Chapter 2

The Basic Principles of OFDM

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Wireless Access Tech. Lab.
 Chapter 2
) 2 The Basic Principles of OFDM [1-7]
A 2.1 FFT-based OFDM Systems
A 2.2 Serial and Parallel Concepts [1,7]
A 2.3 Modulation/Mapping [10,11]
¾ 2.3.1 M-ary Phase Shift Keying
¾ 2.3.2 M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
A 2.4 IFFT and FFT [8,9]
¾ 2.4.1 Signal Representation of OFDM using IDFT/DFT
A 2.5 Orthogonality [1-7]
A 2.6 Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension [1-7]
A 2.7 Advantages and Disadvantages [1,4,7]

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 2.1 FFT-based OFDM System 1/3

m bits d0 s0
Serial
Data d1 s1
Input
Serial-to-
Signal
Parallel- Guard D/A &
Up- s(t )
Parallel IFFT to-Serial Interval Low pass
Mapper Converter
Converter Converter Insertion Filter
d N −1 sN−1
Fast Fourier
Transform Subchannels

Guard
Intervals

Frequency
Symbols Channel

Time

m bits d̂0 ŝ0

Serial d̂1 ŝ1
Data Parallel- Serial-to- Guard
Signal One-tap Down-
Output to-Serial FFT Parallel Interval A/D
Demapper Equalizer Converter
Converter Converter Removal
dˆN−1 sˆN−1

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 2.1 FFT-based OFDM System 2/3
OFDM Transmitter
m bits
Serial x0 d0 s0
Data x1 d1 s1
Input
#x # #
N −1 d N −1 sN −1

x0=[0,0] d0=1
Q
. 01

x1=[0,1] .
10

.
.
00

I d1=i
x=[0,0,0,1,1,0,1,1,….]
11

.
x2=[1,0]
01

.
10

. 11
.
00

I d2=-1
x3=[1,1]
Q
. 01

.
10 00
. d3=-i
. 11

4
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Wireless Access Tech. Lab.
 2.1 FFT-based OFDM System 3/3
OFDM Transmitter
m bits
Serial x0 d0 s0
Data x1 d1 s1
Input
#x # #
N −1 d N −1 sN −1

0.2

⎡1⎤
0.15

⎢ ⎥ s = [ -0.09,
0.1

-0.003-0.096i, ", 0.01+ 0.247i, -0.035-0.0472i ]

⎢ i ⎥ 0.05

⎢ ⎥
d i = ⎢⎢ # ⎥⎥
0

0.2 -0.05 CP 0.2

⎢1⎥
0.15

CP CP
0.15
-0.1

⎢ ⎥
0.1
0.1

⎢−1⎥
0.05 -0.15 0.05

⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
0

DATA
0

CP CP
-0.2
-0.05 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-0.05

-0.1
-0.1

-0.15 -0.15

-0.2 -0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
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 2.2 Series and Parallel Concepts 1/3
) In OFDM system design, the series and parallel converter is
considered to realize the concept of parallel data transmission.

Serial Parallel
data Serial-to- data
Parallel
Converter
#

0 Tb 2Tb t t
0 Ts = NTb

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 2.2 Series and Parallel Concepts 2/3
) Series
A In a conventional serial data system, the symbols are transmitted
sequentially, with the frequency spectrum of each data symbol allowed
to occupy the entire available bandwidth.
A When the data rate is sufficient high, several adjacent symbols may be
completely distorted over frequency selective fading or multipath
delay spread channel.

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 2.2 Series and Parallel Concepts 3/3
) Parallel
A The spectrum of an individual data element normally occupies only a
small part of available bandwidth.
A Because of dividing an entire channel bandwidth into many narrow
subbands, the frequency response over each individual subchannel is
relatively flat.
A A parallel data transmission system offers possibilities for alleviating
this problem encountered with serial systems.
¾ Resistance to frequency selective fading

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 2.3 Modulation/Mapping 1/1
) The process of mapping the information bits onto the signal
constellation plays a fundamental role in determining the
properties of the modulation.
) An OFDM signal consists of a sum of sub-carriers, each of
which contains M-ary phase shift keyed (PSK) or quadrature
amplitude modulated (QAM) signals.
) Modulation types over OFDM systems
A Phase shift keying (PSK)
A Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)

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 2.3.1 Mapping - Phase Shift Keying 1/2
) M-ary phase shift keying
A Consider M-ary phase-shift keying (M-PSK) for which the signal set is

2Es ⎛ 2π ( i −1) ⎞
si ( t ) = cos ⎜ 2π fct + ⎟ 0 ≤ t ≤ Ts , i =1,2,..., M
Ts ⎝ M ⎠
where Es is the signal energy per symbol, Ts is the symbol duration,
and f c is the carrier frequency.

A This phase of the carrier takes on one of the M possible values,

( )
namely, θ i = 2 i − 1 π M , where i = 1, 2,..., M .

