Relational Algebra

Module 3, Lecture 1

Database Management Systems, R. Ramakrishnan 1

 Relational Query Languages
❖ Query languages: Allow manipulation and retrieval
of data from a database.
❖ Relational model supports simple, powerful QLs:
– Strong formal foundation based on logic.
– Allows for much optimization.
❖ Query Languages != programming languages!
– QLs not expected to be “Turing complete”.
– QLs not intended to be used for complex calculations.
– QLs support easy, efficient access to large data sets.

Database Management Systems, R. Ramakrishnan 2

 Formal Relational Query Languages
Two mathematical Query Languages form the
basis for “real” languages (e.g. SQL), and for
implementation:
❶ Relational Algebra: More operational, very
useful for representing execution plans.
❷ Relational Calculus: Lets users describe what
they want, rather than how to compute it.
(Non-operational, declarative.)
☛ Understanding Algebra & Calculus is key to
☛ understanding SQL, query processing!
Database Management Systems, R. Ramakrishnan 3
 Preliminaries
❖ A query is applied to relation instances, and the
result of a query is also a relation instance.
– Schemas of input relations for a query are fixed (but
query will run regardless of instance!)
– The schema for the result of a given query is also
fixed! Determined by definition of query language
constructs.
❖ Positional vs. named-field notation:
– Positional notation easier for formal definitions,
named-field notation more readable.
– Both used in SQL
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 R1 sid bid day
Example Instances 22 101 10/10/96
58 103 11/12/96
❖ “Sailors” and “Reserves”
S1 sid sname rating age
relations for our examples.
❖ We’ll use positional or 22 dustin 7 45.0
named field notation, 31 lubber 8 55.5
assume that names of fields 58 rusty 10 35.0
in query results are
`inherited’ from names of
S2 sid sname rating age
fields in query input
relations.
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
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 Relational Algebra
❖ Basic operations:
– Selection (σ ) Selects a subset of rows from relation.
– Projection (π ) Deletes unwanted columns from relation.
– ×
Cross-product ( ) Allows us to combine two relations.
– −
Set-difference ( ) Tuples in reln. 1, but not in reln. 2.
– Union ( U ) Tuples in reln. 1 and in reln. 2.
❖ Additional operations:
– Intersection, join, division, renaming: Not essential, but
(very!) useful.
❖ Since each operation returns a relation, operations
can be composed! (Algebra is “closed”.)
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 sname rating
Projection yuppy 9
lubber 8
❖ Deletes attributes that are not in guppy 5
projection list.
rusty 10
❖ Schema of result contains exactly
the fields in the projection list, π sname,rating(S2)
with the same names that they
had in the (only) input relation.
❖ Projection operator has to
eliminate duplicates! (Why??) age
– Note: real systems typically 35.0
don’t do duplicate elimination 55.5
unless the user explicitly asks
for it. (Why not?) π age(S2)
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 sid sname rating age
Selection 28 yuppy 9 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
❖ Selects rows that satisfy
selection condition. σ rating >8(S2)
❖ No duplicates in result!
(Why?)
❖ Schema of result
identical to schema of sname rating
(only) input relation.
yuppy 9
❖ Result relation can be
the input for another rusty 10
relational algebra
operation! (Operator π sname,rating(σ rating >8(S2))
composition.)
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 Union, Intersection, Set-Difference
sid sname rating age
❖ All of these operations take 22 dustin 7 45.0
two input relations, which 31 lubber 8 55.5
must be union-compatible: 58 rusty 10 35.0
– Same number of fields. 44 guppy 5 35.0
– `Corresponding’ fields 28 yuppy 9 35.0
have the same type. S1∪ S2
❖ What is the schema of result?
sid sname rating age
sid sname rating age 31 lubber 8 55.5
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 rusty 10 35.0
S1− S2 S1∩ S2
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 Cross-Product
❖ Each row of S1 is paired with each row of R1.
❖ Result schema has one field per field of S1 and R1,
with field names `inherited’ if possible.
– Conflict: Both S1 and R1 have a field called sid.
(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/96
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 22 101 10/10/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 22 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 103 11/12/96

