets.
(1.37)

0
C
K

3.2.3 Material Of Construction

Many factors have to be considered when selecting engineering materials

but for chemical process plant the overriding consideration is usually the ability to
resist corrosion. The material selected must have sufficient strength and be easily
worked. The most economical material that satisfies both process and mechanical
requirements should be selected which is this will be the material that gives the
lowest cost over the working life of the plant and allowing for maintenance and
replacement.
Stainless steels are the most frequently used corrosion resistant materials in
the chemical industry. To impart corrosion resistance the chromium content must be
above 12 per cent and the higher the chromium content, the more resistant is the
alloy to corrosion in oxidising conditions. Nickel is added to improve the corrosion
resistance in non-oxidising environments.

24
 A wide range of stainless steels is available, with compositions tailored to
give the properties required for specific applications. Type 304 also-called 18/8
stainless steels is the most generally used stainless steel. It contains the minimum
Cr and Ni that give a stable austenitic structure. The carbon content is low enough
for heat treatment not to be normally needed with thin sections to prevent weld
decay. The uniform structure of austenitic is the structure desired for corrosion
resistance and it is these grades that are widely used in the chemical industry. The
austenitic stainless steels have greater strength than the plain carbon steels,
particularly at elevated temperatures (see Appendix A1). So, as conclusion stainless
steels type 304 is the best material of construction and then selected as material of
construction for the reactor.

3.2.4 Determination Of Minimum Thickness Of The Reactor

(1.38)

Where:
, minimum thickness
Pi , the design pressure
Di , the inside diameter
f, design stress

The strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature, so the

maximum allowable design stress will depend on the material temperature. The
design temperature at which the design stress is evaluated should be taken as the
maximum working temperature of the material. With design temperature is equal to
maximum operating temperature, 185 oC, design stress for stainless steel 304, is f =
115 N/mm2 = 115 bar (R.K. Sinnot, 1999. Chemical Engineering Design). Typical
design stress values for some common materials are shown in Appendix A2.
Thus from Eqn. (1.38),

25
 The corrosion allowance is the additional thickness of metal added to allow
for material lost by corrosion and erosion, or scaling. Corrosion is a complex
phenomenon and it is not possible to give specific rules for the estimation of the
corrosion allowance required for all circumstances. The allowance should be based
on experience with the material of construction under similar service conditions to
those for the proposed design. For carbon and low-alloy steels, where severe
corrosion is not expected, a minimum allowance of 2.0 mm should be used.

Add allowance for corrosion = + 0.002 m =

3.2.5 Design of Vessel Heads

The end of a cylindrical vessel is closed by heads of various shapes. The

common types used are:
i. Flat heads
ii. Hemispherical heads
iii. Ellipsoidal heads
iv. Torispherical heads

The heads used for the vessel may be flat if they are suitably buttressed
but preferably they are some curved shape as the hemispherical, ellipsoidal or
torispherical heads. Standard torispherical heads (dished ends) are the most
commonly used end closure for vessels up to operating pressures of 15 bar. They
can be used for higher pressures, but above 10 bar their cost should be compared
with that of an equivalent ellipsoidal head. Above 15 bar an ellipsoidal head will
usually prove to be the most economical closure to use.
The minimum thickness of torispherical and ellipsoidal head can be
calculated by using equation below:
For torispherical heads,

(1.39)

Where
Pi , internal pressure
J , joint factor =1
f, design stress
Rc, crown radius = Di

26
 Cs, stress concentration factor = ¼(3+( Rc/Rk)1/2)
Rk, knuckle radius =0.06 Rc
From earlier calculation,
Pi = 8.8 bar
Rc = Di = 4.3151 m (1.40)
Rk =0.06 Rc = 0.06(4.3151) (1.41)
= 0.2589 m
Cs = ¼(3 + ( Rc/Rk)1/2) (1.42)
= ¼ (3 + (4.3151/0.2589)1/2)
= 1.7706
f = 115 N/mm2 = 115 bar
From Eqn. (1.39),

e=

= 0.0015 m
For ellipsoidal heads,
Pi Di
e
2 Jf  0.2 Pi (1.43)

Where
Pi , internal pressure
J , joint factor =1
f, design stress
Di, inside diameter

From Eqn. (1.25),

e=

= 0.1664 m
By comparing minimum thickness between torispherical and ellipsoidal head,
torispherical head is the most economical. So, torispherical head is choosen for the
design domed heads. Hence,
Add 0.002 m allowance for corrosion = 0.0015 + 0.002 m = 0.0035 m

27
 3.2.6 Determination of Piping Sizing

Liquids particularly can be transported through pipelines with pumps,

blowers, compressors or ejectors. Standard pipe is made in a discrete number of
sizes that are designed by nominal diameters (R.K. Sinnot, 1999. Chemical
Engineering Design).

Formula for Optimum diameter for stainless steel pipe is as follow:

d , optimum  260 G 0.52  0.37

(1.44)
Where:
G = mass flow, kg/s
 = density of flow, kg/m3

3.2.7.1 Diameter pipe for flow in

d , optimum  260 (3.0146) 0.52 (67.7117) 0.37

 97.0124 mm
From appendix A3 nominal diameter d = 80 mm.

3.2.7.2 Diameter pipe for flow out

d , optimum  260 (2.9417) 0.52 (7.4710) 0.37

 216.5182 mm
From appendix A3 nominal diameter d = 200 mm.

3.2.6.3 Thickness of nozzle pipe inlet

Calculation of thickness of nozzle pipe inlet is as follow:

t= (1.45)

Where:
P = internal pressure, bar
d = pipe od, mm
σd = design stress at working temperature, N/mm2

From Eqn. (1.45),

28
 t=

= 0.3049 mm

Add 2 mm allowance for corrosion = 0.3049 + 2 = 2.3049 mm.

3.2.6.4 Thickness of nozzle pipe outlet

Calculation of thickness of nozzle pipe outlet is as follow:

t= (1.46)

Where:
P = internal pressure, bar
d = pipe od, mm
σd = design stress at working temperature, N/mm2
From Eqn. (1.46),

t=

= 0.7623 mm

Add 2 mm allowance for corrosion = 0. 7623 + 2 = 2. 7623 mm.

3.2.7 Design Of Reactor Vessel Subject To Combined Loading

Pressure vessels are subjected to other loads in addition to pressure and

must be designed to withstand the worst combination of loading without failure. The
main sources of load to consider are:
i. Pressure
ii. Dead weight of vessel and contents
iii. External loads imposed by piping and attached equipments

3.2.7.1 Weight Loads

The major sources of dead weight loads are:

i. The vessel shell.
ii. The vessel fittings: manways, nozzles.
iii. Internal fittings: tubes, plates (plus the fluid on the plates), heating
and cooling coils.

29
 iv. External fittings: ladders, platforms, piping.
v. The weight of liquid to fill the vessel. The vessel will be filled with
water for the hydraulic pressure test and may fill with process liquid
due to misoperation.

