Resident's Guide To Clinical Psychiatry

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Resident’s Guide to
Clinical
Psychiatry
The Resident Editorial Board
Lucy A. Epstein, M.D.

Columbia University
New York, New York
Chad Lemaire, M.D.

Baylor College of Medicine
Houston, Texas
Molly McVoy, M.D.

University Hospital Systems
Cleveland, Ohio
Sandyha Prashad, M.D.

Baylor College of Medicine
Houston, Texas
Julie Young, M.D.

University of California, Davis Campus
Davis, California
Resident’s Guide to
Clinical
Psychiatry
Lauren B. Marangell, M.D.
Washington, DC
London, England
Note: The author has worked to ensure that all information in this book is
accurate at the time of publication and consistent with general psychiatric and
medical standards, and that information concerning drug dosages, schedules,
and routes of administration is accurate at the time of publication and consis-
tent with standards set by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the gen-
eral medical community. As medical research and practice continue to
advance, however, therapeutic standards may change. Moreover, specific situ-
ations may require a specific therapeutic response not included in this book.
For these reasons and because human and mechanical errors sometimes occur,
we recommend that readers follow the advice of physicians directly involved
in their care or the care of a member of their family.
Books published by American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., represent the views
and opinions of the individual authors and do not necessarily represent the
policies and opinions of APPI or the American Psychiatric Association.
DSM-IV-TR criteria tables throughout this book are reprinted from American
Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th
Edition, Text Revision. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association, 2000.
Used with permission.
Copyright © 2009 American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Manufactured in the United States of America on acid-free paper
12 11 10 09 08 5 4 3 2 1
First Edition
Typeset in Adobe’s Palatino and Frutiger
American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.
1000 Wilson Boulevard
Arlington, VA 22209-3901
www.appi.org
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Marangell, Lauren B., 1961–
Resident's guide to clinical psychiatry / by Lauren B. Marangell.—1st ed.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-58562-324-2 (alk. paper)
1. Psychiatry—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Residents (Medicine)—Hand-
books, manuals, etc. I. American Psychiatric Publishing. II. Title.
[DNLM:1. Mental Disorders—therapy. WM140 M311r 2009]
RC456.M365 2009
616.89—dc22
2008030966
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A CIP record is available from the British Library.
Contents
Disclosure of Competing Interests................... xi

Foreword......................................................... xiii
Acknowledgments..........................................xvii
1 Assessment and Documentation ...................... 1

The Interview ................................................................4
Components of the Complete Psychiatric
Evaluation....................................................................5
Additional Tests..........................................................15
Assessment of Risk for Suicide.................................17
Sample Psychiatric Initial Evaluation......................19
Admitting Orders .......................................................23
Physical Examination.................................................24
Seclusion and Restraint Orders ................................24
Psychiatric Progress Notes ........................................25
Privacy and Confidentiality ......................................26
Informed Consent.......................................................26
Hospital Discharge Note ...........................................27
2 Psychotic Disorders ......................................... 31

Schizophrenia..............................................................31
Schizophreniform Disorder ......................................42
Schizoaffective Disorder............................................42
Delusional Disorder ...................................................43
Brief Psychotic Disorder ............................................46
Shared Psychotic Disorder ........................................46
3 Mood Disorders ............................................. 49
Major Depression........................................................49
Dysthymia....................................................................58
Bipolar Disorder..........................................................60
4 Anxiety Disorders ........................................... 71

Generalized Anxiety Disorder ..................................71
Panic Disorder.............................................................76
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder ..............................80
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder...................................84
Acute Stress Disorder.................................................87
Specific Phobia ............................................................90
Social Phobia ...............................................................92
5 Personality Disorders ...................................... 95

Key Points ....................................................................95
Clusters.........................................................................96
General Treatment for Patients With
Personality Disorders...............................................96
Paranoid Personality Disorder .................................96
Schizoid Personality Disorder ..................................99
Schizotypal Personality Disorder ...........................101
Antisocial Personality Disorder..............................102
Borderline Personality Disorder.............................104
Histrionic Personality Disorder..............................106
Narcissistic Personality Disorder ...........................107
Avoidant Personality Disorder...............................107
Dependent Personality Disorder ............................109
Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder .......110
6 Sleep Disorders............................................. 113

Insomnia.....................................................................113
Narcolepsy .................................................................115
Breathing-Related Sleep Disorder ..........................118
Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorder .........................120
Parasomnias...............................................................121
7 Substance-Related Disorders ........................127
Key Points ................................................................. 127
General Concepts and Definitions......................... 128
General Treatment Principles................................. 130
Alcohol Dependence ............................................... 133
Sedatives and Hypnotics ........................................ 138
Opioids ...................................................................... 140
Hallucinogens........................................................... 142
Stimulants ................................................................. 142
Club Drugs ................................................................ 143
Ecstasy ....................................................................... 144
Cannabis .................................................................... 144
Nicotine ..................................................................... 145
8 Dementia.......................................................147
Dementia Subtypes .................................................. 147
Differential Diagnosis—Nondementias ............... 152
Treatment .................................................................. 154
9 Factitious Disorders and Somatoform

Disorders........................................................159
Overview................................................................... 159
Factitious Disorder................................................... 159
Malingering............................................................... 162
Somatoform Disorders ............................................ 163
10 Eating Disorders ...........................................175

Assessments .............................................................. 175
Anorexia Nervosa .................................................... 176
Bulimia Nervosa....................................................... 182
11 Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry ....................185

Consultation Documentation ................................. 185
Competency and Capacity for Health Care
Decision Making .................................................... 186
Delirium .................................................................... 188
Fibromyalgia............................................................. 195
Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders
in the Medical Setting ............................................197
Other Issues Commonly Seen in
Psychiatric Consultation........................................199
12 Emergency Psychiatry ................................... 203

Psychiatric Emergencies ..........................................203
The Psychiatric Emergency Department...............209
13 Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.................. 213

Developmental Milestones and Theories..............213
Pervasive Developmental Disorders .....................215
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder ...........223
Conduct Disorder and Oppositional
Defiant Disorder .....................................................230
Tourette’s Disorder...................................................232
Mental Retardation...................................................234
Major Depressive Disorder .....................................236
Bipolar Disorder........................................................236
14 Pharmacotherapy......................................... 239
Antipsychotics...........................................................239
Antidepressants ........................................................261
Mood Stabilizers .......................................................283
Anxiolytics, Sedatives, and Hypnotics ..................293
Stimulants ..................................................................302
Nonstimulant Medication for ADHD:
Atomoxetine ............................................................319
Cognitive Enhancers ................................................320
15 Psychotherapy and Psychosocial

Treatments .................................................... 331
Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic
Psychotherapy.........................................................331
Psychosocial Treatments..........................................335
16 Electroconvulsive Therapy and
Device-Based Treatments .............................341
Electroconvulsive Therapy ..................................... 341
Vagus Nerve Stimulation........................................ 344
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation ....................... 345
Deep Brain Stimulation ........................................... 346
Appendixes
Commonly Used Abbreviations....................349
Trade/Brand Names of Common
Psychiatric Drugs ...........................................359
Index ..............................................................365
This page intentionally left blank
Disclosure of
Competing Interests
In the past 3 years, Lauren B. Marangell, M.D., has received grant and
research support from Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, Eli Lilly and
Company, Cyberonics, Neuronetics, the National Institute of Mental
Health, the Stanley Foundation, NARSAD, the American Foundation
for Suicide Prevention, Aspect Medical Systems, and Sanofi Aventis.
She has also worked as a consultant for, or received honoraria from, Eli
Lilly and Company, GlaxoSmithKline, Cyberonics, Pfizer, Medtronics,
Forest, Aspect Medical Systems, Novartis, and Sepracor.
Dr. Marangell's work on Resident's Guide to Clinical Psychiatry was
submitted for publication prior to beginning her full time position as
a Distinguished Scholar with Eli Lilly and Company. The views ex-
pressed herein are hers alone, and not necessarily those of Eli Lilly and
Company.
xi
Foreword
ȱȱȱgreat pleasure to write the preface to this excellent ad-

dition to the American Psychiatric Publishing (APPI) portfolio of books.
We have worked with Dr. Lauren Marangell for many years in a number
of educational, clinical, and research capacities and feel privileged to
contribute to this text. Dr. Marangell is a psychopharmacologist with an
outstanding research background. She trained in the Biological Psychi-
atry Branch of the National Institute of Mental Health. In1994, she
moved to Baylor College of Medicine, where she founded and directed
the Mood Disorders Center of the Menninger Department of Psychiatry
and Behavioral Sciences. Recently she relinquished her position at Bay-
lor College of Medicine to assume a research position at the Eli Lilly
Company.
For a number of years, APPI has planned to publish a resident hand-
book to clinical psychiatry. We wanted an evidence-based, clinically-
oriented guide that could fit into the lab coat of a psychiatry resident or
medical student—a book they could consult frequently and conve-
niently during their clinical rotations. At the same time, APPI desired to
craft a psychiatry guide that is concise, yet sufficiently comprehensive
to be useful for residents training in psychiatry, primary care specialties,
and clinical neuroscience-related specialties during all stages of their
specialty training. Dr. Marangell, who was perennially among the most
popular and effective educators for medical students and psychiatry
residents during her many years on the Baylor faculty, as well as at na-
tional and international forums, was our first choice to meet our goals
for Resident’s Guide to Clinical Psychiatry (the Guide).
The Guide opens with an excellent chapter on assessment and docu-
mentation. This includes such practical information as a sample psychi-
atric initial evaluation, sample admitting orders, and outlines of the
physical examination and neurological examination, as well as exam-
ples of progress notes, informed consent, and a hospital discharge
summary. This chapter contains a wealth of valuable information and
xiii
xiv Resident’s Guide to Clinical Psychiatry
suggested templates that residents can follow when assessing and doc-
umenting their treatment of patients.
The next nine chapters of the Guide focus on the most common (and
disabling) psychiatric disorders that medical students and residents are
most likely to encounter during their clinical rotations in psychiatry, in-
cluding: psychotic disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, person-
ality disorders, sleep disorders, substance-related disorders, dementia,
factitious disorders andsomatoform disorders, and eating disorders.
Each chapter includes brief epidemiologic information, diagnostic crite-
ria, differential diagnosis, and treatment recommendations.
To complement the nine disorder-based chapters, Dr. Marangell in-
cludes chapters on major psychiatric rotations on which all residents
and many medical students will be assigned. These chapters comprise
consultation-liaison psychiatry, emergency psychiatry, and child and
adolescent psychiatry. The focus of the consultation-liaison psychiatry
is documentation, capacity for health care decision making, and the as-
sessment and treatment of delirium and other psychiatric disorders
most frequently encountered in the medical setting. The emergency
psychiatry chapter places emphasis on the most common psychiatric
emergencies that residents and students will encounter, including the
assessment and management of the suicidal patient. Finally, the chap-
ter on child and adolescent psychiatry reviews the disorders most
commonly found in children and adolescents by general psychiatry res-
ident, including: developmental disorders, attention-deficit/hyperac-
tivity disorder, conduct disorder and oppositional/defiant disorder,
Tourette’s disorder, mental retardation, major depressive disorder and
bipolar disorder.
The Guide continues with two excellent chapters on pharmacother-
apy and psychotherapy and psychosocial treatments. With Dr. Ma-
rangell being a noted research scientist, educator, and clinician in the
realm of psychopharmacology, these chapters are true gems in that they
include just the right amount of information on the major psychiatric
classes of psychotropic medication that residents will prescribe, such as
antipsychotics, antidepressants, mood stabilizers, anti-anxiety medica-
tions, sedatives and hypnotics, stimulants, and cognitive enhancers.
The author concludes her book with a discussion of device-based treat-
ments, including electroconvulsive therapy, vagus nerve stimulation,
transcranial magnetic stimulation, and deep brain stimulation. We be-
lieve that device-based interventions will become increasingly impor-
tant components of the clinical armamentarium of psychiatrists in the
near future. Finally, the Guide contains two excellent appendices—one
Foreword xv
featuring commonly used abbreviations, and another listing trade

names of frequently prescribed psychiatric medications. Notwithstand-
ing our preference for the use of generic appellations for psychiatric
medications, many professionals and patients still utilize trade names
for psychiatric agents; therefore, it is important for residents and medi-
cal students to be familiar with these for purposes of facile communica-
tion in the clinical setting.
In summary, we highly recommend Resident’s Guide to Clinical Psychi-
atry to medical students, psychiatry residents, and physicians in clinical
practice who seek a user-friendly, practical, and concise book for assess-
ing and treating patients with psychiatric disorders. We intend to carry
this book around with us during our clinical and teaching rounds in our
respective medical centers and advise that you consider doing so, as
well. We are deeply appreciative to Dr. Marangell for a job well done.
Robert E. Hales, M.D., M.B.A.

Sacramento, California
Stuart C. Yudofsky, M.D.

Houston, Texas
Acknowledgments
ȱ ȱ¢ modern textbooks, this work has benefited greatly

from the work of a large number of people. Multiple APPI authors gen-
erously allowed tables they created to be reproduced for this text. Edi-
tor-in-Chief Robert E. Hales, M.D., M.B.A, and the APPI editorial staff
are of unparalleled caliber and have greatly facilitated this project.
Throughout my career at Baylor College of Medicine, Dr. Stuart C. Yud-
ofsky and the faculty and residents of that fine institution have pro-
vided ongoing inspiration for me to improve psychiatric education
wherever possible. Holly Zboyan, M.A., and Linda Barloon, R.N., both
with our Mood Disorders Center at Baylor College of Medicine at the
time, were of extraordinary help in preparing this text. The Resident
Editorial Board, formulated to prepare this text, was invaluable in en-
suring that the text remained germane to trainees and reflective of
broad perspectives. This text also benefited from prior collaborations
with Drs. James Martinez, Stuart C. Yudofsky, and Jonathan Silver. Fi-
nally, I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Kimberly Monday, who has
not only provided many years of encouragement, but also made signif-
icant contributions to the sleep disorders section.
xvii
1
Assessment and
Documentation
¢¢ǰȱlike all areas of medicine, relies on proper diagnosis.

Diagnosis in psychiatry is typically presented as a five-axis system that
allows for the integrated presentation of major psychiatric disorders
and describes the dimensions of psychiatric illness: biological basis,
maladaptive personality patterns, nonpsychiatric medical problems,
life stressors, and overall functioning. Hence, the typical model is re-
ferred to as biopsychosocial. Written psychiatric evaluations and pre-
sentations in rounds should typically include all five axes. If not enough
information is available, the diagnosis on an axis may be “deferred.”
This is often the case with personality disorders, which typically require
a longer period of assessment for correct diagnosis.
The five axes included in the multiaxial classification are
• Axis I: clinical psychiatric disorders (list all, with reason for visit
listed first) and other conditions that may be the focus of clinical
attention;
• Axis II: personality disorders and mental retardation;
• Axis III: general medical conditions;
• Axis IV: psychosocial and environmental problems and stresses,
such as difficulty in a significant relationship; and
• Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF). Typically, GAF
ratings are given for current level of functioning and highest level
of functioning in the past year. The GAF scale and anchor points
are shown in Table 1–1.
1
2 Resident’s Guide to Clinical Psychiatry
TABLE 1–1. Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF)

Scale
Code (Note: Use intermediate codes when appropriate, e.g., 45, 68, 72.)
100 Superior functioning in a wide range of activities, life’s
| problems never seem to get out of hand, is sought out by
91 others because of his or her many positive qualities. No
symptoms.
90 Absent or minimal symptoms (e.g., mild anxiety before an
| exam), good functioning in all areas, interested and
81 involved in a wide range of activities, socially effective,
generally satisfied with life, no more than everyday
problems or concerns (e.g., an occasional argument with
family members).
80 If symptoms are present, they are transient and
| expectable reactions to psychosocial stressors (e.g.,
71 difficulty concentrating after family argument); no more than
slight impairment in social, occupational, or school
functioning (e.g., temporarily falling behind in schoolwork).
70 Some mild symptoms (e.g., depressed mood and mild
| insomnia) OR some difficulty in social, occupational, or
61 school functioning (e.g., occasional truancy, or theft within
the household), but generally functioning pretty well, has
some meaningful interpersonal relationships.
60 Moderate symptoms (e.g., flat affect and circumstantial
| speech, occasional panic attacks) OR moderate difficulty in
51 social, occupational, or school functioning (e.g., few
friends, conflicts with peers or co-workers).
50 Serious symptoms (e.g., suicidal ideation, severe obsessional
| rituals, frequent shoplifting) OR any serious impairment in
41 social, occupational, or school functioning (e.g., no
friends, unable to keep a job).
Assessment and Documentation 3
TABLE 1–1. Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF)

Scale (continued)
40 Some impairment in reality testing or communication (e.g.,

| speech is at times illogical, obscure, or irrelevant) OR major
31 impairment in several areas, such as work or school,
family relations, judgment, thinking, or mood (e.g.,
depressed man avoids friends, neglects family, and is unable to
work; child frequently beats up younger children, is defiant at
home, and is failing at school).
30 Behavior is considerably influenced by delusions or
| hallucinations OR serious impairment in communication
21 or judgment (e.g., sometimes incoherent, acts grossly
inappropriately, suicidal preoccupation) OR inability to
function in almost all areas (e.g., stays in bed all day; no job,
home, or friends).
20 Some danger of hurting self or others (e.g., suicide attempts
| without clear expectation of death; frequently violent; manic
11 excitement) OR occasionally fails to maintain minimal
personal hygiene (e.g., smears feces) OR gross impairment
in communication (e.g., largely incoherent or mute).
10 Persistent danger of severely hurting self or others (e.g.,
| recurrent violence) OR persistent inability to maintain
1 minimal personal hygiene OR serious suicidal act with
clear expectation of death.
0 Inadequate information.
Note. The rating of overall psychological functioning on a scale of 0–100 was
operationalized by Luborsky in the Health-Sickness Rating Scale (Luborsky L:
“Clinicians’ Judgments of Mental Health.“ Archives of General Psychiatry 7:407–417,
1962). Spitzer and colleagues developed a revision of the Health-Sickness Rat-
ing Scale called the Global Assessment Scale (GAS) (Endicott J, Spitzer RL,
Fleiss JL, et al: “The Global Assessment Scale: A Procedure for Measuring Overall
Severity of Psychiatric Disturbance.“ Archives of General Psychiatry 33:766–771,
1976). A modified version of the GAS was included in DSM-III-R as the Global
Assessment of Functioning (GAF) Scale.
Source. Reprinted from American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Sta-
tistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition, Text Revision. Washington, DC,
American Psychiatric Association, 2000, p 34. Used with permission.
The Interview
General Guidelines
• Establish rapport. On meeting a new patient, it is essential to first
put the patient at ease. For example, introduce yourself, ask whether
the patient is comfortable, and explain that you are just going to
talk for X amount of time, e.g., about 45 minutes.
• Ensure safety first. Although most psychiatric patients are no
more violent than other patients, it is imperative to ensure your
own safety at all times. If a patient is potentially dangerous, the
door should remain open and you should sit near the door. Like-
wise, a patient may become more agitated if he or she feels
trapped in a room, so it is ideal if both parties have easy access to
the exit. You may also ask security staff to be present or outside
the door if you believe the patient may become violent.
• Reduce communication barriers. For patients who are not profi-
cient in English or for patients with limited hearing, use profes-
sional interpreters who are trained in mental health. Avoid using
family members to serve as interpreters because this affects con-
fidentiality and may lead to biased answers.
• Speak with collateral sources. Information from family members
and friends is often very useful. Ask the patient for permission to
interview others and protect privacy by asking questions in a way
that does not reveal confidential information (e.g., asking if Mr. A
has ever been violent, as opposed to telling the family that Mr. A
mentioned that he has been violent). If there is concern for a
patient’s safety, collateral information may be obtained without
the patient’s consent, but it is still wise to inform the patient that
you are doing this.
• Consider time constraints. Attend to the patient’s most pressing
concerns first. If a patient is agitated or unable to tolerate a pro-
longed interview, you may need to complete the assessment over
several sessions. Prioritize issues that require urgent treatment.
Specific Techniques
Start with open-ended questions, such as “So what brought you here?”
“How did this come about?” or “How can we help you?” Unless you are
in an emergency setting, allow the patient to speak with minimal inter-
ruptions for 5–10 minutes. This will give you some of the factual infor-
mation you need and allow you to observe the patient carefully. Watch
for eye contact, distractibility, and abnormal movements. Do the pa-
tient’s thoughts seem logical and coherent, or are they hard to follow?
Does the patient seem suspicious or anxious? Is the patient’s speech un-
usually rapid? Much of the mental status information comes from such
observations.
After 5–10 minutes, start asking more detailed questions to gather the
information you need to make the correct diagnosis.
It is sometimes necessary to interrupt or redirect patients during the
interview. A useful phrase, gently stated, is “ Mr. A, I know this [topic] is
important and hopefully we will have time to come back to it, but right
now I need you to tell me about [information you need].” If this happens
repeatedly, it is often helpful to explain to the patient that you have only
X amount of time (e.g., 1 hour), and in order to best help him or her, you
need to get some specific information and you are sorry to have to in-
terrupt.
It is important that at the end of the interview the patient feels heard
and supported and understands what will happen next, even if this is as
vague as “I am going to talk to the rest of the team, and we will come up
with a plan. I will talk to you about that tomorrow.” Finally, allow the
patient time to ask questions before departing.
Components of the Complete

Psychiatric Evaluation
General identifying information (ID): Include age, race, sex, marital
status, and occupation.
Chief complaint: Cite the patient’s stated reason for evaluation.
Source of information: List sources used in preparing the evaluation,
such as interview with the patient, review of records, referral informa-
tion, and interviews with family members.
History of present illness: Ask about symptom clusters that will rule in
or rule out specific diagnoses. Keep an open mind so that you do not
overlook possible diagnoses. Note both positive and negative pertinent
symptoms. Questions specific to common presentations, such as psy-
chosis, depression, and anxiety, are included in subsequent chapters of
this book. Be sure to inquire about mood symptoms, psychotic symp-
toms, anxiety symptoms, and alcohol and substance dependence (see
Table 1–2).
TABLE 1–2. Normal or psychopathology?
NORMAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY (AXIS I)
Symptoms are transient Symptoms occur nearly every day

and persist for weeks or months
Functioning reasonably well at Impaired functioning at work,
work, home, etc. home, etc., or substantial
subjective distress
Symptoms are not significantly Symptoms differ markedly from
different from the person’s person’s usual state
baseline emotional state
Loved ones are not overly Loved ones are extremely
concerned concerned that the symptoms are
abnormal
Most healthy people experience Most people rarely or never
these symptoms at least experience these symptoms (e.g.,
occasionally hearing voices)
Past psychiatric history: Document prior treatment and treaters, includ-

ing hospitalizations, medications, suicide attempts, and history of vio-
lence.
Medications: Include dosages, patient response, duration of treatment,
and side effects for current psychiatric medications, past psychiatric
medications, and current nonpsychiatric medications. Be sure to note
any nonpsychiatric medications that the patient is currently taking that
might cause drug–drug interactions. Also ask about herbal preparations
and supplements that the patient may be taking but not think of as
“medication.”
Allergies: Note whether patient has any known drug allergies.
Psychiatric review of systems: The review of systems should include
the following areas:
• Depression
• Mania
• Psychosis
• Anxiety/panic
• Obsessions/compulsions
• Binge eating or anorexia
• Thoughts of harm to self or others (including self-harm without
the intent to die)
Past medical history: It is imperative to rule out nonpsychiatric causes

for psychiatric symptoms, such as endocrine or neurological disorders.
In addition, note the presence of other medical problems that might
influence drug selection, such as cardiac or hepatic disease. If the patient
is female and of childbearing potential, note if the patient uses contra-
ception and if the contraceptive method may influence drug selection.
Family history: Note family history of psychiatric disorders and suicide.
Social and developmental history: One technique for taking a social
and developmental history is to walk through the patient’s life. Typical
questions include, “Where did you grow up? Did you have brothers or
sisters? How was life for you then? How far did you go in school? What
happened after that? When did get your first job?”
It is important to inquire about and document the following informa-
tion:
• Current family relationships and supports

• Current living situation and functional status
• Any cultural, religious, or spiritual issues that may affect care
• Legal problems (current and past)
• History of abuse, when and by whom (sexual, physical, and/or
emotional)
• Occupational history/status
Substance abuse history: Note the type of substance and the amount
and frequency of substances used, history of withdrawal symptoms,
and history of treatment for substance-related disorders.
Physical and neurological examination: A number of psychiatric symp-
toms may be due to an underlying medical disorder. As such, a medical
and neurological evaluation is required for new patients. In addition, the
use of certain medications may require monitoring physical parameters
such as weight, waist circumference, and blood pressure, as discussed in
later chapters of this guide. Table 1–3 presents selected elements of the
physical examination and the significance of findings. Components of
TABLE 1–3. Selected elements of the physical examination and

the significance of findings
ELEMENTS EXAMPLES OF POSSIBLE DIAGNOSES
General
Appearance healthier than Somatoform disorder
expected
Fever Infection or NMS
Blood pressure or pulse Withdrawal, thyroid or
abnormalities cardiovascular disease
Body habitus Eating disorders, polycystic ovaries,
or Cushing’s syndrome
Skin
Diaphoresis Fever, withdrawal, NMS
Dry, flushed skin Anticholinergic toxicity, heat stroke
Pallor Anemia
Changes in hair, nails, skin Malnutrition, thyroid or adrenal
disease
Jaundice Liver disease
Characteristic stigmata Syphilis, cirrhosis, or self-mutilation
Bruises Physical abuse, ataxia, traumatic
brain injury
Eyes
Mydriasis Opiate withdrawal, anticholinergic
toxicity
Miosis Opiate intoxication, cholinergic
toxicity
Kayser-Fleischer papillary rings Wilson’s disease
Neurological
Tremors Delirium, withdrawal syndromes,
parkinsonism
Primitive reflexes present (e.g., Dementia, frontal lobe dysfunction
snout, glabellar, and grasp)
Hyperactive deep tendon reflexes Withdrawal, hyperthyroidism
TABLE 1–3. Selected elements of the physical examination and

the significance of findings (continued)
ELEMENTS EXAMPLES OF POSSIBLE DIAGNOSES
Neurological (continued)
Ophthalmoplegia Wernicke’s encephalopathy,
brainstem dysfunction, dystonic
reaction
Papilledema Increased intracranial pressure
Hypertonia, rigidity, catatonia, EPS, NMS
parkinsonism
Abnormal movements Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s
disease, EPS
Abnormal gait Normal-pressure hydrocephalus,
Parkinson’s disease
Loss of position and vibratory sense Vitamin B12 deficiency
Note. EPS=extrapyramidal side effects; NMS=neuroleptic malignant syndrome.
the neurological examination are presented in Table 1–4. Signs and

symptoms suggestive of a nonpsychiatric medical cause for psychiatric
symptoms are presented in Table 1–5.
Mental status examination (MSE): Key components of the MSE are pre-
sented in Table 1–6. A more detailed description of cognitive domains is
shown in Table 1–7.
Assessment: Document your impressions and diagnoses, including dif-
ferential diagnosis and rationale. This will often include an Axis I–V
assessment.
Plan: Include recommendations for medications, hospitalization, fam-
ily involvement, psychotherapy, tests to be ordered to clarify diagnosis,
and psychoeducation provided. Also include any consultations, follow-
up plans, or referrals to document the transfer of care (American Psy-
chiatric Association 2006).
TABLE 1–4. Neurological examination
Stance and gait

• Observe walking and turning
• Balance with feet together and eyes closed (Romberg test)
Cranial nervesa
• Smell (especially in head trauma) (I)
• Check visual fields by quadrant (II)
• Examine fundus (II)
• Visual pursuit (III, IV, VI) (follow the examiner’s finger in horizontal and
vertical directions)
• Bulk of temporalis and masseter muscles (V) (opening jaw against force;
muscle bulk on tight bite)
• Observe grimace of patient showing teeth (VII)
• Rub finger and thumb an inch from the patient’s ears for deafness (VIII)
• Observe palate; ask patient to say “ah” (IX, X)
• Push chin against the examiner’s hand and test bulk of
sternocleidomastoids (XI)
• Observe tongue for abnormal movements or deviation on protrusion (XII)
Motor system: Test tone, power, and reflexes, and note muscle bulk (test in all
four limbs)
• Tone: hold arms out, palms down; observe any wrist drop; rotate leg at
knee and note foot movements
• Power: hold arms out, with palms down, and ask patient to “play the
piano”; with palms up, watch for any flexion, pronation, or drift; elevate
legs from couch and see whether they can be maintained in the air against
examiner’s pressure; tap floor rapidly with soles of feet
• Reflexes: muscle stretch (biceps, triceps, supinator, knee, ankle);
pathological (plantar [Babinski sign])
• Coordination: finger-nose test; rapid alternating movements (tap quickly
the back of one hand with the palm of the other)
Sensory testing
• Stroke skin on representative parts of the body, especially the distal
extremities
a
Numerals in parentheses refer to the cranial nerves tested.
Source. Adapted from Cummings and Trimble 2002.
TABLE 1–5. Signs and symptoms suggesting a nonpsychiatric

medical cause for psychiatric symptoms
Psychiatric symptoms after age 40 (first onset)

Psychiatric symptoms
During a major medical illness
While taking drugs that can cause mental symptoms
History of
Alcohol or drug abuse
Physical illness impairing organ function (neurological, endocrine, renal,
hepatic, cardiac, pulmonary)
Taking multiple prescribed or over-the-counter drugs
Family history of
Degenerative or inheritable brain disease
Inherited metabolic disease (e.g., diabetes, pernicious anemia,
porphyria)
Mental signs including
Altered level of consciousness
Fluctuating mental status
Cognitive impairment
Episodic, recurrent, or cyclic course
Visual, tactile, or olfactory hallucinations
Physical signs including
Signs of organ malfunction that can affect the brain
Focal neurological deficits
Diffuse subcortical dysfunction, such as slowed speech/mentation/
movement, ataxia, incoordination, tremor, chorea, asterixis, dysarthria
Cortical dysfunction (e.g., dysphasia, apraxias, agnosias, visuospatial
deficits, or defective cortical sensation)
Source. Adapted from Hales and Yudofsky 2003.
TABLE 1–6. Components of the mental status examination
General description
Appearance
Motor behavior
Speech
Attitudes
Emotions
Mood
Affective expression
Appropriateness
Perceptual disturbances
Hallucinations
Illusions
Depersonalization
Derealization
Thought process
Stream of thought
Thought content
Abstract thinking
Education and intelligence
Concentration
Orientation
Memory
Remote memory
Recent past memory
Recent memory
Impulse control
Judgment
Insight
TABLE 1–7. Detailed assessment of cognitive

domains
COGNITIVE DOMAIN ASSESSMENT
Level of consciousness Inspect the patient.

and arousal
Orientation to place Ask direct questions about both of these.
and time
Registration Have the patient repeat three words
(recent memory) immediately.
Recall Have the patient recall the same three words after
(working memory) performing another task for at least 3 minutes.
Remote memory Ask about the patient’s age, date of birth,
milestones, or significant life or historical
events (e.g., names of presidents, dates of
wars).
Attention and Subtract serial 7s (adapt to the patient’s level of
concentration education; subtract serial 3s if needed). Spell
“world” backward (this may be difficult for
non-English speakers). Test digit span forward
and backward. Have the patient recite the
months of the year (or the days of the week)
in reverse order.
Language (Adapt the degree of difficulty to the patient’s
educational level.)
Comprehension Inspect the patient while he or she answers
questions.
Ask the patient to point to different objects.
Ask yes-or-no questions.
Ask the patient to write a phrase (paragraph).
Naming Show a watch, pen, or less familiar objects, if
needed.
Fluency Assess the patient’s speech.
Have the patient name as many animals as he or
she can in 1 minute.
TABLE 1–7. Detailed assessment of cognitive

domains (continued)
COGNITIVE DOMAIN ASSESSMENT
Language (continued)
Articulation Listen to the patient’s speech.
Have the patient repeat a phrase.
Reading Have the patient read a sentence (or longer
paragraph if needed).
Executive functions Have the patient follow a three-step command.
Commands Have the patient draw interlocked pentagons.
Construction tasks Have the patient draw a clock.
Motor programming Have the patient perform serial hand
tasks sequences.
Have the patient perform reciprocal programs
of raising fingers.
Judgment and Listen to the patient’s account of his or her
reasoning history and reason for treatment.
Assess abstraction (similarities: dog/cat; red/
green).
Ask about the patient’s judgment about simple
events or problems: “A construction worker
fell to the ground from the seventh floor of
the building and broke his two legs; he then
ran to the nearby hospital to ask for medical
help. Do you have any comment on this?”
Source. Reprinted from Smith FA, Querques J, Levenson JL, et al: “Psychiatric
Assessment and Consultation,” in Essentials of Psychosomatic Medicine. Edited by
Levenson JL. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2007, pp 1–12.
Used with permission.
TABLE 1–8. Common laboratory tests in psychiatric evaluation
Complete blood cell count

Serum chemistry panel
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin) concentration
Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) concentration
Folic acid (folate) concentration
Human chorionic gonadotropin (pregnancy) test (specify serum or urine)
Toxicology (serum, urine)
Serological tests for syphilis (RPR, VDRL)
HIV tests
Urinalysis
Chest X ray
Electrocardiogram
PPD (tuberculosis test for public health reasons in inpatient setting)
Note. HIV=human immunodeficiency virus; PPD=purified protein deriva-
tive; RPR=rapid plasma reagent; VDRL=Venereal Disease Research Laboratory.
Source. Reprinted from Smith 2007, pp 1–12. Used with permission.
Additional Tests
Laboratory testing: Table 1–8 lists common laboratory tests used in the
psychiatric evaluation of new patients.
Brain imaging: Structural imaging using computed tomography (CT)
or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has clinical utility in ruling out
nonpsychiatric disorders. Brain imaging should be considered when
patients present with signs and symptoms listed in Table 1–5. Issues to
consider in deciding to order a CT or MRI are shown in Table 1–9.
Positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission
computed tomography (SPECT) are important research tools. These
technologies have been able to clearly demonstrate brain abnormalities
in most of the major psychiatric disorders. However, at the time of this
writing, there is no clinical utility for the use of either PET or SPECT in
clinical psychiatric practice.
TABLE 1–9. Comparison of computed tomography (CT) with

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
CT advantages
• It is less expensive than MRI.
• It provides better detection of calcified brain lesions.
• It can be, under some circumstances, more useful when differential
diagnosis includes the possibility of some meningeal tumors or
pituitary disease.
• It can be used when the imaging subject has a pacemaker.
• It does not raise concern about the potentially dangerous “projectile
effect” associated with MRI, in which metal objects (e.g., pens, paper
clips, or even oxygen tanks) can be rapidly pulled onto the MRI
magnets.
• It can be used in patients with metal in their heads (e.g., surgical clips,
metal skull plates, shrapnel); with MRI, this metal can be pulled
toward the magnet and can also heat up.
• The CT imaging procedure and device typically induce less anxiety
than an MRI.
• The CT procedure and device typically require a shorter period of
patient cooperation than the MRI.
• CT can have a uniquely useful role in the evaluation of central nervous
system trauma.
MRI advantages
• It provides better visualization of lesions in the posterior fossa,
brainstem, and temporal and apical brain areas (i.e., areas closely
surrounded by skull bone) (Jaskiw et al. 1987).
• It provides better visualization of demyelinating disease (considered
the best method of detecting brain lesions associated with multiple
sclerosis).
• It may be superior to CT in detecting brain abnormalities related to
seizure foci.
• It is considered better at detecting neoplasms (other than certain
meningeal tumors) or vascular malformations (even when
angiographically occult).
TABLE 1–9. Comparison of computed tomography (CT) with

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (continued)
• It does not require use of X rays. (However, the long-term biological

effects of magnetic fields on patients are unknown.)
When weighing the decision to order a CT scan versus an MRI scan in a
psychiatric patient, it is often useful to consult with the neuroradiologist
who will be involved in the study.
Note that an MRI brain study might be ordered after an equivocal or
unrevealing CT scan study (and when brain pathology is still suspected).
Source. Adapted from Hales and Yudofsky 2003. Data from Garber HJ, Wein-
berg JB, Buonammo FS, et al: “Use of Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Psychia-
try.“ American Journal of Psychiatry 145:154–171, 1988.
Assessment of Risk for Suicide

Virtually all major psychiatric disorders carry an increased risk for sui-
cide. As such, a suicide assessment is essential for all patients regardless
of diagnosis in order to help identify and treat risk factors. While no single
risk factor can predict suicide, several factors have been identified, and all
patients must be considered individually (Simon and Hales 2006).
Suicide Risk Factors for Adults

• Prior suicide attempts
• Suicidal ideation with the intent to act (although denial is not
uncommon)
• Severe hopelessness and desperation
• Psychosis
• Family history of suicide
• Negative recent life events (e.g., family problems, unemploy-
ment, financial problems)
• Self-injurious behavior (e.g., cutting)
• History of physical or sexual abuse
• Impulsivity
• Guns in the home
• Substance abuse
• Lack of social support
DEMOGRAPHICS
The following demographic groups are at higher risk for suicidal behav-
ior than the general population:
• Males (for completed suicide)

• Females (for attempted suicide)
• Divorced people
• Persons living alone
DIAGNOSES ASSOCIATED WITH SUICIDE RISK

The following diagnoses are associated with a high risk of suicide:
• Major affective disorders (major depression and bipolar disorder)

• Comorbid major depression and generalized anxiety disorder or
panic disorder
• Chronic alcohol or substance dependence
• Schizophrenia
• Borderline personality disorder
• Other personality disorders
• Any Axis I comorbidity
In patients with hallucinations regarding suicide, it is important to

assess the following factors:
• Content of hallucinations (Are there commands to harm self or

others?)
• Are the hallucinations acute or chronic?
• Does the patient hear a familiar voice or an unfamiliar voice? (A
familiar voice decreases the ability to resist.)
• Does the patient have the ability to resist commands?
Risk factors for suicide change over the life span. For patients over age
65 years, affective disorders remain a significant risk factor in addition to
physical illness, loss of important relationships, and social isolation.
Protective Factors Mitigating Suicide Risk

The following protective factors may mitigate suicide risk:
• Family and social support

• Children at home
• Strong religious beliefs
• Cultural beliefs against suicide
Documentation for Patients at Risk for Suicide

Patient safety is a primary concern of psychiatric care and requires thor-
ough documentation, which should include the following information:
• Suicidal ideation
• Suicidal intent
• Suicide plan
• Acts in preparation (e.g., the purchase of a gun)
• Prior attempts and lethality (e.g., intentional lithium overdose
when no one was home and found only by accident and required
intensive care unit hospitalization and dialysis [high lethality] vs.
six ibuprofen tablets taken in front of boyfriend after a fight [low
lethality])
• Treatment interventions (e.g., plan for suicide prevention, iden-
tify supports, provide crisis contact information)
Sample Psychiatric Initial Evaluation

ID: Mr. A is a 45-year-old married white male who owns a small truck-
ing company.
Chief complaint: “I have anger problems.”
Source of information: Patient, previous record
History of present illness: The patient has a history of “anger problems”
and states he was previously diagnosed with major depressive disorder.
He now presents as an outpatient for treatment. Since he was a child, Mr.
A has struggled with irritability, anger dyscontrol, and impulsivity. He
denies being violent with others but admits that he easily loses his tem-
per. He also reports that he has experienced “mood swings” since before
he was 12 years old. As he has gotten older he has noted discrete periods
lasting weeks to months when he feels “invincible.” During these times,
he also has significantly increased energy, racing thoughts, and increased
impulsivity. For example, he has gotten into arguments with police offic-
ers who pulled him over for speeding, has visited prostitutes, and has
spent thousands of dollars on music that he could not afford at the time.
He states that these behaviors were not within the realm of his usual
impulsive behaviors. Immediately following these periods, Mr. A expe-
riences times when he feels depressed for weeks to months. These times
are accompanied by symptoms of decreased interest, decreased concen-
tration, increased sleep, psychomotor agitation, and increased guilt. He
denies any history of suicidal thoughts or suicidal attempts; however, he
sometimes feels that life is not worth living. He states he would not kill
himself “because of his kids.” He currently feels depressed and irritable
but denies any intent to harm himself or others.
The patient denies a history of substance use (other than alcohol in
high school) or abuse, generalized worrying, obsessions, or compul-
sions, panic attacks, hallucinations, or delusions.
Past psychiatric history: Mr. A first saw a psychiatrist when he was
14 years old because “I was getting in trouble in school.” He does not
recall his exact behavior but states, “I was a kid, I would stay out all
night.” He participated in therapy for a year but did not take any med-
ications at that time. He did not receive any additional treatment until
1 year ago. At that time he was diagnosed with generalized anxiety dis-
order and started on sertraline. Over the course of the year, he was also
prescribed multiple selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, all in ade-
quate doses and duration. He has found several of these medications
partially helpful, but he has continued to struggle with mood swings and
irritability.
The patient denies any history of psychiatric hospitalizations or sui-
cide attempts.
Medication: Escitalopram, 10 mg/day
Dates: 2/1–present
Response: Partial
Side effects: Sexual—delayed ejaculation
Mr. A is not currently taking any nonpsychiatric medications.
Allergies: The patient has no known drug allergies.
Psychiatric review of systems: Positive for affective instability, as noted
above. Otherwise negative.
Past medical history: The patient denies any history of traumatic brain
injury, seizures, thyroid problems, liver problems, diabetes, and kidney
problems. He reports that he has not had a physical examination in the
past 5 years.
Family history: The patient’s father left the family when the patient was
9 years old, and he and his siblings were raised by his mother after that
time. According to the patient, his father also had frequent rage attacks
and impulsive behavior. This would cause stress on the family because
he would make large amounts of money in the oil industry and then lose
it all. This happened multiple times. His father was never treated and is
now deceased. No known family history of psychiatric hospitalizations
or suicide.
Social and developmental history: The patient grew up in Houston,
Texas, the oldest of three children. He reports that life as a child was
unstable because of his father’s erratic behavior. He was and remains
close to his mother and siblings. His first sexual encounter was at age 16
with a girl he dated for several years but did not marry. He had friends
during childhood and no apparent developmental delays. He used alco-
hol during high school and denies other drug use. He is married and has
two children, a 12-year-old daughter and a 9-year-old son. He gradu-
ated from high school and started college, but when his father died he
left college and started a small trucking company. He reports that his
spouse is supportive of his treatment and is willing to come to sessions
if needed. He reports that his marriage has been strained because of his
erratic behavior and involvement with prostitutes. He reports multiple
driving violations for speeding. He denies any history of physical, sex-
ual, or emotional abuse.
Substance abuse history: No history of substance abuse.
Physical and neurological examination: (findings not outlined here to
save space)
MSE: The patient was casually dressed. His eye contact was good. He
was friendly, talkative, and cooperative. No abnormal movements were
noted. Psychomotor activity was within normal limits. Speech was
spontaneous and clear with normal rate, tone, and volume. Mood was
euthymic, and affect was congruent and appropriate. Thought pro-
cesses were logical and goal directed. Thought content was without sui-
cidal or homicidal ideation. No paranoid delusions were noted. No
auditory or visual hallucinations were present. Insight and judgment
were intact. Sensorium was clear.
Assessment: Mr. A is a 45-year-old Caucasian male with a history of

anger dyscontrol and irritability. He also describes a history of periods
of mood elevation when he felt “invincible,” had increased energy,
behaved more impulsively than usual, and experienced racing thoughts.
These periods last weeks to months and are followed by times when the
patient feels depressed, with associated symptoms of decreased energy,
decreased interests, decreased concentration, increased guilt, and
increased sleep that last weeks to months. He currently feels depressed
and irritable. He denies suicidal thoughts, but does feel “like escaping”
sometimes; he states that he would never purposely harm himself
because of the effect it would have on his children. The differential
diagnosis includes an affective illness (in particular, bipolar disorder),
substance dependence disorder, or psychiatric illness due to a medical
condition. These symptoms are most consistent with bipolar disorder.
Because the mania resulted in dangerous behavior, he meets criteria for
bipolar disorder, type I. From the description of his father’s behavior, it
sounds as if his father may have also had bipolar disorder.
• Axis I: Bipolar I disorder; rule out mood disorder secondary to gen-

eral medical condition; rule out substance dependence disorder
• Axis II: Deferred
• Axis III: None
• Axis IV: Marital problems
• Axis V: GAF= 70
Plan: The patient and his wife were provided with information about
bipolar disorder through discussion and written material. More educa-
tional information will be provided at future visits.
• Check thyroid function, liver function, blood urea nitrogen/crea-

tinine levels, electrolytes, HIV status, urine toxicology, rapid
plasma reagent, Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL)
results, and complete blood cell count (CBC) with platelets to rule
out medical etiology of symptoms and ensure safe use of psycho-
tropic drugs.
• If the lab results are normal, start divalproex sodium (Depakote)
500 mg qhs and increase as tolerated after discussing diagnosis
and treatment options.
• Taper and discontinue escitalopram (Lexapro) after Depakote

dose is over 1,000 mg, because antidepressant may worsen bipo-
lar disorder in some patients.
• The need for individual and/or couples therapy will be further
evaluated.
• Have the patient return to the clinic in 2 weeks.
Admitting Orders
Admitting orders usually address the following issues:
• Where to admit patient (e.g., floor or unit) and name of admitting

physician
• Diagnoses, including differentials
• Condition of patient
• Medication allergies
• Diet (e.g., American Diabetes Association diet)
• Patient monitoring parameters
– Vital signs, weight (how frequent)
– Restricted to unit or able to leave
– Presence or absence of suicide precautions
• Consultations (including further medical or neurological evalua-

tions)
• Any additional evaluations (e.g., neuropsychiatric testing, psy-
chological testing)
• Physiological tests (lab work, electrocardiogram, MRI, etc.)
• Medical needs (e.g., diabetic regimen)
• Medications (routine and as-needed [prn] medications, including
common over-the-counter drugs such as acetaminophen)
– Always include a prn order in case the patient becomes agi-
tated. This avoids the delay caused by having the nurses call
the physician.
Many facilities have standardized admitting orders, which can help

make this process more efficient.
Physical Examination
A physical examination should be completed for all inpatients for the
following reasons:
• A medical condition may influence or cause psychiatric symptoms.

