SHADOW ALARM

INTRODUCTION

Our mini-project is to design and check the functionality of ‘SHADOW

ALARM’ circuit. Shadow Alarm is opto-sensitive circuit that sounds an
alarm whenever a shadow falls on it .Now a days it is widely used in
aspects of security systems, where security is our main concern .So it can
be used at night by shopkeepers to protect the valuables in their
showrooms. It can also be used to provide security at ware houses (go-
downs) where storage and protection of various types of goods is main
concern, and works well for home-security too. A dim lighting in the room
is necessary to detect the moving shadow. Unlike opto-interruption alarms
based on light-dependent resistors (LDRs), it does not require an aligned
light beam to illuminate the photo-sensor.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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COMPONENTS LIST

1. IC’s
1. IC1 741 1No
2. IC2 NE555 1No
3. IC3 UM3561 1No
2. TRANSISTORS
1. T1 L14F1 1No
2. T2 BC548 1No
3. RESISTORS
1. 10 2No’s
2. 100K 1No
3. 4.7K 1No
4. 100 Ohm 1No
5. 680 Ohm 1No
6. 47 Ohm 1No
7. 1 Mega ohms 1No
8. 220 K 1No
9. 1 K 1No
4. CAPACITORS
1. 10UF 1No
2. 0.01UF 1No
3. 47UF
5. PRESET
1. 47K 1No
6. LED 2No’S
7. ZENER DIODE 3.1V 1No
8. SPEAKER 8Ohms/0.5w 1No

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1. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

1.1 IC 555 TIMER

The 555 timer IC is an amazingly simple yet versatile device. It has been
around now for many years and has been reworked into a number of
different technologies. The two primary versions today are the original
bipolar design and the more recent CMOS equivalent. These differences
primarily affect the amount of power they require and their maximum
frequency of operation; they are pin-compatible and functionally
interchangeable.

PIN DIAGRAM

OPERATION

MONOSTABLE MODE
In the monostable mode, the 555 timer acts as a “one-shot” pulse
generator. The pulse begins when the 555 timer receives a signal at the
trigger input that falls below a third of the voltage supply. The width of
the output pulse is determined by the time constant of an RC network,
which consists of a capacitor (C) and a resistor (R). The output pulse ends
when the charge on the C equals 2/3 of the supply voltage. The output
pulse width can be lengthened or shortened to the need of the specific
application by adjusting the values of R and C

The output pulse width of time  t, which is the time it takes to charge C to
2/3 of the supply voltage, is given by

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Where t is in seconds, R is in ohms and C is in farads. See RC circuit for

an explanation of this effect.

Schematic of a 555 in monostable mode

ASTABLE MODE
In astable mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of rectangular
pulses having a specified frequency. Resistor R 1 is connected between
VCC and the discharge pin (pin 7) and another resistor (R 2) is connected
between the discharge pin (pin 7), and the trigger (pin 2) and threshold
(pin 6) pins that share a common node. Hence the capacitor is charged
through R1 and R2, and discharged only through R2, since pin 7 has low
impedance to ground during output low intervals of the cycle, therefore
discharging the capacitor.

In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the
values of R1, R2 and C:

The high time from each pulse is given by

And the low time from each pulse is given by

Where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value
of the capacitor in farads.

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Note: power of R1 must be greater than 

To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a diode can be added in parallel
with R2 towards the capacitor. This bypasses R 2 during the high part of
the cycle so that the high interval depends only on R 1 and C.

Standard 555 Astable Circuit

SPECIFICATIONS

Supply voltage (VCC) 4.5 to 15 V

Supply current (VCC = +5 V) 3 to 6 mA

Supply current (VCC = +15 V) 10 to 15 mA

Output current (maximum) 200 mA

Maximum Power dissipation 600 mW

Power Consumption (minimum operating) 30 mW@5V, 225 mW@15V

Operating temperature 0 to 70 °C

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FEATURES:

• Low supply current: 80mA

• Extremely low trigger, threshold, and reset currents: 20pA
• High-speed operation: 500 kHz guaranteed
• Wide operating supply voltage range guaranteed 3 to 16V over full
automotive temperatures
• Normal reset function; no crow barring of supply during output
transition
• Can be used with higher-impedance timing elements than the bipolar 555
for longer time constants
• Timing from microseconds through hours
• Operates in both astable and monostable modes
• Adjustable duty cycle
• High output source/sink driver can drive TTL/CMOS
• Typical temperature stability of 0.005%/oC at 25°C
• Rail-to-rail outputs

APPLICATIONS

• Precision timing
• Pulse generation
• Sequential timing
• Time delay generation
• Pulse width modulation
• Pulse position modulation
• Missing pulse detector

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1.2 IC 741 DESCRIPTION:

The Operational Amplifier is probably the most versatile Integrated

Circuit available. It is very cheap especially keeping in mind the fact that
it contains several hundred components. The most common Op-Amp is the
741 and it is used in many circuits.