For preliminary calculations the approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel

with domed ends and uniform wall thickness, can be estimated from the following
equation:

(1.44)

Where,
Cv = a factor account for the weight of nozzles, man ways
= 1.08 for vessel with only a few internal fittings
= 1.15 for vessel with several man ways and other fittings

Dm = mean diameter of the vessel

= Dm + t
= 4.3151 m + 2(0.1737) m
= 4.6625 m

Hv = height/length of the cylindrical area

= 12.9453 m

Thus,

3.2.8 Vessel Support

The method used to support a vessel will depend on the size, shape and
weight of the vessel, the design temperature and pressure, the vessel location and
arrangement and the internal and external fittings and attachments. Horizontal
vessels are usually mounted on two saddle supports (see Appendix A4). The
supports must be designed to carry the weight of the vessel and contents, and any
superimposed loads, such as wind loads. Supports will impose localized loads on
the vessel wall and the design must be checked to ensure that the resulting stress
concentrations are below the maximum allowable design stress. Supports should be

30
designed to allow easy access to the vessel and fittings for inspection and
maintenance.
Though saddles are the most commonly used support for horizontal
cylindrical vessels, legs can be used for small vessels. A horizontal vessel will
normally be supported at two cross-sections. If more than two saddles are used the
distribution of the loading is uncertain. For a uniformly loaded beam the position will
be at 21 per cent of the span, in from each end. The saddle supports for a vessel
will usually be located nearer the ends than this value to make use of the stiffening
effect of the ends.
The saddles must be designed to withstand the load imposed by the weight
of the vessel and contents. They are constructed of bricks or concrete or are
fabricated from steel plate. The contact angle should not be less than 120o and will
not normally be greater than 150o. Wear plates are often welded to the shell wall to
reinforce the wall over the area of contact with the saddle. The dimensions of typical
standard saddle designs are given in figure below:

Figure 1.4: The Dimensions of Typical Standard Saddle Designs

(Source: Sinnott, R.K, 1999. Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical
Engineering, Vol. 6: “Chemical Engineering Design”, Oxford, Butterworth-
Heinemann).

31
3.2.9 Type Of Flange And Selection

Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels, for
manhole covers and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required.
Flanges may also be used on the vessel body when it is necessary to divide the
vessel into sections for transport or maintenance. Flanged joints are also used to
connect pipes to other equipment such as pumps and valves. Screwed joints are
often used for small-diameter pipe connections below 40 mm.
Several different types of flange are used for various applications. The
principal types used in the process industries are:
i. Welding-neck flanges
ii. Slip-on flanges, hub and plate types
iii. Lap-joint flanges
iv. Screwed flanges
v. Blank or blind, flanges

Welding-neck flanges (see Appendix A5 (a)) have a long tapered hub

between the flange ring and the welded joint. This gradual transition of the section
reduces the discontinuity stresses between the flange and branch, and increases
the strength of the flange assembly. Welding-neck flanges are suitable for extreme
service conditions where the flange is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear
and vibration loads. They will normally be specified for the connections and nozzles
on process vessels and process equipment.
Slip-on flanges (see Appendix A5 (b)) slip over the pipe or nozzle and are
welded externally and usually also internally. The end of the pipe is set back from 0
to 2.0 mm. The strength of a slip-on flange is from one-third to two-thirds that of the
corresponding standard welding-neck flange. Slip-on flanges are cheaper than
welding-neck flanges and are easier to align but have poor resistance to shock and
vibration loads. Slip-on flanges are generally used for pipe work.
Lap-joint flanges (see Appendix A5 (c)) are used for piped work and most
suitable in this design reactor. They are economical when used with expensive alloy
pipe such as stainless steel as the flange can be made from inexpensive carbon
steel. Usually a short lapped nozzle is welded to the pipe but with some schedules
of pipe the lap can be formed on the pipe itself and this will give a cheap method of
pipe assembly.
Screwed flanges (see Appendix A5 (d)) are used to connect screwed
fittings to flanges. They are also sometimes used for alloy pipe which is difficult to
weld satisfactorily. Blind flanges (blank flanges) are flat plates, used to blank off

32
 flange connections, and as covers for manholes and inspection ports. So, in this
design lap joint flange is chosen as the best flange.

3.2.10 Gasket

Gaskets are used to make a leak-tight joint between two surfaces. It is

impractical to machine flanges to the degree of surface finish that would be required
to make a satisfactory seal under pressure without a gasket. The following factors
must be considered when selecting a gasket material:
i. The process conditions: pressure, temperature, corrosive nature of the
process fluid.
ii. Whether repeated assembly and disassembly of the joint is required.
iii. The type of flange and flange face

Up to pressures of 20 bar, the operating temperature and corrosiveness of the

process fluid will be the controlling factor in gasket selection. Vegetable fibre and
synthetic rubber gaskets can be used at temperatures of up to 100 oC. Solid
polyfluorocarbon (Teflon) and compressed asbestos gaskets can be used to a
maximum temperature of about 260 oC. Metal-reinforced gaskets can be used up to
around 450 oC. Plain soft metal gaskets are normally used for higher temperatures.
So, compressed asbestos is chosen as the best gasket to be used in this reactor
design (see Appendix A6).

3.2.11 Flange Faces

Flanges are also classified according to the type of flange face used. There
are two basic types:
i. Full-faced flanges (see Appendix A7 (a)) where the face contact area
extends outside the circle of bolts; over the full face of the flange.
ii. Narrow-faced flanges (see Appendix A7 (b,c,d) where the face
contact area is located within the circle of bolts.

Full face, wide-faced, flanges are simple and inexpensive but are only
suitable for low pressures. The gasket area is large and an excessively high bolt
tension would be needed to achieve sufficient gasket pressure to maintain a good
seal at high operating pressures. The raised face, narrow-faced, flange shown in

33
Appendix A7 (b) is probably the most commonly used type of flange for process
equipment.
Where the flange has a plain face, as in Appendix A7 (b), the gasket is held
in place by friction between the gasket and flange surface. In the spigot and socket,
and tongue and grooved faces, Appendix A7 (c), the gasket is confined in a groove
which prevents failure by blow-out. Matched pairs of flanges are required, which
increases the cost, but this type is suitable for high pressure and high vacuum
service. Ring joint flanges, Appendix A7 (d), are used for high temperatures and
high pressure services. So, in this design raised face, narrow-faced is chosen as the
best flange faces.

3.2.11 CONCLUSION

In this work, the design of plug flow reactor has successfully been carried
out. From the calculation, the volume of the vessel is 189.3128 m3 with 4.3151
diameter and 12.9453 length. The detail information of the design is as presented in
Table 1.2 and Table 1.3.