• A medical condition may require care.
• A medical condition may influence the choice of treatment.
• The medical evaluation contributes to the assessment of some
conditions, such as eating disorders and self-injurious behavior.
Seclusion and Restraint Orders

The use of seclusion and restraint is strictly regulated by federal require-
ments in addition to the Joint Commission and state requirements. Pol-
icies and procedures regarding the use of seclusion and restraint must
be adhered to strictly.
Seclusion is the involuntary confinement of a person alone in a room
where the person is physically prevented from leaving. Restraint refers
to the direct application of physical force to an individual to prevent re-
striction of movement. Physical force may be human touch or mechan-
ical device; even if mechanical restraints are not used, the patient may
still be “restrained” (Simon and Shuman 2007).
Seclusion and restraint are used only when all other measures have
failed to prevent harm to self or others or when less restrictive means are
ineffective or inappropriate (Simon and Shuman 2007). If your facility
has standardized (preprinted) orders for seclusion and restraint, use
them—this will help you cover all the requirements. The following
points regarding seclusion and restraint should also be observed:
• A face-to-face physician examination must occur within 1 hour of

initiation of seclusion or restraint.
– A member of the nursing staff may initiate an order for seclu-
sion and restraint (as delineated in hospital policy) and should
then contact the physician immediately.
– If you are called about seclusion and restraint, clarify the time
the procedure was initiated so that you can arrive within
1 hour.
• After you see the patient, document your visit and describe the
patient’s mental and physical status and the need for further
restrictiveness.
• Your notes should include specific behaviors that demonstrate
imminent harm to self or others (e.g., “the patient attempted to hit
another patient during lunch”).
• Seclusion and restraint must end at the earliest time possible and
cannot be written for a certain amount of time (e.g., “seclude for
2 hours” is not acceptable, but “up to 2 hours” is acceptable).
• Seclusion and restraint may not be used for
– Rude behavior,
– Staff convenience,
– Inadequate staffing,
– Punishment,
– Behavior modification, or
– Refusing to do what the staff wants (e.g., take medication, take
a shower).
Psychiatric Progress Notes

Inpatient Notes
Inpatient progress notes typically follow the same format as medical
notes (the so-called SOAP format):
S Subjective: what the patient says (e.g., “I feel better. I am not hear-
ing voices any more.”)
O Objective: what you observe (e.g., “patient appears internally
preoccupied but alert and coherent, no evidence of abnormal move-
ments”); includes MSE and vital signs
A Assessment (e.g., “patient still has symptoms but is tolerating
treatment well”)
P Plan (e.g., “continue antipsychotic”)
Outpatient Notes
Outpatient notes typically include the reason(s) for the visit (e.g., med-
ication follow-up or psychotherapy), the duration of the visit in min-
utes, current medications, response to treatment (including side effects),
medication blood levels (if applicable), MSE, assessment, and plan. The
following points regarding outpatient notes should also be observed:
• Provide only patient information and opinions that are relevant to

diagnosis and treatment. Provide objective data, such as “the
patient reports that….” Sharing your thought process for diagno-
sis and treatment can be helpful to other treaters and those who
review the record at a later date.
• Be aware that patients often have access to their records, so avoid
terminology that would be harmful to the patient if he or she were
to later read the record.
• Notes should be written contemporaneously and should not be
altered after the fact. Late notes should be limited and should
reflect the time that the note was actually written.
Privacy and Confidentiality

In general, maintain confidentiality unless the patient gives consent to a
specific communication. Under specific clinical circumstances, confiden-
tiality may be attenuated to address the safety of the patient and others.
• According to the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability

Act (HIPAA; see www.hhs.gov/ocr/hipaa), information from
medical records may be released without a specific consent form
for purposes of “treatment, payment, and health care operations.”
Otherwise, the patient must sign an authorization form.
• When releasing information to third-party payers (e.g., for utili-
zation review or preauthorization decision), it may be important
to request specific rather than blanket consent from the patient.
• Psychotherapy notes have special protection under HIPAA.
• Release of information about individuals evaluated or treated for
substance abuse disorders is governed by state and federal law.
Informed Consent
In addition to meeting requirements of the law, informed consent in
psychiatric care allows patients to be partners in their care and can help
foster the therapeutic alliance that is essential to longer-term treatment.
In order to provide valid informed consent a patient must
• Have some decision-making capacity;

• Be provided with information about a particular treatment,

including the risks, benefits, and prognosis both with and without
treatment;
• Be given information on alternatives; and
• Choose voluntarily and not based on coercion or threat.
It is prudent to get consent in writing (a signed form completed by

the patient). For some procedures, such as electroconvulsive therapy,
written consent is required. When verbal consent is obtained, this
should be documented in the progress note.
When obtaining informed consent, provide enough information
about the risks that a “reasonable person” in the patient’s position
would want to know. It is not necessary however, to explain every pos-
sible risk. For example, when discussing the use of a medication, you
should review the more common side effects and black box warnings,
but you do not need to address every possible side effect. Written mate-
rial about medications and treatments given to the patient can also be
helpful but does not replace face-to-face discussion about risks and ben-
efits (Simon and Shuman 2007).
The law requires that certain patient information be disclosed by the
treating physician. The following are examples of statutory disclosure
requirements:
• Physical evidence or suspicion of child abuse

• Duty to warn endangered third parties or law enforcement agen-
cies
• Commission of a treasonous act
• HIV infection (some states require that the patient’s name be
reported) (Simon and Shuman 2007)
Hospital Discharge Note

Discharge notes summarize the care and progress of the patient during
treatment. Discharge cannot be based solely on denial of insurance ben-
efits. It is important to document the mental status of the patient at the
time of discharge or transfer, including documentation about the safety
of the patient.
Notes about care after discharge should be as specific as possible. For
example, if the patient is transferred to another facility, document de-
tails about when, where, and the mode of transportation. In the case of
follow-up care, documentation should include dates of appointments if

available and instructions given to the patient.
The components of a hospital discharge note are as follows:
• Multiaxial diagnosis
• Hospital course
• Consults
• Case formulation
• Condition at discharge
• Discharge diet/activities
• Discharge medications (including prescriptions written, number
dispensed, number of refills)
• Follow-up appointments
• Any pertinent discharge lab results (e.g., lithium levels, CBC)
Suggested Guidelines for Termination of

Patient Treatment
1. Thoroughly discuss treatment termination with the patient.
2. Indicate the following in a letter of termination:
a. Termination discussion (brief)
b. Reason for termination
c. Termination date
d. Availability for emergencies only until date of termination
e. Willingness to provide names of other appropriate therapists
f. Willingness to provide medical records to subsequent therapist
g. Statement of the need for additional treatment, if appropriate
3. Allow the patient reasonable time to find another therapist (length
of time depends on availability of other therapists).
4. Provide the patient’s records to the new therapist on proper autho-
rization by the patient.
5. If the patient requires further treatment, provide the names of other
psychiatrists or refer the patient to a local or state psychiatric soci-
ety for further assistance.
6. If the need for further treatment is recommended, provide a state-
ment about the potential consequences of not obtaining further
treatment.
7. Send the termination letter certified or restricted registered mail, re-
turn receipt requested (Simon and Shuman 2007).
References
American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, 4th Edition, Text Revision. Washington, DC, American Psychiat-
ric Association, 2000
American Psychiatric Association: Quick Reference to the American Psychiatric
Association: Practice Guidelines for the Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders,
Compendium 2006. Arlington, VA, American Psychiatric Association, 2006
Cummings JL, Trimble MR: Concise Guide to Neuropsychiatry and Behavioral
Neurology, 2nd Edition. Washington, DC. American Psychiatric Publishing,
2002
Hales RE, Yudofsky SC: The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Clin-
ical Psychiatry, 4th Edition. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publish-
ing, 2003
Simon RI, Hales RE: The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Suicide
Assessment and Management. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Pub-
lishing, 2006
Simon RI, Shuman DW: Clinical Manual of Psychiatry and Law. Washington,
DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2007
Smith FA, Querques J, Levenson JL, et al: Psychiatric assessment and consulta-
tion, in Essentials of Psychosomatic Medicine. Edited by Levenson JL. Wash-
ington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2007, pp 1–12
2
Psychotic Disorders
¢ is a syndrome and can occur in many disorders (e.g., bi-

polar disorder, depression). Primary psychotic disorders include
schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, schizophreniform disorder, de-
lusional disorder, and brief psychotic disorder. The lifetime prevalence
of psychotic disorders is shown in Table 2–1.
Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia typically begins in adolescence or early adulthood, but
can begin in childhood. The male-to-female ratio is equal, but onset in
males tends to be earlier. The disorder has a chronic course, with im-
paired functioning in all areas of life.
Positive symptoms: Beliefs or experiences that healthy people do not
typically have, such as delusions, hallucinations, a thought disorder,
and bizarre or disorganized behavior. Positive symptoms are most re-
sponsive to current pharmacotherapies.
• Delusion: A fixed false belief that is not shared by others of the

same culture.
• Hallucination: A perceptual distortion with no external stimulus;
auditory hallucinations are the most frequently reported in schizo-
phrenia. Other types of hallucinations suggest a nonpsychiatric
etiology, such as olfactory hallucination with seizure disorders
(specifically temporal lobe epilepsy) and tactile hallucinations
with alcohol withdrawal. Hallucinations should be distinguished
from illusions, in which an actual external stimulus is misper-
ceived or misinterpreted.
31
TABLE 2–1. Lifetime prevalence of psychotic disorders
DISORDER LIFETIME PREVALENCE
All psychotic disorders 3.06

Schizophrenia 0.87
Schizoaffective disorder 0.32
Schizophreniform disorder 0.07
Delusional disorder 0.18
Brief psychotic disorder 0.05
Psychotic disorder NOS 0.45
Note. NOS=not otherwise specified.
Source. Data from Perala et al. 2005.
• Thought disorder: Disturbance of thinking that affects language,

communication, or thought content, often exhibited as the follow-
ing:
– Loosening of associations: Unrelated and unconnected ideas;
patients shift from one apparently random subject to another.
– Word salad: Incoherent, incomprehensible mixture of words
and phrases.
– Clanging: Association of speech directed by the sound of a
word rather than by its meaning (e.g., punning and rhyming).
• Bizarre or disorganized behavior
Negative symptoms are those that reflect the loss of functions and emo-
tions that healthy individuals have. Negative symptoms include flat af-
fect (decreased emotional range), poverty of speech (alogia), anhedonia,
avolition/apathy, and impairment in attention.
Historical Descriptions of Schizophrenia

Bleuler (1911/1950) described schizophrenia as dementia praecox, dif-
ferentiating this illness from bipolar disorder on the basis of course of
illness. Bleuler’s “4 As” of schizophrenia are
• Associations
• Affect
Psychotic Disorders 33
• Autism
• Ambivalence
Schneiderian first-rank symptoms are

• Auditory hallucinations
• Thought withdrawal, insertion, and interruption
• Thought broadcasting
• Somatic hallucinations
• Delusional perception
• Feelings or actions experienced as made or influenced by external
agents
A mnemonic for the Schneiderian first rank symptoms is ABCD:

Auditory hallucinations, Broadcasting of thought, Controlled thought
(delusions of control), Delusional perception (Schneider 1959).
Course of Schizophrenia
A schematic of the prototypical course of schizophrenia is shown in Fig-
ure 2–1.
DSM Criteria for Schizophrenia

The DSM-IV-TR (American Psychiatric Association 2000) diagnostic cri-
teria for schizophrenia are shown in Table 2–2, and the subtypes are fur-
ther described in Table 2–3.
Differential Diagnosis
It is important to rule out psychoses with known medical causes. Psy-
chotic symptoms may result from substance abuse; intoxication; infec-
tious, metabolic, and endocrine disorders; tumors and mass lesions; and
temporal lobe epilepsy. The differentiation of schizophrenia from
schizoaffective disorder and mood disorder with psychotic features is
based on longitudinal course of illness. Table 2–4 summarizes the dif-
ferential diagnosis of schizophrenia.
34
Developmental Fetal, infancy, Puberty and
stage and childhood adolescence Early adulthood Mid-adulthood Senescence
Normal
Resident’s Guide to Clinical Psychiatry

Functional
level
PSYCHOSIS
Severely ONSET
impaired
Illness stage Premorbid Prodromal Progressive Chronic
Limited neurodegenerative
Pathophysiological
Neurodevelopmental processes
stage
processes
FIGURE 2–1. Proposed neuroprogressive model of schizophrenia.

The solid line in the upper portion of the figure represents the average functional level over the lifetime of patients with
schizophrenia superimposed on the intersection of neurodevelopmental (darkly shaded area to left) and neurodegenera-
tive (lightly shaded area to right) processes. It is hypothesized that the mechanisms that underlie the progressive events
are most active around the onset of psychosis and diminish with time.
Source. Reprinted from Jarskog LF, Gilmore JH: “Neuroprogressive theories,” in The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Schizo-
phrenia. Edited by Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, Perkins DO. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2006, pp 137–149. Used
with permission.
TABLE 2–2. DSM-IV-TR criteria for schizophrenia
A. Characteristic symptoms: Two (or more) of the following, each

present for a significant portion of time during a 1-month period (or
less if successfully treated):
(1) delusions
(2) hallucinations
(3) disorganized speech (e.g., frequent derailment or incoherence)
(4) grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior
(5) negative symptoms, i.e., affective flattening, alogia, or avolition
Note: Only one criterion A symptom is required if delusions are
bizarre or hallucinations consist of a voice keeping up a running
commentary on the person's behavior or thoughts, or two or more
voices conversing with each other.
B. Social/occupational dysfunction: For a significant portion of the time
since the onset of the disturbance, one or more major areas of
functioning such as work, interpersonal relations, or self-care are
markedly below the level achieved prior to the onset (or when the
onset is in childhood or adolescence, failure to achieve expected level
of interpersonal, academic, or occupational achievement).
C. Duration: Continuous signs of the disturbance persist for at least
6 months. This 6-month period must include at least 1 month of
symptoms (or less if successfully treated) that meet criterion A (i.e.,
active-phase symptoms) and may include periods of prodromal or
residual symptoms. During these prodromal or residual periods, the
signs of the disturbance may be manifested by only negative
symptoms or two or more symptoms listed in criterion A present in an
attenuated form (e.g., odd beliefs, unusual perceptual experiences).
D. Schizoaffective and mood disorder exclusion: Schizoaffective
disorder and mood disorder with psychotic features have been ruled
out because either (1) no major depressive, manic, or mixed episodes
have occurred concurrently with the active-phase symptoms; or (2) if
mood episodes have occurred during active-phase symptoms, their
total duration has been brief relative to the duration of the active and
residual periods.
TABLE 2–2. DSM-IV-TR criteria for schizophrenia (continued)
E. Substance/general medical condition exclusion: The disturbance is

not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug
of abuse, a medication) or a general medical condition.
F. Relationship to a pervasive developmental disorder: If there is a
history of autistic disorder or another pervasive developmental
disorder, the additional diagnosis of schizophrenia is made only if
prominent delusions or hallucinations are also present for at least a
month (or less if successfully treated).
Classification of longitudinal course (can be applied only after at least
1 year has elapsed since the initial onset of active-phase symptoms):
Episodic with interepisode residual symptoms (episodes are
defined by the reemergence of prominent psychotic symptoms); also
specify if: with prominent negative symptoms
Episodic with no interepisode residual symptoms
Continuous (prominent psychotic symptoms are present
throughout the period of observation); also specify if:
with prominent negative symptoms
Single episode in partial remission; also specify if:
with prominent negative symptoms
Single episode in full remission
Other or unspecified pattern
TABLE 2–3. DSM-IV-TR subtypes of schizophrenia
Paranoid Criteria
• Preoccupation with one or more delusions or
frequent auditory hallucinations
• Relative preservation of cognitive functioning and
affect
• None of the following is prominent: disorganized
speech, disorganized or catatonic behavior, flat or
inappropriate affect.
Associated features
• Often associated with unfocused anger, anxiety,
argumentativeness, or violence
• Stilted, formal quality or extreme intensity of
interpersonal interactions
Disorganized Criteria
• All of the following are prominent: disorganized
speech, disorganized behavior, flat or
inappropriate affect.
• The criteria are not met for catatonic type.
Associated features
• Silly and childlike behavior is common; associated
with extreme social impairment, poor premorbid
functioning and poor long-term functioning.
Catatonic Criteria
• The clinical picture is dominated by at least two of
the following:
• Motoric immobility as evidenced by catalepsy or
stupor
• Excessive motor activity (that is apparently
purposeless and not influenced by external stimuli)
• Extreme negativism (an apparently motiveless
resistance to all instructions or maintenance of a
rigid posture against attempts to be moved) or
mutism
TABLE 2–3. DSM-IV-TR subtypes of schizophrenia (continued)
Catatonic • Peculiarities of voluntary movement as evidenced

(continued) by posturing, stereotyped movements, prominent
mannerisms or prominent grimacing
Associated features
• Marked psychomotor disturbance is present
(stupor or agitation), and unusual motor
disturbances may be present.
• Patient may need medical supervision because of
malnutrition, exhaustion, hyperpyrexia, or self-
injury.
• Sodium amobarbital interview may be helpful
diagnostically.
Undifferentiated Criteria
• Symptoms meeting criterion A are present, but
criteria are not met for paranoid, disorganized, or
catatonic types.
Associated features
• Probably the most common presentation in clinical
practice
Residual Criteria
• Absence of prominent delusions, hallucinations,
disorganized speech, and grossly disorganized or
catatonic behavior
• Continuing evidence of the disturbance, as
indicated by the presence of negative symptoms or
two or more symptoms listed in criterion A for
schizophrenia, present in an attenuated form (e.g.,
odd beliefs, unusual perceptual experiences)
Associated features
• Active-phase symptoms (i.e., psychotic symptoms)
are not present, but patient still exhibits emotional
blunting, eccentric behavior, illogical thinking, and
mild loosening of associations.
TABLE 2–4. Differential diagnosis of schizophrenia
PSYCHIATRIC ILLNESS GENERAL MEDICAL ILLNESS DRUGS OF ABUSE
Psychotic mood disorders Temporal lobe epilepsy Stimulants (e.g., amphetamine, cocaine)
Schizoaffective disorder Tumor, stroke, brain trauma Hallucinogens (e.g., phencyclidine)
Brief reactive psychosis Endocrine/metabolic disorders (e.g., Anticholinergics (e.g., belladonna
Schizophreniform disorder porphyria) alkaloids)
Delusional disorder Vitamin deficiency Alcohol withdrawal delirium
Psychotic Disorders
Induced psychotic disorder Infectious disorders (e.g., neurosyphilis) Barbiturate withdrawal delirium
Depersonalization disorder Autoimmune disorders (e.g., systemic Marijuana
Obsessive-compulsive disorder lupus erythematosus)
Personality disorders Illnesses caused by toxins (e.g., heavy
Factitious disorder metal poisoning)
Malingering Medications (e.g., steroids)
39
Evaluation
For a first psychotic break, a workup should include a comprehensive
history, family history, mental status examination, physical examina-
tion, routine laboratory tests (including rapid plasma reagent), and
magnetic resonance imaging or computed tomography.
Treatment
• The long-term outcome for a patient with schizophrenia is better
when treatment of the acute episode is initiated rapidly.
• Antipsychotic medications are the foundation of treatment for
schizophrenia and other primary psychotic disorders.
• Choice of antipsychotic medication is determined by efficacy,
safety, and tolerability profiles.
• Clozapine is generally reserved for patients who have failed to
respond to two or more antipsychotic medication trials (Lewis et
al. 2006), because of the risk of agranulocytosis (see Chapter 14,
“Pharmacotherapy”).
• After a patient’s first psychotic episode, treatment with the anti-
psychotic medication should be continued for at least 1 year after
a full remission of psychotic symptoms. A trial period without
medication may then be considered, except for patients with a his-
tory of serious suicide attempts or violent aggressive behavior
(Lehman et al. 2004).
• Patients with first-episode psychosis may be more responsive to
treatment and require lower doses of antipsychotic medications
compared with patients with multiple prior psychotic episodes
(McEvoy et al. 1991; Schooler et al. 1997; Zhang-Wong et al. 1999),
although the time to response may be longer (Lieberman 1993).
• The American Psychiatric Association Practice Guideline (2004)
recommends indefinite maintenance treatment for patients who
have had at least two episodes of psychosis within 5 years or who
have had multiple previous episodes (Lehman et al. 2004).
• Maintenance therapy should involve the lowest possible doses of
antipsychotic drugs, and patients should be monitored closely for
symptoms of relapse.
• If the patient is adherent with treatment, oral medications are usu-
ally sufficient. However, if the patient’s treatment history sug-
gests that the patient may not reliably take daily oral medication,
a long-acting depot preparation may be indicated. In most cases,

depot preparations of the second-generation (“atypical”) antipsy-
chotics are preferred.
• The use of antipsychotics is discussed in detail in Chapter 14,
“Pharmacotherapy.” However, it is imperative to keep in mind
that these medications require monitoring (e.g., blood glucose,
body mass index, and abnormal movements). It is essential to edu-
cate the patient and family about the risks of developing metabolic
syndrome, diabetes, obesity, dyslipidemia, neuroleptic malignant
syndrome, extrapyramidal symptoms, and tardive dyskinesia and
to document this discussion in the patient’s chart.
Treatment Resistance
• A trial of clozapine is recommended for patients who continue to
have positive symptoms, frequent relapses, or aggression despite
an adequate trial of at least two other antipsychotic medications.
Clozapine is also indicated for patients with intolerable side
effects due to at least two different antipsychotic medications
from different classes (Lewis et al. 2006; McEvoy et al. 2006).
• Electroconvulsive therapy may be considered for patients with
catatonia, suicidal ideation or behavior, or persistent severe psy-
chosis or for whom previous treatments, including clozapine,
have not been effective (Lehman et al. 2004).
• An additional strategy to use in nonresponsive patients is to add
another medication to augment the therapeutic effects of the
antipsychotic. Current augmentation strategies include adding
lithium, valproate, a benzodiazepine, or lamotrigine. However,
use of these augmentation strategies in patients with antipsy-
chotic-resistant schizophrenia should be reserved for patients
who cannot take clozapine or who have not fully responded to
clozapine (Lehman et al. 2004). If clear benefit is not apparent after
6 weeks of combination therapy, the augmenting agent should be
discontinued (Lehman et al. 2004).
• Adjunctive cognitive-behavioral therapy has shown considerable
promise when combined with medication in refractory patients
(Gould et al. 2001).
• In addition to pharmacotherapy, patients should be referred for
vocational and psychosocial rehabilitation. Patients and families
should also be referred to the National Alliance on Mental Illness
(NAMI) for educational materials and support networks.
Schizophreniform Disorder
Schizophreniform disorder is diagnosed if a patient experiences at least
1 month but less than 6 months of symptoms that are characteristic of
schizophrenia. These patients often have an acute onset and resolution
of symptoms and usually do not have much functional impairment.
Many patients diagnosed with schizophreniform disorder are later di-
agnosed with schizophrenia or a mood disorder with psychotic features.
The DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for schizophreniform are shown
in Table 2–5. The treatment for schizophreniform disorder is the same as
for schizophrenia.
Schizoaffective Disorder
Schizoaffective disorder includes key features of both schizophrenia
and mood disorders. The key to diagnosis is that a patient with schizoaf-
fective disorder will experience psychotic symptoms in the absence of
affective symptoms, whereas patients with mood disorders have psy-
chotic symptoms only while in an acute mood episode (depression, ma-
nia, or mixed).
The DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for schizoaffective disorder are
As described earlier in this chapter, for schizophrenia, it is important to
rule out psychoses with known medical causes. Psychotic symptoms
may result from substance abuse; intoxication; infectious, metabolic,
and endocrine disorders; tumors and mass lesions; and temporal lobe
epilepsy. Schizoaffective disorder is diagnosed instead of a mood disor-
der if the psychotic features are present for at least 2 weeks outside the
active mood episode.
Treatment
Patients with schizoaffective disorder often end up with complex med-
ication regimens in an attempt to target both affective and psychotic
symptoms. Treatment options include antipsychotic monotherapy,
mood stabilizer monotherapy, antidepressant monotherapy, or combi-
nations. No pharmacological strategy has been found to be superior to
another. Acute treatment usually requires an antipsychotic, and main-
tenance treatment should be guided by the subtype (i.e., mood stabiliz-
TABLE 2–5. DSM-IV-TR criteria for schizophreniform disorder
A. Criteria A, D, and E of schizophrenia are met.

B. An episode of the disorder (including prodromal, active, and residual
phases) lasts at least 1 month but less than 6 months. (When the
diagnosis must be made without waiting for recovery, it should be
qualified as “provisional.”)
Specify if:
Without good prognostic features
With good prognostic features: as evidenced by two (or more)
of the following:
(1) onset of prominent psychotic symptoms within 4 weeks of the
first noticeable change in usual behavior or functioning
(2) confusion or perplexity at the height of the psychotic episode
(3) good premorbid social and occupational functioning
(4) absence of blunted or flat affect
ers for bipolar subtype and antidepressants for depressive subtype).

Longer-term antipsychotics are typically needed.
Delusional Disorder
The core feature of delusional disorder is the presence of a systematized,
nonbizarre delusion. The delusion usually fits into a complex scheme
that makes sense to the patient, and the patient does not meet other cri-
teria for schizophrenia. A patient with delusion disorder does not typi-
cally experience mental deterioration, but the delusion may preoccupy
the patient’s life. The DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for delusional dis-
order are shown in Table 2–7.
Capgras syndrome is a delusion that people in the patient’s life have
been replaced by doubles. This syndrome or “phenomenon” can be seen
in many other disorders and diseases, especially dementia, delirium,
and brain injury.
It is important to rule out other causes for delusions, such as substance-
induced conditions; dementia; and infectious, metabolic, and endocrine
TABLE 2–6. DSM-IV-TR criteria for schizoaffective disorder
A. An uninterrupted period of illness during which, at some time, there

is either a major depressive episode, a manic episode, or a mixed
episode concurrent with symptoms that meet criterion A for
schizophrenia.
Note: The major depressive episode must include criterion A1:
depressed mood.
B. During the same period of illness, there have been delusions or
hallucinations for at least 2 weeks in the absence of prominent mood
symptoms.
C. Symptoms that meet criteria for a mood episode are present for a
substantial portion of the total duration of the active and residual
periods of the illness.
D. The disturbance is not due to the direct physiological effects of a
substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or a general medical
condition.
Specify type:
Bipolar type: if the disturbance includes a manic or a mixed
episode (or a manic or a mixed episode and major depressive episodes)
Depressive type: if the disturbance only includes major
depressive episodes
disorders. Abrupt changes in mood, mental state, or personality suggest

a nonpsychiatric medical origin. The main focus of diagnosis is to dis-
tinguish a delusional disorder from schizophrenia, mood disorders, and
anxiety disorders.
Unlike patients with schizophrenia, patients with a delusional disor-
der do not usually experience hallucinations or disorganized behavior
and personality is relatively unchanged. The delusions of mood disor-
ders usually have content that is consistent with the mood disorder,
such as delusions of having cancer in the context of major depression, or
delusions of being God in mania. If delusions occur only in the context
of major depression or mania, the diagnosis is a psychotic mood disor-
der and not delusional disorder. Patients with obsessive-compulsive
disorder may have obsessions that reach delusional proportions, but
these patients can usually recognize that their obsessions or compul-
sions are excessive.
TABLE 2–7. DSM-IV-TR criteria for delusional disorder
A. Nonbizarre delusions (i.e., involving situations that occur in real life,

such as being followed, poisoned, infected, loved at a distance, or
deceived by spouse or lover, or having a disease) of at least 1 month’s
duration.
B. Criterion A for schizophrenia has never been met.
Note: Tactile and olfactory hallucinations may be present in
Delusional Disorder if they are related to the delusional theme.
C. Apart from the impact of the delusion(s) or its ramifications,
functioning is not markedly impaired and behavior is not obviously
odd or bizarre.
D. If mood episodes have occurred concurrently with delusions, their
total duration has been brief relative to the duration of the delusional
periods.
E. The disturbance is not due to the direct physiological effects of a
condition.
Specify type (the following types are assigned based on the
predominant delusional theme):
Erotomanic type: delusions that another person, usually of
higher status, is in love with the individual
Grandiose type: delusions of inflated worth, power, knowledge,
identity, or special relationship to a deity or famous person
Jealous type: delusions that the individual’s sexual partner is
unfaithful
Persecutory type: delusions that the person (or someone to
whom the person is close) is being malevolently treated in some way
Somatic type: delusions that the person has some physical
defect or general medical condition
Mixed type: delusions characteristic of more than one of the
above types but no one theme predominates
Unspecified type
Treatment
Combined psychosocial and pharamacological treatment appears to be
most effective in the treatment of delusional disorder. Antipsychotics
are used in the same doses used for schizophrenia. For somatic delu-
sions, addition of a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor or a serotonin-
norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor may be helpful.
Brief Psychotic Disorder

Brief psychotic disorder is characterized by having symptoms for more
than 1 day but less than 1 month, with or without a marked stressor. The
episode usually has an abrupt onset, and the psychosis is usually bizarre
and often accompanied by marked emotional lability. The short dura-
tion and return to premorbid functioning are distinguishing features.
The DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for brief psychotic disorder are
Like all the psychotic disorders, it is important to carefully rule out med-
ical and substance-induced conditions. Because the onset is acute, care-
fully consider delirium. If symptoms are present for more than 1 month,
the diagnosis changes to schizophreniform disorder. Also consider mood
disorders with psychosis if prominent mood symptoms are present.
Treatment
Treatment with an antipsychotic is the primary treatment. Psychosocial
treatments should be considered as the patient recovers from the psy-
chotic symptoms.
Shared Psychotic Disorder

Shared psychotic disorder, also known as folie à deux, is a rare condition
in which an otherwise psychiatrically healthy person develops delu-
sional ideas that are similar to someone else who has a longer-standing
delusion with similar content. Usually the two individuals have close
emotional ties.
TABLE 2–8. DSM-IV-TR criteria for brief psychotic disorder
A. Presence of one (or more) of the following symptoms:

(1) delusions
(2) hallucinations
(3) disorganized speech (e.g., frequent derailment or incoherence)
(4) grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior
Note: Do not include a symptom if it is a culturally sanctioned
response pattern.
B. Duration of an episode of the disturbance is at least 1 day but less
than 1 month, with eventual full return to premorbid level of
functioning.
C. The disturbance is not better accounted for by a mood disorder with
psychotic features, schizoaffective disorder, or schizophrenia and is
not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug
of abuse, a medication) or a general medical condition.
Specify if:
With marked stressor(s) (brief reactive psychosis): if symptoms
occur shortly after and apparently in response to events that, singly
or together, would be markedly stressful to almost anyone in similar
circumstances in the person's culture
Without marked stressor(s): if psychotic symptoms do not occur
shortly after, or are not apparently in response to events that, singly
or together, would be markedly stressful to almost anyone in similar
circumstances in the person's culture
With postpartum onset: if onset within 4 weeks postpartum
References
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Association, 2000
Bleuler E: Dementia praecox or the group of schizophrenias (1911). Translated
by Zinken J. New York, International Universities Press, 1950
Gould RA, Mueser KT, Bolton E, et al: Cognitive therapy in psychosis in schizo-
phrenia: an effect size analysis. Schizophr Res 48:335–342, 2001
ing, 2003
Lehman AF, Lieberman JA, Dixon LB, et al: Practice guideline for the treatment
of patients with schizophrenia, 2nd edition. Am J Psychiatry 161 (2 suppl):1–
56, 2004
Lewis, SW, Barnes TR, Davies L, et al: Randomized controlled trials of conven-
tional antipsychotic versus clozapine, in people with schizophrenia respond-
ing poorly to, or tolerant of, current drug treatment. Schizophr Bull 32:715–
723, 2006
Lieberman JA: Prediction of outcome in first-episode schizophrenia. J Clin Psy-
chiatry 54(suppl):13–17, 1993
McEvoy JP, Hogarty GE, Steingard S: Optimal dose of neuroleptic in acute
schizophrenia: a controlled study of the neuroleptic threshold and higher ha-
loperidol dose. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48:739-745, 1991
McEvoy JP, Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, et al: Effectiveness of clozapine versus
olanzapine, quetiapine, and risperidone in patients with chronic schizophre-
nia who did not respond to prior atypical antipsychotic treatment. Am J Psy-
chiatry 163:600–610, 2006
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lar I disorders in a general population. Arch Gen Psychiatry 64:19–28, 2005
Schneider K: Clinical Psychopathology. New York, Grune & Stratton, 1959
Schooler NR, Keith SJ, Severe JB, et al: Relapse and rehospitalization during
maintenance treatment of schizophrenia: the effects of dose reduction and
family treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 54:453–463, 1997
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3
Mood Disorders
disorders are illnesses that significantly impact an individual’s

outlook on life, confidence, thought processes, interest level, sleep, and
appetite. These conditions have a spectrum of severity, but they can be
disabling and life threatening. The suicide rate in mood disorders is over
10 times that of the general population.
The first conceptual division in mood disorders is unipolar versus
bipolar. Unipolar refers to depression and depressive spectrum disor-
ders. Bipolar disorder, formerly called manic-depressive disorder or
manic-depressive illness, refers to illnesses that include a manic or hy-
pomanic period(s).
The female-to-male ratio is equal for bipolar disorders (1:1), but the
ratio is 2:1 female:male for unipolar depression. Table 3–1 shows the life-
time prevalence of mood disorders.
Major Depression
The DSM-IV-TR (American Psychiatric Association 2000) criteria for
major depression are shown in Table 3–2. The mnemonic for major de-
pression is SIG E CAPS, as in a prescription for energy capsules. Of
note, most patients with major depression complain of fatigue.
Sleep. Sleep may be increased (hypersomnia) or decreased. If decreased,
the pattern is to wake up too early in the morning and not be able to go
back to sleep. This is called early-morning awakening. Difficulty falling
asleep is not specific to depression.
49
TABLE 3–1. Lifetime prevalence of mood disorders
DISORDER LIFETIME PREVALENCE
Major depressive disordera 16.6

a
Dysthymia 2.5
a
Bipolar disorder, types I and II 3.9
b
Bipolar I disorder 1.0
Bipolar II disorderb 1.1
a
Any mood disorder 20.8
a
Data from Kessler et al. 2005.
b
Data from Merikangas et al. 2007.
Interest. Depressed mood and/or decreased interest are required for

the diagnosis of major depression. The presence of ongoing decreased
interest in activities that were previously enjoyable to that person is
very helpful in differentiating normal sadness from the illness of major
depression.
Guilt. Guilt is often increased and out of proportion to the circum-
stances.
Energy. Energy is typically decreased.
Concentration. Concentration is typically decreased. To screen for this
symptom, ask the patient about reading the newspaper or keeping
track of the plot of a book or movie.
Appetite. Appetite is usually decreased, but it can be increased for
some patients.
Psychomotor. Psychomotor movement and thinking are typically
slowed. This is often observable. However, in some cases the patient is
agitated (“agitated depression”) or may have increased psychomotor
activity from anxiety.
Suicidal thoughts. It is very common for patients with depression to
think of death or to think that they are better off dead. At its most
extreme, there are thoughts of actual suicide and plans to commit sui-
cide. This is not only a diagnostic issue but obviously a clinical impera-
tive to evaluate and institute protective measures, if necessary (see
Chapter 1, “Assessment and Documentation”).
Mood Disorders 51
TABLE 3–2. DSM-IV-TR criteria for major depressive

episode
A. Five (or more) of the following symptoms have been present during
the same 2-week period and represent a change from previous
functioning; at least one of the symptoms is either (1) depressed mood
or (2) loss of interest or pleasure.
Note: Do not include symptoms that are clearly due to a general
medical condition, or mood-incongruent delusions or hallucinations.
(1) depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day, as indicated
by either subjective report (e.g., feels sad or empty) or observation
made by others (e.g., appears tearful). Note: In children and
adolescents, can be irritable mood.
(2) markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all,
activities most of the day, nearly every day (as indicated by either
subjective account or observation made by others)
(3) significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain (e.g., a
change of more than 5% of body weight in a month), or decrease
or increase in appetite nearly every day. Note: In children,
consider failure to make expected weight gains.
(4) insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day
(5) psychomotor agitation or retardation nearly every day (observable
by others, not merely subjective feelings of restlessness or being
slowed down)
(6) fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day
(7) feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt
(which may be delusional) nearly every day (not merely self-
reproach or guilt about being sick)
(8) diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness,
nearly every day (either by subjective account or as observed by
others)
(9) recurrent thoughts of death (not just fear of dying), recurrent
suicidal ideation without a specific plan, or a suicide attempt or a
specific plan for committing suicide
B. The symptoms do not meet criteria for a mixed episode
C. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in
social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
TABLE 3–2. DSM-IV-TR criteria for major depressive

episode (continued)
D. The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a

condition (e.g., hypothyroidism).
E. The symptoms are not better accounted for by bereavement, i.e.,
after the loss of a loved one, the symptoms persist for longer than 2
months or are characterized by marked functional impairment,
morbid preoccupation with worthlessness, suicidal ideation,
psychotic symptoms, or psychomotor retardation.
Major depressive disorder with atypical features: Depression with

mood reactivity (e.g., mood brightens up in response to actual or poten-
tial positive events) and two or more of the following features:
• Increased appetite/weight gain

• Hypersomnia
• Leaden paralysis (heavy feeling in arms and legs)
• Long-standing pattern of interpersonal rejection sensitivity
Major depressive disorder with melancholic features: Depression

with pervasive anhedonia (loss of pleasure in activities) and lack of re-
action to stimuli that ordinarily would be pleasurable, and three or more
of the following features:
• Distinct quality of depressed mood (different from the kind of

sadness associated with grief)
• Depression that is worse in the morning
• Early-morning awakening
• Psychomotor retardation or agitation
• Anorexia nervosa and weight loss
• Excessive or inappropriate guilt
Major depressive disorder with catatonic features: Depression with at

least two of the following features:
• Motoric immobility as evidenced by catalepsy or stupor

Mood Disorders 53
• Excessive motor activity (purposeless and not influenced by

external stimuli)
• Extreme negativism or mutism
• Peculiarities of voluntary movement as evidenced by posturing,
stereotyped movements, prominent mannerisms, or prominent
grimacing
• Echolalia or echopraxia
Many medical conditions can contribute to depression. It is important to
rule out underlying medical conditions, as well as substance-induced
mood disorder (see Table 3–3).
Treatment of Major Depression

• Although all patients with depression should undergo a thorough
medical evaluation, no specific tests are required before initiation
of therapy with the newer antidepressants.
• Details of antidepressants use are presented in Chapter 14, “Phar-
macotherapy.”
• The choice of antidepressant medication is based on the patient’s
psychiatric symptoms, his or her history of previous treatment
response, family members’ history of response, medication side-
effect profiles, and comorbid disorders. Guidelines for choosing
antidepressant medication are presented in Table 3–4.
• The newer antidepressants are better tolerated and safer than tricy-
clic antidepressants and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
and are first-line agents, with or without combined psychotherapy.
• Clinical response is typically delayed for several weeks.
• An adequate trial of an antidepressant medication is 8–12 weeks
(Trivedi et al. 2006).
• Cumulative remission rates are approximately 50% after two
consecutive treatments (Rush et al. 2006) and subsequently
decrease—hence the importance of aggressive early treatment.
AUGMENTATION AND SWITCHING

If the patient does not reach remission after the initial monotherapy, rea-
sonable strategies include switching to a different monotherapy or aug-
TABLE 3–3. Medical conditions that can cause manic or

depressive syndromes (partial list)
Neurological disease Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease,

traumatic brain injury, stroke, dementias,
multiple sclerosis
Metabolic disease Electrolyte disturbances, renal failure, vitamin
deficiencies or excess, acute intermittent
porphyria, Wilson’s disease, environmental
toxins, heavy metals
Gastrointestinal Irritable bowel syndrome, chronic pancreatitis,
disease Crohn’s disease, cirrhosis, hepatic
encephalopathy
Endocrine disorder Hypo- and hyperthyroidism, Cushing’s disease,
Addison’s disease, diabetes mellitus, parathyroid
dysfunction
Cardiovascular Myocardial infarction, angina, coronary artery
disease bypass surgery, cardiomyopathies
Pulmonary disease Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, sleep
apnea, reactive airway disease
Malignancy and Pancreatic carcinoma, brain tumors,
hematological paraneoplastic effects of lung cancers, anemias
disease
Autoimmune disease Systematic lupus erythematosus, fibromyalgia,
rheumatoid arthritis
menting with a second agent. Augmentation strategies include addition

of lithium, liothyronine (T3), or buspirone to a selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitor (SSRI) or a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI).
Combination of two antidepressants with different mechanisms of action
is also reasonable. The atypical antipsychotics are also used as augment-
ing agents, even in nonpsychotic patients.
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and vagus nerve stimulation are
options for patients with more treatment-resistant disease (see Chapter
16, “Electroconvulsive Therapy and Device-Based Treatments”). Evi-
dence-based psychotherapy (see Chapter 15, “Psychotherapy and Psy-
chosocial Treatments”) is clearly effective and should be offered to all
Mood Disorders 55
TABLE 3–4. Guidelines for choosing antidepressant

medications
Unipolar depression Choose on the basis of previous

response, side effects, comorbid
medical and psychotic disorders, and
likelihood of remission.
Bipolar depression Lithium, lamotrigine, olanzapine-
fluoxetine combination, or quetiapine
Depression with psychotic Antidepressant+ antipsychotic, or ECT;
features avoid bupropion.
Depression +OCD SSRI, clomipramine
Depression +panic disorder SSRI, TCA
Depression +eating disorder Avoid bupropion.
Depression +seizures Avoid bupropion and TCAs.
Depression +Parkinson’s Bupropion
disease
Depression +sexual dysfunction Bupropion, mirtazapine
Depression +pain or Duloxetine
fibromyalgia
Depression with melancholic TCAa
features
Depression with atypical SSRI, MAOIb
features
Note. ECT=electroconvulsive therapy; MAOI=monoamine oxidase inhibi-
tor; OCD=obsessive-compulsive disorder; SSRI=selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitor; TCA =tricyclic antidepressant.
a
Although some data suggest that TCAs are superior for treating melancholic
depression, most clinicians choose newer agents because of improved tolera-
bility and safety.
b
Although MAOIs are highly effective, they are not used as first-line agents
because greater risk is associated with their use than with the use of newer
agents.
patients as an initial treatment with or without medication and added to

the medication treatment for patients with chronic disease and those
who do not respond to pharmacotherapy alone.
ANTIDEPRESSANTS AND SUICIDAL BEHAVIOR IN