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 2.3.1 Mapping - Phase Shift Keying 2/2
) An example of signal-space diagram for 8-PSK .
φ2

Es m3
Decision
boundary

m4 m2

d
Decision
region
− Es π M Es
φ1
m5 π M m1

m6 m8
message
point
− Es m7

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 2.3.2 Mapping –
1/2
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
A The transmitted M-ary QAM signal for symbol i can be expressed as

2 2
sn ( t ) = an cos ( 2π f ct ) − bn sin ( 2π f ct ) , 0 ≤ t ≤ Ts ,
Ts Ts
where an and bn are amplitudes taking on the values and

an , bn = ± a, ±3a,…, ± ( log 2 M − 1) a ,

where M is assumed to be a power of 4.

A The parameter a can be related to the average signal energy ( Es ) by

3Es
a =
2 (M − 1 )

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 2.3.2 Mapping –
2/2
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
)An example of signal-space diagram for 16-square QAM.
bn

an

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 2.4 IFFT and FFT 1/1
) Inverse DFT and DFT are critical in the implementation of an
OFDM system.
N −1 2π
1
∑ X [k ]e
j kn
IDFT x[ n ] = N
N k =0

N −1 2π
− j
∑ x [ n ]e
kn
D F T X [k ] = N

n=0

) IFFT and FFT algorithms are the fast implementation for the
IDFT and DFT.
) In the standard of IEEE 802.11a, the size of IFFT and FFT
is N=64.
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 2.4.1 Signal Representation of OFDM using
1/2
IDFT/DFT
) Signal representation of OFDM using IDFT/DFT

A Now, consider a data sequence X = ( X0, X1,", Xn ,", XN−2 , XN−1 ) ,

and X k = Ak + jBk ,

N −1 N −1
1 1
xn =
N
∑ X ke
k =0
j ( 2π kn / N )
=
N
∑ k
X
k =0
e ( j 2π f k tn )
, n = 0,1, 2" N − 1,

where f k = k / ( N ∆t ) , tn = n∆t , and ∆t is an arbitrarily

chosen symbol duration of the serial data sequence xn .

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 2.4.1 Signal Representation of OFDM using
2/2
IDFT/DFT

sn = Re ( xn )
1 N −1
= ∑( Ak cos2π f k tn − Bk sin 2π f k tn ), n = 0,1,2" N -1.
N k =0

A If these components are applied to a low-pass filter at time intervals

N −1
1
s(t ) =
N
∑ ( A cos 2π f t − B
k =0
k k k sin 2π f k t ), 0 ≤ t ≤ N ∆t .

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 2.5 Orthogonality 2/2
) Digital communication systems
A In time domain In frequency domain
∞ ⎧1 , i= j ⎧1 , i = j
∫ x i ( t )x *j ( t ) dt = ⎨ ∞
( ) ( )
∫−∞ i =
*
−∞
⎩0 , i≠ j X f X f df ⎨
⎩0 , i ≠ j
j

) OFDM
A Two conditions must be considered for the orthogonality between the
subcarriers.
¾ 1. Each subcarrier has exactly an integer number of cycles in the FFT interval.
¾ 2. The number of cycles between adjacent subcarriers differs by exactly one.

k n n−k
ts +Ts − j 2π ( t −ts ) N −1 j 2π ( t −ts ) N −1 ts +Ts j 2π ( t −ts )
∫ e Ts
⋅ ∑ dn e Ts
dt = ∑ dn ∫ e Ts
dt = dkTs
ts ts
n =0 n =0

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 2.5 Orthogonality 2/2

Time domain Frequency domain

Example of four subcarriers within one OFDM symbol Spectra of individual subcarriers

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 2.6 Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension 1/8
) OFDM symbol
A OFDM symbol duration T = Ts + T
. g

Tg Ts

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 2.6 Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension 2/8
) Two different sources of interference can be identified in the
OFDM system.
A Intersymbol interference (ISI) is defined as the crosstalk between
signals within the same sub-channel of consecutive FFT frames, which
are separated in time by the signaling interval T.
A Inter-carrier interference (ICI) is the crosstalk between adjacent
subchannels or frequency bands of the same FFT frame.