Table 1.3: Summary of mechanical design

Operating pressure, bar 8.8
Operating temperature, k 476.65
Thickness of reactor, m 0.1737
Type of head Torispherical
Total weight of reactor, N 3500
Vessel support Saddle support
Type of flanges Lap-joint flange
Gasket Compressed asbestos
Flange Faces Raised face, narrow-faced

34
3.3 FALLING FILM EVAPORATOR 1, F1

In designing a chemical plant, the mechanical design of the process equipments

such as pressure vessel, heat exchanger tube sheets, storage tanks, centrifuges
and etc are needed. The detailed mechanical designing of equipment is done by
mechanical engineers who are more familiar with the codes and design. On the
other hand, chemical engineer will be responsible in developing and specifying the
basic design information for particular equipment for specialist designer.
For falling-film evaporator, the data for mechanical design needed are:
i. Vessel function
ii. Process materials and services
iii. Operating and design temperature and pressure
iv. Materials of construction
v. Vessel dimensions and orientation
vi. Types of vessel heads to be used
vii. Openings and connections required
viii. Specification of internal fitting

3.3.1 Design Pressure

In designing a vessel, it needs to withstand the maximum pressure during
operation. For a vessel that is subjected to vacuum, the design should resist
the maximum differential pressure and is designed for full negative pressure
of 1 bar, unless it is fitted with an effective vacuum breaker.
The design pressure should be taken to be 10% above the normal
operating pressure:

3.3.2 Design Temperature

Since the strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature, the
maximum allowable design stress is evaluated at design temperature which
is the maximum working temperature of the material.
The design temperature can be evaluated with 5% safety factor above the
operating temperature:

35
3.3.3 Materials of Construction
Typically, the pressure vessel is made of plain carbon steel, low and high
alloy steels, alloys and etc. The material is selected based on its suitability
with the process environment and fabrication.
For the falling-film evaporator, the shell are filled with hot steam, thus,
constructed with stainless steel (SS304) while the tubes are constructed
from stainless steel (SS316) due to the mild corrosive of the feed which is
the ammonium nitrate solution of 72 wt%.

3.3.4 Design Stress

For the purpose of design, the value of maximum allowable stress that can
be accepted in the material of construction is needed. For the material to
able to withstand without failure under standard condition, a suitable design
stress factor (factor of safety) is applied to the maximum stress of the
material. This design stress factor is to cover any uncertainties in the design
methods, the loading, the quality of materials, and the workmanship. The
value can be taken from Appendix B.1 and typical design stress for material
can be taken from Appendix B.2.

3.3.5 Welded Joint Efficiency, and Construction Categories

The welded joint strength depends on the type of joint and the quality of the
welding. The allowable design stress of the material multiplied by a welded
joint factor will give the possible lower strength of a welded joint compared to
a virgin plate. Typical value of J is given in Appendix B.3. For the design of
this evaporator, J of 1.0 is taken because this value means that the joint is
equally strong as the virgin plate.

3.3.6 Corrosion Allowance

Corrosion allowance is the additional thickness of the metal to the design to
allow for corrosion and erosion, or scaling. The corrosion allowance for this
evaporator is 4mm because, the process material used in this equipment, i.e.
ammonium nitrate solution (75wt %-84wt %) may cause corrosion and
scaling to the equipment.

36
3.3.7 Design Loads
This equipment should be designed to resist loading at which a pressure
vessel will be subject during service. It can be divided into major and
subsidiary loads. Major load includes design pressure, maximum weight of
vessel and contents at operating temperature and hydraulic test condition,
wind loads, loads supported or reacting on the vessel. Subsidiary loads
includes local stresses caused by supports, internal structures and
connecting pipes; shock loads, bending moments, stresses due to difference
in temperature and loads caused by fluctuations in temperature and
pressure. Design load is further discussed in Section 2.4.

3.3.8 Minimum Practical Wall Thickness

The wall thickness should not be less than the value given below. (Include
corrosion allowance of 2mm)
Figure 2.1: Minimum practical wall thickness

3.3.9 Cylindrical Shells

The minimum thickness required to resist internal pressure is given by:

Where:

37
 Process vessels that are operated under vacuum are subjected to external
pressure. The maximum pressure it will subject to is 1 bar (1 atm). In determining
the wall thickness required for process vessel subjected to external pressure, it is
required to know the failure through elastic instability (buckling).
The critical pressure to cause buckling, PC for long vessel with stiffening
ring is given by:

, value from Appendix B.4

3.3.10 Design of Stiffness Rings

Figure 2.2: Stiffness Ring

Load per unit length,

Second moment of area of the ring to avoid buckling,

Factor of safety taken as 6,

Critical load to cause buckling in a ring under uniform radial load, :

38
3.3.11 Vessel Head

Vessel head are used as a closure of a cylindrical vessel.

(f)

(g)

(h)
Figure 2.1: Typical Head and Closure

3.3.11.1 Torispherical heads

For vessel subjected to internal pressure, the minimum thickness of
torispherical head is:

Where:

To avoid buckling, the ratio of knuckle to crown radii should not be

less than 0.06, and the crown radius should not be greater than the
diameter of the cylindrical section.
When it is subjected to external pressure,

Minimum vessel thickness,

39
 For torispherical, radius Rs is equivalent to Crown radius, Rc

3.3.11.2 Ellipsoidal heads

For vessel subjected to internal pressure, the minimum thickness of
ellipsoidal head is:

When subjected to external pressure,

Minimum vessel thickness,

For ellipsoidal, ,

Where 2a = major axis = Do,

2b = minor axis = 2h,
h = height of the head from the tangent line.

3.3.11.3 Flat ends

Minimum thickness of flat end required for internal pressure:

Where:

For typical design, the design constant and nominal diameter area as
follows:

From Figure 2.1,

i. (a) is flanged plate, for diameters less than 0.6m and corner radii
at least equal to 0.25e (Cp=0.45, De=Di);
ii. (b) and (c) is welded plate where the plate is welded to the end of
the shell with a fillet weld with angle of fillet of 45 and depth
equal to the plate thickness (Cp=0.55,De=Di)
iii. (d) is bolted cover with full gasket (Cp=0.4,De=bolt circle
diameter)
iv. (e) is bolted end-cover with a narrow-face gasket
(Cp=0.55,De=mean diameter of gasket)

40
3.3.12 Stresses Analysis
Primary Stresses:
 Longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to internal or external
pressure:

 Direct stress weight,

The dead weight stress will be tensile (positive) for points below the
plane of vessel supports, and compressive (negative) for points above
the supports.
 Bending stress,

Where:

 Torsional shear stresses,

This stress is resulted from torque caused by loads offset from the vessel
axis. This load is usually small and need not be considered in preliminary
design.

Principal Stresses:

Where:
Total longitudinal stress,
If torsional shear stress, is negligible, principal stress will be

41
 Compressive stress and elastic stability:
If the resultant axial stress, due to the combined loading is compressive,
the failure of the vessel may be due to elastic instability (buckling). The
design must be check to make sure that the maximum value of the resultant
axial stress does not exceed the critical value at which buckling will occur.