ADOLESCENTS AND YOUNG ADULTS
Patients with depression and other psychiatric disorders are at an in-
creased risk for suicide and suicidal behavior. While long-term phar-
macological treatment is associated with a decreased suicide rate
(Angst et al. 2002), the acute phases of treatment with antidepressants
have been associated with increased risks of suicidal thoughts and be-
haviors. This is of particular concern in children and adolescents. A
pooled analysis conducted by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA; 2004) of 24 short-term placebo-controlled clinical trials among
children and adolescents treated with antidepressants found a risk of
suicidal thinking or behavior in 4% of patients treated with antidepres-
sants, compared with 2% of placebo-treated patients. Fortunately, there
were no completed suicides in these studies.
At this time, it is not possible to determine if any one medication or
class of medications differs with regard to the risk of early treatment-
emergent suicidality, so warnings apply to all antidepressant medica-
tions. Analyses of FDA data (2007) from adult placebo-controlled trials
have shown an increased risk in patients ages 18–24 years, although of a
smaller magnitude than in patients under age 18 years. These warnings
are not intended to prevent the use of antidepressants, but rather to un-
derscore the need for thoughtful patient education and monitoring.
Specifically, the patient should be educated to call the clinician immedi-
ately if he or she experiences an increase in suicidal impulses, agitation,
or severe restlessness. Family education is also warranted for pediatric
patients or those with cognitive impairment.
DEPRESSION WITH PSYCHOTIC FEATURES

ECT is often the acute treatment of choice for depression with psychotic
features. If not using ECT, combine antidepressant and antipsychotics.
Long-term treatment with antipsychotic medications is generally not
warranted, but prophylactic antidepressant medication must be contin-
ued as in nonpsychotic depression.
Mood Disorders 57
MAINTENANCE TREATMENT OF MAJOR DEPRESSION

• For a first episode of depression, antidepressant therapy should
not be discontinued before 4–5 symptom-free months have passed
(Prien and Kupfer 1986).
• Antidepressant medication should be continued at the same dose
that resulted in remission.
• After one episode of depression, there is a 50% chance that the
patient will have a second episode; after three episodes, there is a
90% chance of recurrence (Depression Guideline Panel 1993).
Therefore, maintenance treatment is needed for these individuals.
• Indications for maintenance treatment (at least 5 years):
– Three or more episodes of major depression
– Two or more episodes and a family history of mood disorder
– Also consider if there is a rapid recurrence of depressive epi-
sodes, an older age at onset, or severe episodes (Keller 2001).
• Some patients may require lifelong antidepressant maintenance
treatment.
DISCONTINUATION OF ANTIDEPRESSANTS
When discontinuing an antidepressant medication, it is advisable to taper
the dose while monitoring for signs and symptoms of relapse. Abrupt dis-
continuation is more likely to lead to antidepressant discontinuation
symptoms.
• Symptoms of antidepressant discontinuation include nausea,

diarrhea, insomnia, malaise, muscle aches, anxiety, irritability,
dizziness, vertigo, and vivid dreams. Often, and for unknown rea-
sons, patients who experience this constellation of symptoms
have transient “electric shock” sensations. This unique symptom
is diagnostically useful and strongly suggests to the clinician that
the patient is in fact experiencing withdrawal, because the symp-
tom rarely occurs in other conditions, such as viral infections, or
as a side effect of a new medication.
• The symptoms occur most commonly after discontinuation of
short-half-life serotonergic drugs (Coupland et al. 1996), such as
paroxetine, and venlafaxine.
• The symptoms usually occur within 1–2 days after abrupt discon-
tinuation of a medication and subside within 7–10 days. In some
instances, symptoms may also occur during tapering and dose

reduction, and they may persist for up to 3 weeks.
• To treat the discontinuation symptoms, restart the medication and
then taper more slowly. Administer one dose of fluoxetine (which
has a longer half-life) if discontinuing a medication with a short
half-life. Consider using a benzodiazepine for 1 week to help
decrease symptoms.
ANTIDEPRESSANT SWITCHING
Often clinicians choose to discontinue the first medication before intro-
ducing the second one. In most instances, however, a medication-free pe-
riod is not critical, if neither medication is an MAOI. Thus, it is possible to
start administering the new drug while tapering the dose of the first. This
overlapping of medications is sometimes helpful to minimize patient dis-
comfort but must be weighed against the risk of increased side effects and
drug interactions (Marangell 2001).
• Switching from one SSRI or SNRI to another can be accomplished

by a direct swap of one drug for the next.
• Cross-taper when medications with different receptor effects are
used (e.g., an SSRI to bupropion).
• A 2-week washout is required when switching from an MAOI to
another antidepressant.
• When switching from another antidepressant to an MAOI, the
first medication must be out of the body (i.e., five half-lives).
Dysthymia
Dysthymia is a more chronic but less severe form of depression. The DSM-
IV-TR diagnostic criteria for dysthymic disorder are shown in Table 3–5.
For information on differential diagnosis, see the “Major Depression” sec-
tion earlier in this chapter. Dysthymia and major depression have similar
symptoms but differ with regard to the onset, duration, persistence, and
severity. The earlier “Treatment of Major Depression” subsection is also
relevant to the treatment of dysthymia.
Mood Disorders 59
TABLE 3–5. DSM-IV-TR criteria for dysthymic disorder
A. Depressed mood for most of the day, for more days than not, as
indicated either by subjective account or observation by others, for at
least 2 years. Note: In children and adolescents, mood can be
irritable and duration must be at least 1 year.
B. Presence, while depressed, of two (or more) of the following:
(1) poor appetite or overeating
(2) insomnia or hypersomnia
(3) low energy or fatigue
(4) low self-esteem
(5) poor concentration or difficulty making decisions
(6) feelings of hopelessness
C. During the 2-year period (1 year for children or adolescents) of the
disturbance, the person has never been without the symptoms in
criteria A and B for more than 2 months at a time.
D. No major depressiveepisode has been present during the first 2 years
of the disturbance (1 year for children and adolescents); i.e., the
disturbance is not better accounted for by chronic major depressive
disorder, or major depressive disorder, in partial remission.
Note: There may have been a previous major depressive episode
provided there was a full remission (no significant signs or symptoms
for 2 months) before development of the dysthymic disorder. In
addition, after the initial 2 years (1 year in children or adolescents) of
dysthymic disorder, there may be superimposed episodes of major
depressive disorder, in which case both diagnoses may be given
when the criteria are met for a major depressive episode.
E. There has never been a manic episode, a mixed episode, or a
hypomanic episode, and criteria have never been met for cyclothymic
disorder.
F. The disturbance does not occur exclusively during the course of a
chronic psychotic disorder, such as schizophrenia or delusional
disorder.
G. The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a
condition (e.g., hypothyroidism).
TABLE 3–5. DSM-IV-TR criteria for dysthymic disorder (continued)
H. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in

Specify if:
Early onset: if onset is before age 21 years
Late onset: if onset is age 21 years or older
Specify (for most recent 2 years of dysthymic disorder):
With atypical features
Treatment
See Treatment of Major Depression section above.
Bipolar Disorder
The diagnosis of bipolar disorder is based on longitudinal history, not
cross-sectional presentation. If the patient has ever had an episode of ma-
nia or hypomania that was not induced by drugs or medication, the di-
agnosis is in the bipolar spectrum, not the depressive spectrum, even if
depression symptoms have been more prominent over the recent years
(which is common in bipolar disorder). A schematic representation of
the subtypes of bipolar spectrum disorders is shown in Figure 3–1.
• Bipolar I disorder is diagnosed if the patient has ever had a manic

or mixed episode that was severe enough to impact social and
occupational functioning.
• Bipolar II disorder is diagnosed if the patient has only had hypo-
mania.
• The mnemonic for a manic episode is DIG FAST:
Distractibility
Impulsivity
Grandiosity
Flight of ideas/racing thoughts
Activity (increased goal-directed activity)
Sleep (decreased need for sleep, as opposed to decreased sleep
with fatigue)
Talkativeness
Mood Disorders 61
Figure 3–1. Subtypes of bipolar spectrum disorders.
The DSM-IV-TR criteria for hypomanic, manic, and mixed episodes

are shown in Tables 3–6 through 3–8. The DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria
for bipolar I disorder and bipolar II disorder are shown in Tables 3–9
(summary of criteria) and 3–10 (actual criteria).
Many substances of abuse and some medications (e.g. stimulants, ste-
roids, L-dopa, antidepressants) can induce manic-like mood distur-
bances. It is important to rule out underlying medical conditions, as well
as substance-induced states (see Table 3–3).
Acute Mania Treatment

• In mild to moderate mania, initiate treatment with a mood stabi-
lizer with acute antimanic properties. These currently include
lithium, valproate, carbamazepine, olanzapine, risperidone, arip-
iprazole, quetiapine, and ziprasidone. If the patient is already tak-
ing one of these medications, use the maximal tolerated dose and
then combine a second agent, usually either lithium or valproate
with an atypical antipsychotic.
TABLE 3–6. DSM-IV-TR criteria for hypomanic episode
A. A distinct period of persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable

mood, lasting throughout at least 4 days, that is clearly different from
the usual nondepressed mood.
B. During the period of mood disturbance, three (or more) of the
following symptoms have persisted (four if the mood is only irritable)
and have been present to a significant degree:
(1) inflated self-esteem or grandiosity
(2) decreased need for sleep (e.g., feels rested after only 3 hours of
sleep)
(3) more talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking
(4) flight of ideas or subjective experience that thoughts are racing
(5) distractibility (i.e., attention too easily drawn to unimportant or
irrelevant external stimuli)
(6) increase in goal-directed activity (either socially, at work or
school, or sexually) or psychomotor agitation
(7) excessive involvement in pleasurable activities that have a high
potential for painful consequences (e.g., the person engages in
unrestrained buying sprees, sexual indiscretions, or foolish
business investments)
C. The episode is associated with an unequivocal change in functioning
that is uncharacteristic of the person when not symptomatic.
D. The disturbance in mood and the change in functioning are
observable by others.
E. The episode is not severe enough to cause marked impairment in
social or occupational functioning, or to necessitate hospitalization,
and there are no psychotic features.
F. The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a
substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication, or other treatment)
or a general medical condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism).
Note: Hypomanic-like episodes that are clearly caused by somatic
antidepressant treatment (e.g., medication, electroconvulsive
therapy, light therapy) should not count toward a diagnosis of
bipolar II disorder.
Mood Disorders 63
TABLE 3–7. DSM-IV-TR criteria for manic episode
A. A distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive,

or irritable mood, lasting at least 1 week (or any duration if
hospitalization is necessary).
B. During the period of mood disturbance, three (or more) of the
following symptoms have persisted (four if the mood is only irritable)
and have been present to a significant degree:
(1) inflated self-esteem or grandiosity
(2) decreased need for sleep (e.g., feels rested after only 3 hours of
sleep)
(3) more talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking
(4) flight of ideas or subjective experience that thoughts are racing
(5) distractibility (i.e., attention too easily drawn to unimportant or
irrelevant external stimuli)
(6) increase in goal-directed activity (either socially, at work or
school, or sexually) or psychomotor agitation
(7) excessive involvement in pleasurable activities that have a high
potential for painful consequences (e.g., engaging in
unrestrained buying sprees, sexual indiscretions, or foolish
business investments)
C. The symptoms do not meet criteria for a mixed episode.
D. The mood disturbance is sufficiently severe to cause marked
impairment in occupational functioning or in usual social activities or
relationships with others, or to necessitate hospitalization to prevent
harm to self or others, or there are psychotic features.
E. The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a
substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication, or other treatment)
or a general medical condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism).
Note: Manic-like episodes that are clearly caused by somatic
antidepressant treatment (e.g., medication, electroconvulsive
therapy, light therapy) should not count toward a diagnosis of
bipolar I disorder.
TABLE 3–8. DSM-IV-TR criteria for mixed episode
A. The criteria are met both for a manic episode and for a major
depressive episode (except for duration) nearly every day during at
least a 1-week period.
B. The mood disturbance is sufficiently severe to cause marked
impairment in occupational functioning or in usual social activities or
relationships with others, or to necessitate hospitalization to prevent
harm to self or others, or there are psychotic features.
C. The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a
substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication, or other treatment) or
a general medical condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism).
Note: Mixed-like episodes that are clearly caused by somatic
antidepressant treatment (e.g., medication, electroconvulsive therapy,
light therapy) should not count toward a diagnosis of bipolar I
disorder.
• In patients who are severely ill or who have manic or mixed states
with psychotic features, the American Psychiatric Association
(2002) Practice Guideline recommends initial treatment with the
combination of lithium or valproate and an atypical antipsychotic.
• The clinical response to antimanic agents may not be apparent for
1–2 weeks; thus, additional medications, such as lorazepam or
clonazepam, may be effective adjuncts acutely if certain symp-
toms, such as severe agitation, warrant immediate control.
• Antidepressants exacerbate mania and should be tapered and dis-
continued in patients who are in a manic or mixed state.
• ECT is an effective treatment for acute mania and is especially
useful for patients who cannot safely wait until medication
becomes effective.
• Bipolar disorder typically requires lifelong pharmacotherapy to
decrease the risk of future episodes.
• Patient and family education about the illness is essential.
Bipolar Depression Treatment

• The first pharmacological intervention should be to start or opti-
mize treatment with a mood stabilizer rather than to start admin-
istering an antidepressant medication.
Mood Disorders 65
TABLE 3–9. Summary of DSM-IV-TR criteria for bipolar I disorder
A. Presence (or history) of one or more manic or mixed episodes

B. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in
social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning
C. The mood symptoms are not better accounted for by schizoaffective
disorder and are not superimposed on schizophrenia,
schizophreniform disorder, delusional disorder, or psychotic disorder
not otherwise specified.
Specify current or most recent episode:
Manic: if currently (or most recently) in a manic episode
Mixed: if currently (or most recently) in a mixed episode
Hypomanic: if currently (or most recently) in a hypomanic episode
Depressed: if currently (or most recently) in a major depressive episode
Note. In DSM-IV-TR, diagnostic criteria for bipolar I disorder specify the
type of the current or most recent episode (manic, hypomanic, mixed, or
depressed).
• Lithium, lamotrigine, the olanzapine-fluoxetine combination,

and quetiapine are first-line treatments for bipolar depression.
Data are less compelling regarding the use of valproate and car-
bamazepine for the acute treatment of bipolar depression.
• Lamotrigine can be combined with other mood stabilizers, but it
is important to remember that lamotrigine therapy is started at
lower doses and dose titration is more gradual when this medica-
tion is added to valproate therapy.
• The combination of olanzapine and fluoxetine is particularly use-
ful in patients who are not currently taking other psychiatric med-
ications and who would benefit from a single pill rather than
more traditional combined treatments.
• Some patients with bipolar disorder will need antidepressants,
but they are not first-line agents because their efficacy beyond
mood stabilizers is not clear (Sachs et al. 2007) and they may
worsen the course of illness in some patients.
• Tricyclic antidepressants should be avoided when other viable
treatment options exist, because they appear most likely to worsen
the course of illness.
TABLE 3–10. DSM-IV-TR criteria for bipolar II disorder
A. Presence (or history) of one or more major depressive episodes.

B. Presence (or history) of at least one hypomanic episode.
C. There has never been a manic episode or a mixed episode.
D. The mood symptoms in criteria A and B are not better accounted for
by schizoaffective disorder and are not superimposed on
schizophrenia, schizophreniform disorder, delusional disorder, or
psychotic disorder not otherwise specified.
E. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in
Specify current or most recent episode:
Hypomanic: if currently (or most recently) in a hypomanic episode
Depressed: if currently (or most recently) in a major depressive
episode
If the full criteria are currently met for a major depressive episode,
specify its current clinical status and/or features:
Mild, moderate, severe without psychotic features/severe
with psychotic features
Note: Fifth-digit codes cannot be used here because the code for
bipolar II disorder already uses the fifth digit.
Chronic
With catatonic features
With melancholic features
With postpartum onset
If the full criteria are not currently met for a hypomanic or major
depressive episode, specify the clinical status of the bipolar II disorder and/
or features of the most recent major depressive episode (only if it is the
most recent type of mood episode):
In partial remission, in full remission
Note: Fifth-digit codes specified cannot be used here because the
code for bipolar II disorder already uses the fifth digit.
Chronic
With catatonic features
Mood Disorders 67
TABLE 3–10. DSM-IV-TR criteria for bipolar II disorder (continued)
With melancholic features

With postpartum onset
Specify:
Longitudinal course specifiers (with and without
interepisode recovery)
With seasonal pattern (applies only to the pattern of major
eepressive episodes)
With rapid cycling
• ECT should be considered in severe cases.

• Evidence-based psychosocial treatments that have been devel-
oped for bipolar disorder can significantly improve the course of
illness when combined with pharmacotherapy.
Maintenance Treatment in Bipolar Disorder

• Patients with bipolar disorder require lifelong prophylaxis with a
mood stabilizer, both to prevent new episodes and to decrease the
likelihood that the illness will become more severe.
• Ninety percent of bipolar patients relapse after stopping lithium
therapy; most do so within 6 months.
• Abruptly stopping lithium, and probably other mood stabilizers,
is associated with a substantially higher rate of relapse than is
tapering.
Cyclothymia
Cyclothymic disorder is marked by chronic mood changes over a long pe-
riod of time (at least 2 years). Patients typically experience depressive and
hypomanic symptoms during this time, but they never meet full criteria
for a major depressive episode or hypomanic episode. See the sections on
bipolar differential diagnosis and treatment earlier in this chapter for
more information.
The DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for cyclothymic disorder are out-
lined in Table 3–11.
TABLE 3–11. DSM-IV-TR criteria for cyclothymic disorder
A. For at least 2 years, the presence of numerous periods with hypomanic

symptoms and numerous periods with depressive symptoms that do
not meet criteria for a major depressive episode. Note: In children
and adolescents, the duration must be at least 1 year.
B. During the above 2-year period (1 year in children and adolescents),
the person has not been without the symptoms in criterion A for more
than 2 months at a time.
C. No major depressive episode, manic episode, or mixed episode has
been present during the first 2 years of the disturbance.
Note: After the initial 2 years (1 year in children and adolescents) of
cyclothymic disorder, there may be superimposed manic or mixed
episodes (in which case both bipolar I disorder and cyclothymic
disorder may be diagnosed) or major depressive episodes (in which
case both bipolar II disorder and cyclothymic disorder may be
diagnosed).
D. The symptoms in criterion A are not better accounted for by
schizoaffective disorder and are not superimposed on schizophrenia,
schizophreniform disorder, delusional disorder, or psychotic disorder
not otherwise specified.
E. The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a
condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism).
F. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in
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new01624.html. Accessed July 22, 2008.
4
Anxiety Disorders
¡¢ disorders include generalized anxiety disorder (GAD),

panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), posttraumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), acute stress disorder (ASD), specific phobia, and
social phobia. The prevalence of some of these anxiety disorders is
Generalized Anxiety Disorder

GAD is a chronic condition. The essential feature is persistent anxiety for
at least 6 months along with multiple physical symptoms, such as mus-
cle tension, restlessness, feeling “keyed up,” concentration difficulties,
insomnia, irritability, and fatigue. Patients with GAD are usually wor-
ried about relatively trivial matters and often anticipate the worst. GAD
is highly comorbid with other psychiatric and medical disorders.
DSM-IV-TR (American Psychiatric Association 2000) differentiates
GAD from everyday anxiety by specifying that the worry seen in GAD
must be clearly excessive, pervasive, difficult to control, and associated
with marked distress or impairment. The DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria
for GAD are shown in Table 4–2.
Patients with GAD may have peaks in their anxiety and may complain of
“anxiety attacks” or “panic attacks.” However, careful questioning often
reveals that these episodes occur gradually and last for hours to days. In
panic disorder, an attack typically peaks within 10 minutes of onset and
the physiological symptoms decrease after 20 minutes (Hales and Yud-
ofsky 2003).
71
TABLE 4–1. Prevalence of anxiety disorders
12-MONTH LIFETIME
DISORDER PREVALENCE PREVALENCE
Generalized anxiety disorder 3.1 5.7

Panic disorder 2.7 4.7
Obsessive-compulsive disorder 1.0 1.6
Posttraumatic stress disorder 3.5 6.8
Social phobia 6.8 12.1
Source. Data from Kessler et al. 2005a, 2005b.
Asking the patient, “When did you have your first panic attack?” can
help in the diagnosis because a panic attack is such a dramatic physical
sensation that most patients vividly remember their first panic attack
and can often tell you the exact circumstances, such as where they were
and the date. With other anxiety disorders, patient’s memory and de-
scriptions of panic attacks are often more vague.
It is important to ascertain that the focus of the anxiety and worry is
not confined to features of another Axis I disorder; for example, the anx-
iety or worry is not about
• Being embarrassed in public (as in social phobia),

• Being contaminated (as in OCD),
• Being away from home or close relatives (as in separation anxiety
disorder),
• Gaining weight (as in anorexia nervosa),
• Having multiple physical complaints (as in somatization disor-
der), or
• Having a serious illness (as in hypochondriasis),
and the anxiety and worry do not occur exclusively during PTSD.
Treatment
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin norepi-
nephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are currently the first-line treatment
for GAD (see Table 4–3). SSRIs can be augmented with benzodiazepines,
buspirone, and certain antidepressants. See Table 4–4 for a comparison of
these medications.
Anxiety Disorders 73
TABLE 4–2. Medications of choice for specific anxiety disorders
DIAGNOSIS MEDICATION
Generalized anxiety disorder SSRIs, SNRIs, buspirone,

benzodiazepines
Obsessive-compulsive disorder Clomipramine, SSRIs
Panic disorder SSRIs, benzodiazepines
Performance anxiety Beta-blockers, benzodiazepines
Social phobia SSRIs, MAOIs, benzodiazepines,
buspirone, venlafaxine
Posttraumatic stress disorder SSRIs, anticonvulsants, adrenergic
antagonists
Note. MAOI=monoamine oxidase inhibitor; SNRI=serotonin norepinephrine
reuptake inhibitor; SSRI=selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor; TCA =tricyclic
antidepressant.
Benzodiazepines are rapidly effective, but they also carry the risks for
abuse and sedation. Tolerance to the sedative effects of benzodiazepines
often develops, but tolerance to anxiolytic effects generally does not. All
benzodiazepines indicated for the treatment of anxiety are equally effi-
cacious. The choice of a specific agent usually depends on the pharma-
cokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the drug. Though some patients
respond to low doses, mean doses for many patients are typically
higher. Benzodiazepines should be avoided in patients with a history of
recent and/or significant substance abuse, and all patients should be
advised to take the first dose at home in a situation that would not be
dangerous in the event of greater-than-expected sedation. The long-
term use of benzodiazepines is not recommended for most patients, al-
though some patients do benefit from longer-term use.
Unlike benzodiazepines, buspirone is not associated with significant
sedation, motor performance impairment, or abuse problems. How-
ever, unlike the rapid onset of action associated with benzodiazepines,
the response to buspirone typically occurs after several weeks of treat-
ment. For patients who need rapid relief from debilitating anxiety
symptoms, buspirone alone may not be the best choice unless benzodi-
azepines are also being used. Buspirone does not exhibit cross-tolerance
with benzodiazepines and other sedative or hypnotic drugs such as al-
cohol, barbiturates, and chloral hydrate. Therefore, buspirone does not
TABLE 4–3. DSM-IV-TR criteria for generalized anxiety disorder
A. Excessive anxiety and worry (apprehensive expectation), occurring

more days than not for at least 6 months, about a number of events
or activities (such as work or school performance).
B. The person finds it difficult to control the worry.
C. The anxiety and worry are associated with three (or more) of the
following six symptoms (with at least some symptoms present for
more days than not for the past 6 months). Note: Only one item is
required in children.
(1) restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge
(2) being easily fatigued
(3) difficulty concentrating or mind going blank
(4) irritability
(5) muscle tension
(6) sleep disturbance (difficulty falling or staying asleep, or restless
unsatisfying sleep)
D. The focus of the anxiety and worry is not confined to features of an
Axis I disorder, e.g., the anxiety or worry is not about having a panic
attack (as in panic disorder), being embarrassed in public (as in social
phobia), being contaminated (as in obsessive-compulsive disorder),
being away from home or close relatives (as in separation anxiety
disorder), gaining weight (as in anorexia nervosa), having multiple
physical complaints (as in somatization disorder), or having a serious
illness (as in hypochondriasis), and the anxiety and worry do not
occur exclusively during posttraumatic stress disorder.
E. The anxiety, worry, or physical symptoms cause clinically significant
distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important
areas of functioning.
F. The disturbance is not due to the direct physiological effects of a
condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism) and does not occur exclusively
during a mood disorder, a psychotic disorder, or a pervasive
developmental disorder.
TABLE 4–4. Comparison of benzodiazepines, buspirone, and antidepressants for the treatment of anxiety
CHARACTERISTIC BENZODIAZEPINES BUSPIRONE ANTIDEPRESSANTSa
Immediate effect Yes No No

Time to full therapeutic action Days Weeks to months Weeks
Sedation Yes No Unlikely
Risk of dependence Yes No No
Anxiety Disorders
Impairs cognitive and motor Yes No No
performance
Suppresses sedative withdrawal Yes No No
symptoms
Once-daily dosing No No Yes
Treats comorbid depression No No Yes
Common side effects Sedation, memory Nausea, headache, Nausea, loose bowel
impairment, risk of falls nervousness, movements, headache,
and delirium in elderly/ insomnia, dizziness, anxiety, insomnia, sexual
medically ill light-headedness, dysfunction, increased
restlessness sweating
a
See text for details.
75
suppress benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms. In anxious patients

who are being treated with a benzodiazepine and who require a switch
to buspirone, the benzodiazepine must be tapered gradually to avoid
withdrawal symptoms.
GAD also responds to antidepressant treatment. As with buspirone,
response to treatment with antidepressants typically occurs after sev-
eral weeks of treatment, and maximal response may take months. Ven-
lafaxine, escitalopram, paroxetine, and duloxetine have received U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for this indication, al-
though it is likely that the other SSRIs are effective as well.
The duration of pharmacotherapy for GAD is controversial. Psycho-
therapy is recommended for most patients with this disorder, and it
may facilitate the tapering of doses of medication. However, general-
ized anxiety is often a chronic condition, and some patients require
long-term pharmacotherapy. As in other anxiety disorders, the need for
ongoing treatment should be reassessed every 6–12 months.
Panic Disorder
Panic disorder is characterized by recurrent unexpected panic attacks
that are discrete and followed by a month of persistent anticipatory anx-
iety or behavioral change. The diagnostic criteria for a panic attack are
outlined in Table 4–5.
While a first panic attack may be precipitated by a significant life
stressor, panic attacks often occur out of the blue. It is not unusual for
patients to go to the emergency room fearing that they are having a
heart attack. Not surprisingly, most patients develop some anticipatory
anxiety and phobic avoidance associated with the circumstances of the
first panic attack.
The fears and avoidance behavior associated with agoraphobia typ-
ically revolve around three main themes: fear of leaving home, fear of
being alone, and fear of being away from home in situations where one
can feel trapped, embarrassed, or helpless. At its worst, patients may be-
come completely housebound. The diagnosis of panic disorder is spec-
ified as with or without agoraphobia (see Table 4–6).
The DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for panic disorder without agora-
phobia are shown in Table 4–7, and the criteria for panic disorder with
agoraphobia are shown in Table 4–8.
TABLE 4–5. DSM-IV-TR criteria for panic attack
Note: A panic attack is not a codable disorder. Code the specific

diagnosis in which the panic attack occurs (e.g., 300.21 panic disorder
with agoraphobia).
A discrete period of intense fear or discomfort, in which four (or more) of
the following symptoms developed abruptly and reached a peak within
10 minutes:
(1) palpitations, pounding heart, or accelerated heart rate
(2) sweating
(3) trembling or shaking
(4) sensations of shortness of breath or smothering
(5) feeling of choking
(6) chest pain or discomfort
(7) nausea or abdominal distress
(8) feeling dizzy, unsteady, lightheaded, or faint
(9) derealization (feelings of unreality) or depersonalization (being
detached from oneself)
(10) fear of losing control or going crazy
(11) fear of dying
(12) paresthesias (numbness or tingling sensations)
(13) chills or hot flushes
Panic attacks can occur with other anxiety disorders (specific phobia,
social phobia, PTSD), but are typically situationally bound or cued (i.e.,
panic attacks in panic disorder occur out of the blue and are not limited
to phobic situations or reminders of a traumatic event). Medical condi-
tions that mimic panic attacks include cardiac, respiratory, vestibular,
and gastrointestinal diseases, but it is important to keep in mind that pa-
tients with panic disorder often first present to an emergency room or
primary care for a cardiac evaluation. Table 4–9 presents the differential
diagnosis of panic disorder.
TABLE 4–6. DSM-IV-TR criteria for agoraphobia
Note: Agoraphobia is not a codable disorder. Code the specific disorder

in which the agoraphobia occurs (e.g., 300.21 panic disorder with
agoraphobia or 300.22 agoraphobia without history of panic disorder.
A. Anxiety about being in places or situations from which escape might
be difficult (or embarrassing) or in which help may not be available in
the event of having an unexpected or situationally predisposed panic
attack or panic-like symptoms. Agoraphobic fears typically involve
characteristic clusters of situations that include being outside the
home alone; being in a crowd or standing in a line; being on a bridge;
and traveling in a bus, train, or automobile.
Note: Consider the diagnosis of specific phobia if the avoidance is
limited to one or only a few specific situations, or social phobia if the
avoidance is limited to social situations.
B. The situations are avoided (e.g., travel is restricted) or else are endured
with marked distress or with anxiety about having a panic attack or
panic-like symptoms, or require the presence of a companion.
C. The anxiety or phobic avoidance is not better accounted for by
another mental disorder, such as social phobia (e.g., avoidance limited
to social situations because of fear of embarrassment), specific phobia
(e.g., avoidance limited to a single situation like elevators), obsessive-
compulsive disorder (e.g., avoidance of dirt in someone with an
obsession about contamination), posttraumatic stress disorder (e.g.,
avoidance of stimuli associated with a severe stressor), or separation
anxiety disorder (e.g., avoidance of leaving home or relatives).
Treatment
Combined psychosocial and pharamacological treatment appears to be
most effective for the treatment of panic disorder. The SSRIs are consid-
ered first-line treatment. Doses of antidepressants may be started at half
the usual recommended dose for depression because patients with
panic disorder may be more sensitive to side effects and there is a po-
tential for an initial increase in anxiety side effects. Doses should then be
titrated to full therapeutic dose as tolerated by the patient. In combina-
tion with other treatment modalities, benzodiazepines may be useful
for early symptom control. Weekly cognitive-behavioral therapy, as
well as supportive and family therapy, may be beneficial. Benzodiaz-
TABLE 4–7. DSM-IV-TR criteria for panic disorder without

agoraphobia
A. Both (1) and (2):

(1) recurrent unexpected panic attacks
(2) at least one of the attacks has been followed by 1 month (or
more) of one (or more) of the following:
(a) persistent concern about having additional attacks
(b) worry about the implications of the attack or its
consequences (e.g., losing control, having a heart attack,
“going crazy”)
(c) a significant change in behavior related to the attacks
B. Absence of agoraphobia.
C. The panic attacks are not due to the direct physiological effects of a
D. The panic attacks are not better accounted for by another mental
disorder, such as social phobia (e.g., occurring on exposure to feared
social situations), specific phobia (e.g., on exposure to a specific
phobic situation), obsessive-compulsive disorder (e.g., on exposure to
dirt in someone with an obsession about contamination),
posttraumatic stress disorder (e.g., in response to stimuli associated
with a severe stressor), or separation anxiety disorder (e.g., in
response to being away from home or close relatives).
epines, tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), monoamine oxidase inhibitors

(MAOIs), and SSRIs are all effective in the treatment of panic disorder.
Among the benzodiazepines, the high-potency agents are preferred be-
cause they are well tolerated at the higher doses often required to treat
panic disorder. The benzodiazepine may provide the patient with im-
mediate anxiety relief until the antidepressant becomes effective. When
panic symptoms have been absent for several weeks, the benzodiaz-
epine dose should then be slowly tapered if possible.
The duration of pharmacotherapy for patients with panic disorder is
unknown. The clinician should consider attempting a gradual medica-
tion discontinuation every 6–12 months if the patient has been relatively
symptom-free. However, many patients may require longer-term phar-
macotherapy.
TABLE 4–8. DSM-IV-TR criteria for panic disorder with

agoraphobia
A. Both (1) and (2):

(1) recurrent unexpected panic attacks
(2) at least one of the attacks has been followed by 1 month (or
more) of one (or more) of the following:
(a) persistent concern about having additional attacks
(b) worry about the implications of the attack or its
consequences (e.g., losing control, having a heart attack,
“going crazy”)
(c) a significant change in behavior related to the attacks
B. The presence of agoraphobia.
C. The panic attacks are not due to the direct physiological effects of a
D. The panic attacks are not better accounted for by another mental
disorder, such as social phobia (e.g., occurring on exposure to feared
social situations), specific phobia (e.g., on exposure to a specific
phobic situation), obsessive-compulsive disorder (e.g., on exposure to
posttraumatic stress disorder (e.g., in response to stimuli associated
with a severe stressor), or separation anxiety disorder (e.g., in
response to being away from home or close relatives).
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
OCD usually begins in adolescence or early adulthood and presents in
many different forms. An obsession is an intrusive, unwanted mental
event, which usually evokes anxiety or distress. Obsessions can be
thoughts, images, ideas, sounds, ruminations, convictions, fears, or im-
pulses. They usually have an aggressive, sexual, religious, “disgusting,”
or nonsensical content. A compulsion is a behavior that reduces distress
and is carried out in a pressured or compulsive manner. Washing and
checking behaviors are the two most common types of compulsions.
Mental compulsions are also common and often go unrecognized if the
clinician only asks about behaviors. An example of a mental compul-
TABLE 4–9. Differential diagnosis of panic disorder
Anxious depression
Somatization disorder with paniclike physical complaints
Social phobia with socially cued panic attacks
Generalized anxiety disorder with severe symptoms or during peak periods
Posttraumatic stress disorder with intense physiological response to
reminders of the trauma
Depersonalization disorder
Personality disorder with anxiety symptoms
Hyperthyroidism
Hypothyroidism
Mitral valve prolapse
Pheochromocytoma
Vestibular disorders
Panic attack associated with substance use or withdrawal (cocaine use,
alcohol withdrawal)
sion is the need to count to a certain number before walking through a

door. The DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for OCD are shown in Table 4–10.
The terms “obsession” and “compulsion” are often used to refer to behav-
iors that are not true OCD. Excessive activities, such as eating, gambling,
and sexual activity, that are typically experienced as pleasurable and ego-
syntonic may not be true compulsions. Similarly, negative thought pat-
terns associated with depression (obsessive brooding, ruminations, or
preoccupations) can be distinguished from true obsessions because they
are not as senseless or intrusive and the patient often sees them as mean-
ingful. Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between an obsession and a
delusion. Typically, an obsession is ego-dystonic and the patient realizes
the thoughts are not “real,” whereas a delusion is regarded as true by the
patient. Table 4–11 presents the differential diagnosis of OCD.
TABLE 4–10. DSM-IV-TR criteria for obsessive-compulsive

disorder
A. Either obsessions or compulsions:

Obsessions as defined by (1), (2), (3), and (4):
(1) recurrent and persistent thoughts, impulses, or images that are
experienced, at some time during the disturbance, as intrusive
and inappropriate and that cause marked anxiety or distress
(2) the thoughts, impulses, or images are not simply excessive
worries about real-life problems
(3) the person attempts to ignore or suppress such thoughts,
impulses, or images, or to neutralize them with some other
thought or action
(4) the person recognizes that the obsessional thoughts, impulses,
or images are a product of his or her own mind (not imposed
from without as in thought insertion)
Compulsions as defined by (1) and (2):
(1) repetitive behaviors (e.g., hand washing, ordering, checking) or
mental acts (e.g., praying, counting, repeating words silently)
that the person feels driven to perform in response to an
obsession, or according to rules that must be applied rigidly
(2) the behaviors or mental acts are aimed at preventing or reducing
distress or preventing some dreaded event or situation; however,
these behaviors or mental acts either are not connected in a
realistic way with what they are designed to neutralize or prevent
or are clearly excessive
B. At some point during the course of the disorder, the person has
recognized that the obsessions or compulsions are excessive or
unreasonable. Note: This does not apply to children.
C. The obsessions or compulsions cause marked distress, are time
consuming (take more than 1 hour a day), or significantly interfere
with the person's normal routine, occupational (or academic)
functioning, or usual social activities or relationships.

disorder (continued)
D. If another Axis I disorder is present, the content of the obsessions or

compulsions is not restricted to it (e.g., preoccupation with food in
the presence of an eating disorder; hair pulling in the presence of
trichotillomania; concern with appearance in the presence of body
dysmorphic disorder; preoccupation with drugs in the presence of a
substance use disorder; preoccupation with having a serious illness in
the presence of hypochondriasis; preoccupation with sexual urges or
fantasies in the presence of a paraphilia; or guilty ruminations in the
presence of major depressive disorder).
condition.
Specify if:
With poor insight: if, for most of the time during the current
episode, the person does not recognize that the obsessions and
compulsions are excessive or unreasonable
Treatment
Currently, clomipramine and SSRIs provide the foundation of pharma-
cological treatment of OCD. However, it is important to note that many
patients with OCD experience a 60% or less improvement in symptoms
(Jenike 1990). Additionally, medication responses may not be apparent
until treatment has been given for 10 weeks, and some patients may re-
quire doses of SSRIs that are higher than those typically used for the
treatment of major depression. Cognitive-behavioral therapy should be
combined with pharmacological approaches.
The typical dosage range for clomipramine in the treatment of pa-
tients with OCD is between 150 and 200 mg/day. Before initiating clo-
mipramine treatment, the clinician must heed all the precautions and
dosing guidelines associated with the use of any TCA (see Chapter 14,
“Pharmacotherapy”). Additionally, clinicians should monitor patients
for the emergence of anticholinergic, antihistaminic, and α2-adrenergic
side effects.
The SSRIs paroxetine, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, and sertraline have
been approved by the FDA for the treatment of OCD. As noted above,
SSRI dosages may be higher for some patients being treated for OCD
TABLE 4–11. Differential diagnosis of obsessive-compulsive

disorder (OCD)
Eating disorder with obsessions surrounding food and weight

Body dysmorphic disorder with obsessions about body appearance other
than weight
Hypochondriasis with obsessions related to feared illness
Obsessive ruminations of depression (typically mood congruent)
Severe obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
Paranoid psychosis (e.g., delusions of poisoning rather than fears of
contamination)
Social phobia (if social settings are avoided because they exacerbate OCD)
Impulse-control disorders (repetitive behaviors associated with pleasure or
gratification, such as compulsive gambling, compulsive spending, or
compulsive sexual behavior)
compared with dosages typically used for the treatment of major de-
pression. For fluoxetine, the recommended dosage range for the treat-
ment of OCD is 20–60 mg/day, though some clinicians target a daily
dose of up to 80 mg. Therapeutic dosages of fluvoxamine range from 100
to 300 mg/day in divided doses. The recommended dosage range for
paroxetine in the treatment of OCD is 40–60 mg/day. The recommended
dosage range of sertraline for the treatment of OCD is 50–200 mg/day.
The exact duration of pharmacotherapy for OCD has not been estab-
lished. OCD is often a lifelong disorder with a waxing and waning
course, for which many patients require prolonged pharmacotherapy.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

PTSD refers to a cluster of symptoms that typically develop following a
traumatic event and often include reexperiencing of the trauma, avoid-
ance and numbing, and increased autonomic arousal. The trauma is of-
ten reexperienced in recurrent painful and intrusive recollections,
flashbacks, nightmares, or intense emotional and physiological reac-
tions to reminders of the trauma. The patient tries to avoid thoughts or
feelings associated with the event and anything that might arouse rec-
ollection of it. There may be amnesia for an important aspect of the
trauma. In addition, patients typically experience a psychic numbing

and become disinterested and detached from others and their environ-
ment. Dissociative states may also occur. Excessive autonomic arousal
may present as irritability, exaggerated startle response, poor concentra-
tion, hypervigilance, and insomnia.
Approximately 50%–90% of individuals with PTSD have a comorbid
psychiatric disorder. Most individuals who are exposed to traumatic
events do not develop this disorder. Individual vulnerability and coping
style may affect the severity and occurrence of PTSD. The DSM-IV-TR
diagnostic criteria for PTSD are shown in Table 4–12.
Diagnosing PTSD is usually not difficult if there is a clear history of ex-
posure to a traumatic event followed by symptoms of intense anxiety
lasting at least 1 month, numbing of responsiveness, and avoidance or
reexperiencing of the traumatic event. However, it is important to
clearly assess the onset of symptoms as subsequent to the trauma.
There is a high rate of comorbidity with PTSD, which often leads to
additional diagnosis of panic disorder, depression, or GAD (see Table
4–13). Symptoms such as irritability, sleep disturbance, fatigue, anhe-
donia, and pessimistic outlook can occur in both PTSD and mood dis-
orders. Major depression frequently occurs with PTSD and should be
treated aggressively because this comorbidity carries an increased risk
of suicide. Organic mental disorders should also be ruled out, such as
organic personality syndrome, delirium, and amnesic syndrome.
Treatment
SSRIs are recommended as first-line treatment for PTSD and have been
associated with relief of the core PTSD symptoms of reexperiencing,
avoidance/numbing, and hyperarousal. TCAs and MAOIs may also be
useful, but they are not considered first-line treatment. Multiple anti-
convulsants (valproic acid, carbamazepine, lamotrigine) have been
shown to be of benefit in the treatment of PTSD, but data thus far are
predominantly from open trials. Anticonvulsants are typically used in
combination with antidepressants, and may help with the residual af-
fective lability and impulsivity that is often seen in PTSD. Adrenergic
antagonists are also used as adjunctive treatments based on data from
open trials. Agents studied include propranolol, clonidine, and guanfa-
cine. Prazosin may be helpful in the treatment of nightmares associated
with PTSD (Raskind et al. 2007). Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been
TABLE 4–12. DSM-IV-TR criteria for posttraumatic stress

disorder
A. The person has been exposed to a traumatic event in which both of

the following were present:
(1) the person experienced, witnessed, or was confronted with an
event or events that involved actual or threatened death or
serious injury, or a threat to the physical integrity of self or others
(2) the person's response involved intense fear, helplessness, or
horror. Note: In children, this may be expressed instead by
disorganized or agitated behavior
B. The traumatic event is persistently reexperienced in one (or more) of
the following ways:
(1) recurrent and intrusive distressing recollections of the event,
including images, thoughts, or perceptions. Note: In young
children, repetitive play may occur in which themes or aspects of
the trauma are expressed.
(2) recurrent distressing dreams of the event. Note: In children, there
may be frightening dreams without recognizable content.
(3) acting or feeling as if the traumatic event were recurring (includes
a sense of reliving the experience, illusions, hallucinations, and
dissociative flashback episodes, including those that occur on
awakening or when intoxicated). Note: In young children,
trauma-specific reenactment may occur.
(4) intense psychological distress at exposure to internal or external
cues that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event
(5) physiological reactivity on exposure to internal or external cues
that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event
C. Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma and
numbing of general responsiveness (not present before the trauma),
as indicated by three (or more) of the following:
(1) efforts to avoid thoughts, feelings, or conversations associated
with the trauma
(2) efforts to avoid activities, places, or people that arouse
recollections of the trauma
(3) inability to recall an important aspect of the trauma
TABLE 4–12. DSM-IV-TR criteria for posttraumatic stress