The OP AMP is a ‘Linear Amplifier’ with an amazing variety of uses. Its

main purpose is to amplify (increase) a weak signal - a little like a
Darlington Pair. The OP-AMP has two inputs, INVERTING (-) and NON-
INVERTING (+), and one output at pin 6.

The 741 is used in two ways.

1. An inverting amplifier . Leg two is the input and the output is always
reversed. In an inverting amplifier the voltage enters the 741 chip through
leg two and comes out of the 741 chip at leg six. If the polarity is positive
going into the chip, it negative by the time it comes out through leg six.
The polarity has been ‘inverted’.

2. A non-inverting amplifier. Leg three is the input and the output is not
reversed. In a non-inverting amplifier the voltage enters the 741 chip
through leg three and leaves the 741 chip through leg six. This time if it
is positive going into the 741 then it is still positive coming out. Polarity
remains the same.

FEATURES:

 Short Circuit Protection

 Excellent Temperature Stability
 Internal Frequency Compensation
 High Input Voltage Range
 Null of Offset

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PIN DIAGRAM:

CONNECTION DIAGRAM:

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1.3 IC UM3561A DESCRIPTION :

UM3561 is a low-cost, low-power CMOS LSI designed for use in alarm

and toy applications. Since the integrated circuit includes oscillator and
selector circuits, a compact sound module can be constructed with only a
few additional components. The M3561 contains a programmed mask ROM
to simulate siren sound

FEATURES:

 Four sounds can be selected.
 Typical working voltage 3v.
 RC oscillator with external resistor.
  The sound of the speaker can be driven by connecting an NPN
transistor.
  Ability to reset.
  RC oscillator with an external resistor.

PIN DIAGRAM:

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PLAYING MODES:

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2. CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
2.1 RESISTORS

Resistors (R) are the most commonly used of all electronic components, to
the point where they are almost taken for granted. They are "Passive
Devices", that is they contain no source of power or amplification but
only attenuate or reduce the voltage signal passing through them. When
used in DC circuits the voltage drop produced is measured across their
terminals as the circuit current flows through them while in AC circuits
the voltage and current are both in-phase producing 0o phase shift.

In all Electrical and Electronic circuit diagrams and schematics, the most
commonly used resistor symbol is that of a "zigzag" type line with the
value of its resistance given in Ohms, Ω.

RESISTOR SYMBOL
The symbol used in schematic and
electrical drawings for a Resistor
can either be a "zigzag" type line or
a rectangular box.

RESISTOR TYPES

All modern resistors can be classified into four broad groups;

 Carbon Composition Resistor - Made of carbon dust or graphite

paste, low wattage values
 Film or Cermet Resistor - Made from conductive metal oxide
paste, very low wattage values
 Wire-Wound Resistors. - Metallic bodies for heat sink mounting,
very high wattage ratings
 Semiconductor Resistors - High frequency/precision surface
mount thin film technology

VARIABLE RESISTORS
CONSTRUCTION

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Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both

ends and a wiper which moves along the track as you turn the spindle. The
track may be made from carbon, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) or a
coil of wire (for low resistances). The track is usually rotary but straight
track versions, usually called sliders, are also available.

Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two connections (the

wiper and just one end of the track) or as a potentiometer with all three
connections in use. Miniature versions called presets are made for setting
up circuits which will not require further adjustment.

Variable resistors are often called potentiometers in books and catalogues.

They are specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic
track, and their physical size. The standard spindle diameter is 6mm.

RHEOSTAT

This is the simplest way of using a variable

resistor. Two terminals are used: one connected to
an end of the track, the other to the moveable Rheostat Symbol
wiper. Turning the spindle changes the resistance  
between the two terminals from zero up to the
maximum resistance.

PRESETS
These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They are
designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only
when the circuit is built. A small
screwdriver or similar tool is required to
adjust presets. Presets are much cheaper
than standard variable resistors so they are
sometimes used in projects where a
standard variable resistor would normally
be used. Multiturn presets are used where very precise adjustments must
be made. The screw must be turned many times (10+) to move the slider
from one end of the track to the other, giving very fine control.