Critical buckling stress,

3.3.13 Weight Loads

The weight loads comprises of:
i. Vessel Shell
The approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel with domed ends, and uniform
wall thickness,
Weight of Vessel:

Where:

ii. Vessel Fittings

For vessel fittings, the following can be used:
(a) Caged ladders, steel, 360 length

(b) Plain ladders, steel, 150 length

(c) Platforms, steel, for vertical columns, 1.7 area

(d) Contacting plates, steel including typical liquid loading, 1.2 plate

area

42
 For Internal Fittings, i.e. tubes:
Weight of Tubes:

Where:

iii. Wind Loads

For tall columns installed in the open, it is important to consider wind loading.
A wind speed of 160 km/h is usually taken for preliminary design which is
equivalent to 1280 wind pressure. The wind velocity is lower near the

ground than higher ground.

For a smooth cylindrical column or stack,

Dynamic wind pressure:

wind velocity, km/h

The loading per unit length of the column:

For a uniformly loaded cantilever the bending moment at any plane:

43
3.3.14 Skirt Supports

The skirt carried the load and is transmit to the foundation slab by the skirt
base ring (bearing plate). The moment produced by wind and other lateral
loads will tend to overturn the vessel. This will be opposed by the couple set
up by the weight of the vessel and the tensile load in the anchor bolts. Many
types of base ring designs as shown in Figure 2.1 is used with skirt support,
for example, rolled angle and plain flange rings suitable for small vessel and
double ring stiffened by gussets.

Figure 2.1: Flange ring design

Base Ring and Anchor Bolts:

The carried load by the skirt is transferred to the base ring or the foundation
slab (bearing plate). Winds and other loads produces moment that will tend
to overturn the vessel. The couple set up by the weight of the vessel and the
tensile load in the anchor bolt in turn, will oppose to the moment.
The following is the guide rules when selecting the anchor bolts given by
Scheiman:
 Bolts smaller than 25mm diameter should not be used
 Minimum number of bolts is 8
 Use multiple number of 4 bolts
 Bolt pitch should not be less than 600 mm

Approximate pitch circle diameter

Circumference of bolt circle
Minimum recommended bolt spacing
Number of bolts required, at minimum recommended bolt spacing

44
Assuming the anchor bolts share the overturning load equally,

Bolt area required,

Where:

Bolt root diameter

Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length,

Taking the bearing pressure, as 5

Minimum width of the base ring,

Choose suitable anchor bolt size design from Appendix ???.

Actual width required

Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation:

Minimum thickness for the base ring,

Skirt Thickness:

By trial and error, choose

The maximum dead weight load on the skirt occurs when the vessel is full
with water.

Use data acquired previously,

45
  Total weight of skirt
 Wind loading,

Bending moment at base of skirt,

By trial and error,

Assume skirt thickness,
Previously,
Bending stress in the skirt,

Dead weight stress in the skirt,

At test condition, the vessel full of water for the hydraulic test,
,

At operating condition,

Maximum
Maximum
Take joint factor,
(Double-welded butt or equivalent type of joint and degree of radiography is
spot)
Criteria for design:
Maximum
Maximum

Both criteria are satisfied, add 4 mm for corrosion.

46
3.3.15 Piping and Flanges

Optimum diameter of flange:

Where:

Nozzle thickness:

Where:

3.3.16 Evaporator Tube-Plates

Tube-plates support the tubes, and separate the shell and tube side fluids.
Since, one side is subjected to shell-side pressure and tube-side pressure on
the other side. Therefore, the design must able to support the maximum
differential pressure that is likely to occur.
A tube plate is a perforated plate with an unperforated rim, supported at its
periphery. The holes of plate for the tubes weaken the plate and reduce its
flexural rigidity. In between the holes is a material that holds the holes
together is ligament. The presence of tubes strengthens the plate.

Ligament efficiency of perforated plate,

Where:

The plate must be thick enough to resist the bending and shear stresses
caused by the pressure load and any differential expansion of the shell and
tube.

47
The minimum plate thickness to resist bending can be estimated by:

Where:

The value of is relies on the type of head,

Shear stress in the tube plate can be calculated by equating the pressure
force on the plate to the shear force in the material at the plate periphery.

Minimum plate thickness to resist shear is given by:

The design thickness is taken as the greater of the values obtained from
bending and shears resistance and must be greater than the minimum
thickness given from Appendix B.5

48
3.3.17 Calculations
Design Pressure, PD and External Pressure, Pe:
Maximum pressure for vessel under external pressure is 1 bar,

At Tube-Side:

At Shell-Side:

Design Temperature, TD:

At Tube-Side:

At Shell-Side:

Design Stress (Nominal Design Stress):

Refer to Appendix B.1,
Shell Side:
Material of Construction : Stainless Steel (SS 304)
Typical Design Stress, f : 125.5 N/mm2 (calculated at T=165oC)
Tensile Strength : 510 N/mm2
Tube Side:
Material of Construction : Stainless Steel (SS 316)
Typical Design Stress, f : 143.55 N/mm2 (calculated at T=121.5oC)
Tensile Strength : 520 N/mm2

From Appendix B.1, design factor taken for Austenitic stainless steel
at minimum yield stress is 1.5. The design stresses for tubes and shells are
calculated from Appendix B.2 are 143.5 and 125.5 respectively.

Thus,

49
 :

Welded joint efficiency, J and construction categories:

Refer to Appendix B.3,
Welded joint factor chosen, J = 1
Type of joint:
Double-welded butt or equivalent of 100% degree of radiography.

Corrosion Allowance:
Since, moderate corrosions are expected in the tubes and shell, the
corrosion allowance of 4.0mm is used.

Design of Cylindrical Shells under Internal Pressure

Minimum thickness, e plus corrosion allowance of 4 mm =

Critical Pressure to Cause Buckling, PC:

For long vessel with stiffening ring, the critical pressure of buckling is high,

Refer to Appendix B.4,

As

For this particular thickness, e = 4.0584mm, the design pressure is below of

critical pressure ( ), thus the thickness is suitable

50
Design of Stiffness Ring:

Assume,
Load per unit length,

Second moment of area of the ring to avoid buckling,

Taken factor of safety = 6,

Critical load to cause buckling in a ring under uniform radial load, :

Since,
The length and diameter of stiffening ring are acceptable.

Vessel heads:
If using torispherical head,
 Subjected to internal pressure

Where:

Plus corrosion allowance of 4mm,

51
 Subjected to external pressure

For ammonium nitrate solution, corrosion allowance is 4 mm.

If using ellipsoidal head,

 Subjected to internal pressure

Plus corrosion allowance,

 Subjected to external pressure

For ammonium nitrate solution, corrosion allowance is 4 mm, thus

For flat ends with bolted cover with full gasket,

Take

Add corrosion allowance,

52
Design of Vessel Subject to Combined Loading

i. Weight Loads:

Weight of Vessel:

Weight of Tubes:

Weight of External Fittings:

Installed caged ladder, steel to the equipment,
Thus,

ii. Wind Loading:

Take wind velocity,

The load due to wind of smooth cylindrical column,

Since no thermal insulation and attachment,

Loading per unit length of column,

53
 Bending moment at bottom tangent line,

iii. Analysis of Stresses

At bottom tangent line,
Pressure Stresses:

Dead weight stress:

The dead weight stress will be tensile (positive) for points below the plane of
vessel supports, and compressive (negative) for points above the supports.
Since calculated for points above the supports, it is compressive
(negative).