(4) markedly diminished interest or participation in significant

activities
(5) feeling of detachment or estrangement from others
(6) restricted range of affect (e.g., unable to have loving feelings)
(7) sense of a foreshortened future (e.g., does not expect to have a
career, marriage, children, or a normal life span)
D. Persistent symptoms of increased arousal (not present before the
trauma), as indicated by two (or more) of the following:
(1) difficulty falling or staying asleep
(2) irritability or outbursts of anger
(3) difficulty concentrating
(4) hypervigilance
(5) exaggerated startle response
E. Duration of the disturbance (symptoms in criteria B, C, and D) is more
than 1 month.
F. The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in
Specify if:
Acute: if duration of symptoms is less than 3 months
Chronic: if duration of symptoms is 3 months or more
Specify if:
With delayed onset: if onset of symptoms is at least 6 months
after the stressor
demonstrated to be effective in treating core PTSD symptoms, and often

includes some degree of exposure to the feared situations and anxiety
management techniques.
Acute Stress Disorder

ASD develops after exposure to a traumatic event and is similar to PTSD
in its symptomatology, but it is time limited (lasting up to 1 month after
the event). Dissociative symptoms are prominent in ASD and are re-
TABLE 4–13. Differential diagnosis of posttraumatic stress

disorder
Depression after trauma (numbing and avoidance may be present, but not
hyperarousal or intrusive symptoms)
Panic disorder (if panic attacks are not limited to reminders or triggers of
the trauma)
Generalized anxiety disorder (may have symptoms similar to hyperarousal)
Agoraphobia (if avoidance is not directly trauma related)
Specific phobia (if avoidance is not directly trauma related)
Adjustment disorder (usually has less severe stressor and different
symptoms)
Acute stress disorder (if less than 1 month has elapsed since trauma)
Dissociative disorders (if prominent dissociative symptoms are present)
Factitious disorders or malingering (especially if secondary gain is
apparent)
quired for the diagnosis. Many people with ASD develop PTSD, and it
has been argued that these are not two discrete disorders, but they are
currently separate diagnoses in DSM-IV-TR. Most individuals who are
exposed to major stressors do not develop this disorder. Individual vul-
nerability and coping style may affect the severity and occurrence of
ASD. The DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for ASD are shown in Table 4–14.
Adjustment disorder involves a short-term anxiety reaction to a life
stressor, but the stressor (e.g., loss of a job, a relationship breakup) is
usually less traumatic than in ASD. ASD should not be diagnosed if the
symptoms are simply an exacerbation of existing symptoms of another
psychiatric disorder (with the exception of personality disorders).
Treatment
There are very few studies of pharmacological intervention for ASD.
SSRIs may be useful in the treatment of ASD, given their efficacy in the
treatment of PTSD. Benzodiazepines may be useful in reducing anxiety
TABLE 4–14. DSM-IV-TR criteria for acute stress

disorder
A. The person has been exposed to a traumatic event in which both of

the following were present:
(1) the person experienced, witnessed, or was confronted with an
event or events that involved actual or threatened death or
serious injury, or a threat to the physical integrity of self or others
(2) the person's response involved intense fear, helplessness, or
horror
B. Either while experiencing or after experiencing the distressing event,
the individual has three (or more) of the following dissociative
symptoms:
(1) a subjective sense of numbing, detachment, or absence of
emotional responsiveness
(2) a reduction in awareness of his or her surroundings (e.g., “being
in a daze”)
(3) derealization
(4) depersonalization
(5) dissociative amnesia (i.e., inability to recall an important aspect of
the trauma)
C. The traumatic event is persistently reexperienced in at least one of the
following ways: recurrent images, thoughts, dreams, illusions,
flashback episodes, or a sense of reliving the experience; or distress on
exposure to reminders of the traumatic event.
D. Marked avoidance of stimuli that arouse recollections of the trauma
(e.g., thoughts, feelings, conversations, activities, places, people).
E. Marked symptoms of anxiety or increased arousal (e.g., difficulty
sleeping, irritability, poor concentration, hypervigilance, exaggerated
startle response, motor restlessness).
F. The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in
social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning or
impairs the individual’s ability to pursue some necessary task, such as
obtaining necessary assistance or mobilizing personal resources by
telling family members about the traumatic experience.
TABLE 4–14. DSM-IV-TR criteria for acute stress

G. The disturbance lasts for a minimum of 2 days and a maximum of

4 weeks and occurs within 4 weeks of the traumatic event.
H. The disturbance is not due to the direct physiological effects of a
condition, is not better accounted for by brief psychotic disorder, and
is not merely an exacerbation of a preexisting Axis I or Axis II disorder.
and improving sleep, but their efficacy has not been established. Cogni-
tive-behavioral therapies have been shown to help speed recovery and
may even prevent PTSD when therapy is given over a few sessions be-
ginning 2–3 weeks after trauma exposure.
Specific Phobia
A phobia is fear cued by a specific object or situation, which almost al-
ways provokes an immediate anxiety response or panic attack even
though the patient recognizes that the fear is excessive or unreasonable.
The phobic stimulus is avoided or endured with marked distress. The
fear is usually not of the object, situation, or activity itself, but of some
dreadful consequence that the patient believes may result from contact
with the object, situation, or activity.
In DSM-IV-TR, specific phobia is subtyped on the basis of the object
feared: natural environment (e.g., storms, water); animals (e.g., insects);
blood, injection, or injury; situations (e.g., being in cars, airplanes, or
tunnels); and other (e.g., choking, vomiting, or contracting an illness).
The diagnostic criteria for specific phobia are shown in Table 4–15.
Specific phobias are usually not difficult to diagnose. However, the
presence of other disorders that may cause irrational fears and avoid-
ance behaviors should be ruled out.
Treatment
Medications do not appear to be useful in treating specific phobias. In
contrast, exposure therapies have been shown to be efficacious in treat-
TABLE 4–15. DSM-IV-TR criteria for specific phobia
A. Marked and persistent fear that is excessive or unreasonable, cued by

the presence or anticipation of a specific object or situation (e.g.,
flying, heights, animals, receiving an injection, seeing blood).
B. Exposure to the phobic stimulus almost invariably provokes an
immediate anxiety response, which may take the form of a
situationally bound or situationally predisposed panic attack.
Note: In children, the anxiety may be expressed by crying, tantrums,
freezing, or clinging.
C. The person recognizes that the fear is excessive or unreasonable.
Note: In children, this feature may be absent.
D. The phobic situation(s) is avoided or else is endured with intense
anxiety or distress.
E. The avoidance, anxious anticipation, or distress in the feared
situation(s) interferes significantly with the person's normal routine,
occupational (or academic) functioning, or social activities or
relationships, or there is marked distress about having the phobia.
F. In individuals under age 18 years, the duration is at least 6 months.
G. The anxiety, panic attacks, or phobic avoidance associated with the
specific object or situation are not better accounted for by another
mental disorder, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (e.g., fear of
posttraumatic stress disorder (e.g., avoidance of stimuli associated
with a severe stressor), separation anxiety disorder (e.g., avoidance of
school), social phobia (e.g., avoidance of social situations because of
fear of embarrassment), panic disorder with agoraphobia, or
agoraphobia without history of panic disorder.
Specify type:
Animal type
Natural environment type (e.g., heights, storms, water)
Blood-injection-injury type
Situational type (e.g., airplanes, elevators, enclosed places)
Other type (e.g., fear of choking, vomiting, or contracting an
illness; in children, fear of loud sounds or costumed characters)
ing specific phobia. In vivo exposure involves live exposure to the pho-
bic object and is usually conducted in a graded fashion. Systematic de-
sensitization uses progressive muscle relaxation to manage anxiety
during imagined exposure to the phobic stimulus.
Social Phobia
In social phobia, patients have a persistent fear that they will humiliate
or embarrass themselves in front of others. These patients usually avoid
a variety of situations in which they may have to interact with others.
Typical avoidance situations include speaking and eating in public, us-
ing public restrooms, and attending social gatherings or interviews. So-
matic symptoms such as blushing and dry mouth are common in social
phobia. Many patients “self-medicate” with alcohol and sedative drugs
to alleviate the anticipatory anxiety related to this disorder. Actual panic
attacks may also occur in persons with social phobia, and it may be dif-
ficult to distinguish between social phobia and agoraphobia when so-
cial avoidance accompanies panic attacks. The DSM-IV-TR diagnostic
criteria for social phobia are shown in Table 4–16.
The avoidance associated with social phobia can also be seen in other
disorders, such as agoraphobia, OCD, depressive disorders, schizo-
phrenia, and paranoid disorders (Table 4–17). Some patients with ago-
raphobia are worried they will embarrass themselves while in a social
setting, but unlike patients with social phobia, these patients experience
panic attacks that occur in situations not involving evaluation by others.
Treatment
SSRIs have become first-line treatment for social phobia. Benzodiaz-
epines have also been shown to be effective but are not considered first-
line because of abuse potential. For performance-type social phobia,
beta-blockers can be effective when used before a performance. The
most commonly used beta-blockers for this purpose are propranolol
(20 mg) or atenolol (50 mg), taken about 45 minutes before a perfor-
mance.
TABLE 4–16. DSM-IV-TR criteria for social phobia
A. A marked and persistent fear of one or more social or performance

situations in which the person is exposed to unfamiliar people or to
possible scrutiny by others. The individual fears that he or she will act
in a way (or show anxiety symptoms) that will be humiliating or
embarrassing. Note: In children, there must be evidence of the
capacity for age-appropriate social relationships with familiar people
and the anxiety must occur in peer settings, not just in interactions
with adults.
B. Exposure to the feared social situation almost invariably provokes
anxiety, which may take the form of a situationally bound or
situationally predisposed panic attack. Note: In children, the anxiety
may be expressed by crying, tantrums, freezing, or shrinking from
social situations with unfamiliar people.
C. The person recognizes that the fear is excessive or unreasonable.
Note: In children, this feature may be absent.
D. The feared social or performance situations are avoided or else are
endured with intense anxiety or distress.
E. The avoidance, anxious anticipation, or distress in the feared social or
performance situation(s) interferes significantly with the person's
normal routine, occupational (academic) functioning, or social
activities or relationships, or there is marked distress about having the
phobia.
F. In individuals under age 18 years, the duration is at least 6 months.
G. The fear or avoidance is not due to the direct physiological effects of
a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or a general medical
condition and is not better accounted for by another mental disorder
(e.g., panic disorder with or without agoraphobia, separation anxiety
disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, a pervasive developmental
disorder, or schizoid personality disorder).
H. If a general medical condition or another mental disorder is present,
the fear in criterion A is unrelated to it, e.g., the fear is not of
stuttering, trembling in Parkinson’s disease, or exhibiting abnormal
eating behavior in anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa.
Specify if:
Generalized: if the fears include most social situations (also
consider the additional diagnosis of avoidant personality disorder)
TABLE 4–17. Differential diagnosis of social phobia
Personality disorder, such as avoidant, schizoid, paranoid

Axis I paranoid disorder, such as paranoid schizophrenia or paranoid
delusional disorder
Depression-related social withdrawal secondary to anhedonia or feelings
of defectiveness
Obsessive-compulsive disorder–related fears exacerbated in social settings
(e.g., contamination)
Panic disorder with phobic avoidance not limited to social situations
Deficits or impaired social skills associated with schizophrenia and related
disorders
Body dysmorphic disorder with secondary social phobia
References
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Jenike MA: Approaches to the patient with treatment-refractory obsessive com-
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12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replica-
tion. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62:617–627, 2005b
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study of prazosin for trauma nightmares and sleep disturbance in combat
veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 61:928–934,
2007
5
Personality Disorders
¢ disorders are characterized by enduring maladaptive

patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment,
other people, and oneself. A personality disorder is diagnosed when
personality traits become inflexible and pervasive to the point where
they cause significant social or occupational dysfunction, or subjective
distress.
Key Points
• Personality features must be present by early adulthood.
• Diagnosis typically requires multiple assessments over time.
• Behaviors are often quite distressing and problematic for both the
patients and those close to them.
• Diagnosis requires consideration of the individual’s ethnic, cul-
tural, and social background.
• Personality disorders are coded on Axis II.
• Mixed personality disorder is probably the most common form of
personality disorder. It is usually coded personality disorder not
otherwise specified (NOS), with the specific features (narcissistic,
self-defeating, histrionic) listed (G.O. Gabbard, personal commu-
nication, August 2007).
95
Clusters
Personality disorders are grouped into three clusters, although patients
may present with comorbidity across clusters. Table 5–1 shows the prev-
alence of personality disorders by cluster.
• Cluster A: Patients often appear odd or eccentric; includes para-

noid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
• Cluster B: Patients often appear dramatic, emotional, or erratic;
includes antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic person-
ality disorders.
• Cluster C: Patients often appear anxious or fearful; includes
avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality dis-
orders.
The DSM-IV-TR (American Psychiatric Association 2000) general di-

agnostic criteria for a personality disorder are outlined in Table 5–2.
Each personality disorder has additional, specific criteria, which are
outlined in the appropriate subsection of this chapter.
General Treatment for Patients With

Personality Disorders
In general, psychotherapy is the treatment of choice for personality dis-
orders (see Table 5–3). Medications may be useful for the treatment of
specific symptom clusters. For example, antidepressants may be helpful
if the patient suffers from depressive and anxiety symptoms. Antipsy-
chotic medications may be appropriate if the patient presents with de-
lusional thinking.
Paranoid Personality Disorder

Key feature: Chronic distrust and unjustified suspicion of others.
Table 5–4 presents the full diagnostic criteria for paranoid personality
disorder.
• Patients with paranoid personality disorder differ from those
with schizophrenia because they do not generally lose touch with
reality or experience hallucinations.
Personality Disorders 97
TABLE 5–1. Prevalence of personality disorders in the National

Comorbidity Survey Replication study
TYPE OF DISORDER PREVALENCE
All personality disorders 9.1

Cluster A 5.7
Cluster B 1.5
Antisocial 0.6
Borderline 1.3
Cluster C 6.0
Source. Adapted from Lenzenweger et al. 2007.
TABLE 5–2. DSM-IV-TR general diagnostic criteria for a

personality disorder
A. An enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates
markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture. This
pattern is manifested in two (or more) of the following areas:
(1) cognition (i.e., ways of perceiving and interpreting self, other
people, and events)
(2) affectivity (i.e., the range, intensity, lability, and appropriateness
of emotional response)
(3) interpersonal functioning
(4) impulse control
B. The enduring pattern is inflexible and pervasive across a broad range
of personal and social situations.
C. The enduring pattern leads to clinically significant distress or
impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of
functioning.
D. The pattern is stable and of long duration, and its onset can be traced
back at least to adolescence or early adulthood.
E. The enduring pattern is not better accounted for as a manifestation or
consequence of another mental disorder.
F. The enduring pattern is not due to the direct physiological effects of
a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or a general medical
condition (e.g., head trauma).
TABLE 5–3. Evidence of treatment effectiveness for personality

disorders
PERSONALITY PSYCHOSOCIAL
DISORDER PSYCHOTHERAPIES THERAPIES PHARMACOTHERAPIES
Paranoid − − ±
Schizoid + + −
Schizotypal − ± +
Antisocial − + −
Borderline + ++ +
Histrionic ++ − −
Narcissistic ++ − −
Avoidant ++ + ±
Dependent ++ + −
Obsessive- ++ − −
compulsive
Note. −=no support; ±=uncertain support; +=moderately helpful;
++=significantly helpful.
• Patients with paranoid personality disorder can be differentiated

from the other Cluster A disorders in that they are not indifferent
to others, as seen in schizoid personality disorder, and they do not
experience magical thinking or odd speech, as seen in schizotypal
personality disorder.
• It is important to rule out medical disorders and substance-
induced conditions if the personality changes are temporally
related to either the onset of a medical disorder or the use of drugs
or medication.
Treatment
• Individuals with paranoid personality disorder do not typically
seek treatment.
• Antipsychotic medication and supportive therapy may be help-
ful, if symptoms are severe.
TABLE 5–4. DSM-IV-TR criteria for paranoid personality disorder

A. A pervasive distrust and suspiciousness of others such that their
motives are interpreted as malevolent, beginning by early adulthood
and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by four (or more) of
the following:
(1) suspects, without sufficient basis, that others are exploiting,
harming, or deceiving him or her
(2) is preoccupied with unjustified doubts about the loyalty or
trustworthiness of friends or associates
(3) is reluctant to confide in others because of unwarranted fear that
the information will be used maliciously against him or her
(4) reads hidden demeaning or threatening meanings into benign
remarks or events
(5) persistently bears grudges, i.e., is unforgiving of insults, injuries,
or slights
(6) perceives attacks on his or her character or reputation that are
not apparent to others and is quick to react angrily or to
counterattack
(7) has recurrent suspicions, without justification, regarding fidelity
of spouse or sexual partner
B. Does not occur exclusively during the course of schizophrenia, a
mood disorder with psychotic features, or another psychotic disorder
and is not due to the direct physiological effects of a general medical
condition.
Note: If criteria are met prior to the onset of schizophrenia, add
“premorbid,” e.g., “paranoid personality disorder (premorbid).”
Schizoid Personality Disorder

Key feature: Ego-syntonic detachment from social relationships.
Table 5–5 presents the full diagnostic criteria for schizoid personality
disorder.
• Patients with this disorder may appear to have negative symp-
toms of schizophrenia, but they do not typically experience the
positive symptoms (e.g., delusions and hallucinations).
TABLE 5–5. DSM-IV-TR criteria for schizoid personality disorder

A. A pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a
restricted range of expression of emotions in interpersonal settings,
beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as
indicated by four (or more) of the following:
(1) neither desires nor enjoys close relationships, including being part
of a family
(2) almost always chooses solitary activities
(3) has little, if any, interest in having sexual experiences with another
person
(4) takes pleasure in few, if any, activities
(5) lacks close friends or confidants other than first-degree relatives
(6) appears indifferent to the praise or criticism of others
(7) shows emotional coldness, detachment, or flattened affectivity
B. Does not occur exclusively during the course of schizophrenia, a mood
disorder with psychotic features, another psychotic disorder, or a
pervasive developmental disorder and is not due to the direct
physiological effects of a general medical condition.
“premorbid,” e.g., “schizoid personality disorder (premorbid).”
• They may also appear to have avoidant personality disorder,

because they avoid interactions with others, but they do not
exhibit the fear of criticism and rejection evident in patients with
avoidant personality disorder.
• This disorder can be differentiated from other Cluster A disorders
in that these patients do not have suspiciousness as seen in para-
noid personality disorder or cognitive and perceptual distortions
as seen in schizotypal personality disorder.
• It is important to rule out medical disorders and substance-
induced conditions if the personality changes are temporally
related to either the onset of a medical disorder or the intake of
drugs or medication.
Treatment
• Patients with schizoid personality disorder do not typically seek
treatment unless they are under increased stress in their life or a
friend or family member insists on treatment.
• Brief, solution-focused therapy approaches may be the most
helpful. Cognitive-behavioral therapy may also be appropriate to
target certain types of irrational thoughts that are negatively
influencing the patient’s behaviors.
• Stability and support are important aspects in treating patients
with schizoid personality disorder.
• Comorbid disorders (e.g., depression) should be treated.
Schizotypal Personality Disorder

Key features: Odd behaviors, inappropriate responses to social cues,
and peculiar beliefs.
Table 5–6 presents the full diagnostic criteria for schizotypal person-
ality disorder.
• Patients with schizotypal personality disorder do not experience
the frank delusions and hallucinations typically seen in schizo-
phrenia, but they may experience brief periods of psychosis.
• As with the other Cluster A disorders, it is important to rule out
medical disorders and substance-induced conditions if the per-
sonality changes are temporally related to either the onset of a
medical disorder or the intake of drugs or medication.
Treatment
• Behavioral therapies, with an emphasis on social skills training,
that focus on the basics of social relationships and social interac-
tions may be beneficial.
• Medication may be useful during acute phases of psychosis,
which are likely to manifest themselves during times of extreme
stress or difficult life events.
• Small case series have reported on the effectiveness of low-dose
antipsychotic medications to help with the anxiety and psychosis
associated with this disorder (Goldberg et al. 1986).
TABLE 5–6. DSM-IV-TR criteria for schizotypal personality

disorder
A. A pervasive pattern of social and interpersonal deficits marked by
acute discomfort with, and reduced capacity for, close relationships
as well as by cognitive or perceptual distortions and eccentricities of
behavior, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of
contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the following:
(1) ideas of reference (excluding delusions of reference)
(2) odd beliefs or magical thinking that influences behavior and is
inconsistent with subcultural norms (e.g., superstitiousness,
belief in clairvoyance, telepathy, or “sixth sense”; in children and
adolescents, bizarre fantasies or preoccupations)
(3) unusual perceptual experiences, including bodily illusions
(4) odd thinking and speech (e.g., vague, circumstantial,
metaphorical, overelaborate, or stereotyped)
(5) suspiciousness or paranoid ideation
(6) inappropriate or constricted affect
(7) behavior or appearance that is odd, eccentric, or peculiar
(8) lack of close friends or confidants other than first-degree
relatives
(9) excessive social anxiety that does not diminish with familiarity
and tends to be associated with paranoid fears rather than
negative judgments about self
B. Does not occur exclusively during the course of schizophrenia, a
mood disorder with psychotic features, another psychotic disorder, or
a pervasive developmental disorder.
“premorbid,” e.g., “schizotypal personality disorder (premorbid).”
Antisocial Personality Disorder

Key features: Long-standing disregard for other people’s rights; a per-
vasive lack of remorse.
The pattern of behavior must be present since age 15, but the person-
ality disorder cannot be diagnosed until the patient is at least 18 years
old. Table 5–7 presents the full diagnostic criteria for antisocial person-
ality disorder.
TABLE 5–7. DSM-IV-TR criteria for antisocial personality disorder
A. There is a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights

of others occurring since age 15 years, as indicated by three (or more)
of the following:
(1) failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful
behaviors as indicated by repeatedly performing acts that are
grounds for arrest
(2) deceitfulness, as indicated by repeated lying, use of aliases, or
conning others for personal profit or pleasure
(3) impulsivity or failure to plan ahead
(4) irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by repeated physical
fights or assaults
(5) reckless disregard for safety of self or others
(6) consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated failure to
sustain consistent work behavior or honor financial obligations
(7) lack of remorse, as indicated by being indifferent to or
rationalizing having hurt, mistreated, or stolen from another
B. The individual is at least age 18 years.
C. There is evidence of conduct disorder with onset before age 15 years.
D. The occurrence of antisocial behavior is not exclusively during the
course of schizophrenia or a manic episode.
• Compared with the other personality disorders, antisocial per-
sonality disorder is usually less difficult to diagnose because of its
characteristic pattern of behaviors.
• These patients may appear narcissistic, but patients with narcissis-
tic personality disorder do not exhibit the impulsive or physically
aggressive behaviors seen with antisocial personality disorder.
• Patients with histrionic personality disorder or borderline per-
sonality disorder (BPD) can appear impulsive and manipulative,
but these patients are seeking attention and nurturance; patients
with antisocial personality disorder are typically seeking power
or material gain (Skodol 2005).
• During psychotic episodes or manic episodes, patients may com-

mit antisocial acts. In these cases, the Axis I disorder preempts the
personality disorder diagnosis.
Treatment
• Individual psychotherapy is the primary treatment of choice;
however, these patients are typically not motivated to use psycho-
therapy.
• Patients with antisocial disorder can have a disruptive influence
on treatment teams and other patients.
• Medications may help stabilize mood swings or specific and acute
Axis I concurrent diagnoses.
Borderline Personality Disorder

Key feature: Instability in affect, identity, and impulse control.
Patients with BPD highly utilize psychiatric outpatient, inpatient,
and psychopharmacological treatment (Bender et al. 2001). Comorbid
disorders, such as substance use and mood disorders, are common in
these patients. Table 5–8 presents the full diagnostic criteria for BPD.
• Some features of BPD may overlap with those of mood disorders,
making it difficult to differentiate.
• In bipolar disorder, mood episodes generally last weeks or
months. In BPD, marked emotional lability and mood reactivity
typically occur in response to external stressors and may only last
for seconds, minutes, hours, or days. However, these two disor-
ders may co-occur. Thus, it is important to assess the symptoms
over time.
• Patients with BPD may appear histrionic because of demanding
and manipulative behaviors, but histrionic patients do not typi-
cally engage in self-destructive behaviors.
Treatment
• Pharmacological and cognitive-behavioral interventions are useful
in the treatment of BPD (American Psychiatric Association 2001).
TABLE 5–8. DSM-IV-TR criteria for borderline personality disorder
A pervasive pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image,

and affects, and marked impulsivity beginning by early adulthood and
present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the
following:
(1) frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment. Note: Do not
include suicidal or self-mutilating behavior covered in criterion 5.
(2) a pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships
characterized by alternating between extremes of idealization and
devaluation
(3) identity disturbance: markedly and persistently unstable self-image or
sense of self
(4) impulsivity in at least two areas that are potentially self-damaging
(e.g., spending, sex, substance abuse, reckless driving, binge eating).
Note: Do not include suicidal or self-mutilating behavior covered in
criterion 5.
(5) recurrent suicidal behavior, gestures, or threats, or self-mutilating
behavior
(6) affective instability due to a marked reactivity of mood (e.g., intense
episodic dysphoria, irritability, or anxiety usually lasting a few hours
and only rarely more than a few days)
(7) chronic feelings of emptiness
(8) inappropriate, intense anger or difficulty controlling anger (e.g.,
frequent displays of temper, constant anger, recurrent physical fights)
(9) transient, stress-related paranoid ideation or severe dissociative
symptoms
• Dialectical behavior therapy has been shown to significantly

reduce self-injury and suicidal behavior in patients with BPD
(Linehan et al. 2006; see also Chapter 15, “Psychotherapy and
Psychosocial Treatments”).
• Medications may help alleviate impulsivity, affective lability, irri-
tability and aggressive behavior (Coccaro and Kavoussi 1997).
Most published studies have used selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors, which have become the treatment of choice.
Histrionic Personality Disorder

Key features: Excessive emotionality; attention-seeking behavior.
Patients with histrionic personality disorder often come across as
“fake” or shallow in their interpersonal relationships with others. Ta-
ble 5–9 presents the full diagnostic criteria for histrionic personality
disorder.
• Patients with histrionic personality disorder may appear narcis-
sistic in their attention seeking, but they will often seem weak or
dependent in an attempt to attract attention; someone with nar-
cissistic personality disorder usually seeks attention for superior-
ity and power.
• These patients share some characteristics with BPD, but they do
not exhibit the self-destructiveness associated with BPD.
Treatment
• Individual psychodynamic psychotherapy
TABLE 5–9. DSM-IV-TR criteria for histrionic personality disorder

A pervasive pattern of excessive emotionality and attention seeking,
beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as
indicated by five (or more) of the following:
(1) is uncomfortable in situations in which he or she is not the center of
attention
(2) interaction with others is often characterized by inappropriate sexually
seductive or provocative behavior
(3) displays rapidly shifting and shallow expression of emotions
(4) consistently uses physical appearance to draw attention to self
(5) has a style of speech that is excessively impressionistic and lacking in
detail
(6) shows self-dramatization, theatricality, and exaggerated expression of
emotion
(7) is suggestible, i.e., easily influenced by others or circumstances
(8) considers relationships to be more intimate than they actually are
Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Key features: Grandiose sense of self; a need for admiration.
Patients with narcissistic personality disorder often seek out and feel
entitled to see the most senior physician in a prestigious institution. Ta-
ble 5–10 presents the full diagnostic criteria for narcissistic personality
disorder.
• A patient with narcissistic personality disorder may present with
Axis I symptoms and disorders at various times in his or her life.
• Some characteristics of this disorder overlap with other Cluster B
disorders, as described earlier in this chapter.
• These patients may seem perfectionistic, but they differ from
patients with obsessive-compulsive personality disorder because
they are not self-critical.
Treatment
• Individual psychodynamic psychotherapy
Avoidant Personality Disorder

Key features: Feelings of inadequacy, fear of negative evaluation by
others, and social inhibition.
These patients typically have poor self-esteem and may have diffi-
culty looking at situations and interactions in an objective manner. Ta-
ble 5–11 presents the full diagnostic criteria for avoidant personality
disorder.
• Avoidant personality disorder shares features with dependent
personality disorder, but patients with the former disorder are not
as concerned about being taken care of as are patients with the lat-
ter disorder.
• Avoidant personality disorder may be difficult to distinguish
from social phobia, and these two disorders often co-occur. How-
ever, avoidant personality disorder involves feelings of inade-
TABLE 5–10. DSM-IV-TR criteria for narcissistic personality

disorder
A pervasive pattern of grandiosity (in fantasy or behavior), need for
admiration, and lack of empathy, beginning by early adulthood and
present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the
following:
(1) has a grandiose sense of self-importance (e.g., exaggerates
achievements and talents, expects to be recognized as superior
without commensurate achievements)
(2) is preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance,
beauty, or ideal love
(3) believes that he or she is “special” and unique and can only be
understood by, or should associate with, other special or high-status
people (or institutions)
(4) requires excessive admiration
(5) has a sense of entitlement, i.e., unreasonable expectations of
especially favorable treatment or automatic compliance with his or her
expectations
(6) is interpersonally exploitative, i.e., takes advantage of others to
achieve his or her own ends
(7) lacks empathy: is unwilling to recognize or identify with the feelings
and needs of others
(8) is often envious of others or believes that others are envious of him or
her
(9) shows arrogant, haughty behaviors or attitudes
quacy and inferiority, whereas social phobia consists of specific

fears related to social performance.
• Schizoid personality disorder involves social isolation, but these
patients do not want relationships, whereas patients with
avoidant personality disorder desire relationships but fear them.
Treatment
• Individual psychotherapy oriented toward finding solutions to
specific life problems
• Assertiveness and social skills training
TABLE 5–11. DSM-IV-TR criteria for avoidant personality disorder

A pervasive pattern of social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and
hypersensitivity to negative evaluation, beginning by early adulthood and
present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by four (or more) of the
following:
(1) avoids occupational activities that involve significant interpersonal
contact, because of fears of criticism, disapproval, or rejection
(2) is unwilling to get involved with people unless certain of being liked
(3) shows restraint within intimate relationships because of the fear of
being shamed or ridiculed
(4) is preoccupied with being criticized or rejected in social situations
(5) is inhibited in new interpersonal situations because of feelings of
inadequacy
(6) views self as socially inept, personally unappealing, or inferior to others
(7) is unusually reluctant to take personal risks or to engage in any new
activities because they may prove embarrassing
Dependent Personality Disorder

Key features: An excessive need to be taken care of; submissive behaviors.
Patients with dependent personality disorder often present with de-
pression and anxiety symptoms, as well as a number of physical or so-
matic complaints. Table 5–12 presents the full diagnostic criteria for de-
pendent personality disorder.
• Dependent personality disorder often co-occurs with other per-
sonality disorders, especially avoidant personality disorder.
• Significant distress or social or occupational dysfunction is required
for the diagnosis and is important in the differential diagnosis.
Treatment
• Individual psychotherapy is directed toward increasing the
patient’s self-esteem, sense of effectiveness, assertiveness, and
independent functioning.
• Couples or family therapy may be useful if the patient is in a rela-
tionship that is maintaining or reinforcing the dependent behavior.
TABLE 5–12. DSM-IV-TR criteria for dependent personality

disorder
A pervasive and excessive need to be taken care of that leads to submissive
and clinging behavior and fears of separation, beginning by early
adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five (or
more) of the following:
(1) has difficulty making everyday decisions without an excessive amount
of advice and reassurance from others
(2) needs others to assume responsibility for most major areas of his or
her life
(3) has difficulty expressing disagreement with others because of fear of
loss of support or approval. Note: Do not include realistic fears of
retribution.
(4) has difficulty initiating projects or doing things on his or her own
(because of a lack of self-confidence in judgment or abilities rather
than a lack of motivation or energy)
(5) goes to excessive lengths to obtain nurturance and support from
others, to the point of volunteering to do things that are unpleasant
(6) feels uncomfortable or helpless when alone because of exaggerated
fears of being unable to care for himself or herself
(7) urgently seeks another relationship as a source of care and support
when a close relationship ends
(8) is unrealistically preoccupied with fears of being left to take care of
himself or herself
Obsessive-Compulsive
Personality Disorder
Key features: Perfectionism; inflexibility; being overly controlling.
Patients with obsessive-compulsive personality disorder may seem
difficult to treat because of their excessive intellectualizations and diffi-
culty expressing emotions. Table 5–13 presents the full diagnostic crite-
ria for obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.

personality disorder
A pervasive pattern of preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and
mental and interpersonal control, at the expense of flexibility, openness,
and efficiency, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of
contexts, as indicated by four (or more) of the following:
(1) is preoccupied with details, rules, lists, order, organization, or
schedules to the extent that the major point of the activity is lost
(2) shows perfectionism that interferes with task completion (e.g., is
unable to complete a project because his or her own overly strict
standards are not met)
(3) is excessively devoted to work and productivity to the exclusion of
leisure activities and friendships (not accounted for by obvious
economic necessity)
(4) is overconscientious, scrupulous, and inflexible about matters of
morality, ethics, or values (not accounted for by cultural or religious
identification)
(5) is unable to discard worn-out or worthless objects even when they
have no sentimental value
(6) is reluctant to delegate tasks or to work with others unless they submit
to exactly his or her way of doing things
(7) adopts a miserly spending style toward both self and others; money is
viewed as something to be hoarded for future catastrophes
(8) shows rigidity and stubbornness
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder is an anxiety disorder that is not
necessarily associated with a need for order, whereas obsessive-
compulsive personality disorder is typically ego-syntonic and not
associated with intrusive ego-dystonic thoughts.
Treatment
• Individual psychotherapy, group psychotherapy, and behavioral
techniques have all been described as useful in the treatment of
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.
References
American Psychiatric Association: Practice guideline for the treatment of pa-
tients with borderline personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry 158(suppl):1–52,
2001
Bender DS, Dolan RT, Skodol AE, et al: Treatment utilization by patients with
personality disorders. Am J Psychiatry 158:295–302, 2001
Coccaro EF, Kavoussi RJ: Fluoxetine and impulsive aggressive behavior in per-
sonality-disordered subjects. Arch Gen Psychiatry 54:1081–1088, 1997
Goldberg SC, Schulz C, Schulz PM, et al: Borderline and schizotypal personality
disorders treated with low-dose thiothixene vs placebo. Arch Gen Psychiatry
43:680–686, 1986
Hales RE, Yudofsky SC: Essentials of Clinical Psychiatry, 2nd Edition. Washing-
ton, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2004
Lenzenweger MF, Lane MC, Loranger AW, et al: DSM-IV personality disorders
in the National Comorbidity Survey replication. Biol Psychiatry 62:553–564,
2007
Linehan MM, Comtois KA, Murray AM, et al: Two-year randomized controlled
trial and follow-up of dialectical behavior therapy vs. therapy by experts for
suicidal behaviors and borderline personality disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry
63:757–766, 2006
Skodol AE: Manifestations, clinical diagnosis, and comorbidity, in The Ameri-
can Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Personality Disorders. Edited by
Oldham JM, Skodol AE, Bender DS. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric
Publishing, 2005
6
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia
The key feature of insomnia is difficulty initiating and maintaining du-
ration or quality of sleep that interferes with daily function, despite ad-
equate opportunity and environment to achieve sleep.
• Transient insomnia occurs for less than 1 week.

• Short-term insomnia occurs for 1–4 weeks.
• Chronic insomnia is present for more than 1 month.
The prevalence of insomnia is 10%–15%. A higher incidence of in-

somnia is seen in
• Women,
• Older people,
• People with psychiatric disorders, and
• People with chronic medical conditions.
Table 6–1 presents the DSM-IV-TR (American Psychiatric Associa-

tion 2000) criteria for primary insomnia.
Classifications
PRIMARY INSOMNIA
• Idiopathic
• Psychophysiological or learned insomnia
113
TABLE 6–1. DSM-IV-TR criteria for primary insomnia
A. The predominant complaint is difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep,

or nonrestorative sleep, for at least 1 month.
B. The sleep disturbance (or associated daytime fatigue) causes clinically
significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other
important areas of functioning.
C. The sleep disturbance does not occur exclusively during the course of
narcolepsy, breathing-related sleep disorder, circadian rhythm sleep
disorder, or a parasomnia.
D. The disturbance does not occur exclusively during the course of
another mental disorder (e.g., major depressive disorder, generalized
anxiety disorder, a delirium).
condition.
• Paradoxical insomnia or sleep state misperception

• Behavioral insomnia of childhood secondary to reliance on exter-
nal soothing devices (bottle or pacifier) and refusal to go to bed
SECONDARY INSOMNIA
• Adjustment insomnia secondary to life events or stress
• Insomnia secondary to poor sleep habits, such as inconsistent
sleep times.
• Insomnia secondary to psychiatric disease, specifically depres-
sion or anxiety
• Insomnia secondary to medical conditions (e.g., chronic pain, hot
flashes)
• Insomnia secondary to medication side effects (e.g., alcohol, ste-
roids, caffeine)
Treatment
• Eliminate untreated conditions such as depression, pain sources,
and urinary urgency. Initiate cognitive-behavioral therapy (des-
cribed later in this section).
Sleep Disorders 115
• If no response, initiate medication, adjusting the dose for elderly

patients and patients with comorbid disease (e.g., no benzodiaz-
epines for patients with severe obstructive sleep apnea [OSA]).
Long-term use of hypnotics is off-label.
Pharmacotherapy options include ramelteon and nonbenzodiazepine

hypnotics (see Table 6–2; see also Chapter 14, “Pharmacotherapy”).
Ramelteon is a melatonin MT1 and MT2 receptor agonist with a half-life
of 1–2.6 hours; studies show decreased sleep latency (Roth et al. 2006a).
Cognitive-behavioral therapy techniques include the following:
• Stimulus control therapy: Reestablish the bed as the place where

sleep happens, rather than the site of sleeplessness.
• Paradoxical intention: Patients are encouraged to deliberately
intensify symptoms of insomnia in order to increase awareness of
these symptoms and their consequences.
• Sleep restriction: Restrict sleeping time to reduce the time spent
awake in bed and to establish new sleep routines.
• Relaxation.
Narcolepsy
Narcolepsy is excessive daytime sleepiness with one of the following:
cataplexy, sleep paralysis, hallucinations, or sleep fragmentation. Ta-
ble 6–3 presents the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for narcolepsy.
TABLE 6–2. Nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics

DOSE GERIATRIC DOSE HALF-LIFE
DRUG (MG) (MG) (HOURS)
Zaleplon (Sonata) 5–10 5 1

Zolpidem (Ambien) 5–10 5 1.5–5
Zolpidem controlled- 6.25–12.5 6.25 4–5
release (Ambien CR)
Eszopiclone (Lunesta) 2–3 1–2 6
Source. Adapted from Marangell and Martinez 2006.
TABLE 6–3. DSM-IV-TR criteria for narcolepsy
A. Irresistible attacks of refreshing sleep that occur daily over at least

3 months.
B. The presence of one or both of the following:
(1) cataplexy (i.e., brief episodes of sudden bilateral loss of muscle
tone, most often in association with intense emotion)
(2) recurrent intrusions of elements of rapid eye movement (REM)
sleep into the transition between sleep and wakefulness, as
manifested by either hypnopompic or hypnagogic hallucinations
or sleep paralysis at the beginning or end of sleep episodes
C. The disturbance is not due to the direct physiological effects of a
substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another general
medical condition.
• Cataplexy is the suppression of skeletal muscle activity (excluding

eye and diaphragmatic muscles) that occurs outside of rapid eye
movement (REM) sleep. It is frequently induced by strong emo-
tion, particularly humor or laughter.
• Sleep paralysis is muscle paralysis that occurs on wakening.
• Hypnagogic (onset-of-sleep) and hypnopompic (end-of-sleep) hallucina-
tions are dreamlike and occur during the transition between sleep
and wakefulness.
• Sleep fragmentation is a polysomnography observation that reveals
increase in shifting between sleep stages, low sleep efficiency, and
a decrease in slow wave sleep, stages 3 and 4.
The prevalence of narcolepsy is 1:2,000, with men and women

equally affected. Onset is usually before age 25 years. The disorder is
underdiagnosed. It is a chronic illness without cure, requiring chronic
treatment.
• Depression
• Epilepsy
• OSA
• Sleep deprivation
Sleep Disorders 117
• Chronic fatigue syndrome

• Hyperthyroidism
• Drug abuse
• Periodic limb movement disorder (PLMD)
• Idiopathic hypersomnia
• Kleine-Levin syndrome
Assessment
• Overnight polysomnogram followed by multiple sleep latency
test (MSLT). If the overnight polysomnogram reveals alternative
etiology for excessive daytime somnolence (e.g., OSA or PLMD),
treatment must be adequate for the OSA or the PLMD prior to the
diagnostic MSLT for narcolepsy.
• Thyroid profile
• Complete blood count
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) if there is suspicion of second-
ary causes, such as multiple sclerosis plaques in the hypothala-
mus or ischemic lesions in the hypothalamus
• Cerebrospinal fluid hypocretin-1 level if the MSLT is equivocal or
inconsistent with clinical course
Treatment
• Sleep hygiene tactics
• Avoidance of shift work
• Regular timing of nocturnal sleep
• Timed 15-minute naps at midmorning, lunchtime, and late after-
noon
• Educating and informing teachers, family, and employers of the
need for naps to treat this disabling disease and prevent falls or
accidents and improve productivity
• Pharmacological treatment of excessive daytime sleepiness
– Dextroamphetamine
– γ-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB)
– Methylphenidate
– Methamphetamine
– Mazindol
– Selegiline
– Modafinil
– Sodium oxybate
• Pharmacological treatment of cataplexy

– Imipramine
– Clomipramine
– Desipramine
– Protriptyline
– Fluoxetine
– Sodium oxybate
– Venlafaxine
– Atomoxetine
Breathing-Related Sleep Disorder

