1 RELIGIOUS RESPONSES Chapter overview ‘The sense that there is something or someone, some truth beyond our everyday experience of reality, seems to be common to all cultures throughout history. How people worship or tespond to this universal presence, deity, or ultimate reality, sometimes termed “the sacred,” varies greatly throughout the world. Pictured as a tapestry, religion illustrates that many diverse forms of expression or threads can be distinguished in the fabric underneath the surface of life. The word “religion,” (which probably comes from the Latin religio meaning “to tie again” or “to te back”) suggests a connecting or a tying back to ultimate ‘meanings and purposes. Humankind’s yearnings to engage a greater reality have taken, and continue to take, a plurality of expressions. Nevertheless all religions seem to share a common aim: connecting people back to something greater which lies behind the surface of life, or invisibly permeates the tangible world of. our five senses. Fisher notes the controversies concerning the term “religion” and its applicability, as well as the limitations of applying names or labels to religions. Many students now have parents from different religious backgrounds (e.g. one Christian, one Jewish parent), or know someone from such a background, and such situations could form the basis fora discussion of the limitations of placing religious experience within a single “world religion” category, Fisher points out that not all religious behavior takes place within an institutional context; it would be useful 0 ask students to think of examples of behavior and experiences which might seem religious (or “spiritual” in current parlance) despite not occurring within the framework of one of the major religions. This chapter is foundational to the entire book. It could prove helpful to studentsif they were instructed {o outline the chapter in terms of bold-faced sections and the corresponding subsections. Students should then be asked to think through how each section in the chapter relates to the chapter title and the other sections in the chapter. Students may consider questions such as: Why are there religions? How have various thinkers sought to explain the origin and continuation of religion throughout human history? How do the different examples of explanations of religion help us understand and refine our own approach tothe study of religion? ‘Additionally, students could be prompted to pay attention to key terms and names as they work through each section. Fisher has interwoven significant terminology and identifications of important figures that appear in later chapters in this first fundamental chapter. Thus, chapter one introduces the reader to éemphases which will appear throughout the work. Students should find several sections particularly interesting. Fisher provides examples of different ‘ways of understanding the relationships between religion and science. Students may wish to discuss their own views in the context of the perspectives presented here; this issue also provides the basis for a discussion of how the academic study of religion is different from the study of science. Often forgotten feminine approaches to the sacred, which have been buried under centuries of patriarchal interpretations not only in the West but in much of the East as well, are discussed in the section “Women and the feminine in religions.” Students may find it useful to discuss the roles of men and women in their own experiences. ‘Another neglected topic in the study of religion is also explored, the negative side of organized religion. ‘That aspect ofthe religious response may be difficult to examine but must be addressed in any honest effort at interpreting the impact of religions on cultures. Most students will have some awareness of the lives that have been lost through witch-burnings, inqusitions, crusades, terrorist acts and international wars conducted in the name of religion. While many of these unfortunate incidents were fought over issues of power and domination, religion has often carried the banner for the cause. Subsequent chapters study specific characteristics of particular religions. This chapter lays the foundation for the rest of the text.Modes of encountering Unseen Reality ‘This section discusses two basic modes of understanding unseen or ultimate reality: rational thought or reason and non-rational modes of knowing. Reason begins with senses and then establishes general abstract categories, formulating seemingly logical ideas about reality. This is one path to encounters with Unseen Reality. Non-rational ways of knowing include arriving at convictions indirectly based on the example of, {great religious leaders, or the development of personal faith, or intuition which begins with the senses but bypasses logic, moving directly to the conclusion of truth. Ituses an internal form of wisdom often called mysticism to form perceptions about reality. Otto defined the experience of being grasped by reality as the basis of religion; Wach argued that religious experience followed predictable patterns. Understandings of Sacred Reality That which has been experienced as the sacred has many faces. Eliade helped develop comparative religion which compares religious patterns found throughout the world. Eliade used the terms sacred and profane; however, not all cultures make a clear distinction between the two. ‘A vocabulary exists in the study of religions to help us understand the different ways, culturally and historically, in which ultimate reality has been approached and defined. Ultimate reality can be envisioned as immanent, which means present in the world, Reality can also be conceived as transcendent, that is, as existing above and outside the material world. Religions that understand the sacred to be a personal reality and which are based on one’s relationship to the personal sacred are called theistic. In these religions if ultimate reality is worshipped asa single being, the religion is called monotheistic. On the other hand, ifa religion maintains