Bending stresses:
Bending stress will be compressive or tensile,

Where:

Resultant longitudinal stress:

Previously,
, , is compressive

(negative),

54
 Since the torsional shear stress is negligible, the principle stress will be
and .
The radial stress is negligible,

12.7193 6.5768

7.3349 7.3349

Up-wind Down-wind

The greatest difference between the principal stresses will be on the down-
wind side,
,

where it is well below the maximum allowable design stress of 125.5 .

iv. Elastic Stability (Buckling)

Previously, the resultant axial stress, due to the combined loading is
compressive, the failure of the vessel may be due to elastic instability
(buckling). The design must be check to make sure that the maximum value
of the resultant axial stress does not exceed the critical value at which
buckling will occur.

Critical buckling

stress,

The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under
pressure
= is well below the critical buckling

stress.
So the design is satisfactory.

55
v. Vessel Support: Skirt Support
For tall vertical vessels, skirt supports are preferred because they do not
lead to concentrated local loads on the shell, it offers less restraint against
differential thermal expansion, and reduce the effect of discontinuity stresses
at the junction of the cylindrical shell and the bottom. The skirt support shall
be provided with at least one opening for inspection.

Skirt thickness:
Try straight cylindrical skirt,
Material of Construction = Plain Carbon Steel
Design stress, f at ambient temperature =

Young’s Modulus at ambient temperature,

Height of Skirt,

The maximum dead weight load on the skirt occurs when the vessel is full
with water.

Previously,
Weight of vessel, ,
Total weight of skirt

Wind loading,

Bending moment at base of skirt,

By trial and error,

Take skirt thickness,
Previously,

Bending stress in the skirt,

Dead weight stress in the skirt,

At test condition, the vessel full of water for the hydraulic test,
,

56
 At operating condition,

Maximum

Maximum

Take joint factor,

(Double-welded butt or equivalent type of joint and degree of radiography is
spot)
Criteria for design:
Maximum

Maximum

Both criteria are satisfied, add 2 mm for corrosion, which gives:

vi. Base Ring and Anchor Bolts

Approximate pitch circle diameter
Circumference of bolt circle
Minimum recommended bolt spacing
Number of bolts required, at minimum recommended bolt spacing

Bolt design stress, (typical design value)

Take

Bolt area required,

Bolt root diameter

57
 Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length,

Taking the bearing pressure, as 5

Minimum width of the base ring,

Use M24 bolts (BS 4190:1967);

Nominal Diameter = 24 mm,
Root area = 353 ,

This is the minimum width required; actual width will depend on the chair
design.
Actual width required
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation:

Minimum thickness for the base ring,

Skirt to be welded flush with outer diameter of column shell.

vii. Tube-plates

Ligament efficiency of perforated plate,

The minimum plate thickness to resist bending can be estimated by:

Minimum plate thickness to resist shear is given by:

58
 The design thickness is taken as the greater of the values obtained from
bending and shears resistance and must be greater than the minimum
thickness given from Appendix B.5

viii. Opening and Nozzles:

Optimum diameter of flange:

Nozzle thickness:

Feed Inlet:

Concentrate Outlet:

Vapor Outlet:

Steam Inlet:

59
 Condensate Outlet:

3.3.18 SUMMARY

General Option
Identifier Heat Exchanger
Description Fixed Tube-Sheets, One pass shell
Shell Material Stainless Steel 304L
Tube Option
Tube Material Stainless Steel 316L
Tube Dimensions ,
Channel and Shell Option
Shell Material Stainless Steel 304L
Shell Dimension ,
Top-channel dimensions Type: Bonnet
Head: Ellipsoidal head
Bottom-channel dimensions Type: Bonnet
Head: Ellipsoidal head
Tube-sheet Options
Tube Layout Tube Count: 185
Tube Pitch: 47.625mm
Pattern: Equilateral Triangular
Tube-sheet Dimensions Material: Stainless Steel 304L
(top and bottom) Thickness:

60
Design Conditions Summary
Design Conditions
Tube Side
Design Pressure

Design Temperature
Mean Temperature
Shell Side
Design Pressure

Design Temperature
Mean Temperature
Tube-sheet
Design Temperature
Vessel Support
Type Straight cylindrical skirt
Thickness
Material Plain Carbon Steel
Height 3m
Base Ring and Anchor Bolts
Number of Bolts Required 12
Bolts M24
Nominal Diameter 24mm
Root Area 353
Minimum Width of Base Ring 138 mm
Minimum Thickness of Base Ring 6 mm
Tube-plates
Diameter 753.1735 mm
Minimum Plate Thickness 29.9798 mm
Openings and Nozzles
Feed Inlet

Concentrate Outlet

Vapour Outlet

Steam Inlet

Condensate Outlet

Stresses Analysis
Weight Loads
Wind Loading
Dead Weight

Bending Stress

Elastic Stability

61
3.4 HEAT EXCHANGER

Shell side details :

o Material = carbon steel
o Number of shell passes = 1
o Working pressure = 0.8 N/mm2
o Design stress for carbon steel, J = 109 N/mm2
o Inlet temperature = 180 oC
o Outlet temperature = 104.1 oC

Tube side details :

o Number of tubes = 128
o Number of passes = 1
o Outside diameter = 19.5 mm
o Inside diameter = 16.5 mm
o Length = 5 m
o Pitch rectangular = 24.38 mm
o Inlet temperature = -40 oC
o Outlet temperature = 65 oC

3.5.1 Design pressure

The design pressure, normally taken 10% above the normal working
pressure

Design pressure, Pi = Po x 1.1

= 0.8 x 1.1
= 0.88 N / mm2

3.5.2 Design temperature

For the shell side and tube side, the highest operating temperatures are at
180oC, and add up 2oC for uncertainties in temperature prediction.
Design Temperature, Ti = 180 o C  2 o C
= 182 o C

62
3.5.3 Material selection

Carbon steel is chosen because this material mostly used in industry and
the prices is cheapest. Besides, it is routinely used for most organic chemicals and
neutral or basic aqueous solutions at moderate temperatures.

From Table 13.2 page 812 Chemical Engineering Volume 6, the design
stress was obtain at operating temperature (T = 180 oC)
Design stress, f s  109 N / mm2

3.5.4 Welded joint efficiency

Joint efficiency was selected to be 1.0 because this implies that the joint is
equally as strong the virgin plate, complete weld length, and remaking any defects.
The lower joint factor will result in a thicker and heavier vessel.

Welded joint efficiency, J  1.0

3.5.5 Corrosion allowance

The corrosion allowance is the additional thickness of metal added to allow

for material lost by corrosion and erosion, or scaling. For carbon steel, where sever
corrosion is not expected, a minimum allowance of 2.0 mm should be used.

3.5.6 Minimum wall thickness

This is required to ensure that any vessel is sufficiently rigid to withstand its
own weight, and any incidental loads. As a general guide the wall thickness of any
vessel should not less than the values given below; this includes a corrosion
allowance of 2 mm.