The incidence of breathing-related sleep disorder is 2%–5% of the gen-
eral population. Table 6–4 presents the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria
for breathing-related sleep disorder.
Causes
Central sleep apnea is the absence of ventilatory effort. Ventilatory
effort is triggered in the brain after sensing carbon dioxide (CO2) levels
at chemoreceptors. This feedback loop is impaired in diseases such as
brainstem ischemia, autonomic dysfunction from diabetes, and conges-
tive heart failure.
Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) occurs as a result of impairment of
mechanical flow. This impairment may result from obesity, congenitally
narrow airway, tonsillar hypertrophy, nasal turbinate hypertrophy,
abnormal mandibular position, or other causes.
• The clinical presentation of OSA includes complaints of daytime

hypersomnolence, cognitive deficits, irritability, depression,
decreased libido, and morning headaches; these symptoms are a
result of the disruptive breathing at night and associated oxygen
desaturation. Reports of disruptive snoring by the bed partner or
family members are common.
Sleep Disorders 119
TABLE 6–4. DSM-IV-TR criteria for breathing-related sleep

disorder
A. Sleep disruption, leading to excessive sleepiness or insomnia, that is

judged to be due to a sleep-related breathing condition (e.g.,
obstructive or central sleep apnea syndrome or central alveolar
hypoventilation syndrome).
B. The disturbance is not better accounted for by another mental
disorder and is not due to the direct physiological effects of a
substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another general
medical condition (other than a breathing-related disorder).
Coding note: Also code sleep-related breathing disorder on Axis III.
• Risk factors for OSA include older age, body mass index greater
than 30 kg/m2, supine sleeping, and a neck circumference greater
than 17 inches. Alcohol or sedative intake prior to bedtime increases
the risks.
• Long-term side effects of untreated OSA include an increase in
the development of hypertension, myocardial infarction, and
stroke (Buchner et al. 2007).
Treatment
• Weight loss to achieve optimal body mass index
• Sleeping in the lateral position
• Elevation of the head and trunk 30–60 degrees
• Abstaining from alcohol prior to bedtime
• Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment is the
most successful treatment used during all periods of sleep,
including naps. CPAP is a pneumatic splinting of the airway to
maintain upper-airway patency. This treatment requires commit-
ment of the patient and physician to ensure proper mask fit and
compliance; pharmacological intervention is needed to augment
treatment. Modafinil and related compounds may improve day-
time alertness in patients who are compliant with CPAP but con-
tinue to report daytime hypersomnolence (Roth et al. 2006b).
• Bi-level pressure may be necessary to accommodate patients with
neuromuscular weakness or intolerance to continuous pressure.
Bi-level treatment allows the inspiratory pressure to be greater

than the expiratory pressure while maintaining airway patency.
This can best be determined in a laboratory setting.
• Dental appliances may improve mild disease. Decreased airway
resistance results from advancing the mandible and tongue with
the device.
• Surgical intervention is important for patients who cannot toler-
ate CPAP or who have difficulty optimizing CPAP secondary to
airway resistance from nasal or palatal obstructions. These
patients should be referred to an ear, nose, and throat specialist for
tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy, resection of hypertrophied
nasal turbinates, hyoid myotomy, or mandibular advancement as
appropriate.
• The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends evaluation for
tonsillectomy in children with persistent disruptive snoring
(Schechter 2002).
Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorder

Circadian rhythm sleep disorder is defined as a mismatch between
sleep pattern and desired “normal” societal pattern. Table 6–5 presents
the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for circadian rhythm sleep disorder.
• Delayed sleep phase syndrome occurs primarily in adolescents whose

sleep and wake times are later than desired (e.g., initiation of sleep
at 2 A.M. and wakening at 10 A.M.). These patients should mini-
mize exposure to light before bedtime.
• Advanced sleep phase syndrome occurs predominantly in older
patients whose sleep and wake times occur earlier than desired
(e.g., sleep initiation at 7 P.M. and wakening at 2 A.M.).
• Shift work sleep syndrome occurs when patients are required to
work during sleep times.
Treatment
• A light box (2,500–10,000 lux) can be used to push sleep initiation
later in the evening (advanced sleep phase syndrome) or earlier in
the evening (delayed sleep phase syndrome).
• The melatonin agonist ramelteon can be used.
Sleep Disorders 121
TABLE 6–5. DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for circadian rhythm

sleep disorder
A. A persistent or recurrent pattern of sleep disruption leading to

excessive sleepiness or insomnia that is due to a mismatch between
the sleep-wake schedule required by a person's environment and his
or her circadian sleep-wake pattern.
B. The sleep disturbance causes clinically significant distress or
functioning.
C. The disturbance does not occur exclusively during the course of
another sleep disorder or other mental disorder.
condition.
Specify type:
.31 Delayed sleep phase type: a persistent pattern of late sleep
onset and late awakening times, with an inability to fall asleep
and awaken at a desired earlier time
.35 Jet lag type: sleepiness and alertness that occur at an
inappropriate time of day relative to local time, occurring after
repeated travel across more than one time zone
.36 Shift work type: insomnia during the major sleep period or
excessive sleepiness during the major awake period associated
with night shift work or frequently changing shift work
.30 Unspecified type
Parasomnias
The stages of sleep are non-REM (NREM; further divided into stages 1,
2, 3, and 4) and REM sleep. Parasomnias are disorders of arousal occur-
ring in NREM (stages 2–4) and REM sleep.
NREM Parasomnias
NREM parasomnias occur in the first half of the night, during NREM
sleep, and the patient is amnestic for the event.
• Sleepwalking disorder (Table 6–6) involves arousal from sleep and

the performance of complex motor activity (e.g., dressing, eating,
walking). It usually occurs only once each night, not multiple
times. If the patient is forced awake, violence is common. Any
condition that may cause arousals from NREM sleep may precip-
itate sleepwalking (e.g., OSA in an obese child). If sleepwalking
occurs with adult onset, consider nocturnal seizures rather than
sleepwalking as a diagnosis.
• Sleep terrors disorder (Table 6–7) presents as an abrupt awakening
from sleep usually beginning with a piercing scream and fear
with sympathetic response. The patient is confused and disori-
ented and will have little memory of the event. Patients and their
families should be warned that the development of sleep terrors
increases the chance of sleepwalking. Sleep terrors occur from
NREM, whereas nightmares occur from REM.
• Confusional arousals include awakenings with imbalance and psy-
chomotor slowing induced by a forced arousal, frequently by a
family member.
ASSESSMENT
Evaluation of NREM parasomnias should focus on conditions that may
disrupt sleep (e.g., comorbid OSA, reflux) or may result in rebound of
NREM sleep (e.g., sleep deprivation, medication initiation or cessation).
If the disorder is resulting in injury to the patient, there is complaint of
excessive daytime sleepiness, or there is suspicion of comorbid disorder
such as OSA, a polysomnogram is warranted.
TREATMENT
• Education about the disorder should be provided to the patient
and family members. Family members must be advised to gently
guide the patient back to bed during an attack. Any potentially
harmful elements (e.g., guns) should be locked up or removed
from the house.
• Medication should be reserved for patients who are having fre-
quent events or are dangerous to themselves or others. Benzodi-
azepines are the mainstay of treatment, including diazepam and
clonazepam. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) can
be used if there is a contraindication to the benzodiazepines.
Sleep Disorders 123
TABLE 6–6. DSM-IV-TR criteria for sleepwalking disorder
A. Repeated episodes of rising from bed during sleep and walking about,
usually occurring during the first third of the major sleep episode.
B. While sleepwalking, the person has a blank, staring face, is relatively
unresponsive to the efforts of others to communicate with him or her,
and can be awakened only with great difficulty.
C. On awakening (either from the sleepwalking episode or the next
morning), the person has amnesia for the episode.
D. Within several minutes after awakening from the sleepwalking
episode, there is no impairment of mental activity or behavior
(although there may initially be a short period of confusion or
disorientation).
E. The sleepwalking causes clinically significant distress or impairment in
condition.
TABLE 6–7. DSM-IV-TR criteria for sleep terror disorder
A. Recurrent episodes of abrupt awakening from sleep, usually occurring

during the first third of the major sleep episode and beginning with a
panicky scream.
B. Intense fear and signs of autonomic arousal, such as tachycardia,
rapid breathing, and sweating, during each episode.
C. Relative unresponsiveness to efforts of others to comfort the person
during the episode.
D. No detailed dream is recalled and there is amnesia for the episode.
E. The episodes cause clinically significant distress or impairment in
condition.
• Behavioral treatment for children is appropriate if the terror or

behavior occurs at approximately the same time nightly. The child
is awoken prior to the anticipated time of event for 4 weeks and
allowed to go back to sleep.
REM Parasomnias
REM parasomnias occur in the second half of the night, or are of short
duration, and are remembered by the patient.
REM behavior disorder (RBD) occurs from the loss of normal REM
sleep atonia (lack of movement), resulting in dream enactment. Patients
may punch, kick, run, and injure themselves or a bed partner. This may
occur multiple times during the night as REM periods occur.
• Men are more affected by RBD than are women.

• RBD may be induced by medication, including tricyclic antide-
pressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, and SSRIs, or by the
withdrawal of alcohol or benzodiazepines.
• Up to 60% of patients with chronic RBD develop Parkinson’s dis-
ease, multiple system atrophy, or Lewy body dementia (Boeve et
al. 2003; Gagnon et al. 2006)
Nightmare disorder (Table 6–8) includes recurrent and distressing

dreams that include vivid imagery. Precipitants can be stress, medical
infection, or any medications that alter norepinephrine, serotonin, ace-
tylcholine, or γ-aminobutyric acid (common with SSRIs). Treatment
consists of changing the offending medication, treating the medical con-
dition, or behavioral treatment.
ASSESSMENT
• History and physical examination should focus on signs or symp-
toms of neurological disorders listed in the previous section or
brainstem pathology (e.g., resting tremor, bradykinesia, dementia,
impaired eye movements) and medication additions or changes.
• Polysomnography may not capture an event but will show an
increase in the chin electromyelogram (EMG) during REM (nor-
mally patients are atonic during REM) and increased electromyo-
graphic activity from the limbs. Additional arm EMG leads may
be added if RBD is a concern.
Sleep Disorders 125
TABLE 6–8. DSM-IV-TR criteria for nightmare disorder
A. Repeated awakenings from the major sleep period or naps with

detailed recall of extended and extremely frightening dreams, usually
involving threats to survival, security, or self-esteem. The awakenings
generally occur during the second half of the sleep period.
B. On awakening from the frightening dreams, the person rapidly
becomes oriented and alert (in contrast to the confusion and
disorientation seen in sleep terror disorder and some forms of
epilepsy).
C. The dream experience, or the sleep disturbance resulting from the
awakening, causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social,
occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
D. The nightmares do not occur exclusively during the course of another
mental disorder (e.g., a delirium, posttraumatic stress disorder) and
are not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a
drug of abuse, a medication) or a general medical condition.
• MRI without contrast is appropriate to exclude structural pathol-

ogy in the brainstem or midbrain.
TREATMENT
Treatment should be focused on patient and bed partner safety (bed
partner should sleep separately until disorder is controlled).
• First-line therapies are clonazepam 0.5–2 mg qhs or temazepam

15–45 mg qhs. The mechanism of action for benzodiazepine treat-
ment is not the suppression of sleep stages 3 and 4 but rather a
decreased arousal threshold that prevents patients from waking
up and acting out dreams.
• Second-line medications include donepezil 5 mg qhs, ropinirole
(Requip; titrate to a maximum of 1mg tid) or pramipexole (Mira-
pex; 0.125–0.75 mg) at bedtime, and less frequently, tricyclic anti-
depressants.
References
Boeve BF, Silber MH, Parisi JE: Synucleinopathy pathology and REM sleep be-
havior disorder plus dementia or parkinsonism. Neurology 61:40–45, 2003
Buchner NJ, Sanner BM, Borgel J, et al: Continuous positive airway pressure
treatment of mild to moderate obstructive sleep apnea reduces cardiovascu-
lar risk. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 176:1274–1280, 2007
Gagnon JF, Postuma RB, Mazza S, et al: Rapid-eye-movement sleep behaviour
disorder and neurodegenerative diseases. Lancet Neurol 5:424–432, 2006
Marangell LB, Martinez JM: Concise Guide to Psychopharmacology, 2nd Edi-
tion. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2006
Roth T, Seiden D, Sainati S, et al: Effects of ramelteon on patients-reported sleep
latency in older adults with chronic insomnia. Sleep Med 7:312–118, 2006a
Roth T, White D, Schmidt-Nowara W: Effects of armodafanil in the treatment of
residual excessive sleepiness associated with obstructive sleep apnea/hy-
popnea syndrome: a 12-week, multicenter, double-blind, randomized, place-
bo-controlled study in nCPAP-adherent adults. Clin Ther 28:689–706, 2006b
Schechter MS: Technical report: diagnosis and management of childhood ob-
structive sleep apnea syndrome. Pediatrics 109:e69, 2002
7
Substance-Related
Disorders
Ȭ disorders, including both abuse and depen-

dence, are common and devastating diseases. Accurate assessment is
critical to the care of every patient undergoing psychiatric evaluation.
The prevalence of of substance-related disorders is shown in Table 7–1.
Key Points
• Assessment of substance use must be included in all evaluations.
• Most patients underestimate their substance intake when report-
ing to physicians.
• It is better to ask “How much do you use X?” than “Do you use
X?” or “You don’t use X, do you?”
• For each substance used, inquire about
– Onset, frequency, duration, route, patterns, and circumstances
of use;
– Timing and amount of most recent use; and
– Degree of intoxication and withdrawal.
• Psychiatric comorbidity is extremely common; it is often useful to

try to determine if the substance use started before the other psy-
chiatric disorder (e.g., depression), or if the other psychiatric dis-
order occurred first and led to subsequent substance abuse.
127
TABLE 7–1. Prevalence of substance-related disorders
12-MONTH LIFETIME
DISORDER PREVALENCE PREVALENCE
Alcohol abuse 3.1 13.2

Alcohol dependence 1.3 5.4
Drug abuse 1.4 7.9
Drug dependence 0.4 3.9
Any substance disorder 3.8 14.6
Source. Data from Kessler et al. 2005a, 2005b.
• Alcohol and sedative-hypnotic withdrawal is potentially life-

threatening.
• Withdrawal from opiates is extremely uncomfortable.
• Substances that do not induce physical tolerance, and therefore
lead to minimal withdrawal, include marijuana and hallucinogens.
• Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), Narcotics Anonymous (NA), and
other 12-step programs are often vital to recovery. The Web sites
of these organizations list services in the patient’s geographical
area (see, e.g., www.alcoholics-anonymous.org and www.na.org).
• Pharmacotherapy, when available for the treatment of a specific
substance use disorder, is rarely appropriate as monotherapy.
General Concepts and Definitions

• Intoxication. The acute effects of overdosage of chemical sub-
stances. Characteristically, intoxication with substances of abuse
produces behavioral or psychological changes because of their
effects on the central nervous system. Such changes may be
expressed as belligerence, differences in mood, or impaired judg-
ment. The DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for substance intoxication
are presented in Table 7–2 (American Psychiatric Association 2000).
• Abuse. Impairment in social and occupational functioning
resulting from the pathological and “compulsive” use of a sub-
stance. The concept is closely related to the definition of substance
dependence, which has similar symptoms of impairment but may
include evidence of physiological tolerance or withdrawal. Typi-
Substance-Related Disorders 129
TABLE 7–2. DSM-IV-TR criteria for substance intoxication
A. The development of a reversible substance-specific syndrome due to

recent ingestion of (or exposure to) a substance. Note: Different
substances may produce similar or identical syndromes.
B. Clinically significant maladaptive behavioral or psychological changes
that are due to the effect of the substance on the central nervous
system (e.g., belligerence, mood lability, cognitive impairment,
impaired judgment, impaired social or occupational functioning) and
develop during or shortly after use of the substance.
C. The symptoms are not due to a general medical condition and are not
better accounted for by another mental disorder.
cal symptoms of abuse include failure to fulfill major role obliga-

tions at work, school, or home; recurrent use of the substance in
situations in which such use is physically hazardous; substance-
related legal problems; and continued use even though it causes
or exaggerates interpersonal problems. The DSM-IV-TR diagnos-
tic criteria for substance abuse are presented in Table 7–3.
• Dependence. Chemical dependence; sometimes defined in terms
of physiological dependence, as evidenced by tolerance or with-
drawal; at other times, defined in terms of impairment in social
and occupational functioning resulting from the pathological and
repeated use of a substance. In the latter definition, tolerance and
withdrawal symptoms may be present but are not essential. The
DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for substance dependence are pre-
sented in Table 7–4.
• Withdrawal. The constellation of symptoms and signs that devel-
ops within a short period (usually hours) after cessation or signif-
icant reduction of use of a substance in a person with a pattern of
heavy or prolonged use of that substance. The withdrawal symp-
toms tend to be specific for each substance. The DSM-IV-TR diag-
nostic criteria for substance intoxication are presented in Table 7–5.
• Substance-induced psychiatric disorders. Mental syndromes sec-
ondary to the use of drugs (including alcohol). In DSM-IV-TR,
these disorders (except for intoxication and withdrawal) are
placed in the diagnostic categories with which they share phe-
nomenology. For example, substance-induced mood disorder is
listed under mood disorders, and substance-induced sleep disor-
TABLE 7–3. DSM-IV-TR criteria for substance abuse
A. A maladaptive pattern of substance use leading to clinically significant

impairment or distress, as manifested by one (or more) of the
following, occurring within a 12-month period:
(1) recurrent substance use resulting in a failure to fulfill major role
obligations at work, school, or home (e.g., repeated absences or
poor work performance related to substance use; substance-
related absences, suspensions, or expulsions from school; neglect
of children or household)
(2) recurrent substance use in situations in which it is physically
hazardous (e.g., driving an automobile or operating a machine
when impaired by substance use)
(3) recurrent substance-related legal problems (e.g., arrests for
substance-related disorderly conduct)
(4) continued substance use despite having persistent or recurrent
social or interpersonal problems caused or exacerbated by the
effects of the substance (e.g., arguments with spouse about
consequences of intoxication, physical fights)
B. The symptoms have never met the criteria for substance dependence
for this class of substance.
der is listed under sleep disorders. The relevant diagnostic cate-

gories are delirium, dementia, amnestic disorder, psychotic disor-
der (with delusions or hallucinations), mood disorder, anxiety
disorder, sleep disorder, and sexual dysfunction.
General Treatment Principles

• Substance use disorders include both psychological and physio-
logical components.
• Pharmacotherapies are useful and sometimes necessary to treat
withdrawal and often increase the chance of success for longer-term
abstinence. However, substance use disorders also include complex
social and psychological components that cannot be ignored.
• Education about the impact of substances on the patient’s life and
about social circumstances that may trigger relapse, as well as learn-
ing new coping mechanisms, are key components of treatment.
TABLE 7–4. DSM-IV-TR criteria for substance

dependence
A maladaptive pattern of substance use, leading to clinically significant

impairment or distress, as manifested by three (or more) of the following,
occurring at any time in the same 12-month period:
(1) tolerance, as defined by either of the following:
(a) a need for markedly increased amounts of the substance to
achieve intoxication or desired effect
(b) markedly diminished effect with continued use of the same
amount of the substance
(2) withdrawal, as manifested by either of the following:
(a) the characteristic withdrawal syndrome for the substance
(refer to criteria A and B of the criteria sets for withdrawal
from the specific substances)
(b) the same (or a closely related) substance is taken to relieve or
avoid withdrawal symptoms
(3) the substance is often taken in larger amounts or over a longer
period than was intended
(4) there is a persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to cut down or
control substance use
(5) a great deal of time is spent in activities necessary to obtain the
substance (e.g., visiting multiple doctors or driving long
distances), use the substance (e.g., chain-smoking), or recover
from its effects
(6) important social, occupational, or recreational activities are given
up or reduced because of substance use
(7) the substance use is continued despite knowledge of having a
persistent or recurrent physical or psychological problem that is
likely to have been caused or exacerbated by the substance (e.g.,
current cocaine use despite recognition of cocaine-induced
depression, or continued drinking despite recognition that an
ulcer was made worse by alcohol consumption)
TABLE 7–4. DSM-IV-TR criteria for substance

dependence (continued)
Specify if:
With physiological dependence: evidence of tolerance or
withdrawal (i.e., either Item 1 or 2 is present)
Without physiological dependence: no evidence of tolerance or
withdrawal (i.e., neither Item 1 nor 2 is present)
Course specifiers:
Early full remission: For at least 1 month but less than 12 months, no
criteria for dependence or abuse have been met.
Early partial remission: For at least 1 month but less than 12 months, one
or more criteria have been met (but the full criteria are not met).
Sustained full remission: None of the criteria for dependence or abuse
have been met for 12 months or longer.
Sustained partial remission: Full criteria for dependence have not been met
for a period of 12 months or longer; however, one or more criteria for
dependence or abuse have been met.
On agonist therapy: An individual is on a prescribed agonist (e.g.,
methadone) and no criteria have been met for at least the past month
(except tolerance to or withdrawal from the agonist).
In a controlled environment: An individual is in a setting that restricts
access to substances (e.g., jail or a locked hospital unit) and no criteria
have been met for at least 1 month.
TABLE 7–5. DSM-IV-TR criteria for substance withdrawal
A. The development of a substance-specific syndrome due to the

cessation of (or reduction in) substance use that has been heavy and
prolonged.
B. The substance-specific syndrome causes clinically significant distress
or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of
functioning.
C. The symptoms are not due to a general medical condition and are not
better accounted for by another mental disorder.
Alcohol Dependence
• Alcohol dependence can result in gastrointestinal, hematological,
endocrinological, neurological, and cardiovascular problems
(Table 7–6).
• Withdrawal symptoms may be seen with decreased intake, even
if some intake continues.
• Withdrawal may include seizures, peaking 24 hours after the last
drink.
• Delirium tremens (DTs) may include autonomic instability and
hallucinations. DTs typically occur 2–3 days after significant
decrease in alcohol consumption and peak at days 4–5.
• Wernicke’s encephalopathy is a disease due to a nutritional defi-
ciency of vitamin B1 (thiamine), which provokes acute mental
confusion, ataxia, and ophthalmoplegia (paralysis of some or all
muscles of the eye).
• Korsakoff syndrome (alcohol amnestic disorder) is a disease asso-
ciated with chronic alcoholism (alcohol dependence) and result-
TABLE 7–6. Associated medical complications of alcohol

dependence
Gastrointestinal Fatty liver deposits, hepatitis, cirrhosis, pancreatitis,

gastric bleeding, hepatic dysregulation
Hematological Anemia; impaired immune functioning; increased
oropharyngeal, esophageal, gastric, hepatic, and
pancreatic cancer
Endocrinological In men: testicular atrophy, decreased testosterone
levels, body hair loss, and gynecomastia secondary to
increased estrogen levels
In women: infertility, reduced menstruation, changes
in secondary sex characteristics secondary to gonadal
failure
Neurological Increased risk of cerebrovascular accident, cerebellar
degeneration (slow process), peripheral neuropathy,
dementia
Cardiovascular Increased blood pressure, cardiomyopathy, heart
failure
ing from a deficiency of vitamin B1. Patients sustain damage to

part of the thalamus and cerebellum and have anterograde and
retrograde amnesia, with an inability to retain new information.
Other symptoms include inflammation of nerves, muttering delir-
ium, insomnia, illusions, and hallucinations. In alcohol amnestic
disorder, unlike dementia, other intellectual functions may be pre-
served.
• Large amounts of alcohol, particularly if consumed rapidly, can
produce partial (i.e., fragmentary) or complete (i.e., en bloc)
blackouts, which are periods of memory loss for events that tran-
spired while a person was drinking.
Risk Factors
About 50% of the risk of alcohol dependence is genetic. Environmental
risk factors, which predominate in adolescence, include childhood
abuse and trauma, family influences, peer relationships, and stress
(Hasin et al. 2007).
Subtypes
• Type I alcoholism: Heavy use generally begins after age 25 and is
reinforced by external circumstances. The person is able to abstain
for long periods and frequently feels guilt, fear, and loss of control
regarding alcohol dependency.
• Type II alcoholism: Onset is generally before age 25, and there is
more spontaneous alcohol seeking regardless of external circum-
stances. Fights and arrests are common, and the person rarely
feels guilt about alcohol dependency.
Screening
CAGE is a brief questionnaire that is useful in screening for alcoholism:
C Have you ever tried to cut down on your intake?
A Have you ever been annoyed by criticism of your drinking?
G Have you ever felt guilty about your drinking?
E Do you ever have an eye-opener (drinking in the morning to treat a
hangover)?
Useful laboratory markers are listed in Table 7–7.

TABLE 7–7. Laboratory markers of heavy drinking
MEN WOMEN
(VALUE SUGGESTING (VALUE SUGGESTING
MARKER HEAVY DRINKING) HEAVY DRINKING) ACCURACY
Carbohydrate-deficient transferrin (CDT) >20 U/L >26 U/L Very good

γ-Glutamyltransferase (GGT) >35 U/L >30 U/L
Substance-Related Disorders
Very good
Mean corpuscular volume (MCV) >91 µm3 >91 µm3 Good
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) >40 U/L >33 U/L Fair
Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) >46 U/L >35 U/L Fair
Uric acid >8.0 mg/dL >6.2 mg/dL Fair
5-Hydroxytryptophol-to-hydroxyindoleacetic acid >20 >20 Fair
ratio
Source. Data from Schuckit and Tapert 2004.
135
Outpatient Treatment for Alcohol Dependence

Patients with alcohol dependence may be treated in an outpatient set-
ting if their clinical condition and environmental and social circum-
stances do not require a higher level of inpatient care. The American
Psychiatric Association (2006) Practice Guidelines list absolute con-
traindications and relative contraindications to outpatient treatment.
ABSOLUTE CONTRAINDICATIONS
• Coexisting acute or chronic illness (e.g., severe cardiac disease)
• Delirium
• No reliable person to help monitor patient out of hospital
• Pregnancy
• Seizure disorder or prior seizures in withdrawal
• Suicide risk
RELATIVE CONTRAINDICATIONS
• History of previous unsuccessful outpatient detoxification
• Comorbid benzodiazepine dependence
• High risk of severe withdrawal
– Age >40 years
– Heavy drinking for > 8 years
– Drinking greater than 1 pint of alcohol or eight 12-oz beers
daily
– Cirrhosis
– Increased mean corpuscular volume
– Increased blood urea nitrogen
Treatment of Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome

(Detoxification)
• Identify and treat comorbid medical problems.
• Ensure adequate fluids and electrolytes.
• Prescribe B vitamins. Alcohol interferes with the absorption of

these vitamins, which are not well stored and are needed to pre-
vent and treat alcohol-related neurological disturbances.
– Prescribe thiamine 100 mg/day po or im and then 50 mg/month.
– Prescribe folate 1 mg/day or a multivitamin daily.
• Longer-acting benzodiazepines, such as chlordiazepoxide (Lib-

rium) or diazepam (Valium), are often preferred to suppress
symptoms of acute alcohol withdrawal because these medica-
tions in essence self-taper. For example, prescribe chlordiaze-
poxide 25–50 mg po up to 4 times/day unless patient is sleepy or
light-headed; taper by 25% per day.
• If hepatic function is impaired, oxazepam (Serax) is preferred
because it is not hepatically metabolized.
Pharmacological Prevention of Relapse

NALTREXONE (REVIA)
• Mechanism: Naltrexone is an opioid antagonist that is also
thought to be a µ opioid partial agonist. It normalizes β-endorphin
levels, which are decreased in some abstinent alcoholics. As such,
it decreases craving. Because of the antagonist activity, endorphin
levels do not rise after alcohol intake, which inhibits the reinforc-
ing effect of an initial drink after a period of sobriety.
• Dosage: 50 mg po daily
• Key side effects: nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, constipation,
nervousness, headache, insomnia, sedation
ACAMPROSATE (CAMPRAL)
• Mechanism: modulates glutamate/N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)
activity; γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) agonist
• Dosage: 666 mg tid
• Key side effect: diarrhea
DISULFIRAM (ANTABUSE)
• Mechanism: Acetaldehyde is the first metabolic product of etha-
nol. Disulfiram inhibits the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydroge-
nase, which leads to the accumulation of acetaldehyde, resulting
in flushing, sweating, and tachycardia. If more alcohol is con-

sumed, dyspnea, nausea, and vomiting may also occur.
• Dosage: 250–500 mg/day
• Key side effect: fatigue
• Possible side effect: hepatotoxicity
• Disulfiram is an irreversible enzyme inhibitor, so reaction to alco-
hol may occur up to 2 weeks after stopping the medication while
new enzyme is synthesized in the absence of the drug. Advise
patients to avoid alcohol in all forms, including foods and over-the-
counter (OTC) medications.
Sedatives and Hypnotics

• Sedative-hypnotic intoxication and withdrawal are similar to
alcohol intoxication and withdrawal.
• Sedative-hypnotic withdrawal is life-threatening.
• Barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and alcohol exhibit cross-tolerance,
defined as the extension of tolerance to a substance developed
over a period of long-term administration to another substance to
which an individual has not been previously exposed. A person
who has developed tolerance to alcohol will have a diminished
response to the usual dose of a benzodiazepine because tolerance
to alcohol has induced tolerance to the benzodiazepine’s effect.
• Alprazolam can be tapered by decreasing the dose 0.25 mg/week.
• Overdose is lethal with barbiturates. The effects of benzodiaz-
epines are mediated by endogenous GABA; as such, uncompli-
cated benzodiazepine overdoses are often not lethal unless
combined with alcohol or barbiturates.
• Benzodiazepines when used in patients without substance abuse
and without self-escalation rarely result in abuse, although there
may be physiological dependence.
• The goal of barbiturate detoxification is to prevent the occurrence
of major symptoms and to minimize the development of intoler-
able symptoms. The regimen must be individualized, but the ini-
tial reduction is typically 10% of the daily stabilization dose (Cir-
aulo et al. 2005). Table 7–8 presents guidelines for barbiturate
detoxification using the pentobarbital tolerance test.
TABLE 7–8. Guidelines for barbiturate detoxification
SYMPTOMS AFTER TEST DOSE OF 200 MG ESTIMATED 24-HOUR ORAL ESTIMATED 24-HOUR ORAL
OF ORAL PENTOBARBITAL PENTOBARBITAL DOSE ( MG) PHENOBARBITAL DOSE ( MG)
Asleep, but can be aroused 0 0

Sedated, drowsy, slurred speech, nystagmus, ataxia, 500–600 150–200
positive Romberg test result
Few signs of intoxication, patient is comfortable, may 800 250
have lateral nystagmus
No drug effect 1,000–1,200 300–400
Note. Maximum phenobarbital dose is 600 mg.
Source. Adapted from Ciraulo et al. 2005.
139
Opioids
Opioids include heroin, morphine, methadone, and other prescription
narcotics.
• Intoxication symptoms include analgesia, sedation, euphoria,
and apathy.
• Withdrawal peaks in 2–3 days and resolves in 2 weeks; it is not
life-threatening. Symptoms include anxiety, sweating, rhinorrhea,
dilated pupils, chills, muscle cramps, and increased blood pres-
sure and heart rate.
• Complications of opioid use include decreased gastric motility,
lymphadenopathy, vein sclerosis, edema, and ulceration.
– With intravenous administration, complications include bacte-
rial infection, emboli, HIV, hepatitis, endocarditis, meningitis,
brain abscess, and septicemia.
– Overdose results in death from respiratory depression.
Pharmacological Treatment
BUPRENORPHINE
• Lower overdose potential and abuse liability than opioids of
abuse
• Less severe withdrawal than methadone when discontinued
(Kosten and Kleber 1988)
• Comparable to methadone in treatment retention and reduced
heroin abuse
• Mechanism: partial opioid agonist
• Maintenance dosage: 8–32 mg/day sl
• Common side effect: euphoria
SUBOXONE (BUPRENORPHINE/NALOXONE)
• Combination has less abuse potential than buprenorphine alone,
because the naloxone blocks the euphoric effect.
• Suboxone can precipitate withdrawal.
• Table 7–9 presents dosing guidelines.
TABLE 7–9. Buprenorphine/naloxone induction schedule
DAY 1 DAY 2
PATIENT TYPE FIRST DOSE SUPPLEMENTAL DOSE
Not currently dependent 2/0.5 mg 4/1 mg

a
Dependent on heroin or pain 2/0.5 to 4/1 mg Redose every 1–2 hours; if If the patient is still in withdrawal,
medications withdrawal continues, up to a give first-day dose plus 2/0.5 to
total of 8/2 mg. 4/1 mg.
Dependent on methadone 2/0.5 mga Redose every 1–2 hours; if If the patient is still in withdrawal,
(≤30 mg/day) or on LAAM withdrawal continues, up to a give first-day dose plus 2/0.5 to
(≤40 mg/every other day)b total of 8/2 mg. 4/1 mg; if oversedated, give
<8/2 mg.
Note. LAAM= L-α-acetylmethadol (no longer available in the United States). Buprenorphine/naloxone tablets are administered sub-
lingually; dose amounts consist of the buprenorphine dose (the number before the slash) and the naloxone dose (the number after the
slash).
a
Do not begin buprenorphine until patient shows evidence of opioid withdrawal.
b
Patient should abstain from LAAM for ≥48 hours before first buprenorphine dose.
Source. Adapted from Epstein et al. 2005.
141
CLONIDINE (CATAPRES)
• Mechanism: Clonidine is an α2-adrenergic agonist that sup-
presses opiate withdrawal.
• Dosing: Prescribe a test dose of 0.1 mg followed by 0.1–0.4 mg
every 4–6 hours for 6 days, then taper over 4 days.
• Clonidine should be used only if the clinician is experienced with
the method.
• Common side effects: hypotension, sedation, dry mouth
METHADONE MAINTENANCE
• High doses alleviate craving and induce cross-tolerance to other
opioids.
• Common side effects: euphoria, drowsiness
Hallucinogens
Table 7–10 lists hallucinogens and their street names.
• Intoxication symptoms include altered perception, hallucinations

(especially visual), illusions, derealization, and anxiety.
• Treatment of intoxication consists of maintaining a calm environ-
ment and the as-needed use of benzodiazepines and occasionally
antipsychotics, if the psychotic features are severe. This is most
common with phencyclidine (PCP), where patients may become
violent.
• Withdrawal is not common. Longer-term treatment consists of
education and 12-step programs.
Stimulants
Stimulants include amphetamines and cocaine. The smoked form of
stimulants is more potent and addictive than oral or intranasal admin-
istration. Smoked cocaine is called “crack;” smoked amphetamine is
called “ice.”
• There is no true withdrawal with stimulants, but chronic daily

users may report fatigue, depression, and hypersomnolence.
TABLE 7–10. Street names of hallucinogens

HALLUCINOGEN STREET NAME
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) Acid, blotter, blue devils, California

sunshine, haze, microdot, mickey, Mr.
Natural, paper acid, purple haze,
sunshine, wedges, window pane
Morning glory seeds Flying saucers, licorice drops, heavenly
gates, pearly gates
PCP (phencyclidine) Angel dust
Psilocybin Magic mushrooms, mushroom
DMT (N,N-dimethyltryptamine), Businessman’s lunch, snuff
DET (N,N-diethyltryptamine)
Peyote/mescaline Button(s), cactus, mesc, mescal, mescal
buttons, moon, peyote
DOM (2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl- Golden eagle, STP, psychodrine, title
amphetamine)
MDA (3,4-methylenedioxy- Love drug
amphetamine)
MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy- Adam, Ecstasy, MDM, XTC
methamphetamine)
MDEA (3,4-methylenedioxy- Eve
ethyl-amphetamine)
Source. Adapted from Tacke and Ebert 2005.
• Multiple pharmacological agents have been used to reduce

relapse (e.g., desipramine, bromocriptine, naltrexone), but none
are a standard of care.
• Treatment consists of education and 12-step programs.
Club Drugs
γ-Hydroxybutyric Acid (GHB)
A metabolite of GABA, GHB is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration for the treatment of the cataplexy of narcolepsy.
• Intoxication symptoms include sedation, euphoria, and sexual

disinhibition.
• Withdrawal is similar to barbiturate withdrawal.
• Pharmacological treatment of withdrawal is with benzodiaz-
epines. High dosages may be required, up to 10 mg lorazepam
intravenously per hour (Craig et al. 2000). The phenobarbital pro-
tocol may also be used. Some patients will require antipsychotics,
but these medications are a last resort because patients in GHB
withdrawal are often hyperpyrexic, which may increase the risk
of neuroleptic malignant syndrome.
• Longer-term treatment involves drug counseling and 12-step pro-
grams.
Ecstasy
Ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine [MDMA]) is chemi-
cally similar to both amphetamines and mescaline.
• Intoxication symptoms include increased energy, increased men-

tal clarity, and a feeling of closeness to others and well-being.
Rebound depression and anxiety may occur the next day.
• The drug appears to transiently lessen normal psychological
defenses, which is part of its appeal as a drug of abuse and also why
some therapists have advocated the judicious use of Ecstasy as part
of psychotherapy.
• Some data suggest that use of Ecstasy may permanently destroy
serotonin neurons (McCann et al. 2000). Longer-term effects of mem-
ory impairment and cognition have been reported with chronic use.
• Treatment is the same as for amphetamine abuse.
Cannabis
• Intoxication symptoms include euphoria, increased appetite, dry
mouth, anxiety, impaired coordination, and sedation. Chronic use
is associated with decreased motivation.
• Treatment involves drug counseling and 12-step programs.
• Pharmacotherapy is typically not needed. There is no true with-
drawal, but chronic users may describe irritability and insomnia
when stopping daily use.
Nicotine
Nicotine replacement results in approximately twice the successful quit
rate of treatment without replacement. All types of nicotine replace-
ment should be combined with behavioral interventions, and the re-
placement should be tapered over 2–3 months.
• Nicotine gum is available OTC in 2-mg and 4-mg strengths.

Instruct the patient to chew a few times and then park the gum on
the side of the inner mouth to avoid exposure to too much nicotine
at once.
• Nicotine lozenges are available OTC in 2-mg and 4-mg strengths.
A nicotine lozenge releases 25% more nicotine per milligram com-
pared with nicotine gum. The lozenge contains phenylalanine.
• Transdermal nicotine is available in a variety of formulations
OTC. The typical program is an 8-week taper. There is less abuse
potential with transdermal nicotine than with as-needed nicotine
replacement.
• A nicotine nasal inhaler is available by prescription. It offers the
most rapid delivery of nicotine, compared with other nicotine
replacement products.
• A nicotine oral inhaler is available by prescription. It mimics the
ritual of smoking more than other products. It should be tapered
over 3–6 months. The nicotine oral inhaler is relatively contrain-
dicated in patients with asthma.
Non-nicotine pharmacotherapies include bupropion SR (Zyban):
• 150 mg po for 4 days, then 150 mg bid; smoking is ceased on day 8.
Varenicline (Chantix) is started one week before the intended date to

stop smoking. The manufacturer recommends that the medication be
taken after eating and with a full glass of water. Dosing titration is as fol-
lows:
• Days 1–3: 0.5 mg qd
• Days 4–7: 0.5 mg bid
• Day 8 through end of treatment: 1 mg bid
For patients who successfully quit with 12 weeks of treatment, an ad-

ditional 12 weeks of treatment is recommended. Due to the mechanism
of action, patients taking varenicline should not use nicotine substitution

products designed to assist in smoking cessation. The most common
side effects are dose dependent nausea, insomnia, and gastrointestinal
distress. Varenicline has been associated with changes in behavior, agi-
tation, depressed mood, and suicidal thoughts and actions. Preexisting
psychiatric illness may worsen and patients should be carefully ob-
served for new or worsening psychiatric symptoms.
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8
Dementia
is a syndrome with numerous causes, both reversible or

irreversible, and is characterized by impairment in at least three of the
following areas: language, memory, visuospatial skills, executive abili-
ties, and emotion. Table 8–1 lists diagnostic features common to all de-
mentias. The most common cause of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease.
The most important goal in the evaluation of dementia is to look for re-
versible causes (Table 8–2). Table 8–3 lists the elements of a standard as-
sessment of the dementia patient.
Dementia Subtypes
The dementia subtypes include dementia of the Alzheimer’s type, vas-
cular dementia (multi-infarct dementia), dementia due to Pick’s disease,
dementia due to Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (also called spongiform en-
cephalopathy), dementia due to HIV disease, dementia due to Parkin-
son’s disease, dementia due to Huntington’s disease, dementia due to
multiple sclerosis, and substance-induced persisting dementia (Bour-
geois et al. 2003).
Dementia of the Alzheimer’s Type

• Gradual onset and continuing cognitive decline
• Deficits are not due to other central nervous system, systemic, or
substance-induced conditions.
• Manifests most often in seventh and eighth decades
147
TABLE 8–1. Diagnostic features common to all dementias

Memory impairment Impaired ability to learn new material or
difficulty remembering previously learned
material or both (e.g., losing wallet or keys,
forgetting food cooking on the stove, getting
lost in familiar neighborhood)
Aphasia Deterioration of language functioning (e.g.,
difficulty producing names of individuals and
objects, use of long and empty phrases,
decreased comprehension of spoken and
written language). In advanced stages patient
may be mute or may speak with echolalia (i.e.,
repeating what is heard) or palilalia (i.e.,
repeating sounds or words over and over).
Apraxia Impaired ability to execute motor activities
despite intact motor abilities, sensory
function, and comprehension of the required
task. Assessment: Ask patient to demonstrate
how to brush teeth, arrange sticks in a specific
design, etc.
Agnosia Failure to recognize or identify objects despite
intact sensory function. Assessment: Ask
patient to identify a key in the hand with eyes
closed.
Disturbed executive Executive functioning involves the ability to
functioning (especially think abstractly and to plan, initiate,
in disorders of the sequence, monitor, and stop complex
frontal lobe or behavior. Assessment: Ask patient to name as
associated subcortical many animals as possible in 1 minute; ask
pathways) informant about ability to work a planned
multistep activity.
Symptoms must be severe enough to cause significant impairment in
social or occupational functioning and must represent a decline from
previous level of functioning.
Note. Dementia is not diagnosed if symptoms occur exclusively during the
course of delirium. However, if delirium occurs with a preexisting dementia,
then both diagnoses are given.
Source. Adapted from American Psychiatric Association 2000.
Dementia 149
TABLE 8–2. Potentially reversible causes of dementia

Psychiatric Depression
Schizophrenia
Ganser’s syndrome (type of factitious disorder in
which a patient mimics symptoms associated
with dementia and psychosis)
Malingering
Toxic Drugs (prescription or street)
Alcohol
Chemical poisoning (arsenic, mercury, lead,
lithium, and other metals; organic compounds
and solvents)
Metabolic Azotemia/renal failure (diuretics, dehydration,
obstruction, hypokalemia)
Hyponatremia (diuretics, excess antidiuretic
hormone, salt wasting, water intoxication)
Volume depletion
Hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia
Hepatic encephalopathy
Hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism
Hyperparathyroidism
Cushing’s syndrome
Wilson’s disease
Acute intermittent porphyria
Vitamin deficiencies B12, folic acid, thiamine, niacin
CNS disorders Vascular (ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke,
ischemic-hypoxic brain lesions)
Trauma (subdural hematoma, postconcussion
syndrome)
Human immunodeficiency virus and
opportunistic infections
Other infections (neurosyphilis, chronic
meningitis, brain abscess, progressive multifocal
leukoencephalopathy)
TABLE 8–2. Potentially reversible causes of dementia (continued)
CNS disorders Neoplasm (primary or metastatic)

(continued)
Cerebral vasculitis
Normal-pressure hydrocephalus
Multiple sclerosis
Source. Adapted from Lipton and Weiner 2003.
• Neuropathology includes neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), neuritic

plaques, and β-amyloid deposits and cerebrocortical atrophy,
which predominantly involves the association regions and partic-
ularly the medial aspect of the temporal lobe. Although NFTs and
plaques are characteristic of dementia of the Alzheimer’s type,
they are also seen in progressive supranuclear palsy and normal
aging, although with different densities and distributions.
• Sundowning (symptoms worsening in the evening)
• Patients with Down syndrome (trisomy 21) are at high risk for
developing Alzheimer’s disease in middle age.
Vascular Dementia (Multi-Infarct Dementia)

• Second most common dementia
• Focal neurological signs and symptoms or laboratory/radiologi-
cal evidence indicative of cerebrovascular disease etiologically
related to deficits
Dementia Due to Pick’s Disease