☛ Renaming operator: ρ (C(1→ sid1, 5 → sid2), S1× R1)

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 Joins
❖ Condition Join: R >< c S = σ c (R × S)
(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
S1 >< R1
S1. sid < R1. sid
❖ Result schema same as that of cross-product.
❖ Fewer tuples than cross-product, might be
able to compute more efficiently
❖ Sometimes called a theta-join.
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 Joins
❖ Equi-Join: A special case of condition join where
the condition c contains only equalities.
sid sname rating age bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 103 11/12/96
S1 >< R1
sid
❖ Result schema similar to cross-product, but only
one copy of fields for which equality is specified.
❖ Natural Join: Equijoin on all common fields.

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 Division
❖ Not supported as a primitive operator, but useful for
expressing queries like:
Find sailors who have reserved all boats.
❖ Let A have 2 fields, x and y; B have only field y:
– A/B = { x | ∃ x, y ∈ A ∀ y ∈ B}
– i.e., A/B contains all x tuples (sailors) such that for every y
tuple (boat) in B, there is an xy tuple in A.
– Or: If the set of y values (boats) associated with an x value
(sailor) in A contains all y values in B, the x value is in A/B.
❖ In general, x and y can be any lists of fields; y is the
list of fields in B, and x ∪ y is the list of fields of A.
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 Examples of Division A/B
sno pno pno pno pno
s1 p1 p2 p2 p1
s1 p2 p4 p2
B1
s1 p3 p4
B2
s1 p4
s2 p1 sno B3
s2 p2 s1
s3 p2 s2 sno
s4 p2 s3 s1 sno
s4 p4 s4 s4 s1

A A/B1 A/B2 A/B3

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 Expressing A/B Using Basic Operators
❖ Division is not essential op; just a useful shorthand.
– (Also true of joins, but joins are so common that systems
implement joins specially.)
❖ Idea: For A/B, compute all x values that are not
`disqualified’ by some y value in B.
– x value is disqualified if by attaching y value from B, we
obtain an xy tuple that is not in A.

Disqualified x values: π x ((π x ( A) × B) − A)

A/B: π x ( A) − all disqualified tuples
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 Find names of sailors who’ve reserved boat #103

❖ Solution 1: π sname((σ Reserves) >< Sailors)

bid =103

❖ Solution 2: ρ (Temp1, σ Re serves)

bid = 103
ρ ( Temp2, Temp1 >< Sailors)
π sname (Temp2)

❖ Solution 3: π sname (σ (Re serves >< Sailors))

bid =103
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 Find names of sailors who’ve reserved a red boat

❖ Information about boat color only available in

Boats; so need an extra join:
π sname ((σ Boats) >< Re serves >< Sailors)
color =' red '

❖ A more efficient solution:

π sname (π ((π σ Boats) >< Re s) >< Sailors)
sid bid color =' red '

☛ A query optimizer can find this given the first solution!

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 Find sailors who’ve reserved a red or a green boat
❖ Can identify all red or green boats, then find
sailors who’ve reserved one of these boats:
ρ (Tempboats, (σ Boats))
color =' red ' ∨ color =' green '
π sname(Tempboats >< Re serves >< Sailors)

❖ Can also define Tempboats using union! (How?)

❖ What happens if ∨ is replaced by ∧ in this query?
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 Find sailors who’ve reserved a red and a green boat

❖ Previous approach won’t work! Must identify

sailors who’ve reserved red boats, sailors
who’ve reserved green boats, then find the
intersection (note that sid is a key for Sailors):
ρ (Tempred, π ((σ Boats) >< Re serves))
sid color =' red '
ρ (Tempgreen, π ((σ Boats) >< Re serves))
sid color =' green'
π sname((Tempred ∩ Tempgreen) >< Sailors)

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 Find the names of sailors who’ve reserved all boats

❖ Uses division; schemas of the input relations

to / must be carefully chosen:

ρ (Tempsids, (π Re serves) / (π Boats))

sid, bid bid
π sname (Tempsids >< Sailors)

❖ To find sailors who’ve reserved all ‘Interlake’ boats:

..... /π (σ Boats)
bid bname =' Interlake'
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