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PRESET (OPEN STYLE) MULTITURN PRESET PRESET (CLOSED STYLE)

2.2 CAPACITORS

Just like the Resistor, the Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a

Condenser is a passive device, and one which stores energy in the form of
an electrostatic field which produces a potential ( Static Voltage) across
its plates. When the voltage is applied to these plates, one plate get a
positive charge and the other plate get an equal and opposite negative
charge. This flow of electrons to the plates is known as the Charging
Current and continues to flow until the voltage across the plates (and
hence the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vc. At this point the
capacitor is said to be fully charged and this is illustrated below.

Capacitor Construction

Q = C x V

UNITS OF CAPACITANCE

 Microfarad  (μF)   1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F

 Nanofarad  (nF)   1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10 -9 F 
 Picofarad  (pF)   1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 =
-12
10 F

TYPES OF CAPACITORS

There are a very large variety of different types of Capacitors available in

the market place and each one has its own set of characteristics and
applications from small delicate trimming capacitors up to large power
metal can type capacitors used in high voltage power correction and
smoothing circuits.

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1. DIELECTRIC Capacitors are usually of the variable type such as

used for tuning transmitters, receivers and transistor radios. They
have a set of fixed plates and a set of moving plates that mesh with
the fixed plates and the position of the moving plates with respect to
the fixed plates determines the overall capacitance. The capacitance
is generally at maximum when the plates are fully meshed.

Variable Capacitor Symbols

As well as the continuously variable types, preset types are also available
called Trimmers. These are generally small devices that can be adjusted
or "pre-set" to a particular capacitance with the aid of a screwdriver and
are available in very small capacitances of 100pF or less and are non-
polarized.

2. FILM CAPACITORS
Film Capacitors are the most commonly available of all types of
capacitors, consisting of a relatively large family of capacitors with the
difference being in their dielectric properties. These include polyester
(Mylar), polystyrene, polypropylene, polycarbonate, metalized paper,
Teflon etc. Film type capacitors are available in capacitance ranges from
5pF to 100uF depending upon the actual type of capacitor and its voltage
rating. Film capacitors also come in an assortment of shapes and case
styles which include:

 Wrap & Fill (Oval & Round) 

 Epoxy Case (Rectangular & Round) 
 Metal Hermetically Sealed (Rectangular & Round)  

3 .   C E R A M I C C AP A C I T O R S

Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are generally called are

made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver
and are then stacked together to make a capacitor. For very low
capacitance values a single ceramic disc of about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic
capacitors have a high dielectric constant (High-K) and are available so
that relatively high capacitances can be obtained in a small physical size.
They exhibit large non-linear changes in capacitance against temperature

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and as a result are used as de-coupling or by-pass capacitors as they are

also non-polarized devices. Ceramic capacitors have values ranging from a
few picofarads to one or two microfarads but their voltage ratings are
generally quite low.

Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed onto

their body to identify their capacitance value. For example, 103 would
indicate 10 x 103 PF

4 .   E L E C T R O L Y T I C C AP A C I T O R S

Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used when very large capacitance

values are required. Here instead of using a very thin metallic film layer
for one of the electrodes, a semi-liquid electrolyte solution in the form of
a jelly or paste is used which serves as the second electrode (usually the
cathode). The dielectric is a very thin layer of oxide which is grown
electro-chemically in production with the thickness of the film being less
than ten microns. This insulating layer is so thin that it is possible to
make large value capacitors of a small size. The majority of electrolytic
types of capacitors are polarized, that is the voltage applied to the
capacitor terminals must be of the correct polarity as an incorrect
polarization will break down the insulating oxide layer and permanent
damage may result.

Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used in DC power supply circuits to

help reduce the ripple voltage or for coupling and decoupling
applications. Electrolytic generally come in two basic forms; Aluminum
Electrolytic and Tantalum Electrolytic capacitors.

2.3 TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch

electronic signals. It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material,
with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A
voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes
the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the
controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input)
power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. Some transistors
are packaged individually but many more are found embedded in
integrated circuits.

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PIN CONFIGURATION :-

L14F1

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TRANSISTOR CHARACTERSTICS

ADVANTAGES

The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum
tube predecessors in most applications are

 Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of

miniaturized electronic devices.
 Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit
cost.
 Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for
small, battery-powered applications.
 Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency.
 Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness.
 Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in
service for more than 30 years.

LIMITATIONS

 Silicon transistors do not operate at voltages higher than about

1,000 volts SiC devices can be operated as high as 3,000 volts). In
contrast, electron tubes have been developed that can be operated at
tens of thousands of volts.