• Prominent personality changes, especially disinhibition, with rel-
atively spared memory and visuospatial functions
• Age at onset typically 40–60 years
• Executive dysfunction and attentional deficits
Dementia Due to Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease

• Prion-mediated infection
• Manifests as rapidly progressive cortical dementia accompanied
by myoclonus and psychosis
Dementia 151
TABLE 8–3. Standard assessment of the dementia patient
Laboratory tests
Complete blood count
Electrolytes, blood glucose, blood urea nitrogen level
Thyroid-stimulating hormone level
Serum vitamin B12 level
Neuroimaging
Computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging
Systemic assessments
Electrocardiogram
Chest X ray
Urinalysis
Liver function tests
Optional tests (based on symptoms and examination)
Lumbar puncture
Electroencephalogram (EEG) and quantitative EEG
Single photon emission computed tomography
Positron emission tomography
Serum antiphospholipid antibodies
Serum or urine drug tests
Serum human immunodeficiency virus antibodies
Muscle biopsy
Nerve conduction studies
Dementia Due to HIV Disease

• Initial symptoms: decreased psychomotor and information pro-
cessing speed, verbal memory, learning efficiency, and fine motor
function
• Later symptoms: decreased executive function, aphasia, apraxia,
and agnosia
• Occurs in up to 30% of HIV-positive patients

• Results from neurotoxicity mediated by HIV-infected macrophages
Dementia Due to Parkinson’s Disease

• Occurs in 60% of patients with Parkinson’s disease
• Symptoms: bradyphrenia, apathy, poor retrieval memory, de-
creased verbal fluency, and attention deficits
Dementia Due to Huntington’s Disease

• Symptoms: impairments in retrieval memory, cognitive speed,
concentration, verbal learning, and cognitive flexibility
• High risk for personality change, irritability, aggressive behavior,
and suicide
Dementia Due to Multiple Sclerosis

• Occurs in 65% of multiple sclerosis patients
• Symptoms: deficits in memory, attention, information-processing
speed, learning, and executive functions
• Language and verbal intelligence are relatively spared.
Substance-Induced Persisting Dementia

• Deficits persist beyond usual duration of substance intoxication
or withdrawal, with clinical evidence that deficits are etiologically
related to the persisting effects of substance abuse.
• Distinguishing characteristics of cortical and subcortical demen-
tias are shown in Table 8–4.
Differential Diagnosis—Nondementias
• Mental retardation. Onset is before age 18 years (age at onset of
dementia is usually late in life). If the onset of the dementia is
before age 18 years, both dementia and mental retardation may be
diagnosed if the criteria for both disorders are met.
• Schizophrenia. This disorder typically presents in the teens and
early twenties with a symptom pattern that includes prominent
psychotic symptoms.
Dementia 153
TABLE 8–4. Distinguishing characteristics of cortical and

subcortical dementias
FUNCTION CORTICAL DEMENTIA SUBCORTICAL DEMENTIA
Psychomotor speed Normal Slowed

Language Involved Spared
Memory
Recall Impaired Impaired
Recognition Impaired Spared
Remote Temporal gradient Temporal gradient absent
present
Executive function Less involved More involved
Depression Less common More common
Motor system Spared until late Involved early
Anatomy Cerebral cortex Subcortical structures and
dorsolateral prefrontal
cortex projecting to
head of caudate nucleus
Examples Alzheimer’s disease Huntington’s disease, HIV
encephalopathy, lacunar
stroke
Note. HIV=human immunodeficiency virus.
• Major depressive disorder. The premorbid state may help to differ-

entiate “pseudodementia” (i.e., cognitive impairments due to the
major depressive episode) from dementia. In dementia, there is
usually a premorbid history of declining cognitive function,
whereas the individual with a major depressive episode is much
more likely to have a relatively normal premorbid state and
abrupt cognitive decline, with the onset of other symptoms of
major depression.
• Malingering and factitious disorder. Patterns of cognitive deficits
are usually not consistent over time and are not characteristic of
those typically seen in dementia (e.g., person may perform calcu-
lations while keeping score during a card game but then claim to
be unable to perform similar calculations during a mental status

examination).
• Normal decline in cognitive functioning that occurs with aging (as in
age-related cognitive decline). The diagnosis of dementia is war-
ranted only if there is demonstrable evidence of greater memory
and other cognitive impairment than would be expected due to
normal aging processes and the symptoms cause impairment in
social or occupational functioning.
Treatment
Dementia due to some conditions, such as Alzheimer’s disease, can be
slowed in the early-to-intermediate stages with medication. Cholines-
terase inhibitors are the most widely used (e.g., donepezil, galantamine,
rivastigmine; see Chapter 14 of this volume, “Pharmacotherapy”). Me-
mantine may provide cognitive improvement in patients with moderate
to severe dementia and can be used in combination with a cholines-
terase inhibitor (American Psychiatric Association 2006). Table 8–5 pro-
vides pharmacotherapy dosing guidelines for dementia.
• Comorbid depression is common with dementia, and treatment

of depression may partially relieve symptoms of dementia.
• Treat underlying conditions that may cause or worsen dementia,
such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, heart disease, dia-
betes, infections, head injuries, brain tumors, hydrocephalus, ane-
mia, hypoxia, hormone imbalances, and nutritional deficiencies.
• Start low and go slow: psychotropic medication should be used
cautiously in elderly and/or neurologically impaired patients.
Use lower starting doses, smaller increases in dosage, and longer
intervals between increments.
• Behavioral disorders may improve with individualized therapy
aimed at identifying and changing specific problem behaviors.
• Agitation should be carefully evaluated to ascertain any revers-
ible causes, such as pain or delirium. Cholinesterase inhibitors
can be helpful in some cases. In addition, anticonvulsants may
also be helpful. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration issued a
warning of a 1.6- to 1.7-fold increase in mortality in elderly
patients with dementia who were taking atypical antipsychotics,
compared with placebo (Rosack 2005). However, this effect is also
TABLE 8–5. Pharmacotherapy for dementia
TARGET SYMPTOM(S) MEDICATION CLASS STARTING DOSAGE MAXIMUM DOSAGE
Decreased cognition, delusions, hallucinations Cholinesterase inhibitors

Tacrine 10 mg qid 40 mg qid
Donepezil 5 mg/day 10 mg/day
Rivastigmine 1.5 mg bid 6 mg bid
Galantamine 4 mg bid 12 mg bid
Decreased cognition Antioxidants
Dementia
Alpha-tocopherol 1,000 IU bid
Selegiline 5 mg/day 10 mg/day
Depression, irritability, anxiety Antidepressants
Anxiety, irritability Anxiolytic
Buspirone 5 mg tid 20 mg tid
Irritability, agitation Anticonvulsants
a
Carbamazepine 100 mg/day
b
Valproate 125 mg/day
155
156
TABLE 8–5. Pharmacotherapy for dementia (continued)
TARGET SYMPTOM(S) MEDICATION CLASS STARTING DOSAGE MAXIMUM DOSAGE
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, Antipsychotics

agitation
Risperidone 0.25 mg/day qhs 3 mg/day qhs
Olanzapine 2.5 mg/day qhs 10 mg/day qhs
Quetiapine 25 mg/day qhs 100 mg bid
Note. bid=two times a day; qhs=every bedtime; qid=four times a day; tid=three times a day.
a
Upper limit of dosage to produce serum drug level of 8–12 ng/mL.
b
Upper limit of dosage to produce serum drug level of 50–60 ng/mL.
Source. Adapted from Bourgeois et al. 2003.
Dementia 157
seen with conventional antipsychotics. Most of the deaths were

due to heart-related events (heart failure, sudden death) or infec-
tions, primarily pneumonia. As such, nonpsychotic agitation
should be treated first with behavior strategies and/or other med-
ications that are not antipsychotics. In psychotic patients, the risk
of antipsychotic treatment must be weighed against the potential
harm, with family involvement when possible.
References
Association, 2000
Association Practice Guidelines for the Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders:
Bourgeois JA, Seaman JS, Servis ME: Delirium, dementia, and amnestic disor-
ders, in The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Clinical Psychia-
try, 4th Edition. Edited by Hales RE, Yudofsky SC. Washington, DC,
American Psychiatric Publishing, 2003, pp 259–308
Neurology, 2nd Edition. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing,
2002
Lipton AM, Weiner MF: Differential diagnosis, in The Dementias: Diagnosis,
Treatment, and Research, 3rd Edition. Edited by Weiner MF, Lipton AM.
Rosack J: FDA orders new warning on atypical antipsychotics. Psychiatr News
40:1, 2005
9
Factitious Disorders and
Somatoform Disorders
Overview
• Factitious disorder is the intentional production of symptoms with-
out external gain.
• Malingering is the intentional production of symptoms for exter-
nal incentives (e.g., to obtain insurance).
• Somatoform disorders are not under voluntary control; they were
originally designated as “hysteria” and studied extensively by
Breuer and Freud.
Assessment is aided by collateral sources such as family members

and prior medical records.
Factitious Disorder
Leamon et al. (2007) have described the symptoms and signs of factitious
disorder and the common characteristics of patients with this disorder.
Table 9–1 presents the DSM-IV-TR (American Psychiatric Association
2000) diagnostic criteria for factitious disorder.
Symptoms of factitious disorder may be subjective (e.g., complaints
of abdominal pain), objective but self-inflicted (e.g., self-induced infec-
tion of a wound, tampering with lab specimens), or an exaggeration of
an existing medical condition (e.g., simulating a grand mal seizure with
159
TABLE 9–1. DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for factitious disorder
A. Intentional production or feigning of physical or psychological signs or

symptoms.
B. The motivation for the behavior is to assume the sick role.
C. External incentives for the behavior (such as economic gain, avoiding
legal responsibility, or improving physical well-being, as in
malingering) are absent.
Code based on type:
300.16 With predominantly psychological signs and
symptoms: if psychological signs and symptoms predominate in
the clinical presentation
300.19 With predominantly physical signs and symptoms: if
physical signs and symptoms predominate in the clinical presentation
300.19 With combined psychological and physical signs and
symptoms: if both psychological and physical signs and symptoms
are present but neither predominates in the clinical presentation
a prior history of a seizure disorder, reporting that mild tension head-

aches are debilitating).
Common characteristics of patients with factitious disorder:
• Young and female

• Described as passive and immature
• Have health-related jobs or training
• Often report single system complaints
Signs of factitious disorder:
• Discrepancies between objective findings

• Inconsistencies in reported symptoms
• Course of illness may be markedly atypical
• Unusual acquiescence to invasive procedure
• Quarrelsome with staff (especially regarding obtaining previous
records)
• Unexplained medical supplies or medications in the patient’s
possession
Factitious Disorders and Somatoform Disorders 161
Munchausen Syndrome
Munchausen syndrome is a subtype of factitious disorder that is more
dramatic and life-threatening. About 10% of factitious disorder cases are
considered Munchausen syndrome.
• Patients present with predominantly physical signs and symptoms.

• Patients often present to multiple emergency rooms, with many
hospital admissions (Leamon et al. 2003).
Factitious Disorder by Proxy

Factitious disorder by proxy (FDBP), also referred to as Munchausen by
proxy, often goes undetected. Cases may take months to years to identify;
the average time to detection is 14.2 months. Most cases are identified in
inpatient medical settings (Rogers 2004).
The following are common signs of FDBP (Leamon et al. 2003):
• One parent (usually the father) is uninvolved.

• The child is taken to multiple care providers.
• The parent is not reassured by normal findings and advocates for
invasive or painful tests.
• Signs and symptoms do not occur when the patient is away from
the parent.
• Another child in the family has a history of unexplained illness or
death.
Table 9–2 presents the DSM-IV-TR research criteria for FDBP.
• Mood disorders
• Dissociative disorders
• Malingering (in which external motivation is present, such as a
patient who presents as psychotic to avoid legal responsibilities)
Treatment
Patients with factitious disorder frequently refuse psychiatric treatment.
When treatment is provided, the following guidelines are useful (Lea-
mon et al. 2007):
TABLE 9–2. DSM-IV-TR research criteria for factitious disorder by

proxy
A. Intentional production or feigning of physical or psychological signs or

symptoms in another person who is under the individual’s care.
B. The motivation for the perpetrator’s behavior is to assume the sick role
by proxy.
C. External incentives for the behavior (such as economic gain) are
absent.
D. The behavior is not better accounted for by another mental disorder.
• Use an indirect, nonconfrontational approach.

• Multiple treaters should work together as a team.
• Treat any genuine concomitant illness or comorbid condition
(e.g., depression).
• Allow the patient to tacitly give up the factitious symptoms, and
do not expect acknowledgment of the deception.
• Psychotherapy may address underlying psychodynamic issues
and behavioral strategies may be used, but there is no clinical evi-
dence to support a particular approach.
• Take steps to protect the child and determine legal requirements
in cases of abuse.
Malingering
Malingering is the intentional production of false or exaggerated physi-
cal or psychological symptoms which is motivated by external gains
(e.g., avoiding a legal obligation or gaining economically). Malingering
is not considered a mental disorder or psychiatric illness in DSM-IV-TR
and is classified under “Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clini-
cal Attention” on Axis I.
Signs
Malingering should be suspected if any combination of the following
signs is noted (Leamon et al. 2003):
• The individual is referred for evaluation by an attorney.

• The individual’s claims do not match objective findings.

• The individual is uncooperative with the evaluation and treat-
ment.
• Antisocial personality disorder is present.
Hallucinations and delusions may be signs of malingering in some

cases.
HALLUCINATIONS
• Hallucinations are continuous rather than intermittent.
• Visual hallucinations are in black and white.
• The individual is unable to state strategies to diminish voices.
DELUSIONS
• The individual is eager to discuss delusions.
• The delusions have bizarre content without disorganized thinking.
• The delusions have abrupt onset or termination.
• The individual has elaborate delusions that lack common para-
noid, grandiose, or religious themes.
Treatment
In responding to malingering, the clinician may confront the individual
in a way that allows the person to save face, for example: “The symptoms
you are reporting are not consistent with any known mental illness.”
However, malingering patients will often be defensive and refuse to ac-
cept the diagnosis (Leamon et al. 2007).
Somatoform Disorders
Somatoform disorders include somatization disorder, undifferentiated
somatization disorder, conversion disorder, pain disorder, hypochondri-
asis, and body dysmorphic disorder.
• The physical symptoms suggest physical illness, but there are no

known organic findings or physiological mechanisms.
• In contrast to factitious disorder or malingering, somatoform dis-
order symptoms are not under voluntary control.
Somatization Disorder
Table 9–3 presents the DSM-IV-TR criteria for somatization disorder.
This disorder has the following characteristics:
• Multiple unexplained complaints

• Stable over time
• Familial
• Rarely totally remits
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
The following physical disorders may be confused with somatization
disorder (Yutzy 2003):
• Multiple sclerosis
• Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
• Acute intermittent porphyria
• Hemochromatosis
The following psychiatric disorders may be confused with somatiza-

tion disorder (Cloninger 1994):
• Anxiety disorder
• Panic disorder
• Mood disorders (physical symptoms should resolve with treat-
ment of mood disorder)
• Schizophrenia
TREATMENT
Somatization disorder is difficult to treat, and there is a dearth of empir-
ical data to support one treatment over another. It is often treated in the
primary care setting.
The following list provides tips for working with a patient with somatization
disorder:
• Acknowledge the patient’s pain and suffering.

• Communicate to the patient that you are interested in providing
care.
TABLE 9–3. DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for somatization

disorder
A. A history of many physical complaints beginning before age 30 years

that occur over a period of several years and result in treatment being
sought or significant impairment in social, occupational, or other
important areas of functioning.
B. Each of the following criteria must have been met, with individual
symptoms occurring at any time during the course of the disturbance:
(1) four pain symptoms: a history of pain related to at least four
different sites or functions (e.g., head, abdomen, back, joints,
extremities, chest, rectum, during menstruation, during sexual
intercourse, or during urination)
(2) two gastrointestinal symptoms: a history of at least two
gastrointestinal symptoms other than pain (e.g., nausea, bloating,
vomiting other than during pregnancy, diarrhea, or intolerance of
several different foods)
(3) one sexual symptom: a history of at least one sexual or
reproductive symptom other than pain (e.g., sexual indifference,
erectile or ejaculatory dysfunction, irregular menses, excessive
menstrual bleeding, vomiting throughout pregnancy)
(4) one pseudoneurological symptom: a history of at least one
symptom or deficit suggesting a neurological condition not
limited to pain (conversion symptoms such as impaired
coordination or balance, paralysis or localized weakness, difficulty
swallowing or lump in throat, aphonia, urinary retention,
hallucinations, loss of touch or pain sensation, double vision,
blindness, deafness, seizures; dissociative symptoms such as
amnesia; or loss of consciousness other than fainting)
C. Either (1) or (2):
(1) after appropriate investigation, each of the symptoms in criterion
B cannot be fully explained by a known general medical condition
or the direct effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a
medication)
TABLE 9–3. DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for somatization

(2) when there is a related general medical condition, the physical

complaints or resulting social or occupational impairment are in
excess of what would be expected from the history, physical
examination, or laboratory findings
D. The symptoms are not intentionally produced or feigned (as in
factitious disorder or malingering).
• Inform the patient of the diagnosis without confrontation, and

describe it in a positive light.
• Advise the patient that he or she is not “crazy.”
• Assure the patient that the possibility of undiscovered physical
illness will be assessed on a continuing basis.
• Stress that psychiatric care is supplementary and does not replace
medical care.
• Place firm limits on excessive demands, manipulating, or atten-
tion seeking.
• Consider regular medical appointments (e.g., 15 minutes every
2 weeks), whether or not a symptom is present. This may give
the patient the support needed while not reinforcing the need
for symptoms.
Undifferentiated Somatoform Disorder

Table 9–4 presents the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for undifferenti-
ated somatoform disorder.
• Full somatization disorder
• Depression
TREATMENT
• Supportive psychotherapy may be helpful.
• A substantial number of patients improve with no therapy.
• Anxious and depressive symptoms should be treated.
TABLE 9–4. DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for undifferentiated

somatoform disorder
A. One or more physical complaints (e.g., fatigue, loss of appetite,

gastrointestinal or urinary complaints).
B. Either (1) or (2):
(1) after appropriate investigation, the symptoms cannot be fully
explained by a known general medical condition or the direct
effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication)
(2) when there is a related general medical condition, the physical
complaints or resulting social or occupational impairment is in
excess of what would be expected from the history, physical
examination, or laboratory findings
C. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in
D. The duration of the disturbance is at least 6 months.
E. The disturbance is not better accounted for by another mental
disorder (e.g., another somatoform disorder, sexual dysfunction,
mood disorder, anxiety disorder, sleep disorder, or psychotic disorder).
F. The symptom is not intentionally produced or feigned (as in factitious
disorder or malingering).
Conversion Disorder
Patients with conversion disorder present with nonintentional symp-
toms of deficits affecting voluntary motor or sensory function, such as
• Impaired coordination or balance,

• Paralysis or weakness,
• Blindness or double vision, or
• Seizures with a voluntary motor or sensory component.
Table 9–5 presents the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for conversion

disorder. Symptoms often occur in the context of a conflictual situation.
Single episodes usually involve only one system. A narcoanalytic inter-
view (interviewing a patient under the influence of amobarbital) should
be used based on case reports only.
TABLE 9–5. DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for conversion disorder
A. One or more symptoms or deficits affecting voluntary motor or

sensory function that suggest a neurological or other general medical
condition.
B. Psychological factors are judged to be associated with the symptom
or deficit because the initiation or exacerbation of the symptom or
deficit is preceded by conflicts or other stressors.
C. The symptom or deficit is not intentionally produced or feigned (as in
D. The symptom or deficit cannot, after appropriate investigation, be
fully explained by a general medical condition, or by the direct effects
of a substance, or as a culturally sanctioned behavior or experience.
E. The symptom or deficit causes clinically significant distress or
functioning or warrants medical evaluation.
F. The symptom or deficit is not limited to pain or sexual dysfunction,
does not occur exclusively during the course of somatization disorder,
and is not better accounted for by another mental disorder.
Specify type of symptom or deficit:
With motor symptom or deficit
With sensory symptom or deficit
With seizures or convulsions
With mixed presentation
• Physical illness (neurological disorder most common)
• Multiple sclerosis
• Myasthenia gravis
• Periodic paralysis
• Myoglobinuric myopathy
• Polymyositis
• Other acquired myopathies
• Guillain-Barré syndrome
TREATMENT
• Work in collaboration with the medical colleague who referred
the patient instead of taking a purely psychiatric approach.
(Patients with acute conversion disorder most often present to the
emergency department or primary care setting.)
• Refer the patient for a complete medical and neurological evalu-
ation. A considerable number of patients initially diagnosed with
conversion disorder have undiagnosed medical conditions.
• Work with the patient to develop more adaptive coping skills.
• Treat any comorbid psychiatric disorder.
Pain Disorder
Pain disorder (Table 9–6) is similar to conversion disorder but is more
chronic and the symptom is pain (e.g., low back pain, headache, atypical
facial pain, chronic pelvic pain). The disorder is seen more often in fe-
males. A medical illness may be present but does not adequately account
for the degree of pain.
• Purely physical pain often fluctuates and is highly sensitive to
influence such as emotions and situation.
• Pain that does not wax and wane tends to have a psychogenic
component.
• Consider other somatoform disorders (which may be comorbid).
TREATMENT
• Analgesics, nerve blocks, and other surgical treatments are gener-
ally not helpful.
• Recognize that the patient’s pain experience is real.
• Discuss with the patient how emotional pathways (such as the
limbic system and descending spinal pathways) may influence
pain perception.
• Agents that affect both serotonin and norepinephrine result in
decreased pain perceptions from the periphery. At usual thera-
peutic dosages, these include amitriptyline, imipramine, and
duloxetine. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are
typically not effective in treating physical pain.
TABLE 9–6. DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for pain

disorder
A. Pain in one or more anatomical sites is the predominant focus of the

clinical presentation and is of sufficient severity to warrant clinical
attention.
B. The pain causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social,
C. Psychological factors are judged to have an important role in the
onset, severity, exacerbation, or maintenance of the pain.
D. The symptom or deficit is not intentionally produced or feigned (as in
E. The pain is not better accounted for by a mood, anxiety, or psychotic
disorder and does not meet criteria for dyspareunia.
Code as follows:
307.80 Pain disorder associated with psychological
factors: psychological factors are judged to have the major role in
the onset, severity, exacerbation, or maintenance of the pain. (If a
general medical condition is present, it does not have a major role in
the onset, severity, exacerbation, or maintenance of the pain.) This
type of pain disorder is not diagnosed if criteria are also met for
somatization disorder.
Specify if:
Acute: duration of less than 6 months
Chronic: duration of 6 months or longer
307.89 Pain disorder associated with both psychological
factors and a general medical condition: both psychological
factors and a general medical condition are judged to have important
roles in the onset, severity, exacerbation, or maintenance of the pain.
The associated general medical condition or anatomical site of the
pain (see below) is coded on Axis III.
Specify if:
Acute: duration of less than 6 months
Chronic: duration of 6 months or longer
Note: The following is not considered to be a mental disorder and is
included here to facilitate differential diagnosis.
TABLE 9–6. DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for pain

Pain disorder associated with a general medical condition:

a general medical condition has a major role in the onset, severity,
exacerbation, or maintenance of the pain. (If psychological factors are
present, they are not judged to have a major role in the onset, severity,
exacerbation, or maintenance of the pain.) The diagnostic code for the pain
is selected based on the associated general medical condition if one has
been established, or on the anatomical location of the pain if the underlying
general medical condition is not yet clearly established—for example, low
back (724.2), sciatic (724.3), pelvic (625.9), headache (784.0), facial
(784.0), chest (786.50), joint (719.40), bone (733.90), abdominal (789.0),
breast (611.71), renal (788.0), ear (388.70), eye (379.91), throat (784.1),
tooth (525.9), and urinary (788.0).
• Some data suggest that psychodynamic therapy and more tar-

geted psychotherapies, such as behavioral therapy, including bio-
feedback, may be helpful.
Hypochondriasis
• Patients with hypochondriasis may have a history of multiple
complaints without a clear physical basis.
• Fears of aging and death are common.
• Medical history is usually presented at great length.
• Patients often feel as if they are not getting proper care and switch
doctors frequently.
• Family and social relationships are often strained.
Table 9–7 presents the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for hypochon-

driasis.
• Neurological diseases (including myasthenia gravis and multiple
sclerosis)
• Endocrine diseases
• Systemic diseases
• SLE
TABLE 9–7. DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for hypochondriasis
A. Preoccupation with fears of having, or the idea that one has, a serious
disease based on the person's misinterpretation of bodily symptoms.
B. The preoccupation persists despite appropriate medical evaluation
and reassurance.
C. The belief in criterion A is not of delusional intensity (as in delusional
disorder, somatic type) and is not restricted to a circumscribed
concern about appearance (as in body dysmorphic disorder).
D. The preoccupation causes clinically significant distress or impairment
in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
E. The duration of the disturbance is at least 6 months.
F. The preoccupation is not better accounted for by generalized anxiety
disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder, a major
depressive episode, separation anxiety, or another somatoform
disorder.
Specify if:
With poor insight: if, for most of the time during the current
episode, the person does not recognize that the concern about having
a serious illness is excessive or unreasonable
• Malignancies
• Generalized anxiety disorder
• Delusional disorder
– Schizophrenia: Patients with schizophrenia will show other
signs of schizophrenia, such as peculiar thoughts and behavior
and hallucinations.
– Hypochondriasis: Patients with hypochondriasis are generally
able to acknowledge that concerns are unfounded.
TREATMENT
• Emphasize that psychiatric involvement is a supplement to, not a
replacement for, continued medical care.
• Hospitalizations, medical tests, and addictive medications are to
be avoided.
• The focus of supportive therapy should shift from symptoms to

social or interpersonal problems. No evidence supports one
method of therapy as superior to another.
• Treat any comorbid psychiatric disorder.
• Consider regular medical appointments (e.g., 15 minutes every
2 weeks), whether or not a symptom is present. This may give
the patient the support needed while not reinforcing the need
for symptoms.
Body Dysmorphic Disorder

The essential feature of body dysmorphic disorder (Table 9–8) is a pre-
occupation with an imagined defect in physical appearance or an exag-
geration of minor physical anomaly such as flaws of face or head (e.g.,
defects in hair [too much or too little], skin, shape of face, nose, ears);
flaws of body parts (e.g., genitals, breasts, buttocks, shoulders); and/or
overall body size. This disorder is commonly seen among people seek-
ing cosmetic surgery.
• Anorexia nervosa
• Gender identity disorder
• Major depression
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder
• Delusional disorder
TABLE 9–8. DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for body dysmorphic

disorder
A. Preoccupation with an imagined defect in appearance. If a slight

physical anomaly is present, the person's concern is markedly
excessive.
B. The preoccupation causes clinically significant distress or impairment
in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
C. The preoccupation is not better accounted for by another mental
disorder (e.g., dissatisfaction with body shape and size in anorexia
nervosa).
TREATMENT
• Antidepressants, especially SSRIs at a relatively high dose for at
least 12 weeks’ duration, may be helpful.
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy, consisting of elements such as
exposure, response prevention, behavioral experiments, and cog-
nitive restructuring, may be beneficial. Other psychotherapies are
not well studied but have some support in the form of case
reports.
• There is no evidence to support that surgery to correct the physi-
cal flaw is helpful.
References
Cloninger CR: Somatoform and dissociative disorders, in The Medical Basis of
Psychiatry, 2nd Edition. Edited by Winokur G, Clayton PJ. Philadelphia, PA,
WB Saunders, 1994, pp 169–192
Leamon MH, Feldman MD, Scott CL: Factitious disorders and malingering, in
The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Clinical Psychiatry, 4th
Edition. Edited by Hales RE, Yudofsky SC. Washington, DC, American Psy-
chiatric Publishing, 2003, pp 691–707
Leamon MH, Feldman MD, Scott CL: Factitious disorders and malingering, in
Board Prep and Review Course for Psychiatry. Edited by Bourgeois JA,
Hales RE, Yudofsky SC. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing,
2007, pp 245–249
Rogers R: Diagnostic, explanatory, and detection models of Munchausen by
proxy: extrapolations from malingering and deception. Child Abuse Negl
28:225–239, 2004
Yutzy SH: Somatoform disorders, in The American Psychiatric Publishing Text-
book of Clinical Psychiatry, 4th Edition. Edited by Hales RE, Yudofsky SC.
10
Eating Disorders
¡ nervosa and bulimia nervosa are most common in females,

with more than 90% of anorexia nervosa cases occurring in females. The
lifetime prevalence in females is approximately 0.5% for anorexia ner-
vosa and 1%–3% for bulimia nervosa (American Psychiatric Association
2000).
Assessments
The American Psychiatric Association (2006) Practice Guideline lists as-
sessments for patients with eating disorders.
History
• Weight and weight history
• Restrictive and binge eating
• Exercise patterns (may tend to stand vs. sit; may generate oppor-
tunities to be physically active; may be drawn to sports, athletics,
and dance)
• Purging behaviors (e.g., vomiting, use of laxatives or diuretics)
• Attitudes regarding weight, shape, and eating
• Obsessive behavior (e.g., frequent weighing, checking in mirror)
• Family history of eating disorders and obesity
175
General Medical Condition

(Baseline and Ongoing)
• Blood pressure (including orthostatic)
• Pulse
• Oral temperature
• Other cardiovascular parameters
• Height and weight (weight taken after voiding with patient in a
hospital gown)
• Body mass index (BMI)
• Dental examination referral
• Bone density exam (for patients who are amenorrheic for 6 months
or more)
• Electrolytes
In younger patients, growth pattern and sexual development should

also be assessed. Table 10–1 lists suggested laboratory assessments for
patients with eating disorders.
Anorexia Nervosa
2000) diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa. Morris and Twaddle
(2007) have described the features of this disorder:
• Onset is typically with onset of puberty and adolescence.

• There is a premorbid preoccupation with physical appearance
and weight.
• Unusual interactions with food are common, such as cutting food
into very small pieces, hoarding food but not eating it, and cook-
ing meals for others but not participating in eating the meal.
• Excessive exercise is common.
• Weight loss is often concealed.
• Common medical complications include amenorrhea, potassium
depletion, cardiac arrest, and osteoporosis.
TABLE 10–1. Suggested laboratory assessments for patients with eating disorders
ASSESSMENT PATIENT INDICATION
Basic analyses For all patients with eating disorders

Blood chemistry studies
Serum electrolytes
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN)
Serum creatinine (interpretations must
Eating Disorders
incorporate assessments of weight)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH); if indicated
free T4, T3
Complete blood cell count (CBC), including
differential and erythrocyte sedimentation rate
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine
aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase
(ALP)
Urinalysis
177
178
TABLE 10–1. Suggested laboratory assessments for patients with eating disorders (continued)
Additional analyses

Complement component C3a For malnourished and severely symptomatic patients. Serum magnesium
should be obtained prior to beginning certain medications if QTc is
prolonged. Note: During hospital refeeding, serum potassium,
magnesium, and phosphorus should be followed daily for 5 days and
thereafter at least three times a week for 3 weeks.
Blood chemistry studies
Serum calcium
Serum magnesium
Serum ferritin
Electrocardiogram
24-Hour urine for creatinine clearanceb
Osteopenia and osteoporosis assessments For patients with amenorrhea of more than 6 months’ duration
Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA)
Serum estradiol in females
Serum testosterone in males
TABLE 10–1. Suggested laboratory assessments for patients with eating disorders (continued)
Nonroutine assessments
Drug screen For patients with suspected substance abuse, particularly patients with
anorexia nervosa, binge/purge subtype, or bulimia nervosa
Serum amylase (fractionated for salivary gland
isoenzyme if available, to rule out pancreatic
involvement)
Eating Disorders
Serum luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle- For patients with persistent amenorrhea at normal weight
stimulating hormone (FSH); β-human chorionic
gonadotropin (HCG) and prolactin
Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and For patients with significant cognitive deficits, other neurological soft signs,
computed tomography (CT) unremitting course, or other atypical features
Stool for guaiac For patients with suspected gastrointestinal bleeding
Stool or urine for bisacodyl, emodin, aloe-emodin, For patients with suspected laxative abuse
rhein
Note. T3 =triiodothyronine; T4 =thyroxine.
a
Some experts recommend the routing use of complement component C3 as a sensitive marker that may indicate nutritional deficien-
cies even when other laboratory test results are apparently normal (Nova et al. 2004; Wyatt et al. 1982).
b
Boag et al. 1985. Creatinine clearance should be calculated using equations that involve body surface based on assessments of height
179
and weight.
Source. Adapted from Yager 2007.
TABLE 10–2. DSM-IV-TR criteria for anorexia nervosa

A. Refusal to maintain body weight at or above a minimally normal
weight for age and height (e.g., weight loss leading to maintenance
of body weight less than 85% of that expected; or failure to make
expected weight gain during period of growth, leading to body
weight less than 85% of that expected).
B. Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, even though
underweight.
C. Disturbance in the way in which one's body weight or shape is
experienced, undue influence of body weight or shape on self-
evaluation, or denial of the seriousness of the current low body weight.
D. In postmenarcheal females, amenorrhea, i.e., the absence of at least
three consecutive menstrual cycles. (A woman is considered to have
amenorrhea if her periods occur only following hormone, e.g.,
estrogen, administration.)
Specify type:
Restricting type: during the current episode of anorexia nervosa,
the person has not regularly engaged in binge-eating or purging
behavior (i.e., self-induced vomiting or the misuse of laxatives,
diuretics, or enemas)
Binge-eating/purging type: during the current episode of
anorexia nervosa, the person has regularly engaged in binge-eating or
purging behavior (i.e., self-induced vomiting or the misuse of
laxatives, diuretics, or enemas)
Course
• 50% achieve full recovery.
• 30% improve.
• 20% remain chronically ill.
• 50% will also develop bulimic symptoms.
• 1 out of 3 patients who recover will relapse.
• Mortality is due to suicide or cardiac failure.
• Healthy dieting to lose weight is not accompanied by amenorrhea
or other signs of adverse physiological effects.
Eating Disorders 181
• Anorexia nervosa typically manifests in adolescence; midlife onset

is rare. Especially in older patients, it is important to rule out other
medical conditions (Herzog and Eddy 2007):
– Diabetes mellitus
– Colitis
– Thyroid disease
– Inflammatory bowel disease
– Acid peptic disease
– Addison disease
– Intestinal motility disorder
– Brain tumor
Treatment
Patients with anorexia should be referred for individual and family
therapy with a component of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). Fam-
ily involvement is important. Family interactions and attitudes toward
eating, exercise, and appearance have an impact on eating disorders.
Group therapy can also be helpful.
Resistance to treatment is common. Involuntary hospitalization or
establishment of legal guardianship may be needed if the patient’s med-
ical condition is life-threatening.
MEDICATIONS
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are commonly used in
combination with psychotherapy and may be helpful in treating depres-
sive, anxiety, or obsessive-compulsive symptoms. However, recent data
suggest that the use of an SSRI following weight restoration does not re-
duce the risk of relapse (Walsh et al. 2006). Bupropion should not be used
in patients with eating disorders, because of the increased risk of sei-
zures. Calcium and vitamin D supplements are often recommended as
well as multivitamins containing zinc, which may accelerate an increase
in weight (American Psychiatric Association 2006; Bulik et al. 2007).
TREATMENT SETTING
While weight and BMI are important indicators of eating disorders,
they should not be the sole indicators of physical risk. According to the
American Psychiatric Association (2006) Practice Guideline, the most
important factors regarding the patient’s overall physical condition to

consider when choosing a treatment setting are
• Weight in relation to estimated individually healthy weight,

• Rate of weight loss,
• Cardiac function, and
• Metabolic status.
There are a wide range of treatment settings for eating disorders, and
specialized programs are not available in all areas. Evidence suggests
that inpatient settings with staff experienced in eating disorders have
improved outcomes compared with general inpatient units with inex-
perienced staff.
The American Psychiatric Association Practice Guideline (2006) sets
the following target goals for weight gain: 2–3 pounds per week inpa-
tient setting and 0.5–1 pound per week for outpatient setting.
Bulimia Nervosa
• Onset is typically in adolescence after attempts at dieting.
• About one-quarter of patients with bulimia nervosa have previ-
ously been diagnosed with anorexia nervosa (American Psychiat-
ric Association 2006).
• It is frequently comorbid with other disorders, especially mood
and anxiety disorders, personality disorders, and substance abuse.
• A key feature is binge eating.
• Self-induced vomiting, laxatives, and diuretics may be used after
a binge. Look for abrasions on the back of the hand and enamel
erosion on the teeth from self-induced vomiting.
• Common medical complications include dental complications,
potassium depletion, increased amylase, salivary gland enlarge-
ment, and arrhythmias.
• Mortality is not increased in bulimia nervosa, in contrast to anor-
exia nervosa.
Table 10–3 presents the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for bulimia

nervosa.
Eating Disorders 183
TABLE 10–3. DSM-IV-TR criteria for bulimia nervosa
A. Recurrent episodes of binge eating. An episode of binge eating is

characterized by both of the following:
(1) eating, in a discrete period of time (e.g., within any 2-hour
period), an amount of food that is definitely larger than most
people would eat during a similar period of time and under similar
circumstances
(2) a sense of lack of control over eating during the episode (e.g., a
feeling that one cannot stop eating or control what or how much
one is eating)
B. Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behavior in order to prevent
weight gain, such as self-induced vomiting; misuse of laxatives,
diuretics, enemas, or other medications; fasting; or excessive exercise.
C. The binge eating and inappropriate compensatory behaviors both
occur, on average, at least twice a week for 3 months.
D. Self-evaluation is unduly influenced by body shape and weight.
E. The disturbance does not occur exclusively during episodes of
anorexia nervosa.
Specify type:
Purging type: during the current episode of bulimia nervosa, the
person has regularly engaged in self-induced vomiting or the misuse
of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas
Nonpurging type: during the current episode of bulimia nervosa,
the person has used other inappropriate compensatory behaviors,
such as fasting or excessive exercise, but has not regularly engaged in
self-induced vomiting or the misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas
• Anorexic patients may also binge eat and purge.
• Binge-eating disorder includes eating binges but not compensa-
tory behaviors, such as purging or excessive exercise.
• Consider neurological disorders:
– Brain tumors (e.g., pituitary, hypothalamic)
– Kleine-Levin syndrome (excessive amounts of sleep, excessive
food intake, and uninhibited sexual drive)
– Klüver-Bucy syndrome (urge to put all kinds of objects into the

mouth, memory loss, extreme sexual behavior, placidity, and
visual distractibility)
• Consider gastrointestinal disorders:

– Malabsorption
– Ulcers
– Enteritis
Treatment
Evidence supports that CBT is the most effective single intervention.
Therapy may be individual or group. Most patients with bulimia need a
combination of CBT and antidepressant medication. Fluoxetine is the
best studied, but other SSRIs are likely effective.
References
Association, 2000
American Psychiatric Association: Treatment of patients with eating disorders,
third edition. American Psychiatric Association. Am J Psychiatry 163 (suppl
7 ):4–54, 2006
Boag F, Weerakoon J, Ginsburg J, et al: Diminished creatinine clearance in anor-
exia nervosa: reversal with weight gain. J Clin Pathol 38:60–63, 1985
Bulik CM, Berkman ND, Brownley KA, et al: Anorexia nervosa treatment: a sys-
tematic review of randomized controlled trials. Int J Eat Disord 40:310-320,
2007
Herzog DB, Eddy KT: Diagnosis, epidemiology, and clinical course of eating dis-
orders, in Clinical Manual of Eating Disorders. Edited by Yager J, Powers PS.
Morris J, Twaddle S: Anorexia nervosa. BMJ 334:894–898, 2007
Nova E, Lopez-Vidriero I, Varela O, et al: Indicators of nutritional status in re-
stricting-type anorexia nervosa patients: a 1-year follow-up study. Clin Nutr
23:1353–1359, 2004
Walsh BT, Kaplan AS, Attia E, et al: Fluoxetine after weight restoration in anor-
exia nervosa: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 295:2605–2612, 2006
Wyatt RJ, Farrell M, Berry PL, et al: Reduced alternative complement pathway
control protein levels in anorexia nervosa: response to parenteral alimenta-
tion. Am J Clin Nutr 35:973–980, 1982
Yager J: Assessment and determination of initial treatment approaches for pa-
tients with eating disorders, in Clinical Manual of Eating Disorders. Edited
by Yager J, Powers PS. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing,
2007, pp 31–77
11
Consultation-Liaison
Psychiatry
-liaison psychiatry refers to a psychiatrist rendering

care in a medical setting, such as an inpatient medical or surgical unit, a
medical emergency room, or an outpatient medical/surgical clinic. The
goals are to offer an opinion regarding diagnosis and treatment of psy-
chiatric or behavior problems, to ensure the safety and stability of the
patient within a medical environment, and to educate the staff regard-
ing problems that may arise from managing a psychotic, agitated, or
manipulative patient within a medical or surgical environment.
Consultation Documentation
The development of the medical-psychiatric history should include a
physical/neurological and mental status examination. The consultation
note should synthesize the data, provide a diagnosis, and recommend
appropriate testing and treatment. The following areas may need spe-
cial inquiry (Bronheim et al. 1998):
• Reason for referral. The consultee-stated versus consultant-

assessed reason for referral should be clarified.
• Medical/surgical illness. Many patients have complex medical
conditions, so the medical chart should be reviewed for pertinent
medical factors that could contribute to their current state.
• Pain management. It is important to conduct a detailed assess-
ment of all analgesics and adjunctive medications. It is essential to
185
have an awareness of how pain contributes to specific illnesses, as

well as how psychiatric disorders and symptoms contribute to
pain complaints and vice versa (e.g., anxiety in acute pain, depres-
sion in chronic pain).
• Medications or substance abuse. Psychiatric symptoms are fre-
quently caused by medications prescribed for medical disorders.
Analgesics, sedatives, anticonvulsants, anesthetics, psychotro-
pics, and anticholinergics are commonly associated with psychi-
atric symptoms (see Table 11–1).
• Disturbances in cognition. Determine if the change in mental sta-
tus is chronic and due to the underlying disorder (e.g., Alzhei-
mer’s disease) or acute (e.g., delirium) and occurring secondary
to the effects of illness, medication, or a combination of factors,
typically with a waxing and waning course.
• Psychiatric symptomatology and behavior. Consider whether the
behavior is a normal response to the stress of illness and/or hos-
pitalization. Explore prior response to illness or psychiatric treat-
ment.
Competency and Capacity for Health