63
 Table 2.1 Minimum wall thickness
Vessel diameter Minimum
(m) thickness (mm)
1 5
1 to 2 7
2 to 2.5 9
2.5 to 3.0 10
3.0 to 3.5 12

Minimum wall thickness,

Pi Di
tw 
2 f i  Pi


0.88406
2132.39  0.88
 1.3538 mm
Actual minimum wall thickness,
taw = tw + corrosion allowance
= 1.3538 + 2.0
= 3.3538

3.5.7 Vessel head and closure thickness

Standard torispherical heads (dished ends) are the most commonly used
end closure for vessels up to operating pressure of 15 bar.

Minimum thickness of vessel head,

Pi Rc C s
t =
2 fJ  Pi C s  0.2
Where Cs = stress concentration factor for torispherical heads

1  Rc 

= 3
4  Rk 

Rc = crown radius
= Di
Rk = knuckle radius
= 0.06Rc

64
 Rc = 406 mm
Rk = 24.36 mm

1 406 
Cs = 3  
4  24.36 

= 1.7706
Minimum thickness of vessel head, t =
0.884061.7706
2132.391  0.881.7706  0.2
= 2.3767
Actual minimum wall thickness = t + corrosion allowance
= 4.3767 mm

3.5.8 Longitudinal stress

Pi Di
h 
2t

h 
0.88406  53.2642 N / mm2
23.3539

3.5.9 Circumferential stress

PiDi
L 
4t

L 
0.88406  26.6317 N / mm2
43.3539

3.5.10 Design load

i. Dead weight of vessel

For preliminary calculations the approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel
with domed ends, and uniform wall thickness can be estimated from the following
equation:

65
 Wv  Cv m Dm g H v  0.8Dm t  10 3

Where Wv = total weight of shell

Cv = 1.08 for vessels with only a few internal fittings
ρm = Density of vessel material (7750 kg/m3)
Dm = Mean diameter of vessel =
Di  t 10 ,
3
m

Dm  406  3.3538  10 3

Dm  0.4094m

Wv  1.08 77509.815  0.80.4093.3538  10 3

Wv  1884.9672 N  1.885kN

ii. Weight of tubes

 
Wt  N t  d o  d i L m g
2 2

 
Wt  128 0.0195 2  0.0165 2 577509.81

Wt  16509.1347 N  16.509kN

3.5.11 Weight of insulation

Material used = 85% magnesia

Up to about 600oF (315oC), 85% magnesia has been the most popular
material. It is a mixture of magnesia and asbestos fibers so constructed that about
90% of the total volume is dead air space. Equivalents are available for situations
where asbestos is undesirable. Such insulants are applied to the equipment in the
form of slabs or blankets which are held in place with support and clips spotwelded
to the equipment. They are covered with cement to seal gaps and finished off with a
canvas that is trated for resistance to the weather. A galvanized metal outer cover
may be preferred because of its resistance to mechanical damage of the insulation.

66
 Table 2.2 Insulation of 85% Magnesia or Equivalent up to 600oF
Pipe size Standard Double
(in) (m) thickness standard thickness
(in) (in)
12-33 0.3048- 1-1/2 3
0.8382

Table above was taken from Chemical Process Equipment Selection and
Design, Stanley M. Walas, page 224, table 8.22)

Insulation thickness was selected to be 1 inch (0.0254m)

Table 2.3 Thermal conductivities of insulating materials for

high temperatures

From Table 2.2 and Table 2.3, the insulation thickness and bulk density for
85% Magnesia is 1 inch and 12 lb/ft2 respectively

t ins  1inch  0.0254m

lb kg
  12 3
 192.22 3
ft m

Approximate volume of insulation


V  L d o  t ins   d o
2 2


67
 
V   50.0195  0.0254  0.0195 2
2

V  0.02570 m3
Wins  Vg

Wins  0.02570192.229.81  48.4619 N  0.04846kN

Total weight of Heat Exchanger:

WT  WV  Wt  Wins

WT  1884.9672  16509.1347  48.4619

WT  18442.5638N  18.4426kN

3.5.12 Pipe selection for nozzle

Pipe size for steam inlet (shell)

Material of construction = carbon steel
Density of steam inlet, ρ = 0.4872 kg/m3
Flow rate inlet, G = 0.7403 kg/s
Diameter pipe for water inlet (shell), Dwater,in = 293G 0.53  0.37

= 2930.7403 0.48720.37
0.53

= 325.9883 mm
Pipe size for water outlet (shell)
Material of construction = carbon steel
Density of steam outlet = 0.7045 kg/m3
Flow rate outlet, G = 0.7403 kg/s
Diameter pipe for water outlet (shell), Dwater,out = 293G 0.53  0.37

= 2930.7403 0.70450.37
0.53

= 284.4053 mm
Pipe size for ammonia inlet (tube)
Material of construction = stainless steel
Density of ammonia inlet = 0.8139 kg/m3
Flow rate inlet, G = 0.6842 kg/s

Diameter pipe for ammonia inlet (tube), DNH3 ,in = 293G 0.53  0.37

68
 = 2930.6842 0.81390.37
0.53

= 258.5850 mm

Pipe size for ammonia outlet (tube)

Material of construction = stainless steel
Density of ammonia outlet = 0.6098 kg/m3
Flow rate outlet, G = 0.6842 kg/s
Diameter pipe for ammonia outlet (tube), DNH3 ,out = 293G 0.53  0.37

= 2930.6842 0.60980.37
0.53

= 287.7367 mm

3.5.13 Standard flanges

Flanges joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessel, for
manholes cover and for removable vessel head when ease of access is required.
Flanged may also be used on the vessel body, when it is necessary to divide the
vessel into sections for transport or maintenance. Flanges joint are also used to
connect pipe to equipments such as pumps and valves. Flanges range in size from
a few millimeters diameter for small pipes to several meters diameter for those used
as body or head flanges on vessels.

For the design of this heat exchanger, welding-neck flanges are used. It is
because welding-neck flanges have along tapered hub between the flange ring and
the welded joint. This gradual transition of the section reduces the discontinuity
stresses between the flange and branch and increases the strength of the flange
assembly. Welding-neck flanges and branch are suitable for extreme service
conditions, where flange are likely to be subjected to temperature, shear and
vibration loads. They will normally be specified for the connections and nozzles on
process equipment. The dimensions of welding-neck flanges is chosen base on the
nominal pipe size of the nozzle pipe. All dimensions are listed below.