that there are multiple attributes and forms of the divine, then its designated polytheistic. Religions which maintain that behind the plurality of apparent forms there is one underlying substance are termed monistic. Nontheistie views assert a sacred reality that is notin the form of a personal God. Some religions believe that sacred reality can be manifested in human form or events called inearnations. Atheism is a term that means disbelief in any deity. Thinkers such as Niebuhr have argued that atheistic communism, however, functions as a sort of religion. Agnosticism is the view that itis impossible for humans to know with certainty about the existence ofthe sacred. Itis important to emphasize to students that these categories are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Religions which conceive of a personal sacred reality may think of that reality as simultaneously immanent and transcendent. Itis also possible that at times some of these distinctions may blur. For example, a Hindu may be a polytheist and believe in the existence of many gods but may be somewhat monotheistic in practice when she or he places one god at the top of the pantheon. Fisher concludes this section by explaining how the book will explore, in Eliade’s term, the phenomenology of religion, using Geertz’s “thick description.” Worship, symbol, and myth ‘Worship attempts to express in outward form the reverence and awe which one experiences in response toultimate reality, e.g, rituals, sacraments, prayers, and spiritual practices. A symbol is an object, a place, a person, or an action which allows a worshiper to enter a sacred state of communion with Ultimate Reality, e.g. the sharing of food, the use of fire or candles, water purification, uses of flowers or fragrances. Rituals seek to create a sacred atmosphere or state of consciousness. Students should be encouraged to think about their own impressions of rituals and the functions they serve. High school graduation is a helpful example of a ritual students most likely will have already experienced themselves, and it may be fruitfully compared to life stage religious rituals ‘Symbols are images borrowed from the material world that are somehow indicative of some form ofthe sacred. Symbols are understood as realities which express, and offera mode of participation in that aspect of ‘the sacred which they signify. Different people can experience the same symbol in the same religion in a ‘multiplicity of ways, even atthe same time. Jung posited a collective unconscious which contains astore of archetypal symbols.Aso relevant are allegories, narratives which use concrete symbols to convey abstract ideas. A set of symbols together may become the basis for myths which explain the universe and people’s place within it Joseph Campbell suggested that myths serve mystical, cosmological, sociological, and psychological functions. Itis usual now to understand symbols and myths metaphorically rather than literally. They both, signify deep realities, which transcend them, In other words, symbols and myths are not simply identical to what they signify ‘Absolutist and liberal interpretations Each religious community has different ways of interpreting its traditions. Particular labels for these ‘modes of interpretation have arisen. Six of these labels are the subjects of this section: orthodox, absolutsts, fundamentalists liberals, heretics, and mystics. Unfortunately, these descriptive categories are often loaded with negative value judgments. Those identified as orthodox may be stereotyped as rigid, narrow minded, and vindictive in their religious thinking; whereas others designated as liberals may be seen as wide-eyed extremists eager to change Centuries of teachings and traditions in favor of contemporary fads. Students ought tobe signaled that while these terms may be treated as purely descriptive rather than judgmental, in popular usage, the negative connotations typically persist Such categories may also not be applicable in all religions; the term fundamentalism, for example, has its origins within nineteenth-century Christianity. In addition, those who are termed or who term themselves fundamentalists may not in fact be returning to the historical fundamentals of their religious tradition. Historical-critieal study of seriptures ‘Non-faith-based research treats scriptures as literary collections from particular cultural and historical contexts rather than as the absolute word of God. Such research has sought to identify the earliest forms of scriptures, the historical aspects of scriptures in comparison to other historical data, the intended audience of scriptures, the language and meaning ofthe words, th literary form of scriptures, redaction or the editing and organization of scripture, as well as the contemporary relevance of scripture. Such historical-crtical studies are often at odds with the views of those who consider their scripture to be the product of divine revelation rather than human composition ‘The encounter between science and religion Science, like religion, searches for universal principles to explain reality as we experience it. Since ancient times, the two have often gone hand in hand, While some of the ancient Greek nature philosophers sought to understand the world through their own perception, Plato argued that the testimony of the senses differs from that which is determined through reason. Plato considered the soul superior to the body, and reason superior to the senses, a judgment which has had profound influence on Western thought. ‘The eighteenth-century Enlightenment placed greater respect on rational knowledge than religious knowledge. Seientific materialism asserts thatthe supernatural is imaginary; only the material world exists. Feuerbach argued that deities are projections of human qualities. Sigmund Freud termed religion “universal obsessional neurosis” patterned on the child’s relationship to his or her parents. Karl Marx saw religion as derived from economics and the longings of the oppressed. Marx believed that religion could