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 2.6 Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension 3/8
) Delay spread

Environment Delay Spread

Home < 50 ns

Office ~ 100 ns

Manufactures 200 ~ 300 ns

Suburban < 10 us

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 2.6 Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension 4/8
) For the purpose to eliminate the effect of ISI, the guard
interval could consist of no signals at all.
) Guard interval (or cyclic extension) is used in OFDM systems
to combat against multipath fading.
Tg :guard interval
Tdelay−spread :multi path delay spread

T g > T d e la y − sp re a d
) In that case, however, the problem of intercarrier
interference (ICI) would arise.
) The reason is that there is no integer number of cycles
difference between subcarriers within the FFT interval.
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2.6 Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension 5/8

If T g < T d e l y -s p re a d

﹒﹒﹒﹒
Tg Sym bol 1 Tg Sym bol 2 Tg Sym bol 3 Tg Sym bol 4

﹒﹒﹒﹒
Tg Sym bol 1 Tg Sym bol 2 Tg Sym bol 3

T d e ly - s p r e a d

If Tg > T de ly - sp r e a d

Tg Sym bol 1 Tg Sym bol 2 Tg Sym bol 3 Tg Sym bol 4 ﹒﹒﹒﹒

Tg Sym bol 1 Tg Sym bol 2 Tg Sym bol 3 ﹒﹒﹒﹒

T de ly - sp r e a d

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 2.6 Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension 6/8
) To eliminate ICI, the OFDM symbol is cyclically extended in
the guard interval.
) This ensures that delayed replicas of the OFDM symbol
always have an integer number of cycles within the FFT
interval, as long as the delay is smaller than the guard
interval.

Guard Interval
(Cyclic Extension)

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 2.6 Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension 7/8
) Effect of multipath with zero signals in the guard interval, the
delayed subcarrier 2 causes ICI on subcarrier 1 and vice
versa.
Part of subcarrier #2
causing ICI on
subcarrier #1
Subcarrier #1

Delayed subcarrier #2
Guard time FFT integration time=1/carrier spacing Guard time FFT integration time=1/carrier spacing

OFDM symbol time OFDM symbol time

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 2.6 Guard Interval and Cyclic Extension 8/8
) Time and frequency representation of OFDM with guard
intervals. Subchannels
1/Ts
Tg..
Fast Fourier Transform
Ts

Guard Intervals Frequency

Symbols

Time
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 2.7 Advantages and Disadvantages 1/3

)Advantages
A Immunity to delay spread
¾ Symbol duration >> channel delay spread
¾ Guard interval

A Resistance to frequency selective fading

¾ Each subchannel is almost flat fading

A Simple equalization
¾ Each subchannel is almost flat fading, so it only needs a one-tap
equalizer to overcome channel effect.

A Efficient bandwidth usage

¾ The subchannel is kept orthogonality with overlap.
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 2.7 Advantages and Disadvantages 2/3

)Disadvantages
A The problem of synchronization
¾ Symbol synchronization
—Timing errors
—Carrier phase noise
¾ Frequency synchronization
—Sampling frequency synchronization
—Carrier frequency synchronization

A Need FFT units at transmitter, receiver

¾ The complexity of computations

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 2.7 Advantages and Disadvantages 3/3
A Sensitive to carrier frequency offset
¾ The effect of ICI

A The problem of high peak to average power ratio (PAPR)

¾ Problem 1. It increased complexity of the analog-to-digital and
digital-to-analog converters.
¾ Problem2. It reduced efficiency of the RF power amplifier.
¾ The solutions
—1.Signal distortion techniques,which reduce the peak
amplitudes simply by nonlinearly distorting the OFDM signal
at or around the peaks.
—2.Coding techniques using a special forward-error-correction
code
—3. It is based on scrambling each OFDM symbol with different
scrambling sequences and then the sequence that gives the
smallest PAP ratio is selected.
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 References
) [1] Richard van Nee and Ramjee Prasad, OFDM wireless multimedia communication, Artech House Boston
London, 2000.
) [2] Ahmad R. S. Bahai and Burton R. Saltzberg, Multi-carrier digital communications - Theory and
applications of OFDM, Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London,
Moscow, 1999.
) [3] Ramjee Prasad, “OFDM based wireless broadband multimedia communication,” Letter Notes on
ISCOM’99, Nov. 7-10, 1999.
) [4] L. Hanzo, W. Webb and T. Keller, Single- and multi-carrier quadrature amplitude modulation –
Principles and applications for personal communications, WLANs and broadcasting, John Wiley & Sons,
Ltd, 2000.
) [5] Mark Engels, Wireless OFDM Systems: How to Make Them Work? Kluwer Academic Publishers.
) [6] Lajos Hanzo, William Webb, Thomas Keller, Single and Multicarrier Modulation: Principles and
Applications, 2nd edition, IEEE Computer Society.
) [7] Zou, W.Y. and Yiyan Wu, “COFDM: An overview,” Broadcasting, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 41,
Issue 1, pp. 1 –8, Mar. 1995.
) [8] Emmanuel C. Ifeachor and Barrie W. Jervis, Digital signal processing – A practical approach, Addision-
Wesley, 1993.
) [9] Blahut, R. E., Fast Algorithms for digital processing. Reading, Ma: Addison-Wesley, 1985.
) [10] Simon Haykin, Communication Systems, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 3rd edition, 1994.
) [11] Roger L. Peterson, Rodger E. Ziemer and David E. Borth, Introduction to spread spectrum
communications, Prentice Hall International Editions, 1995.

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