Care Decision Making
Competency is a legal term; the designation of competency is made by
the courts, not by a psychiatrist. A patient deemed incompetent by the
courts will have a legal guardian.
A legally incompetent patient may not choose to give informed
consent. In an emergency where the guardian is not readily available,
document this fact as well as the risk to the patient of not rendering
immediate treatment, and contact the hospital administrator and the
patient’s family.
Although the consulting physician asks you to evaluate competency,
what you are actually doing is assessing the patient’s capacity to make
an informed decision. The assessment of capacity includes
• Communication of choice,
• Understanding of relevant information provided,
• Appreciation of available options and consequences, and
• Rational decision making (note that just because you do not agree
with the patient does not mean that the choice is not rational
[Simon and Shuman 2007]).
TABLE 11–1. Medical disorders that commonly cause or exacerbate psychiatric symptoms
SUBSTANCE ABUSE METABOLIC/
AND MEDICATION ENDOCRINE CARDIOPULMONARY
TOXICITY CNS DISORDERS INFECTIONS DISORDERS DISORDERS MISCELLANEOUS
Alcohol/drug abuse CNS infection Acute rheumatic Adrenal disease Arrhythmias Anemia
fever
Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry
Amphetamines Hypertensive Hepatitis Electrolyte imbalances Asthma Lupus
encephalopathy
Anabolic steroids Intracranial aneurysm Pneumonia Hepatic encephalopathy Congestive heart failure NMS
Benzodiazepines Migraine headache Sepsis Renal disease COPD Serotonin syndrome
Cocaine Normal-pressure Syphilis Thyroid disease Myocardial infarction Temporal arteritis
hydrocephalus
Ecstasy Seizures Urinary tract Vitamin deficiencies Pulmonary embolism Vasculitis
infection
Heroin Subdural hematoma
LSD Tumor
PCP
THC
Prescription drugs
Note. CNS=central nervous system; COPD=chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; LSD =lysergic acid diethylamide;
NMS=neuroleptic malignant syndrome; PCP=phencyclidine; THC =∆-tetrahydrocannabinol.
187
Source. Adapted from Williams and Shepherd 2000.
Delirium
Delirium is an acute, potentially reversible change in cognition, which may
include memory impairment, disorientation, or language disturbance or
development of a perceptual disturbance. Table 11–2 summarizes the
prevalence of delirium. The following are key features of delirium (see Ta-
ble 11–3 for more detail):
• The disturbance develops over a short period of time and tends to

fluctuate during the course of the day—that is, waxing and wan-
ing mental status (e.g., the person may be coherent and coopera-
tive earlier in the day, but at night might insist on pulling out
intravenous lines and going home to parents who died years ago).
• The ability to focus, sustain, or shift attention is impaired.
• Evidence from the history, physical examination, or laboratory
tests indicates that the delirium is a direct physiological conse-
quence of a general medical condition, substance intoxication or
withdrawal, use of a medication (Table 11–4), toxin exposure, or a
combination of these factors.
• The typical course of delirium is 10–12 days, but it can range from
1 week to 2 months.
TABLE 11–2. Prevalence of delirium

POPULATION PREVALENCE (%)
In general population ages 18 years and older 0.4

In general population ages 55 years and older 1.1
In hospitalized medically ill 10–30
In hospitalized elderly 10–40
In nursing home residents and those ages 75 years Up to 60
and older
In hospitalized patients with cancer Up to 25
In hospitalized patients with AIDS 30–40
In terminal illness near death Up to 80
Note. Rates in these populations vary depending on medical condition.
Source. Data from American Psychiatric Association 2000.
Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry 189
TABLE 11–3. Clinical features of delirium
Attention deficits Questions must be repeated because the

individual’s attention wanders.
Patient may be easily distracted by irrelevant
stimuli.
It may be difficult (or impossible) to engage
the person in conversation.
Memory impairment Patient cannot register new information.
Ask patient to remember several unrelated
objects or a brief sentence and have them
repeat after a few minutes of distraction.
Disorientation This may be the first symptom to appear.
Patient is usually disoriented to time and/or
place.
Disorientation to self is less common.
Speech or language Speech may be rambling, irrelevant,
impairments pressured, and/or incoherent.
Dysarthria: impaired ability to articulate
Dysnomia: impaired ability to name objects
Dysgraphia: impaired ability to write
Aphasia: impaired language comprehension
and production
Perceptual disturbances Misinterpretations, illusions, or hallucinations
Visual misinterpretations are most common.
There may be delusional conviction of the
reality of the hallucination, along with
emotional and behavioral responses.
Fluctuating course Prodrome (restlessness, anxiety, sleep
disturbance, irritability)
Acute onset
Changing symptoms
Source. Adapted from Hilty et al. 2007.
190
TABLE 11–4. Selected psychiatric side effects of medications
CLASS/DRUG EFFECTS
Anticonvulsants

Vigabatrin Agitation, lethargy, irritability, agitation, major depression, psychosis (“schizophrenia-
like,” in 2%–4% of treated patients), cognitive impairment
Topiramate Psychosis (6% of treated patients), depression, emotional lability, cognitive difficulties
Tiagabine Psychosis (0.8% of treated patients), depressive symptoms, sedation
Levetiracetam Irritability, sedation, psychosis
Anti-infectives
Cycloserine Dose-dependent side effects: depression, irritability (common), psychosis
Isoniazid Cognitive impairment, mood disorder, psychosis
Acyclovir Lethargy, psychosis
Foscarnet sodium Fatigue, mood changes, psychosis, dementia
Ganciclovir Sleep disturbances, anxiety, mood disorders, psychosis
Amphotericin B Delirium
Ketoconazole Decreased libido, mood disorders, psychosis
Griseofulvin Depression, psychosis, sleep disturbances
Chloroquine, mefloquine Anxiety, depression, suicidality, panic attacks, hallucinations, psychosis
TABLE 11–4. Selected psychiatric side effects of medications (continued)
CLASS/DRUG EFFECTS
Anti-infectives (continued)
Quinine Cinchonism (including vertigo, altered color perception, anxiety, confusion, delirium)
Corticosteroids Lethargy, sleep disturbances, anxiety, agitation, euphoria, depression, personality
Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry
changes, psychological dependence, psychosis, delirium
Cyclosporine A Anxiety, depression, psychosis, cognitive impairment, delirium
Interferon (α and β) Sleep disturbance, depression, suicidal ideation, cognitive impairment, delirium
Methotrexate Personality changes, irritability, delirium
Antineoplastic agents
Interferon, L-asparaginase, Delirium, lethargy, hallucinations, depression, psychosis
interleukin, isophosphamide,
methotrexate, vinblastine,
vincristine
Antiparkinsonian medications
L-Dopa (carbidopa or Visual hallucinations, depression, hypomania, sleep disturbance, abnormal dreams,
benserazide combinations) cognitive impairment, psychosis, agitation, delirium
191
192
TABLE 11–4. Selected psychiatric side effects of medications (continued)
CLASS/DRUG EFFECTS
Antiparkinsonian medications

(continued)
Apomorphine, bromocriptine, Sedation, psychomotor agitation, anxiety, akathisia, sleep disturbance, hallucinations,
cabergoline, lisuride, pergolide, psychosis, cognitive impairment, delirium
ropinirole, pramipexole
Selegiline Sleep disturbances, agitation, psychosis
Entacapone Sleep disturbances, hallucinations, delirium
Cardiovascular medications
Digoxin Visual hallucinations (classically, yellow rings around objects), delirium, depression
Beta-blockers Fatigue, sexual dysfunction more common than depression per se, possibly less effect
with atenolol
Methyldopa Depression, confusion, insomnia
Clonidine Depression
Source. Adapted from Turjanski and Lloyd 2005.
Assessment
The following assessments should be performed in a patient presenting
with symptoms of delirium (Hilty et al. 2007):
PHYSICAL STATUS
• History
• General physical and neurological examinations
• Review of vital signs and anesthesia record if postoperative
• Review of general medical and psychiatric records
• Careful review of medications, medication interactions, and cor-
relation with behavioral changes
MENTAL STATUS
• Interview with patient
• Interview with family members and/or nursing staff
• Cognitive tests (e.g., clock face, digit span, Trail Making Test)
BASIC LABORATORY TESTS

These tests should be considered for all patients with delirium.
• Blood chemistries: electrolytes, glucose, calcium, albumin, blood

urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, AST, ALT, bilirubin, alkaline
phosphatase, magnesium, phosphorus
• Complete blood cell count (CBC)
• Electrocardiogram
• Chest X ray
• Arterial blood gases or oxygen saturation
• Urinalysis
ADDITIONAL LABORATORY TESTS

These additional tests should be ordered as indicated by clinical condi-
tion.
• Urine culture and sensitivity (C&S)

• Urine drug screen
• Blood tests (e.g., Venereal Disease Research Laboratory [VDRL],

heavy metal screen, vitamin B12 and folate levels, antinuclear anti-
body [ANA], urinary porphyrins, ammonia level, HIV, erythro-
cyte sedimentation rate [ESR])
• Blood cultures
• Serum levels of medications (e.g., digoxin, theophylline, phe-
nobarbital, cyclosporine)
• Lumbar puncture
• Brain computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging
• Electroencephalogram (EEG)
It is important to differentiate delirium from dementia, which has a
more subtle onset and chronic memory and executive function distur-
TABLE 11–5. Differential diagnosis for delirium: WITCHED-TM
Withdrawal Alcohol, barbiturates, sedative-hypnotics, Wernicke’s

encephalopathy, Korsakoff’s syndrome
Infectious Encephalitis, meningitis, abscesses, syphilis
Trauma Head trauma, heat stroke, surgery, severe burns
CNS pathology Normal-pressure hydrocephalus, seizures, tumors,
hypertensive encephalopathy, bleeds, shock,
inflammation/vasculitis
Hypoxia Anemia, carbon monoxide poisoning, hypotension,
pulmonary or cardiac failure
Endocrinopathies Hyper- or hypoadrenocorticism, hyper- or
hypoglycemia, others
Deficiencies Vitamin B12, niacin, thiamine, hypovitaminosis
Toxins or drugs Medications, pesticides, solvents, other toxic agents
(lead, manganese, mercury), over-the-counter
medications, anticholinergic medications
Metabolic Acidosis, alkalosis, electrolyte disturbance, hepatic
failure, renal failure
Note. CNS=central nervous system.
Source. Adapted from Hilty et al. 2007.
bances. Also, patients with dementia have impoverished speech and

thinking, as opposed to the confused or disorganized speech seen in de-
lirium. Patients with dementia are more likely to have a consistent
mental status throughout the day. Table 11–5 explains the differential
diagnosis mnemonic WITCHED-TM.
Treatment
Table 11–6 presents examples of reversible causes of delirium and their
treatments.
The following are general guidelines for treating a patient with delir-
ium or agitation:
1. Prevent injury; clear the area.
2. Restrain the patient if necessary to prevent harm to self or others
(see guidelines for documentation in Chapter 1, “Assessment and
Documentation”).
3. Look for the basic etiology (e.g., delirium, pain, psychosis).
4. Identify situational stressors that can be mitigated.
5. Treat the patient pharmacologically if appropriate.
a. Use an atypical antipsychotic, such as olanzapine 10 mg po or
im, or ziprasidone 10–20 mg im (up to 40 mg/day), or the typ-
ical antipsychotic haloperidol 5 mg po or im. Watch for extrapy-
ramidal side effects. Use caution with patients diagnosed with
Alzheimer’s disease.
b. Alternate with lorazepam 1–2 mg po or im every 2–4 hours, if
not intoxicated with alcohol or barbiturates. Use lower doses in
the medically ill and elderly. Watch for paradoxical agitation.
Watch for respiratory depression in patients who are already in
poor respiratory status (otherwise, respiratory depression is
very rare).
6. Provide for the patient’s ongoing treatment and safety.
Fibromyalgia
The American College of Rheumatology criteria for fibromyalgia are as
follows (Wolfe 1990):
1. History of widespread pain of at least 3 months’ duration. Wide-
spread means pain in the right and left side of the body, pain above
and below the waist, and axial skeletal pain (cervical spine or ante-
TABLE 11–6. Examples of reversible causes of delirium and their treatments
196
CONDITION TREATMENT
Hypoglycemia or delirium of unknown etiology in which Tests of blood (usually finger stick to establish diagnosis
hypoglycemia is suspected Thiamine hydrochloride, 100 mg iv (before glucose)

50% glucose solution, 50 mL iv
Hypoxia or anoxia (e.g., due to pneumonia, obstructive or Immediate oxygen
restrictive pulmonary disease, cardiac disease, hypertension,
severe anemia, or carbon monoxide poisoning)
Hyperthermia (e.g., temperature above 40.5ºC or 105ºF) Rapid cooling
Severe hypertension (e.g., blood pressure of 260/150 mm Hg, Prompt antihypertensive treatment
with papilledema)
Alcohol or sedative withdrawal Appropriate pharmacological intervention
Thiamine, intravenous glucose, magnesium, phosphate, and
other B vitamins, including folate
Wernicke’s encephalopathy Thiamine hydrochloride, 100 mg iv, followed by thiamine
daily, either intravenously or orally
Anticholinergic delirium Withdrawal of offending agent
In severe cases, physostigmine should be considered unless
contraindicated.
Note. iv =intravenously.
Source. Adapted from American Psychiatric Association 2006.
rior chest or thoracic spine or low back). In this definition, shoulder

and buttock pain is considered as pain for each involved side. Low
back pain is considered lower-segment pain.
2. Pain, on digital palpation, must be present in at least 11–18 speci-
fied tender point sites. Digital palpation should be performed with
an approximate force of 4 kg. For a tender point to be considered
“positive,” the patient must state that the palpation was painful.
While fibromyalgia is a condition produced by central pain sensiti-
zation, patients with fibromyalgia are often difficult to diagnose, and
therefore psychiatric consultations are sought. Table 11–7 presents the
medical differential diagnosis for patients with chronic fatigue syn-
drome and fibromyalgia syndrome. Information about treatment is
rapidly evolving. Medications with FDA approval for treatment of fi-
bromyalgia specifically include pregabalin and duloxetine.
Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders

in the Medical Setting
Patients With Hepatic Disease
• Whenever possible, avoid psychotropic medications that require
extensive first-pass metabolism, such as bupropion, quetiapine,
sertraline, or venlafaxine. Duloxetine is not recommended in
patients with known liver disease.
• Medications that only require glucuronidation (temazepam, oxaze-
pam, and lorazepam) are preferred to drugs that require oxidation.
• As a general rule of thumb, decrease the dose of psychotropics
metabolized by the liver by 50% in moderate liver disease and by
75% in severe liver disease. Although lithium is excreted
unchanged by the kidneys, it may be difficult to manage due to
changes in fluid shifts and renal function in patients with liver
disease, especially cirrhosis (Crone et al. 2006).
Patients With Renal Disease

• While some sources recommend that patients with renal disease
receive two-thirds the ordinary or maximum dose of most psy-
chotropic medications, Cohen et al. (2004) found that most
patients with renal disease tolerate and require ordinary doses.
198
TABLE 11–7. Medical differential diagnosis for patients with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) and fibromyalgia
syndrome (FMS)
DIAGNOSIS SYNDROME DIFFERENTIATING CLINICAL FEATURES INITIAL WORKUP

Thyroid disorders CFS, FMS Hypothyroidism: cold intolerance, slowed relaxation Thyrotropin
phase of reflexes, weight gain, elevated cholesterol
Hyperthyroidism: heat intolerance, tremor, weight loss
Medications (statins) CFS, FMS Symptom resolution with withdrawal of medication Creatine kinase, aldolase
Sleep apnea CFS, FMS Daytime somnolence, motor vehicle accidents, witnessed Sleep study
nighttime apnea and snoring, hypertension
Spinal stenosis FMS History of osteoarthritis, degenerative disc disease, back Nerve conduction study,
pain with radiculopathy, sensory and /or motor deficits, electromyogram, MRI of
pseudoclaudication spine if neurological deficits
Anemia CFS Pallor Complete blood cell count
Note. MRI=magnetic resonance imaging.
Source. Adapted from Sharpe and O’Mally 2007.
• The newer antipsychotics, such as olanzapine and ziprasidone,

are probably best avoided in patients with renal disease. For the
management of agitation/delirium, use a traditional antipsy-
chotic, such as haloperidol. Less than 1% of haloperidol is
excreted in the urine, and it appears to be safe in patients with
renal disease (Cohen et al. 2004).
• Benzodiazepines are metabolized in the liver, so dose reduction is
not usually necessary in patients with renal disease (Cohen et al.
2004).
• Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors appear to be tolerated by
patients with renal disease. Fluoxetine is the best studied, and
renal function does not significantly alter serum levels of fluoxet-
ine or norfluoxetine. Sertraline is also commonly used and is
metabolized by the liver. Citalopram kinetics are similar and
appear to be minimally changed in patients with renal disease.
However, plasma concentrations of paroxetine are increased in
patients with renal impairment, and the recommended initial
dose should be halved (Cohen et al. 2004).
• Divalproex and carbamazepine may be useful in patients with
renal disease, but free serum levels of valproic acid may become
elevated. If lithium is necessary, dosing should occur after dialysis
(Cohen et al. 2004).
Cardiac Side Effects of Psychotropic Drugs

Psychotropic drugs can have cardiac side effects. Table 11–8 lists some
of these side effects.
Considerations for Organ Transplantation

Transplantation services often require psychiatric evalution as part of
the screening process. Suggested criteria are shown in Table 11–9.
Other Issues Commonly Seen in

Psychiatric Consultation
Pseudoseizures
The following are clues to a diagnosis of pseudoseizures (Cummings
and Trimble 2002):
• Normal EEG (ictal or interictal) and frequent seizures

TABLE 11–8. Selected cardiac side effects of psychotropic drugs

DRUG CARDIAC SIDE EFFECTS
Lithium Sinus node dysfunction and arrest

Selective serotonin Slowing of heart rate; occasional sinus
reuptake inhibitor bradycardia or sinus arrest
Tricyclic antidepressant Orthostatic hypotension; atrioventricular
conduction disturbance; type IA
antiarrhythmic effect; proarrhythmia in
overdose and in setting of ischemia
Monoamine oxidase Orthostatic hypotension
inhibitor
Phenothiazines Orthostatic hypotension; QT interval
prolongation; rare instances of torsades de
pointes
Second-generation Variable; QT interval prolongation
antipsychotics
Carbamazepine Type IA antiarrhythmic effects;
atrioventricular block
Cholinesterase inhibitors Decreased heart rate
• Status epilepticus (rare), especially with normal ictal or interictal

EEG
• Past psychiatric history, especially personality disorders
• Paramedical professions
• Variability of phenomenology, multiple seizure descriptions
• Failure to respond to conventional antiepileptic drugs with some
of the features listed above
• Pelvic thrusting seen during the attack (very rarely seen with
frontal seizures)
• Crying and emotional displays after the attack
Psychological Factors Influencing Drug Refusal

Simon and Shuman (2007) listed the following psychological factors in-
fluencing drug refusal:
• Transference and countertransference issues

TABLE 11–9. Biopsychosocial screening criteria for solid organ

transplantation
Absolute contraindications
• Active substance abuse
• Psychosis significantly limiting informed consent or compliance
• Refusal of transplant and/or active suicidal ideation
• Factitious disorder with physical symptoms
• Noncompliance with the transplant system
• Unwillingness to participate in necessary psychoeducational and
psychiatric treatment
Relative contraindications
• Dementia or other persistent cerebral dysfunction, if unable to arrange
adequate psychosocial resources to supervise compliance or if
dysfunction known to correlate with high risk of adverse
posttransplant neuropsychiatric outcome (e.g., alcohol dementia,
frontal lobe syndromes)
• Treatment-refractory psychiatric illness, such as intractable, life-
threatening mood disorder, schizophrenia, eating disorder, character
disorder
Source. Adapted from Skotzko and Strouse 2002.
• Fears about taking medications

• Prior adverse reactions to medications
• Hospital staff conflicts
• Influence of family and friends
• Nonadherence as a power struggle
• Primary and secondary gain from disabling symptoms
• Denial of illness
Treating Difficult Patients

A psychiatrist may be called because a patient is causing difficulties for
the staff, including being excessively demanding or critical or causing
discord among the medical staff. Frequently this type of patient sees
some staff members as “all good” and others as “all bad,” a defense
mechanism known as splitting. Splitting may cause significant discord
among the staff. In these cases, the psychiatrist should help the staff un-
derstand the situation, set firm boundaries with the patient, and encour-
age the staff to meet with the patient together.
References
Association Practice Guidelines for the Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders:
Bronheim HE, Fulop G, Kunkel EJ, et al: Practice guidelines for psychiatric con-
sultation in the general medical setting. Psychosomatics 39:S8–S30, 1998
Cohen LM, Tessier EG, Germain MJ, et al: Update on psychotropic medication
use in renal disease. Psychosomatics 45:34–48, 2004
Crone CC, Gabriel GM, DiMartini A: An overview of psychiatric issues in liver
disease for the consultation-liaison psychiatrist. Psychosomatics 47:188–205,
2006
2002
Hilty DM, Seritan AL, Bourgeois JA, et al: Delirium due to a general medical
condition, delirium due to multiple etiologies, and delirium not otherwise
specified, in Gabbard’s Treatments of Psychiatric Disorders, Fourth Edition.
Edited by Gabbard GO. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing,
2007, pp 145–158
Sharpe MC, O’Mally PG : Chronic fatigue and fibromyalgia syndromes, in Es-
sentials of Psychosomatic Medicine. Edited by Levenson JL. Washington,
Simon RI, Shuman DW: Clinical Manual of Psychiatry and Law. Washington,
DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2007
Skotzko CE, Strouse TB: Solid organ transplantation, in The American Psychi-
atric Publishing Textbook of Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry: Psychiatry in
the Medically Ill, 2nd Edition. Edited by Wise MG, Rundell JR. Washington,
Turjanski N, Lloyd GG: Psychiatric side-effects of medication: recent develop-
ments. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 11:58–70, 2005
Williams ER, Shepherd SM: Medical clearance of psychiatric patients. Emerg
Med Clin North Am 18:185–198, 2000
Wolfe F: Fibromyalgia. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 16:681–698, 1990
12
Emergency Psychiatry
chapter contains information on psychiatric emergencies, re-

gardless of setting, and evaluation and treatment tips for the psychiatric
emergency room or department setting.
Psychiatric Emergencies
The Unconscious Psychiatric Patient
Figure 12–1 illustrates the management of the unconscious psychiatric
patient.
The Potentially Violent Patient

The duty to warn third-party nonpatients of potential violent acts by pa-
tients has wide variability from state to state and is rooted in the 1976
decision of the Supreme Court of California in the Tarasoff v. Regents of
the University of California case. About half of the states have enacted
statutes pertaining to the duty of psychiatrists to warn potential victims
and contain a provision for immunity for disclosure. As described by
Kachigian and Felthous (2004), duty to warn rules generally apply in the
case of foreseeable violence, foreseeable victim, identifiable victim, and
specific time frame.
Dermatological Emergencies
Figure 12–2 presents an algorithm for a drug-related skin eruption. The
psychiatric drugs that most commonly cause rash are lamotrigine, car-
bamazepine, and oxcarbazepine.
203
Call patient by name

Sternal rub
ABCs
Vital signs
No blood pressure Normal blood pressure Normal blood pressure Low blood pressure
No heart rate Normal heart rate Abnormal heart rate Normal or abnormal heart rate
CPR Assess ECG IV fluids
IV fluids head trauma
AED
Yes No Normal Abnormal
Transfer to Transfer to
emergency Transfer to emer- Glucose Assess head Transfer to emergency
department gency department finger-stick trauma emergency department
(myocardial Head CT scan test (continue from nor- department (arrhythmia acute
infarction, (subdural hematoma, mal blood pressure, (arrhythmia) hypotension)
cardiac arrest) epidural hematoma, normal heart rate)
cervical transection,
other trauma) Normal
High
or low
Dextrose IV fluids
Thiamine insulin
Naloxone
Transfer to emergency
Responsive Unresponsive department
(diabetic ketoacidosis,
Keep and monitor Focused physical hyperglycemic coma)
(hypoglycemia, drug overdose, examination
Wernicke’s encephalopathy) Fever Assessment
Continue focused
Fever Normal temperature physical examination
Low grade High grade Findings No findings

Transfer to Transfer to Transfer to emergency Laboratory tests
emergency emergency department for CT scan (CBC, SMAC, ammonia thyroid function
department for department (brain herniation, tests, toxicoloty screen, drug levels)
CT scan (neuroleptic intracranial hemorrhage,
(sepsis, malignant syn- hepatic encephalopathy, Findings No findings
myxedema coma) drome, meningitis) mass lesion, CNS
infection, epileptic activity, Treat treatable causes, trans- Psychiatric
stroke, hypertensive fer to emergency department evaluation
encephalopathy, for life-threatening causes (catatonia,
drug abuse) (metabolic disturbances, drug conversion disorder,
overdose, toxin exposure) psychiatric coma)
Emergency Psychiatry 205
FIGURE 12–1. Management of the unconscious psychiatric patient

(opposite).
ABCs=airway, breathing, circulation; AED =automatic external defibril-
lator; CBC=complete blood cell count; CNS=central nervous system;
CPR=cardiopulmonary resuscitation; CT=computed tomography;
ECG=electrocardiogram; EEG=electroencephalogram; IV=intravenous;
SMAC=chemistry panel.
Source. Reprinted from Leibowitz S, Suarez RE: “The unresponsive psychiatric
patient,” in Handbook of Medicine in Psychiatry. Edited by Manu P, Suarez RE,
Barnett BJ. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2006. Used with
permission.
Stevens-Johnson syndrome is a severe systemic disorder that starts

with an erythematous rash 1–3 weeks after starting a medication. Char-
acteristic symptoms include target lesions and blisters especially of the
mucosal membranes, accompanied by fever and malaise.
Toxic epidermal necrolysis is similar to Stevens-Johnson syndrome but
occurs within days of drug initiation, and there are no target lesions.
Serotonin Syndrome (Serotonin Toxicity)

SYMPTOMS
Serotonin syndrome is a rare condition resulting from the combination
of serotonergic agents that leads to excess central nervous system sero-
tonin. The syndrome may be fatal. The symptoms of serotonin syndrome
fall into three main categories: neuromuscular excitation, autonomic ef-
fects, and mental status changes (Isbister et al. 2007).
Neuromuscular excitation
• Generalized hyperreflexia, especially in lower limbs; this symptom
is key to differentiate serotonin syndrome from other conditions
• Ocular clonus or nondirectional nystagmus
• Myoclonus (often spontaneous, especially in ankle)
• Shivering
• Tremor
• Hypertonia/rigidity
Autonomic effects
• Hyperthermia (severe if body temperature is > 38.4°C)
• Tachycardia
FIGURE 12–2. Algorithm for drug-related skin eruption.

Source. Reprinted from Valassis SA: “The unresponsive psychiatric patient,” in
Handbook of Medicine in Psychiatry. Edited by Manu P, Suarez RE, Barnett BJ.
Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2006. Used with permission.
• Diaphoresis
• Flushing
• Mydriasis
Mental status changes

• Agitation
• Hypomania
• Anxiety
DRUGS MOST LIKELY TO CAUSE SEROTONIN SYNDROME

• Drugs most likely to cause serotonin syndrome include monoam-
ine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) and any other serotonin agonists,
such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and me-
peridine. Serotonin syndrome with SSRIs is potentially lethal.
• A less severe serotonin syndrome may occur when combining
serotonergic drugs that do not include MAOIs, such as SSRIs plus
tryptophan or SSRIs plus fenfluramine.
TREATMENT OF SEROTONIN SYNDROME

The treatment of serotonin toxicity includes the following (see also
Chapter 14, “Pharmacotherapy”):
• Cessation of serotonergic medication;

• Supportive treatment, including maintaining airway, breathing,
and circulation; and
• Passive and active cooling of the patient.
Acute Dystonic Reaction

Acute dystonic reaction may be seen with high-potency conventional
antipsychotics and can include spasms of the neck, uncontrolled lateral
eye movements (oculogyric crisis), and laryngospasm (sudden and un-
controllable closure of the larynx), which may be life-threatening. Treat-
ment of acute dystonic reaction includes intravenous or intramuscular
administration of an anticholinergic agent (e.g., Benadryl [diphenhy-
dramine], Cogentin [benztropine mesylate]).
Lithium Toxicity
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
The signs and symptoms of lithium toxicity are summarized in Table 12–1.
TREATMENT
• Discontinue lithium.
• Hydrate patient.
• Perform a complete physical examination, including mental sta-
tus examination.
TABLE 12–1. Sign and symptoms of lithium toxicity
Mild to moderate (lithium level 1.5–2.0 mEq/L)

Vomiting
Abdominal pain
Dryness of mouth
Ataxia
Dizziness
Slurred speech
Nystagmus
Lethargy or excitement
Muscle weakness
Intention tremor
Moderate to severe (lithium level 2.1–2.5 mEq/L)
Anorexia
Persistent nausea or vomiting
Blurred vision
Muscle fasciculations
Clonic limb movements
Hyperactive deep tendon reflexes
Choreoathetoid movements
Convulsions
Delirium
Syncope
Electroencephalogram changes
Stupor
Coma
Circulatory failure
Severe intoxication (lithium level >2.5 mEq/L)
Generalized convulsions
Oliguria and renal failure
Death
Source. Reprinted from Marangell LB, Martinez JM: Concise Guide to Psychop-
harmacology, 2nd Edition. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing,
2006. Used with permission.
• Check serum electrolytes and lithium levels, and perform electro-

cardiogram.
• For acute ingestion, use induced emesis, gastric lavage, or acti-
vated charcoal.
• Administer hemodialysis for levels greater than 4.0 mEq/L.
Anticholinergic Intoxication
Table 12–2 lists the peripheral signs and central symptoms of anticho-
linergic intoxication.
The Psychiatric Emergency

Department
Psychiatric patients also develop medical illnesses; therefore, care must
be taken when ruling out medical conditions. It is unfortunate, but often
true, that any symptom in a patient with a known psychiatric disorder is
attributed to the psychiatric disorder. Be especially vigilant of patients
whose presentation is atypical and if there is an abrupt change or fluc-
tuations in mental status.
• All patients in the psychiatric emergency room should have a

urine drug screen.
• Patients who are an imminent threat to themselves or others or
who are unable to meet their basic needs may be committed invol-
untarily to a psychiatric facility. Procedures vary by state, but all
TABLE 12–2. Symptoms of anticholinergic intoxication

PERIPHERAL SIGNS CENTRAL SYMPTOMS
Mydriasis Visual hallucinations

Tachycardia Drowsiness
Hyperthermia Distortion of body image
Decreased salivation Amnesia
Dryness of skin and mucous Heat stroke (from hyperthermia at
membranes high environmental temperatures)
Facial flushing
Difficulty urinating
typically allow for detention for evaluation and treatment. Even

in committed patients, involuntary medication is not allowed
except in an acute emergency or if specifically authorized by the
court.
• Do not discharge an intoxicated patient, and do not give a new
psychiatric diagnosis to intoxicated patients. Ensure patient safety,
watch for withdrawal, and reevaluate when the patient is sober.
• For all patients, document disposition and its rationale.
Table 12–3 presents a triage checklist for patients presenting to an

emergency department with psychiatric problems.
The following information should be ascertained in a psychosocial
evaluation (Rosenberg and Sulkowicz 2002):
• Availability of a support system and the patient’s capacity to use it

• Dangerousness of a patient to self and others
• Psychiatric history and current psychiatric status
• Patient’s previous methods of coping with similar stressors
• Ability to conduct self-care measures
• Motivation and capacity to participate in the treatment process
• Requests of patient and family
References
Currier GW, Allen MH, Serper MR, et al: Medical, psychiatric, and cognitive as-
sessment in the psychiatric emergency service, in Emergency Psychiatry. Ed-
ited by Allen MH. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2002,
pp 35–-68
Isbister GK, Buckley NA, Whyte IM: Serotonin toxicity: a practical approach to
diagnosis and treatment. Med J Aust 187:361–365, 2007
Kachigian C, Felthous AR: Court responses to Tarasoff statutes. J Am Acad Psy-
chiatry Law 32:263–273, 2004
Rosenberg RC, Sulkowicz KJ: Psychosocial interventions in the psychiatric
emergency service, in Emergency Psychiatry. Edited by Allen MH. Washing-
TABLE 12–3. Triage checklist for patients presenting to an

emergency department with psychiatric problems
Identifying problem
Observe the patient’s behavior.
Have the patient describe the presenting problem.
Gather data from collateral contacts.
Check vital signs.
Look for indications of physical illness.
Check current medications.
Ascertain medical and psychiatric histories.
Assessing seriousness of problem
Determine whether the patient is at risk to self or others.
Determine whether the patient presents an escape risk.
Consider whether the patient’s symptoms may be due to a medical
problem.
Immediate nursing care measures
Assess how long the patient can wait for further evaluation.
Prepare the environment for the patient to wait safely (e.g., remove
potentially dangerous objects).
Determine what measures are needed to prevent an immediate medical
emergency.
Source. Reprinted from Currier GW, Allen MH, Serper MR, et al: “Medical,
Psychiatric, and Cognitive Assessment in the Psychiatric Emergency Service,”
in Emergency Psychiatry. Edited by Allen MH. Washington, DC, American Psy-
chiatric Publishing, 2002. Used with permission.
13
Child and Adolescent
Psychiatry
Developmental Milestones and

Theories
Figure 13–1 summarizes the major developmental theories regarding
children from birth to age 5 years. The American Academy of Pediatrics
(2004) lists the following developmental milestones:
• By age 3 months
– Brings hand to mouth
– Is able to hold objects
– Smiles at sound of parent’s voice
– Begins to babble
– Imitates some movements and sounds
– Follows moving objects with eyes
– Watches faces intently
• By age 7 months
– Sits with and then without support of hands
– Transfers objects from hand to hand
– Ability to track objects visually improves
– Responds to own name
– Responds to sounds by making sounds
213
– Uses voice to express joy and displeasure

– Enjoys social play (like peekaboo)
• By age 12 months
– Gets to sitting position without assistance
– Walks holding on to furniture
– Uses pincer grasp (e.g., can pick up a Cheerio)
– Responds to simple verbal requests
– Says “dada” and “mama”
– Babbles with inflection
– Looks at correct picture when the image is named
– Shy or anxious with strangers
– Cries when mother or father leaves
– Repeats sounds or gestures for attention
– Imitates gestures (e.g., waving)
• By age 2 years
– Walks alone using heel-toe walking pattern
– Begins to run
– Might use one hand more frequently than another
– Scribbles spontaneously
– Speaks at least 15 words (by 18 months)
– Uses two- to four-word sentences
– Follows simple instructions
– Recognizes names of familiar people, objects, and body parts
– Imitates behavior of others
– Exhibits increasing separation anxiety toward 18 months, which
fades by age 2 years
– Demonstrates increasing independence
– Begins to show defiant behavior
• By ages 3–4 years

– Hops and stands on one foot for up to 5 seconds
– Throws ball over head
– Draws a person with two to four body parts
– Uses scissors
– Tells stories
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 215
– Follows three-part commands

– Engages in fantasy play
– Cooperates with other children
– Dresses and undresses with assistance
– Negotiates solutions to conflict
– Imagines that objects may be “monsters”
– Views self as whole person involving body, mind, and feelings
• By ages 4–5 years

– Swings, climbs, hops
– Able to dress and undress unassisted
– Cares for own toilet needs
– Can count 10 or more objects
– Correctly names at least four colors
– Better understands the concept of time
– Wants to please friends
– Is more likely to agree to rules
– Is able to distinguish fantasy from reality
– Is sometimes demanding and sometimes eagerly cooperative
– Is aware of sexuality
– Shows more independence
Pervasive Developmental Disorders

Pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs) are disorders beginning in
early childhood; they include autistic disorder and Asperger’s disorder.
The prevalence of these two disorders among children and adolescents
in the U.S. population is estimated to be 4/10,000 and 0.26/1,000, re-
spectively (Table 13–1).
Pervasive developmental disorders are marked by severe impair-
ment in development resulting in three key impairments: social interac-
tions, communication, and interests.
FIGURE 13–1. Theories of development.
This figure is an approximate display of each listed author’s developmental scheme for comparison with other authors’
schemes. The phases shown do not have exact correlation with age (i.e., this figure is not to be read in columns). The phases
overlap, and neighboring phases may coexist. The theories of each author are not presented as exact equivalents of the sim-
ilar-age stages of other authors. The diagnoses listed at the bottom are those that some developmental theorists believe
match essential developmental fixations and arrests with future child and adult psychopathology.
Source. Reprinted from Marmer SS: “Theories of the Mind and Psychopathology,” in The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Clin-
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

ical Psychiatry, 4th Edition. Edited by Hales RE, Yudofsky SC. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2003. Used with per-
mission.
217
TABLE 13–1. Prevalence estimates of selected disorders among

children and adolescents in the U.S. population
DISORDER PREVALENCE ESTIMATE
Autistic disorder 4/10,000

Asperger’s disorder 0.26/1,000
ADHD 3%–5%
Conduct disorder 1.5%–3.4%
Oppositional defiant disorder 3%–10%
Tourette’s disorder 1/1,000 (boys)
1/10,000 (girls)
Mental retardation 1%–3%
Note. ADHD=attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Source. Data from Dulcan and Martini 2003.
Autistic Disorder
2000) diagnostic criteria for autistic disorder.
• Early diagnosis and intervention will improve outcomes.

• The mean age at which parents first become concerned about a
child with autism is 19.1 months.
• The mean age at which treatment is sought is 24.1 months.
• Diagnosis is often not made until after age 6 years (Scahill 2005).
• Current evidence does not support the theory that vaccines cause
autism (see www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/vaccines.htm).
SPEECH AND COGNITIVE DEFICITS

Among those with autistic disorder, about half will remain mute. Imme-
diate or delayed echolalia may be the only form of communication.
Most autistic children have mental retardation, and only 20%–30%
have an IQ greater than 70.
TABLE 13–2. DSM-IV-TR criteria for autistic disorder
A. A total of six (or more) items from (1), (2), and (3), with at least two
from (1), and one each from (2) and (3):
(1) qualitative impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at
least two of the following:
(a) marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal
behaviors such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body
postures, and gestures to regulate social interaction
(b) failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to
developmental level
(c) a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests,
or achievements with other people (e.g., by a lack of showing,
bringing, or pointing out objects of interest)
(d) lack of social or emotional reciprocity
(2) qualitative impairments in communication as manifested by at
least one of the following:
(a) delay in, or total lack of, the development of spoken language
(not accompanied by an attempt to compensate through
alternative modes of communication such as gesture or
mime)
(b) in individuals with adequate speech, marked impairment in
the ability to initiate or sustain a conversation with others
(c) stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic
language
(d) lack of varied, spontaneous make-believe play or social
imitative play appropriate to developmental level
(3) restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior,
interests, and activities, as manifested by at least one of the
following:
(a) encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped
and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal either in
intensity or focus
(b) apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional
routines or rituals
TABLE 13–2. DSM-IV-TR criteria for autistic disorder (continued)
(c) stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or

finger flapping or twisting, or complex whole-body
movements)
(d) persistent preoccupation with parts of objects
B. Delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas,
with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as
used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play.
C. The disturbance is not better accounted for by Rett’s disorder or
childhood disintegrative disorder.
BEHAVIORAL SYMPTOMS
• Changes in a familiar environment are distressing, particularly
for children who have mental retardation. They are resistant to
learning new activities.
• Patients maintain rigid routines (e.g., must eat particular foods,
must line up toys a certain way).
• Patients perform stereotyped, repetitive motor acts (e.g., hand
clapping, finger movements near the face).
• Motor development may be within normal milestones, but they
often display unusual movements such as hand flapping, body
rocking, and head banging.
• Patients may become preoccupied with specific topics (e.g., state
capitals, birth dates).
• Obsessions and compulsions may develop (e.g., repeatedly ask-
ing the same question, compulsively touching certain objects).
• Mood may be labile. Giggling and crying may be unexplained.
• Sleep disturbances (e.g., difficulty falling asleep, prolonged night
wakening) are common, particularly before age 8 years (Tsai
2004).
SOCIAL IMPAIRMENTS BY DEVELOPMENTAL LEVEL

Infancy
• Avoids eye contact
• Screams and cries to get needs met
• Shows little interest in the human voice

• Fails to posture to be picked up (arms raised)
• Shows little facial responsiveness
• Parents may suspect that child is deaf
Early childhood
• Continues to avoid eye contact
• Fails to seek out peer interactions
• May take parent by hand to get needs met but without appropri-
ate facial expression
• Fails to appreciate the feelings and thoughts of others
• Does not imitate behavior
• May passively allow contact (such as sitting in parent’s lap)
• Does not show age-appropriate stranger anxiety
• Does not look to parent for comfort
• Prefers solitary play and treats others as objects in play
Later childhood
• Lacks skills to initiate and maintain friendship
• May become passively involved in activities with peers
• Seldom initiates social interactions
• May develop attachment with parents or other family members
• Humor or expressions may be confusing
• May say things that are socially inappropriate
• May show extreme emotions of joy, fear, or anger but does not use
facial expressions in ordinary interactions; appears wooden
ASSESSMENT
The following assessment tools may be used in the diagnosis and eval-
uation of autistic disorder (Scahill 2005):
• Behavioral screening tools

– Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC)
– Checklist of Autism in Toddlers (CHAT)
– Childhood Autism Rating Scales (CARS)
• Physical examination
• Developmental, medical, and family history
• IQ testing
• Genetic testing
• Lead screening (if mental retardation is present)
– Metabolic testing (with neurological deficits or regression)
– Magnetic resonance imaging (with neurological deficits or
regression)
– Occupational therapy evaluation (with hypotonia or poor
coordination)
• Regression in normal development (regression is neither as
severe nor as prolonged as in autistic disorder)
• Rett’s disorder (occurs only in females and is marked by head
growth deceleration, loss of previously acquired hand skills, and
the development of an uncoordinated gait or trunk movements)
• Childhood disintegrative disorders (characterized by a pattern of
developmental regression which follows at least 2 years of normal
development)
• Asperger’s disorder (language impairment is absent)
• Schizophrenia (onset in childhood usually develops after years of
normal development)
• Selective mutism (communication impairment is limited to select
situations, and the social impairment is absent)
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder (obsessive thoughts, cleaning,
counting, and checking are less frequent in autism)
• Tourette’s disorder
• Lead poisoning for patients with mental retardation (Scahill 2005;
Tsai 2004)
TREATMENT
• The family needs education about the disorder, realistic expecta-
tions, and supportive resources. The school will be involved in
assessing special education needs.
• Pharmacological treatment is based on the targeted symptoms.
– Hyperactivity and inattention: methylphenidate, clonidine,

and atomoxetine
– Aggression/self-injurious behavior: antipsychotics
– Repetitive/stereotypic behavior: clomipramine, selective sero-
tonin reuptake inhibitors
• Behavioral therapy targets maladaptive behavior. It must be set-

ting-specific because autistic children do not easily generalize
from one setting to another.
• Sensorimotor therapies are based on the speculation that children
with autism may be over- or underaroused by normal levels of
sensory input. These therapies include sensory integration ther-
apy and auditory integration therapy (Tsai 2004).
• Patients may also require speech and language therapy, social
skills training, and special education services and vocational
training.
Asperger’s Disorder
Table 13–3 presents the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for Asperger’s
disorder. Treatment is similar to that described in the “Autistic Disor-
der” section, earlier in this chapter.
• Autistic disorder (patients with Asperger’s disorder do not have
delayed speech)
• Oppositional defiant disorder
• Affective disorders
• Schizophrenia
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder
Table 13–4 presents the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and Table 13–5 summarizes the
presentation of ADHD through the life cycle.
TABLE 13–3. DSM-IV-TR criteria for Asperger’s disorder
A. Qualitative impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at least

two of the following:
(1) marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors
such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures, and
gestures to regulate social interaction
(2) failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental
level
(3) a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests, or
achievements with other people (e.g., by a lack of showing,
bringing, or pointing out objects of interest to other people)
(4) lack of social or emotional reciprocity
B. Restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests,
and activities, as manifested by at least one of the following:
(1) encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and
restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or
focus
(2) apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines
or rituals
(3) stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger
flapping or twisting, or complex whole-body movements)
(4) persistent preoccupation with parts of objects
C. The disturbance causes clinically significant impairment in social,
D. There is no clinically significant general delay in language (e.g., single
words used by age 2 years, communicative phrases used by age 3 years).
E. There is no clinically significant delay in cognitive development or in
the development of age-appropriate self-help skills, adaptive behavior
(other than in social interaction), and curiosity about the environment
in childhood.
F. Criteria are not met for another specific pervasive developmental
disorder or schizophrenia.
TABLE 13–4. DSM-IV-TR criteria for attention-deficit/

hyperactivity disorder
A. Either (1) or (2):
(1) six (or more) of the following symptoms of inattention have

persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is maladaptive and
inconsistent with developmental level:
Inattention
(a) often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless
mistakes in schoolwork, work, or other activities
(b) often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play
activities
(c) often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly
(d) often does not follow through on instructions and fails to
finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (not due
to oppositional behavior or failure to understand instructions)
(e) often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities
(f) often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that
require sustained mental effort (such as schoolwork or
homework)
(g) often loses things necessary for tasks or activities (e.g., toys,
school assignments, pencils, books, or tools)
(h) is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli
(i) is often forgetful in daily activities
(2) six (or more) of the following symptoms of hyperactivity-

impulsivity have persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that
is maladaptive and inconsistent with developmental level:
Hyperactivity
(a) often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat
(b) often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which
remaining seated is expected
(c) often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it
is inappropriate (in adolescents or adults, may be limited to
subjective feelings of restlessness)
TABLE 13–4. DSM-IV-TR criteria for attention-deficit/

hyperactivity disorder (continued)
(d) often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities

quietly
(e) is often “on the go” or often acts as if “driven by a motor”
(f) often talks excessively
Impulsivity
(g) often blurts out answers before questions have been
completed
(h) often has difficulty awaiting turn
(i) often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g., butts into
conversations or games)
B. Some hyperactive-impulsive or inattentive symptoms that caused
impairment were present before age 7 years.
C. Some impairment from the symptoms is present in two or more
settings (e.g., at school [or work] and at home).
D. There must be clear evidence of clinically significant impairment in
social, academic, or occupational functioning.
E. The symptoms do not occur exclusively during the course of a
pervasive developmental disorder, schizophrenia, or other psychotic
disorder and are not better accounted for by another mental disorder
(e.g., mood disorder, anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder, or a
personality disorder).
Code based on type:
314.01 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, combined
type: if both criteria A1 and A2 are met for the past 6 months
314.00 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder,
predominantly inattentive type: if criterion A1 is met but
criterion A2 is not met for the past 6 months
314.01 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder,
predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type: if criterion A2 is met
but criterion A1 is not met for the past 6 months
Coding note: For individuals (especially adolescents and adults) who
currently have symptoms that no longer meet full criteria, “in partial
remission” should be specified.
TABLE 13–5. Presentation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) through the life cycle
DEVELOPMENTAL
STAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF ADHD COMMENTS
Infancy Frequent crying, difficult to soothe, sleep May cry to extent that it interferes with nutritional
disturbances, feeding difficulties intake, may be excessively drowsy or unresponsive or
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

sleep poorly because of overreactivity and restlessness
Preschool Motor restlessness, insatiable curiosity, vigorous Often difficult to distinguish from normal behaviors in
and sometimes destructive play, demanding of children this age; climbs on and gets into things
parental attention, excessive temper tantrums, constantly; often accidentally breaks toys and
difficulty completing developmental tasks household items; accidental injuries are common
School-age Easily distracted; engages in “off-task” activities; May call out in class inappropriately; fidgets excessively;
acts as “class clown”; displays aggression; has homework is messy and disorganized; academic
social deficits; has difficulty waiting turn, performance and peer relationships are affected, and
following rules, and losing gracefully; frequently failures in these areas lead to poor self-esteem and
becomes overly excited depression
227
228
TABLE 13–5. Presentation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) through the life cycle (continued)
DEVELOPMENTAL
STAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF ADHD COMMENTS