be Used as a tool of oppression. Darwin’s theory of evolution challenged the biblical view of creation. More recently, however, some scientists have sought to understand religious belief without necessarily rejecting it outright, Scientists studying the cosmos have encountered virtually insurmountable complexity and have also acknowledged the complicating factor of our own role as observers. Some physicists have proposed models of the universe which have certain affinities with some religious models. Some scientists, hhave also argued that there appears to be some evidence of purpose or intention in the development of the universe, again revealing a potential affinity with religious views of creation. Finally, some scientists find scientific discovery itself an experience which may deepen their own religious faith,‘Women and the feminine in religions A central but often under-studied dimension of religion is the exclusion of women and the feminine. Recent archaeological findings, according 10 some interpreters, suggest that the reverence for a high ‘goddess appears in many cultures: Danu or Dit in ancient India, Great Mother Nu Kwa of China, Cobra Goddess Ua Zit of Egypt, Creator Goddess Gaia of the Greeks, Arinna Sun Goddess of Turkey, Mother of the Aztec deities Coatlique, Queen Mother Freyja of the Scandinavians, the Pueblos Great Spider Woman, the all-powerful creator of the Dahomy, Mawu, and Ishtar supreme deity of the Babylonians. As the last ‘example indicates, other cultures may have placed a goddess atthe top of the hierarchy of gods. ‘Temples and images of such goddesses have been found in almost every archaeological site in Europe and West Asia. She is frequently represented by or associated with water, serpents, birds, eggs, spirals, the ‘moon, the womb, vulva, psychic powers, and the magnetic currents of the earth. She is also connected with the creation and renewal of life; therefore, in goddess religions, sexuality is sometimes interpreted as @ ‘means of accessing spirituality. What happened to these goddesses? This section discusses possible theories and outlines the clear consequences of the devaluation of the feminine in religions. The spiritual participation of women in religion was suppressed; in some patriarchal societies women are devalued, seen as property, not persons; and aspects of religion labeled as feminine such as receptivity, intuition, and ecstatic mystical communion, may also have been ostracized. As students work through the book, they should be alert to the roles of women in each religion and each religion’s view of the feminine, Are women of equal status to males in these religions? Are changes taking place in regard to women in religions? Both religious men and women are currently questioning the widespread patriarchy of many religions. ‘The exclusion of women from full participation in leadership roles is being challenged. Gender-exclusive language in holy writings, prayers, and images ofthe divine are being questioned, and religious thinkers are considering how religious views of women have affected women’s wider participation in public life. The usefulness of religions ‘Some approaches to religion seek to assess religion's benefits to people without necessarily evaluating the truth claims religions make. Durkheim, for example, saw religion as a glue which holds human societies together. John Bowker has argued that religion serves a biological purpose in protecting gene replication and the nurturing of children. Various studies of prayer and other forms of religious practice demonstrate that faith may have positive physiological effects. Similarly, psychologists have argued that religion is beneficial to psychological well-being Religion is an important source for understanding fundamental human questions. Who are we? Why are ‘we here? Why do people suffer? What happens when we die? Some religions propose answers inthe form of dogma; others may encourage people to explore the questions on their own. Through fosteringa sense of connection with an unseen reality, religion may also obviate the sense of being alone in the world, ‘The negative side of organized religion Fisher indicates some key problem areas to which the reader should pay close attention: Religions may split rather than unify humanity Religions may devote more energy to preserving the outer form of the religion than its inner spirit (Weber's “routinization of charisma”) + Those in religious power have the ability to dominate and manipulate the faithful; people ‘may put their faith in unethical or misguided spiritual leaders, ‘+ Religion may become a form of escapism; religion may be psychologically harmful to ‘+ Religion is a potential center for political power, and may be used as a rallying point for ‘wars against other peoples or nationsAs Fisher states, no religion sanctions violence against innocent people, yet battles fought in the name of religion indeed often have led to horrific violence. Fisher concludes the chapter witha call for clear, careful, and compassionate understanding of different religions rather than an “us” and “thei” dichotomy. Key Terms Religion Nontheistie Liberal Mysticism Incarnation Heretic Kensho Agnosticism Mystic Gnosis Phenomenology of religion Historical-critical study Comparative religion Ritual Redaction Sacred and profane Symbol Scientific materialism Immanent Archetype Patriarchy Transcendent Allegory Bhagavad-Gita Theistic Myth Dogma Monotheistic Orthodox charisma Polytheistic Absolutist Monistic, Fundamentalist lass Activities/Assignments | Assess the religion section in your Jocal newspaper, What issues are covered, and which religious traditions are addressed? 2. Look up Religious Organizations and Churches in your local phone book yellow pages. How many of the living religions in the table of contents ofthe book are represented in your community? Investigate other ways of finding out (such as Internet searches) how many living religions are in your area 3. The religious response is expressed in a multiplicity of ways. Collect different exampies of this from newspapers, magazines, periodicals, books, etc. Discuss what these depictions express about specific responses to the perceived Sacred. What is emphasized? 