Standard flanges for inlet water

Diameter water inlet pipe = 325.9883 mm
Standard o.d pipe = 355.6 mm

69
Nom. Pipe o.d. Flange Raised Bolting Drilling Neck
size d1 face
D b hi d4 f No. d2 k d3 h2 r
350 355.6 490 22 62 415 4 M20 16 22 495 438 15 12

Standard flanges for outlet water

Diameter water outlet pipe = 284.4053 mm
Standard o.d pipe = 323.9 mm

Nom. Pipe Flange Raised Bolting Drilling Neck

size o.d. face
d1 D b hi d4 F No. d2 k d3 h2 r
300 323.9 440 22 62 365 4 M20 12 22 395 342 15 12

Standard flanges for inlet ammonia

Diameter ammonia inlet pipe = 258.5850 mm
Standard o.d pipe = 273 mm

Nom. Pipe Flange Raised Bolting Drilling Neck

size o.d. face
d1 D b hi d4 f No. d2 k d3 h2 r
250 273 375 22 60 312 3 M16 12 18 335 290 15 12

Standard flanges for outlet ammonia

Diameter ammonia outlet pipe = 287.7367 mm
Standard o.d pipe = 323.9 mm

Nom. Pipe Flange Raised Bolting Drilling Neck

size o.d. face
d1 D b hi d4 F No. d2 k d3 h2 r
300 323.9 440 22 62 365 4 M20 12 22 395 342 15 12

3.5.14 Design of saddles

Determination of support for a vessel will be depending on the design

temperature and pressure, vessel location and arrangement, and the internal
and external fittings. Support should be design to allow easy access to the

70
 vessel for inspection and maintenance. Since heater is a horizontal
arrangement, saddle support is chosen as the support.

The saddle must be designed to withstand he load imposed by the weight of

the vessel and its contents. The design of saddle depends on the weight of
vessel, which is the weight of the heater itself. From previous calculation of
heater weight, the total weight is 18.4426 kN. From the value of weight, the
dimensions of saddle choose as referred to Figure 13.26 from Coulson &
Rochardson’s Volume 6. For outer shell diameter, Dshell is 0.406m so 0.6m is
taken since it is the smallest value and the maximum weight is not exceeded.

Vessel Maximum Dimension (m) mm

diamete weight Bolt Bolt
r (m) (kN) V Y C E J G t2 t1 diamete holes
r
0.6 35 0.48 0.15 0.55 0.24 0.190 0.095 6 5 20 2

3.5.15 Baffles

Baffles are used in the shell to direct the fluid flow across tube and increase
the fluid velocity. When the fluid velocity increases, it is improving the rate of heat
transfer. The assembly of baffles and tubes are hold together by support rods and
spacers. The most commonly used type of baffle is the single-segmental baffle.
Baffle cut used to specify the dimensions of a segmental baffle. Generally, baffle cut
of 20%-25% will be optimum. The value will give good heat transfer rate without
excessive drop.
Type = single segmental
Baffle diameter = 0.406 m
Nb = length of tube / inside diameter shell
= 5000 / 406
= 12.3 ≈ 13 baffles

71
Summary of design
 Design pressure = 0.88 N/mm2
 Design temperature = 182 oC
 Material of construction = Carbon steel
 Minimum thickness of cylindrical section of the shell = 3.3538 mm ≈ 4
mm
 Longitudinal stress = 53.2642 N/mm2
 Circumferential stress = 26.6317 N/mm2
 Minimum thickness of vessel head = 4.3767 mm ≈ 5 mm
 Diameter pipe for steam inlet = 325.9883 mm
 Diameter pipe for steam outlet = 284.4053 mm
 Diameter pipe for ammonia inlet = 258.5850 mm
 Diameter pipe for ammonia outlet = 287.7367 mm
 Types of baffles = Single segmental
 Number of baffle segmental = 13

72
3.5 ABSORBER

3.5.1 Operating and Design Temperature and Pressure

This column operates at temperature of 66.81°C and pressure of 1 atm.
The design pressure will be 10% above the operating pressure, to avoid spurious
operation during minor process upset. The design temperature at which the design
stress is evaluated is taken as the maximum operating temperature of the material,
with due allowance for any uncertainty involved in predicting vessel wall
temperatures.

3.5.2 Materials of Construction

As one of the process material involve is ammonium nitrate, the material of
construction of the column is required to be corrosion resistant. In this case stainless
steel type 304 is selected.

Table Typical design stresses for plate

(The appropriate material standards should be consulted for particular
grades and plate thicknesses)

73
3.5.3 Column Wall Thickness
Calculating the cylindrical column wall thickness:
Pi Di
e
2 f  Pi
Where e = minimum thickness required, mm
Di = internal diameter of column, mm
f = design stress, N/mm2
Pi = internal pressure, N/mm2

For corrosive process material i.e. ammonium nitrate solution, corrosion

allowance of 4 mm is included:

3.5.4 Column Head

3.5.4.1 Flat Head
Calculating the minimum thickness required:

where Cp = design constant = 0.55 for plate welded to the end of the shell
De = nominal plate diameter, mm = Di
F = design stress, N/mm2

For corrosive process material i.e. ammonium nitrate solution, corrosion

allowance of 4 mm is included:

74
 3.5.4.2 Ellipsoidal head
Calculating the minimum thickness required:

Where J = joint factor = 1 for no joints.

For corrosive process material i.e. ammonium nitrate solution, corrosion

allowance of 4 mm is included:

3.5.4.3 Torispherical head

Calculating the minimum thickness required:

Where Cs = stress concentration factor =

Rc = crown radius = Di
Rk = knuckle radius = 0.06Rc
J = joint factor = 1 for no joints

For corrosive process material i.e. ammonium nitrate solution, corrosion

allowance of 4 mm is included:

75
 Type of Head Minimum Thickness, e
Flat head 22mm
Ellipsoidal head 5mm
Torispherical head 5mm

By comparing the minimum thickness of these different type heads, it can

be concluded that either ellipsoidal or torispherical head are suitable to be choose
due to the economical factor since both require minimum thickness compared to flat
head.

3.5.5 The design of Column subject to Combined Loading

The main sources of load to be considered are dead weight loads and
wind. Meanwhile, the major sources of dead weight loads include vessel shell,
internal fittings (packed bed) and external fittings (ladders, platforms, piping).

3.5.5.1 Dead Weight Loads

3.5.5.1.1 Dead weight of vessel, W v

For a steel vessel,

Where Wv = total weight of the shell, excluding internal fittings, kN

Cv = factor to account for the weight of the internal supports
= 1.15 for absorption column
Hv = height of cylindrical section, m
t = wall thickness, mm
Dm = mean diameter, m = Di + (t × 10-3)
= 1.2 + (5 × 10-3) m
= 1.205 m

76
 3.5.5.1.2 Dead weight of Packed Bed, Wp

Surface area of packing, a = 95 m2/m3

Approximation volume of packed bed, Vp =

= 0.0283 m3
Area of packed bed, Ap = a × Vp
= 95 m2/m3× 0.0283 m3
= 2.6861 m2

For vertical column, steel platform = 1.7 kN/m2 area,

Weight of packed bed, W p = 1.7 kN/m2 × Ap
= 1.7 kN/m2 × 2.6861 m2
= 4.5663 kN

3.5.5.1.3 Weight of External Fittings, W fitting

External fitting used is plain steel ladder. Weight of the ladder is estimated
to be 150 N/m lengths. Therefore,
Wfitting = 150 N/m × 6 m = 900 N = 0.9 kN
Total of Dead Weight Loads = W v + W p + W fittings
= (11.5804 + 4.5663 + 0.9) kN
= 17.0467 kN