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 High power, high frequency operation, such as that used in over-the-

air television broadcasting, is better achieved in electron tubes due
to improved electron mobility in a vacuum.
 Silicon transistors are much more sensitive than electron tubes to an
electromagnetic pulse, such as generated by an atmospheric nuclear
explosion.

2.4 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. The LED is
based on the semiconductor diode. When a diode is forward biased
(switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes within the
device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the
semiconductor.
In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium
arsenide, carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they
recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the
material, wavelengths (or colors) from the infrared to the near ultraviolet
may be produced. The forward potential of these diodes depends on the
wavelength of the emitted photons: 1.2  V corresponds to red, 2.4  V to
violet. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes
have been developed over time. All LEDs produce incoherent, narrow-
spectrum light; “white” LEDs are actually combinations of three LEDs of
a different color, or a blue LED with a yellow scintillated coating. LEDs
can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An
LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same
package, to form an opto-isolator.

Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting

material doped with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other
diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or

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cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers— electrons and

holes—flow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages.
When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and
releases energy in the form of a photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on
the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon
or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-
radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because these are
indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct
band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-
ultraviolet light.

ADVANTAGES

 Efficiency
 Size
 On/Off time
 Cycling
 Dimming
 Cool light
 Slow failure
 Lifetime

DISADVANTAGES

 High initial price

 Temperature dependence
 Voltage sensitivity
 Light quality.
 Area light source
 Blue pollution

APPLICATIONS
Application of LEDs falls into four major categories:
 Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly
from the LED to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning.

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 Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual

response of these objects.
 Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do
not involve the human visual system.
 Narrow band light sensors where the LED is operated in a reverse-
bias mode and is responsive to incident light instead of emitting
light.

2.5 ZENER DIODES:

Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the
forward direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if
the voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage known as "Zener knee
voltage" or "Zener voltage".

A conventional solid-state diode will not allow significant current if it is

reverse-biased below its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse
bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to
high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by
circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged. In case of large forward
bias (current in the direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage
drop due to its junction built-in voltage and internal resistance. The
amount of the voltage drop depends on the semiconductor material and the
doping concentrations.

A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is
specially designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the
so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional device, a
reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow
the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode at the Zener
voltage. The Zener diode is therefore ideal for applications such as the
generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage), or as a
voltage stabilizer for low-current applications.

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The Zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p-n junction
allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to
the conduction band of the n-type material. In the atomic scale, this
tunneling corresponds to the transport of valence band electrons into the
empty conduction band states; as a result of the reduced barrier between
these bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relatively
high levels of doping on both sides. The breakdown voltage can be controlled
quite accurately in the doping process. While tolerances within 0.05% are
available, the most widely used tolerances are 5% and 10%. Breakdown
voltage for commonly available zener diodes can vary widely from 1.2 volts
to 200 volts.

4. APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES

The main application of this shadow alarm circuit is in the security

system. It can be used at night by shopkeepers to protect the valuables in
their showrooms. It can also be used to provide security at warehouses
(go-downs) where storage and protection of various types of goods is main
concern. This circuit can also be used for home securities too. The main
advantage of this circuit is that unlike opto-interruption alarms based on

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light-dependent resistors (LDRs), it does not require an aligned light

beam to illuminate the photo-sensor. This circuit is easy to implement and
also all the components used in this circuit are available on the market.

5. ESTIMATION

ITEM QUANTITY PRICE

IC’s
1. I C 741 1 25
1 30
2. I C NE555 1 50
3. I CUM3561
TRANSISTORS
1. BC548 1 30
2. L14F1 1 80
RESISTORS 10 5
CAPACITORS
1. 0.01 μF 1 5
2. 47 μF 2 10
PRESET
1. 47K 1 15
LED 2 4
ZENER DIODE 3.1V 1 2
SPEAKER 8Ohms/0.5w 1 60
BUZZER 1 35

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TOTAL 351

6. CONCLUSION

Our mini-project is to design and check the functionality of ‘SHADOW

ALARM’ circuit. The circuit has to found to have greater application in
security purposes. The components are very reliable and less expensive
and are guaranteed to perform the best of the duration of their life
time. Our team effort and guidance of lecturer’s have helped us in
completion of our project. This project is accessible to anyone with an
average expense and a bit of dedicated work, as we have realized in

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materializing it. The project has been an enriching experience for us.
We conclude that this project will be useful to everyone.

7. REFERENCES

 www.electronicsforyou.com

 www.howstuffworks.com

 www.wikipedia.org

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 www.circuits-today.com

 www.freedatasheets.com

8. APPENDIX

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