4. Askstudents to visita religious place of worship with which they are not familiar. Have them examine the architecture, the layout, artwork if present, hymnals, reading material, and the like. How can they ‘connect what they see with what they have learned about the history ofthe religion practiced atthe site? Have them compare and contrast their findings with one another. Can any credible conclusions be reached about the nature ofthe religions being investigated based upon the students’ findings? If so, what are they? 5. Ask students to write a dictionary-style definition of religion; compare it with actual dictionary definitions and other students’ definitions. 6. Divide the class into small groups. Assign diflerent groups the task of investigating very positive contributions that some religions have made to human affairs, and assign other groups the job of discovering some of the horrors which people have perpetrated upon each other in the name of religion. Each group should record its findings and present them to the class. (Class DiscussionEssay Questions 1. How isthe study of religion different from the study of subjects such as mathematics or other sciences? How best can we approach our study when religions make claims with which we may or may not agree? 2, Explain what a myth is, and describe some of the different ways that the function of myth has been explained.3. Give two examples of scientific materialist explanations of religion. To what extent are such explanations useful in understanding religion? What aspects of religion might they miss? 4, What is involved in the historical-citical study of scriptures? How does this approach differ from an absolutist approach? 5. Intrying to understand the negative side of organized religion, some people have argued that religious violence is carried out when people misuse or misinterpret their religion. Others, however, argue that the widespread nature of religious violence suggests that religion itself may be the problem. Which view do you find more convincing? Why? Test Questions Fill in the blank 1. The word “religion” probably means 2. What common goal do all religions share? _ 3. The everyday world of ordinary, seemingly unimportant occurrences is called the realm of the 4, The intuitive ability to perceive spiritual truths directly is typically called __ 5. The discipline which seeks to understand and compare religious patterns from around the world is known as 6 According to this chapter, what are two very basic ways of understanding reality? 7. Religions which worship the deity in a singular form are known as : 8. Like religion, searches for universal principles that explain the facts of nature. 9. Anarrative which uses concrete symbols in order to convey abstract ideas is knownas__ 10. Symbolic stories which communities use to explain the universe and their place within it are known as 11, Deseribe atleast two changes feminists are secking to make within patriarchal religions 1 12, The rare quality of personal magnetism often ascribed to founders of religion is True / False 13, The dichotomy between sacred and profane is applicable to al religions. True / False 14. Religions which worship the divine in many forms are known as polytheistic. True / False 15. Agnosticism is an intense, personal experience of sacred reality. True / False 16. The phenomenology of religion explores the specifically sacred aspects of religion. True / False 617. Researchers have identified many similarities in the use of symbols across different cultures. True / False 18, Orthodox followers ofa religion believe that practices must change with the times. True / False 19, ‘The term “fundamentalism” was first used in reference to Muslims from the Middle East. True / False 20, Historical-critical studies of scriptures assert that scriptures are a mixture of many elements, including myths, cultural influences, ethical instructions, copying mistakes, actual history, and genuine spiritual inspiration. True / False 21, Some thinkers argue thatthe theory of evolution does not necessarily conflict with religious belief. True 1 False Multiple choice 22. Encounters with ultimate reality may be called a. ecstatic communion b. gnosis, c. self-knowledge d._all of the above 23. The belief that sacred reality is one underlying substance is known as a, monotheism b.-monism’ ¢.nontheism 4. immanence 24, If one experiences being touched by a reality that far transcends ordinary life, then one has had a. amystical experience bb. an immanent experience an ordinary experience 4, an easily describable experience 25, Religious rituals may involve patterned performance b. repetition ©. purposefulness 4. allofthe above 26. The psychologist Carl Jung proposed that the reason there are similarities among symbols in different cultures is a. because symbols involve logical associations with the natural world bb. because cultures have borrowed the symbols from one another because there are a limited number of symbols available because humanity has a collective unconscious from which it draws symbols 27. The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud argued that religion is a. psychologically healthy whether it is true or not b. a.universal obsessional neurosis the opium of the people d. none of the above28, 29. 30. 31 Which of these terms is the closest opposite to the term transcendent? a. theistic b. transpersonal ©. agnostic d. immanent ‘The intuitive ability to perceive spiritual truths directly, beyond the limits of human reason, is called a. obsessional neurosis, b. illusion c. mysticism 4. monism Which of these terms is the closest opposite to the term Monotheistic? a. incamations b.monistic c. polytheistic 4. transcendent Dogma is 1a system of doctrine proclaimed as absolutely true b. the belief that religion is psychologically harmful the belief that religion is like a virus 4. spiritual bypassing