3.5.5.2 Wind Loads

Wind loading will only be important on tall columns installed in the open.
Columns are usually free standing, mounted on skirt support and not attached to
structural steel work. Under this conditions, the vessel under wind loading acts as
cantilever beam.
Take wind speed, Uw = 160 km/h
To estimate the wind pressure, the following equation is used:
Pw = 0.05 Uw2
= 0.05 (160)2
= 1280 N/m2

77
 Effective column diameter, Deff = Dm + 2t
= (1.2 + 0.005) m
= 1.205 m
Loading per unit length of column, Fw = Pw × Deff
= 1280 N/m2 × 1.205 m
= 1542.4 N/m

Bending moment at bottom tangent line,

= 27763.2 Nm

3.5.6 Analysis of Stresses

At bottom tangent line,

Pressure stress:

and

Where σL = longitudinal stress due to pressure, N/mm2

σh = circumferential stress due to pressure, N/mm2
P = operating pressure, N/mm2
Di = column diameter, mm
t = column wall thickness, mm

Dead weight stress (compressive):

78
 Bending stress:

Where Mx = bending moment at bottom tangent line, Nmm

Iv = second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending
mm4
Do = outer diameter of column, mm
Di = inner diameter of column, mm

The resultant longitudinal stress:

σw is compressive and therefore negative

As no torsional shear stress, the principal stresses will be σz and σh

The radial stress is negligible ≈ (Pi/2) = 0.0507 N/mm2
The greatest difference between the principal stresses will be on the
downwind side
= σh – σz (downwind)

79
 Well below the maximum allowable design stress (165 N/mm2)
3.5.7 Elastic Stability (Buckling)

The critical buckling stress,

σc

= 82.6446 N/mm2

When the vessel is not under pressure, the maximum compressive stress
will occur:
Maximum stress = σw + σb
= (0.6118 + 4.8890) N/mm2
= 5.5008 N/mm2

The maximum stress is below critical buckling stress, thus the design is
acceptable.

3.5.8 Design of Vessel Support (Skirt Design)

Type of support : Straight cylindrical skirt

θs : 90°
Material of construction : Carbon Steel
Design stress, fs : 135 N/mm2
Skirt height : 1.2 m
Young modulus : 200,000 N/mm2
Total weight of vessel : 17.0467 kN
Wind loading : 1542.4 N/m

The maximum dead weight on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full of
water.

80
 Total weight:
Wtotal = W vessel + W app
= (17.0467 + 66.5691) kN
= 83.6158 kN
Bending moment at skirt base:

Bending stress in skirt, σbs:

As for the first trial, take skirt thickness as the same as the thickness of the
column wall, ts = 5 mm.

Dead weight in the skirt, σws

The resulting stress in the skirt,

Maximum σs (compressive) = σbs + σws(test)
= (6.9823 + 6.9760) N/mm2
= 13.9583 N/mm2

81
 Maximum σs (tensile) = σbs + σws(operating)
= (6.9823 + 1.7864) N/mm2
= 8.7687 N/mm2

General consideration for skirt design:

Take joint factor, J = 0.85
σs (tensile) < fs J sin θ
8.7687 N/mm2 < (135 N/mm2)(0.85)(sin 90°)
8.7687 N/mm2 < 114.75 N/mm2

σs (compressive) <

13.9583 N/mm2 <

13.9583 N/mm2 < 104.17 N/mm2

Both criteria are satisfied, add 2 mm for corrosion allowance,

ts = 5 mm + 2 mm = 7 mm

3.5.9 Base Ring and Anchor Bolts

Assume pitch circle diameter = 2.2 m

Circumference of bolt circle = 2200π
Recommended spacing between bolts = 600 mm
Minimum number of bolts required, Nb =

Closest multiple of 4, Nb = 12 bolts

Bending moment at base skirt, Ms =
Total weight of vessel, Wt = 17.0467 kN
Take bolt design stress, fb = 125 N/mm2

The bolt area required is given by:

82
 Use bolts standard diameter = 30 mm
Use M24 bolts (BS4190:1967) root area = 353 mm2
Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length,

The minimum width of the base ring:

Where Lb = base ring width, mm

fc = maximum allowable bearing pressure on the concrete
foundation
pad (typically range from 3.5 to 7 N/mm2)

Table Anchor bolt chair design

83
 Actual width required:
Lb = Lr + ts +50 mm
= (76 + 7 + 50) mm
= 133 mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation:

Base ring thickness:

Where f’c = actual bearing pressure on base, N/mm2

fr = allowable design stress in the ring material, typically
140 N/mm2

3.5.10 Piping and Flanges Design

Optimum diameter of flange:

Where G = Fluid flowrate, kg/s

ρmix = Density of fluid mixture, kg/m3

Nozzle thickness:

Where Ps = operating pressure, N/mm2 = 0.1013 N/mm2

σ = Design stress at operating temperature, N/mm2 = 165
N/mm2

84
Pipe Flowrate, G Fluid density, ρ
(kg/s) (kg/m3)
Bottom inlet 2.2300 0.1584
Top inlet 0.6944 1003.6
Top outlet 1.6125 0.0356
Bottom outlet 1.3119 1276.3

Bottom inlet:

Add corrosion allowance of 4 mm,

Top inlet:

Add corrosion allowance of 4 mm,

Top outlet:

Add corrosion allowance of 4 mm,

85
 Bottom outlet:

Add corrosion allowance of 4 mm,

3.5.11 Summary of Mechanical Design

Types Packed Column
Design pressure 0.1115 N/mm2
Design Temperature 66.81°C
Cylindrical
Material Stainless Steel Type 304
Tensile strength 510 N/mm2
Design stress 165 N/mm2
Types of head Ellipsoidal @ Torispherical
Height head 0.5 m
Thickness 5 mm
Corrosion allowed 2 mm
Column weight
Dead weight 11.5804 kN
Weight of insulation NA
Weight of packed bed 4.5663 kN
Weight of external fittings 0.9 kN
Total weight 17.0467 kN
Wind loading
Loading 1542.4 N/m
Analysis stress
Dead weight stress 0.6118 N/mm2
Bending stress 4.8890 N/mm2
Critical buckling 82.6446 N/mm2

86
Vessel supports
Straight cylindrical skirt 90°
Material Carbon Steel
Design stress 135 N/mm2
Skirt height 1.2 m
Total weight 83.6158 kN
Bending moment 39.979 kNm
Thickness 7 mm
Anchor bolts
Bolts 12 bolts
Design stress 125 N/mm2
Area 353 m2
Bolts root diameter 30 mm
Types M24 bolts (BS4190:1967)
Piping sizing (Diameter
Optimum)
Bottom inlet 879.18 mm
Top inlet 18.79 mm
Top outlet 1290.42mm
Bottom outlet 23.93 mm

87