Adolescence Excessive motor activity tends to decrease, Impulsive symptoms may lead to breaking rules and
fidgetiness and inner restlessness may continue; conflict with authorities
family conflict, anger and emotional lability,
difficulty with authority, poor peer relationships,
poor self-esteem, lethargy and poor self-esteem,
driving mishaps
Adult Difficulty concentrating and performing sedentary May have employment difficulties, especially at desk
tasks, disorganization, forgetfulness, losing jobs; higher incidence of antisocial acts and arrests
things, failure to plan, trouble starting and than general population
finishing tasks, misjudging time, being
absentminded
Source. Adapted from Popper et al. 2003.
Symptom scales and other assessments may be useful to supplement

clinical information (Waslick and Greenhill 2004):
• Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)

• Conners’ Teacher Rating Scale
• Continuous Performance Test
• Language disorders
• Sydenham chorea
• Tourette’s disorder
• Conduct disorder
• Mental retardation
Treatment
PHARMACOLOGY
• Stimulants of the nonstimulant norepinephrine reuptake inhibi-
tor atomoxetine are the primary treatments. Use of stimulants
results in decreased appetite and may raise the risk of tics in
patients with a personal or family history of tic disorder. Growth
needs to be monitored. Use of stimulants may reduce the risk for
substance use disorder.
• Tricyclic antidepressants are rarely used.
• Other medications sometimes used in ADHD include bupropion,
modafinil, and α2-adrenergic agonists.
The use of these medications is discussed in more detail in Chapter 14,

“Pharmacotherapy.”
PSYCHOSOCIAL INTERVENTIONS
Psychosocial interventions in ADHD include behavioral modification
and cognitive-behavioral therapy.
Conduct Disorder and Oppositional

Defiant Disorder
Tables 13–6 and 13–7 present the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for con-
duct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder, respectively.
• ADHD
• Learning disabilities
• Mood disorder
• Dissociative disorder
• Seizures or other central nervous system dysfunction
Treatment
Skills training and pharmacotherapy are used in the treatment of con-
duct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder (Hendren and Mullen
2004), specifically:
• Problem-solving skills training (e.g., anger management, problem

solving, communication skills)
• Family treatments (e.g., parent management training, teaching
behavioral techniques, interpersonal problem solving)
• Social skills training
• Pharmacotherapy to treat aggression or comorbid condition
TABLE 13–6. DSM-IV-TR criteria for conduct disorder
A. A repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights

of others or major age-appropriate societal norms or rules are violated,
as manifested by the presence of three (or more) of the following
criteria in the past 12 months, with at least one criterion present in the
past 6 months:
Aggression to people and animals

(1) often bullies, threatens, or intimidates others
(2) often initiates physical fights
(3) has used a weapon that can cause serious physical harm to
others (e.g., a bat, brick, broken bottle, knife, gun)
(4) has been physically cruel to people
(5) has been physically cruel to animals
(6) has stolen while confronting a victim (e.g., mugging, purse
snatching, extortion, armed robbery)
(7) has forced someone into sexual activity
Destruction of property
(8) has deliberately engaged in fire setting with the intention of
causing serious damage
(9) has deliberately destroyed others' property (other than by fire
setting)
Deceitfulness or theft
(10) has broken into someone else’s house, building, or car
(11) often lies to obtain goods or favors or to avoid obligations (i.e.,
“cons” others)
(12) has stolen items of nontrivial value without confronting a victim
(e.g., shoplifting, but without breaking and entering; forgery)
Serious violations of rules

(13) often stays out at night despite parental prohibitions, beginning
before age 13 years
(14) has run away from home overnight at least twice while living in
parental or parental surrogate home (or once without returning
for a lengthy period)
(15) is often truant from school, beginning before age 13 years
TABLE 13–6. DSM-IV-TR criteria for conduct disorder (continued)
B. The disturbance in behavior causes clinically significant impairment in

C. If the individual is age 18 years or older, criteria are not met for
antisocial personality disorder.
Code based on age at onset:

312.81 Conduct disorder, childhood-onset type: onset of at
least one criterion characteristic of conduct disorder prior to age 10 years
312.82 Conduct disorder, adolescent-onset type: absence of
any criteria characteristic of conduct disorder prior to age 10 years
312.89 Conduct disorder, unspecified onset: age at onset is
not known
Specify severity:
Mild: few if any conduct problems in excess of those required to
make the diagnosis and conduct problems cause only minor harm to
others
Moderate: number of conduct problems and effect on others
intermediate between “mild” and “severe”
Severe: many conduct problems in excess of those required to make
the diagnosis or conduct problems cause considerable harm to others
Tourette’s Disorder
Table 13–8 presents the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for Tourette’s dis-
order.
The differential diagnosis includes the following conditions (King and
Leckman 2004):
• Other dyskinesias (e.g., myoclonus, choreoathetosis, akathisia,

and tardive dyskinesias)
TABLE 13–7. DSM-IV-TR criteria for oppositional defiant disorder
A. A pattern of negativistic, hostile, and defiant behavior lasting at least

6 months, during which four (or more) of the following are present:
(1) often loses temper
(2) often argues with adults
(3) often actively defies or refuses to comply with adults' requests or
rules
(4) often deliberately annoys people
(5) often blames others for his or her mistakes or misbehavior
(6) is often touchy or easily annoyed by others
(7) is often angry and resentful
(8) is often spiteful or vindictive
Note: Consider a criterion met only if the behavior occurs more
frequently than is typically observed in individuals of comparable age
and developmental level.
B. The disturbance in behavior causes clinically significant impairment in
C. The behaviors do not occur exclusively during the course of a psychotic
or mood disorder.
D. Criteria are not met for conduct disorder, and, if the individual is age
18 years or older, criteria are not met for antisocial personality
disorder.
• Psychogenic tics
• Stereotypes, as in PDD
Treatment
• Pharmacotherapy: α-adrenergic agents, while more benign, are
less potent. Antipsychotics are typical first-line pharmacotherapy.
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy (e.g., exposure and response pre-
vention)
• Habit reversal techniques
• Treatment of comorbid conditions such as ADHD and obsessive-
compulsive disorder
TABLE 13–8. DSM-IV-TR criteria for Tourette’s disorder
A. Both multiple motor and one or more vocal tics have been present at
some time during the illness, although not necessarily concurrently. (A
tic is a sudden, rapid, recurrent, nonrhythmic, stereotyped motor
movement or vocalization.)
B. The tics occur many times a day (usually in bouts) nearly every day or
intermittently throughout a period of more than 1 year, and during
this period there was never a tic-free period of more than 3 consecu-
tive months.
C. The onset is before age 18 years.
substance (e.g., stimulants) or a general medical condition (e.g.,
Huntington’s disease or postviral encephalitis).
Mental Retardation
Table 13–9 presents the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for mental retar-
dation.
Levels of Mental Retardation

• Mild: IQ 50–55 to 70
• Moderate: IQ 35–40 to 50–55
• Severe: IQ 20–25 to 35–40
• Profound: IQ below 20
Assessment
• Physical examination
• Chromosomal analysis
• Metabolic screening
• Computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging
• Learning disability
• Communication disorder
• PDD
TABLE 13–9. DSM-IV-TR criteria for mental retardation
A. Significantly subaverage intellectual functioning: an IQ of

approximately 70 or below on an individually administered IQ test (for
infants, a clinical judgment of significantly subaverage intellectual
functioning).
B. Concurrent deficits or impairments in present adaptive functioning
(i.e., the person's effectiveness in meeting the standards expected for
his or her age by his or her cultural group) in at least two of the
following areas: communication, self-care, home living, social/
interpersonal skills, use of community resources, self-direction,
functional academic skills, work, leisure, health, and safety.
C. The onset is before age 18 years.
Code based on degree of severity reflecting level of intellectual

impairment:
317 Mild mental retardation: IQ level 50–55 to approx. 70
318.0 Moderate mental retardation: IQ level 35–40 to 50–55
318.1 Severe mental retardation: IQ level 20–25 to 35–40
318.2 Profound mental retardation: IQ level below 20 or 25
319 Mental retardation, severity unspecified: when there
is strong presumption of mental retardation but the person’s
intelligence is untestable by standard tests
Treatment
The goal of treatment is to achieve the best-possible quality of life. Treat-
ment options include ((Szymanski and Kaplan 2004):
• Treatment directed at the underlying cause (e.g., hypothyroidism,

phenylketonuria)
• Behavior modification
• Psychotherapy (based on patient’s communication skills): may
include modeling of real-life situation problem solving
• Family-directed intervention
• Pharmacotherapy: should be used judiciously to treat specific
symptoms and to improve the quality of life. The frequency of
side effects in this population may be different from that of
patients without mental retardation. For example, patients with

Down syndrome may be very sensitive to anticholinergic drugs,
and some medications may cause further cognitive dulling.
Major Depressive Disorder

The characteristics of child and adolescent presentation of major de-
pressive disorder include the following (Weller et al. 2004):
• More somatic complaints

• Increased psychomotor agitation
• Increased mood-congruent hallucinations
• Increased comorbid anxiety
• Antisocial behavior
• Substance abuse
• Grouchiness
• Aggression
• Withdrawal
For more information on major depressive disorder, see Chapter 3,

“Mood Disorders.”
Bipolar Disorder
The characteristics of child and adolescent presentation of bipolar dis-
order include the following (Weller et al. 2004):
• Irritability with affective “storms” and aggressive temper out-

bursts
• Worsening of disruptive behavior
• Difficulty sleeping at night
• Impulsivity
• Explosive anger
• High rates of comorbidity (especially externalizing disorders)
For more information on bipolar disorder, see Chapter 3, “Mood Dis-

orders.”
References
American Academy of Pediatrics: Caring for Your Baby and Young Child: Birth
to Age 5. Edited by Shelov SP, Hannemann RE. New York, Bantam Books,
2004
Association, 2000
Dulcan MK, Martini DR: Concise Guide to Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 3rd
Edition. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press, 2003
Hendren RL, Mullen DJ: Conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder, in
The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Child and Adolescent Psy-
chiatry, 3rd Edition. Edited by Wiener JM, Dulcan MK. Washington, DC,
King RA, Leckman JF: Tic disorders, in The American Psychiatric Publishing
Textbook of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 3rd Edition. Edited by Wiener
JM, Dulcan MK. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2004, pp
709–726
Popper CW, Gammon GD, West SA, et al: Disorders usually first diagnosed in
infancy, childhood, or adolescence, in The American Psychiatric Publishing
Textbook of Clinical Psychiatry, 4th Edition. Edited by Hales RE, Yudofsky
SC. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2003, pp 833–974
Scahill L: Diagnosis and evaluation of pervasive developmental disorders. J
Clin Psychiatry, 66 (suppl 10):19–25, 2005
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Publishing Textbook of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 3rd Edition. Edited
by Wiener JM, Dulcan MK. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publish-
ing, 2004, pp 221–260
Tsai LY: Autistic disorders, in The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 3rd Edition. Edited by Wiener JM, Dulcan
MK. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2004, pp 261–316
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ican Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,
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Psychiatric Publishing, 2004, pp 485–508
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14
Pharmacotherapy
Antipsychotics
• Antipsychotic medications are effective for the treatment of a
variety of psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions,
and thought disorders, regardless of etiology.
• The term conventional is used to signify older or first-generation
antipsychotic drugs and to differentiate them from newer, atypi-
cal or second-generation antipsychotics. All conventional anti-
psychotics are equally effective when given in equivalent doses.
• Although the term atypical antipsychotic lacks a single consistent
definition, it generally implies fewer extrapyramidal side effects
(EPS), a decreased likelihood to produce hyperprolactinemia, and
superior efficacy, particularly for the negative symptoms of
schizophrenia.
• The efficacy and favorable neurological side-effect profiles of
atypical antipsychotics have led to the recommendation for their
uniform use as first-line agents—with the exception of clozapine,
the use of which is restricted because of the risk of agranulocytosis
(see “Clozapine” subsection later in this chapter).
Mechanisms of Action
• Underactivity of dopamine (see Table 14–1) in mesocortical path-
ways is thought to account for the negative symptoms of schizo-
phrenia (e.g., anergia, apathy, lack of spontaneity).
239
240
TABLE 14–1. Common receptors in psychopharmacology
RECEPTOR SUBTYPES COMMENTS

Dopamine (DA) 5 D2 is related to movement disorders. All neuroleptics bind to DA, and the
antipsychotic effect of typical neuroleptics is related to the intensity of DA
binding. It is abundant in striatum.
D1 has relevance in psychosis.
Clozapine has relatively greater affinity for D4.
Norepinephrine α, β Predominant in cortex, limbic system, and striatum
(NE) Type α2 is linked to depression.
Serotonin (5-HT) At least 11 5-HT1A is linked to anxiety and depression.
5-HT1D is linked to migraine.
5-HT2 is linked to depression, sexual function, and sleep.
5-HT3 is linked to nausea.
GABA A, B Linked to the benzodiazepine receptor
On activation, chloride channels open.
Inhibitory
Abundant all over brain
Type A linked to seizures and anxiety.
TABLE 14–1. Common receptors in psychopharmacology (continued)
RECEPTOR SUBTYPES COMMENTS
Acetylcholine Nicotinic, muscarinic Linked to memory and cognition; five types of muscarinic receptors now identified
Peptides Many Includes opiate-binding sites.
Glutamate NMDA, AMPA Related to seizures and memory; possible mood effects
Note. Many of these receptors have subtypes not noted here. AMPA=α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid;
GABA =γ−aminobutyric acid; 5-HT =5-hydroxytryptamine; NMDA=N-methyl-D-aspartate.
Pharmacotherapy
241
• Underactivity in the frontal lobes may serve to disinhibit meso-

limbic dopamine activity via a corticolimbic feedback loop. Over-
activity of mesolimbic dopamine is the result, which manifests as
the positive symptoms of schizophrenia (e.g., hallucinations,
delusions).
• Antipsychotic medications antagonize dopamine.
• Atypical antipsychotics have other properties as well. Some of
these appear to relate to antagonism of the serotonin type 2 recep-
tor (5-HT2), which is believed to account, at least in part, for the
superior efficacy and more favorable side-effect profile of atypical
antipsychotics.
Indications and Efficacy

• The most common indications for antipsychotic drugs are the
treatment of acute psychosis and the maintenance of remission of
psychotic symptoms in patients with schizophrenia. Atypicals are
considered first-line agents for the treatment of schizophrenia.
• Antipsychotic drugs are indicated for the treatment of bipolar dis-
order.
– All atypicals except clozapine and paliperidone have U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) indication to treat acute
mania.
– Olanzapine and aripiprazole have FDA indication to treat the
maintenance phase.
– Quetiapine and the combination of olanzapine with fluoxetine
have FDA indication to treat bipolar depression.
• Antipsychotic drugs are indicated for the treatment of psychotic

symptoms associated with drug toxicities, delusional disorders,
and nonspecific agitation.
• Low doses of antipsychotics may be effective in some patients
with borderline or schizotypal personality disorders, particularly
when psychotic ideation is targeted (Oldham 2005).
• Antipsychotic drugs may be used in augmentation therapy for
severe obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
• Tourette’s disorder may be controlled with antipsychotic agents;
haloperidol and pimozide are the most frequently used drugs for
this disorder.
Pharmacotherapy 243
Medication Selection
• The choice of antipsychotic medication is often determined by
anticipated side effects.
• Usually, atypical antipsychotics (except for clozapine) are best tol-
erated and are first-line agents.
• Clozapine is generally reserved for patients with refractory ill-
ness, because of the risk of agranulocytosis.
• Fluphenazine, haloperidol, and risperidone are the only antipsy-
chotic medications currently available as long-acting injectables
in the United States.
Risks, Side Effects, and Their Management

Many side effects of antipsychotic drugs as a class can be understood in
terms of the drugs’ receptor-blocking properties.
EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SIDE EFFECTS (EPS)

• When antipsychotics reduce dopamine activity in the nigrostri-
atal pathway (via dopamine receptor blockade), extrapyramidal
signs and symptoms similar to those of Parkinson’s disease result.
– EPS include acute dystonic reactions, parkinsonian syndrome,
akathisia, tardive dyskinesia, and neuroleptic malignant syn-
drome (NMS).
– Although high-potency conventional antipsychotics are more
likely to cause EPS, all first-generation antipsychotic drugs are
equally likely to cause tardive dyskinesia.
– The atypical antipsychotics cause substantially fewer EPS,
which is part of the reason they are recommended as first-line
agents.
– At high doses, risperidone exhibits EPS similar to the high-
potency conventional agents.
Acute dystonic reactions

• Reactions occur within hours or days of starting a high-potency
conventional antipsychotic.
• Dystonic reactions are characterized by uncontrollable tightening
of muscles, including spasms of the neck, back (opisthotonos),
tongue, or muscles that control lateral eye movement (oculogyric
crisis).
• Laryngeal involvement may compromise the airway and result in

ventilatory difficulties (stridor).
• An acute dystonic reaction should be treated with intravenous or
intramuscular administration of anticholinergic medication (see
Table 14–2). Because antipsychotic drugs have long half-lives and
durations of action, additional oral anticholinergic drugs should
be prescribed for several days after an acute dystonic reaction, or
longer if treatment with the antipsychotic drug is continued
unchanged.
Parkinsonian syndrome
• Parkinsonian syndrome has many of the features of classic idio-
pathic Parkinson’s disease: diminished range of facial expression
(masklike facies), cogwheel rigidity, slowed movements (brady-
kinesia), drooling, small handwriting (micrographia), and pill-
rolling tremor.
• The pathophysiology involves the presence of disproportionately
less dopamine than acetylcholine in the basal ganglia.
• Onset is gradual and may not appear for weeks after antipsychot-
ics have been administered.
• Treatment usually involves decreasing the level of acetylcholine.
Amantadine, a dopaminergic drug, often effectively attenuates
parkinsonian side effects without exacerbating the underlying
psychotic illness.
Akathisia
• Akathisia is a subjective feeling of restlessness in the lower
extremities, often manifested as an inability to sit still.
• This side effect occurs shortly after starting a conventional anti-
psychotic or aripiprazole.
• Treatment involves switching from a conventional antipsychotic
to an atypical antipsychotic, adding a β-adrenergic-blocking drug
(particularly propranolol, up to 120 mg/day), lowering the dose
of aripiprazole, or switching from aripiprazole to a different atyp-
ical antipsychotic.
Tardive dyskinesia
• Tardive dyskinesia is characterized by involuntary choreoathe-
toid movements of the face, trunk, or extremities.
TABLE 14–2. Drugs commonly used to treat acute extrapyramidal side effects
DRUG DRUG TYPE USUAL DOSAGE INDICATIONS
Amantadine (Symmetrel) Dopaminergic agent 100 mg po bid Parkinsonian syndrome

Benztropine (Cogentin) Anticholinergic agent 1–2 mg po bid Dystonia, parkinsonian syndrome
2 mg iva Acute dystonia
Diphenhydramine (Benadryl) Anticholinergic agent 25–50 mg po tid Dystonia, parkinsonian syndrome
a
25 mg im or iv Acute dystonia
Pharmacotherapy
Propranolol (Inderal) Beta-blocker 20 mg po tid Akathisia
1 mg iv
Trihexyphenidyl (Artane) Anticholinergic agent 5–10 mg po bid Dystonia, parkinsonian syndrome
Note. bid=twice a day; im=intramuscularly; iv=intravenously; po =orally; tid=three times a day.
a
Follow with oral medication.
245
• This side effect has a cumulative incidence of 5% per year of expo-

sure among young adults and a prevalence of 30% after 1 year of
treatment with conventional antipsychotics among elderly
patients.
• Clozapine seems to carry little or no risk of inducing tardive dys-
kinesia.
• If discontinuation of the antipsychotic drug is possible, gradual
improvement of tardive dyskinesia may occur.
• Tardive dyskinesia often worsens initially with tapering of the
antipsychotic dose, a phenomenon known as withdrawal-emergent
dyskinesia. This may occur when a conventional antipsychotic is
replaced with an atypical antipsychotic; it typically resolves within
6 weeks.
• There is no definitive treatment for tardive dyskinesia.
• In several small studies, α-tocopherol (vitamin E) was shown to be
of some benefit; the typical dosage of vitamin E is 1,600 IU/day.
Neuroleptic malignant syndrome

• Neuroleptic malignant syndrome is potentially life-threatening.
• This side effect occurs most frequently with high-potency conven-
tional antipsychotic drugs, but may appear during treatment with
any antipsychotic agent, including atypical antipsychotics.
• Patients with NMS typically exhibit marked muscle rigidity,
fever, autonomic instability, increased white blood cell count
(WBC; >15,000/mm3), increased creatine phosphokinase levels
(>300 U/mL), and delirium. Muscle breakdown can lead to myo-
globinuria and acute renal failure.
• Treatment includes discontinuation of the antipsychotic, admin-
istration of intravenous fluids and antipyretic agents, use of cool-
ing blankets, and the use of dantrolene or bromocriptine.
– Bromocriptine is given initially at 1.25–2.5 mg bid; it may be
increased to 10 mg tid.
– Dantrolene is given at a dose of 1 mg/kg by rapid intravenous
push; it should be continued until the symptoms are reversed
or until a maximum dose of 10 mg/kg has been given. The oral
dosage is 4–8 mg/kg/day in four divided doses; this regimen
should be continued until all symptoms resolve. Because the
potential for hepatotoxicity is significant, dantrolene should
not be given to patients with liver dysfunction.
Pharmacotherapy 247
ANTICHOLINERGIC SIDE EFFECTS

Anticholinergic side effects are categorized as peripheral or central. The
most common peripheral side effects are dry mouth, decreased sweating,
decreased bronchial secretions, blurred vision, difficulty with urination,
constipation, and tachycardia. These side effects are treated with be-
thanechol, a cholinergic drug that does not cross the blood-brain barrier,
25–50 mg tid.
Central side effects of anticholinergic drugs include impairment in
concentration, attention, and memory. These symptoms need to be dis-
tinguished from those caused by the patient’s psychosis. In cases of tox-
icity, anticholinergic delirium—which includes hot, dry skin; dry mucous
membranes; dilated pupils; absent bowel sounds; tachycardia; and con-
fusion—may occur; this is a medical emergency that requires full sup-
portive medical care. Physostigmine is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor
and may be used as a diagnostic agent if anticholinergic toxicity is sus-
pected; it should not be used to maintain reversal of the toxicity.
ADRENERGIC SIDE EFFECTS

Antagonism of α1-adrenergic receptors results in hypotension and diz-
ziness.
WEIGHT GAIN
• Treatment with most atypical antipsychotics is associated with a
rapid increase in body weight during the first few months of ther-
apy.
• The rate of weight gain decreases with time, but some patients
continue to gain weight even after 1 year of treatment.
• Antipsychotics associated with weight gain include risperidone,
quetiapine, chlorpromazine, sertindole, thioridazine, olanzapine,
and clozapine.
• The amount of weight gain is not dose dependent.
ENDOCRINE EFFECTS
• Hyperglycemia can develop independent of or secondary to
weight gain; in some cases, it resolves after discontinuation of the
medication.
• Patients taking clozapine and olanzapine have a higher risk of
developing diabetes and have the greatest increases in total cho-
lesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and triglycerides and

decreases in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) compared with
patients being treated with other conventional and atypical anti-
psychotics.
• Aripiprazole and ziprasidone do not appear to be associated with
dyslipidemia.
• Serum glucose and lipids should be checked when starting an
antipsychotic and at various points throughout treatment.
SEXUAL SIDE EFFECTS

• In the pituitary and hypothalamus (the tuberoinfundibular sys-
tem), dopamine is synonymous with prolactin-inhibiting factor.
Blockade of dopamine here results in hyperprolactinemia.
– Hyperprolactinemia may occur with all conventional antipsy-
chotic medications and with risperidone.
– Side effects mediated, at least in part, by hyperprolactinemia in-
clude gynecomastia, galactorrhea, amenorrhea, and decreased
libido.
• Thioridazine may cause painful retrograde ejaculation.
OCULAR EFFECTS
• Antipsychotic drugs may cause pigmentary changes in the lens
and retina.
• Pigment deposition in the lens of the eye does not affect vision.
• Pigmentary retinopathy, which can lead to irreversible blindness,
has been associated with thioridazine.
CARDIAC EFFECTS
• There are several reports of sudden death attributed to thio-
ridazine or chlorpromazine therapy in young, healthy patients.
• Thioridazine produces the greatest mean delay in QTc, followed
by ziprasidone, quetiapine, olanzapine, and haloperidol.
• Pimozide may also produce significant changes in cardiac con-
duction as a result of its calcium channel–blocking properties.
Pimozide should be discontinued if the QT interval exceeds
520 milliseconds in adults or 470 milliseconds in children; this
Pharmacotherapy 249
guideline should be considered in patients taking thioridazine

and ziprasidone, but it is not mandatory in healthy patients.
• Extremely high doses of intravenous haloperidol have been
administered safely in patients with cardiac disease, although
rare cases of torsades de pointes have been reported at these
doses.
LOWERED SEIZURE THRESHOLD

• Most antipsychotics are associated with a dose-dependent risk of
a lowered seizure threshold.
• Molindone and fluphenazine have most consistently been shown
to have the lowest potential for this side effect.
• Clozapine dose-dependently lowers the seizure threshold.
RISKS IN ELDERLY PATIENTS WITH DEMENTIA

• Atypical antipsychotics have been associated with an almost two-
fold increased mortality when used in elderly patients with
dementia.
• These medications are not approved for treatment of dementia-
related psychosis, but such use is common in clinical practice
(Herrmann and Lanctôt 2005).
Use of Antipsychotics in Pregnancy

• Like most other drugs, antipsychotic agents should be avoided, if
possible, during pregnancy and lactation.
• The use of low-potency phenothiazine antipsychotics during the
first trimester of pregnancy may increase the baseline risk of con-
genital anomalies by 0.4%.
• Compared with conventional antipsycotics, less is known about
the risks for teratogenicity, perinatal complications, and neurobe-
havioral problems associated with atypical antipsychotic medica-
tions.
• Thus far, retrospective studies, case reports, and clinical observa-
tions indicate that clozapine and olanzapine are not associated
with an increased teratogenic risk.
• Data related to the use of aripiprazole, quetiapine, risperidone,
and ziprasidone in pregnancy are still limited.
• There is an increased risk of fetal death in psychotic mothers, so

any risk of antipsychotic-induced teratogenesis must be assessed
carefully and balanced against the risks involved in withholding
treatment.
• The risk of developing hyperglycemia with atypical antipsychot-
ics during pregnancy must be considered.
Atypical Antipsychotics
• Atypical antipsychotics cause fewer EPS than conventional anti-
psychotics.
• Clozapine and quetiapine are the least likely to cause EPS and are
therefore recommended for treatment of psychosis in patients
with Parkinson’s disease.
• With the exception of risperidone and paliperidone, atypical
antipsychotics cause substantially less hyperprolactinemia than
do conventional antipsychotics.
• Weight gain is a side effect of all atypical antipsychotics except
ziprasidone and aripiprazole.
CLOZAPINE (TABLET, ORAL DISINTEGRATING TABLET)

Clinical use
• Initial dosing: Start at 12.5 mg/day and quickly increase to 12.5 mg
bid. Then increase as tolerated, generally in 25- or 50-mg incre-
ments every day or every other day.
• Clozapine is the only antipsychotic not associated with treatment-
emergent tardive dyskinesia, and it can be used to treat patients
with tardive dyskinesia.
• Clozapine is usually added to the previous antipsychotic agent in
a cross-titration in which the dosage of the previous drug is
tapered when a clozapine dosage of approximately 100 mg/day
has been achieved. Use caution if the existing medication is a low-
potency conventional antipsychotic, because of the possibility of
additive α-adrenergic and anticholinergic side effects.
• The typical target dosage is 300–500 mg/day in divided doses,
with a greater amount given in the evening to minimize daytime
sedation.
• Serum levels should be obtained in nonresponders (350 ng/mL is
associated with a higher response rate).
Pharmacotherapy 251
• The oral disintegrating tablet is bioequivalent to the oral tablet.

• Response is typically assessed after 3–6 months of treatment; if no
response after 6 months, dosage may be increased to 900 mg/day.
Risks, side effects, and their management

Agranulocytosis
• Agranulocytosis is estimated to occur in 0.8% of patients treated
with clozapine during the first year; peak incidence is at 3 months.
• Initial WBC must be >3,500/mm3, and the absolute neutrophil
count (ANC) must be >2,000/mm3.
• Weekly WBC and ANC are required for the first 6 months of treat-
ment and for 4 weeks after discontinuation of clozapine. After
6 months, monitoring is required every 2 weeks; after 12 months,
monitoring is required every 4 weeks.
• If agranulocytosis develops, immediately consult a hematologist.
• Once a patient has developed agranulocytosis while taking cloz-
apine, he or she should not be rechallenged.
• Clozapine treatment is contraindicated for patients who have
myeloproliferative disorders or who are immunocompromised
due to diseases such as active tuberculosis or HIV. Also, concom-
itant administration of medications that are associated with bone
marrow suppression, such as carbamazepine, is contraindicated.
Extrapyramidal side effects

• Extrapyramidal side effects are uncommon at any dose.
• Some patients experience akathisia or hand tremors.
• There have been reports of NMS in patients medicated with cloz-
apine alone.
Sedation
• Sedation is the most common side effect, and it is prominent early
in treatment.
• Sedation generally attenuates when the dose is reduced, when tol-
erance to this side effect develops, or when a disproportionate
amount is given at bedtime.
Cardiovascular effects
• Orthostatic hypotension and tachycardia are seen in most patients
treated with clozapine.
• Cases of myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy have been
reported (Kilian et al. 1999).
– Myocarditis typically occurs within 3 weeks of starting cloza-
pine, but cardiomyopathy may not be apparent for several
years.
– Although rare, treatment-emergent myocarditis and cardi-
omyopathy occur at a reportedly higher incidence with cloza-
pine than with other antipsychotics.
Weight gain
Weight gain occurs in most patients treated with clozapine, with in-
creases of 10% or more of base body weight in many patients. The
weight gain is not dose related.
Hypersalivation
Hypersalivation is seen in one-third of patients treated with clozapine.
Fever
Clozapine treatment is associated with benign, transient temperature
increases, usually within the first 3 weeks. The patient should be evalu-
ated for NMS, infections, and agranulocytosis.
Seizures
Clozapine treatment is associated with a dose-dependent risk of sei-
zures. With dosages less than 300 mg/day, there is a 1% risk of seizures;
with dosages of 300–600 mg/day, there is a 2.7% risk; and with dosages
greater than 600 mg/day, there is a 4.4% risk. Since patients with fairly
refractory illnesses tend to receive clozapine, treatment with this medi-
cation is usually continued after a seizure, with the addition of an anti-
convulsant. Carbamazepine should be avoided because of the added
risk of bone marrow suppression. Valproate appears to be the safest an-
ticonvulsant for patients taking clozapine.
Anticholinergic side effects

Dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, and urinary retention are com-
mon early side effects of clozapine treatment.
Pharmacotherapy 253
Obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms

Clozapine is reported to exacerbate OCD symptoms, probably because
of 5-HT2 antagonism. The symptoms are usually controlled with the ad-
dition of a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI).
Drug interactions
• Clozapine should not be combined with any drugs that can sup-
press the bone marrow.
• Combining clozapine with benzodiazepines (particularly in high
doses) may cause respiratory arrest.
• Clozapine is metabolized by cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A2 and, to a
lesser extent, CYP 3A3/4.
– Serum levels increase with fluvoxamine or erythromycin; this
is especially important because of dose-dependent risk of sei-
zures.
– Serum levels decrease with phenobarbital or phenytoin and
with cigarette smoking.
RISPERIDONE (TABLET, ORAL DISINTEGRATING TABLET,

LIQUID)
Clinical use
• Initial dosing: Start at 1 mg bid and quickly increase to 2 mg bid.
In elderly patients the initial dose should be 0.25–0.5 mg bid.
• Risperidone is the only atypical antipsychotic currently available
in a long-acting injectable form (Risperdal Consta).
– Patient should first be stabilized with oral medication.
– Recommended starting dose is 25 mg regardless of the patient’s
previous or current oral dose of antipsychotic medication.
– Injections are given every 2 weeks, and steady-state plasma
concentrations are achieved after four injections.
– Not much drug is released for the first 3 weeks following the
injection, and oral antipsychotic supplementation is recom-
mended.
– Although there is an initial release of medication, the amount
released is small and the main release of the drug starts from
3 weeks after the injection. This release is maintained from 4 to
6 weeks and subsides by 7 weeks.
– If the patient has not taken risperidone before, a trial of oral ris-
peridone is recommended to see if there is a hypersensitivity
reaction.
– Maximum dose is 50 mg every 2 weeks.
• After the first week of treatment, the entire oral dose can be given
at bedtime.
• The optimal dosage in North American trials was 6 mg/day, but
most patients do well at 3–6 mg/day. Elderly patients may require
dosages as low as 0.5 mg/day.
• Risperidone combines dopamine D2 receptor antagonism with
potent 5-HT2 receptor antagonism; it also antagonizes dopamine
D1 and D 4 receptors, α1- and α2-adrenergic receptors, and hista-
mine H1 receptors.
• Risperidone has the most D2 affinity of the atypical antipsychotics.
• All three oral forms of this medication are bioequivalent.

• Insomnia, hypotension, agitation, headache, and rhinitis are the
most common side effects of risperidone; they tend to decrease
with time.
• Average weight gain associated with risperidone after 10 weeks
of treatment is 2.10 kg.
• Unlike other atypical antipsychotics, risperidone increases pro-
lactin levels.
• Risperidone does not have significant anticholinergic side effects.
Drug interactions
Risperidone is metabolized by CYP 2D6; medications that inhibit CYP
2D6, such as many SSRIs, cause increases in plasma levels of risperidone.
OLANZAPINE (TABLET, ORAL DISINTEGRATING TABLET,

INTRAMUSCULAR ADMINISTRATION)
Clinical use
• Initial dosing: Start at 10 mg qhs for patients with schizophrenia
and 15 mg qhs for acutely manic patients (single daily dose).
• The dose for maintenance treatment of bipolar disorder is 5–20 mg.
Pharmacotherapy 255
• Olanzapine is a selective monoaminergic antagonist with high

affinity binding at the 5-HT2 and D1–4 receptors.
• The oral disintegrating tablet and the solution form of the medi-
cation are bioequivalent to the tablet.
• The intramuscular preparation is twice as potent as the oral forms
(10 mg im is equivalent to 20 mg po).

• Somnolence and psychomotor slowing are dose dependent.
• Treatment-emergent seizures are rare in the absence of concomi-
tant medical disorders.
• Increased transaminase levels occur in approximately 2% of
patients. These levels often normalize without medication discon-
tinuation.
• Treatment-emergent weight gain is common.
– Weight gain averages about 4.15 kg after 10 weeks of treatment.
– By 39 weeks, weight gain tends to plateau.
– Approximately 20% of patients may not gain weight.
– Weight gain is not dose dependent.
Drug interactions
• Olanzapine is metabolized by several pathways; thus, it is unlikely
to be affected by concurrent administration of other medications.
• Additive pharmacodynamic effects should be expected if olanza-
pine is combined with medications that have anticholinergic,
antihistaminic, or α1-adrenergic side effects.
QUETIAPINE (TABLET)
Clinical use
• Initial dosing:
– In the treatment of schizophrenia, start at 25 mg bid, with
increases to 50 mg bid on day 2, 100 mg bid on day 3, and
100 mg in the morning and 200 mg in the evening on day 4.
– In the treatment of acute mania, start with bid dosages total-
ing 100 mg/day on day 1, 200 mg on day 2, 300 mg on day 3,
and 400 mg on day 4. Adjustments up to 800 mg/day by day 6
may be made if needed.
– Dosages should not be increased by more than 200 mg/day on

days 5 and 6.
• Optimal dosage ranges from 400 mg/day to 600 mg/day.

• Quetiapine has a short half-life of 6–8 hours and is usually admin-
istered twice a day.
• Quetiapine also has FDA indication for treatment of bipolar
depression.

• Somnolence is one of the most common side effects of quetiapine.
Somnolence and psychomotor slowing are dose dependent.
Patients usually become tolerant to these effects.
• Incidence of extrapyramidal side effects and changes in prolactin
levels were the same as placebo in trials.
• Quetiapine may induce orthostatic hypotension and concomitant
symptoms of dizziness, tachycardia, and syncope. The risk of
symptomatic hypotension is particularly pronounced during ini-
tial dose titration.
• Increased transaminase levels have been seen in 6% of patients
treated with quetiapine; the effects of these increased levels have
all been benign to date.
• Use quetiapine with caution in patients with hepatic disease or
risk factors for hepatic toxicity.
• A weight gain of at least 7% of base body weight was observed in
23% of patients during trials.
Drug interactions
• Quetiapine is metabolized by hepatic CYP 3A3/4.
• Concurrent administration of CYP-inducing drugs, such as car-
bamazepine, decreases blood levels of quetiapine.
• Quetiapine does not appreciably affect the pharmacokinetics of
other medications.
• Because it may induce hypotension, quetiapine may enhance the
effects of certain antihypertensive agents.
Pharmacotherapy 257
ZIPRASIDONE (CAPSULE, INTRAMUSCULAR ADMINISTRATION)

Clinical use
• Initial dosing:
– In the treatment of schizophrenia, start at 20–40 mg bid; the
dosage can be rapidly titrated to 60–80 mg bid over 2–4 days if
the patient is not elderly and is healthy.
– In the treatment of acute mania, start at 40 mg bid and increase
to 60 mg or 80 mg on day 2; the dosage should be subse-
quently adjusted based on individual tolerance and symp-
toms to between 40 and 80 mg bid.
• Ziprasidone is usually given twice a day with meals; food

increases absorption by approximately 100%.
• Ziprasidone is a 5-HT2A and D 2 antagonist.
• The recommended dose for intramuscular injection is 10–20 mg,
with a maximum dosage of 40 mg/day. It can be given 10 mg
every 2 hours or 20 mg every 4 hours.

• The most common side effects of ziprasidone are headache, dys-
pepsia, nausea, constipation, abdominal pain, somnolence, and
EPS.
• Ziprasidone produced a mean QTc prolongation of 21 millisec-
onds at maximal blood levels.
– In all clinical trials, the rate of QTc intervals > 500 milliseconds
(considered a threshold for arrhythmia risk) did not differ from
the rate associated with placebo.
– The QTc effect of ziprasidone is larger than that of other atypi-
cal antipsychotics.
• Ziprasidone is associated with less weight gain than other atypi-

cal antipsychotics.
Drug interactions
Drugs that inhibit CYP 3A4 reduce metabolism of ziprasidone: concur-
rent treatment with ketoconazole increased blood levels of ziprasidone
by approximately 40%. Carbamazepine (and possibly other enzyme
inducers) may decrease ziprasidone blood levels by roughly 35%.
ARIPIPRAZOLE (TABLET, LIQUID)

Clinical use
• Initial dosing:
– In the treatment of schizophrenia, start at 10 or 15 mg/day.
– In the treatment of acute mania or mixed episodes, start at
30 mg/day.
– In the maintenance treatment of stable patients with bipolar I
disorder, start at 15 mg/day.
• Doses higher than 10–15 mg have not been shown to be more

effective in patients with schizophrenia.
• Aripiprazole is FDA approved for the treatment of schizophrenia,
acute mania or mixed episodes in bipolar disorder, and mainte-
nance treatment in bipolar I disorder., and as an augmentation
agent in major depression unresponsive to antidepressant treat-
ment.
• Elimination half-life is 75 hours (longest of the atypical anti-
psychotics), and steady-state concentrations are reached within
2 weeks.
• At equivalent doses, plasma concentrations of the solution were
higher compared with plasma concentrations associated with the
tablet form.
• Aripiprazole has high affinity for dopamine D2 and D3 receptors
and 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors. The mechanism of action is not
known, but aripiprazole may mediate its effects via a combination
of partial agonist activity at the D2 and 5-HT1A receptors and
antagonist activity at the 5-HT2A receptors.

• The most common side effects of aripiprazole include headache,
nausea, dyspepsia, agitation, anxiety, insomnia, somnolence, and
akathisia.
• Akathisia may be avoided by starting at doses lower than 10 mg
and increasing the dose slowly.
• Aripiprazole is not associated with significant sedation, anticho-
linergic side effects, weight gain, or cardiovascular side effects.
Pharmacotherapy 259
Drug interactions
• Aripiprazole is hepatically metabolized by CYP 2D6 and CYP 3A4.
• The dose should be halved when given with a CYP 3A4 inhibitor
such as ketoconazole. The dose should be decreased when given
with a CYP 2D6 inhibitor such as fluoxetine.
• When given with CYP 3A4 inducers such as carbamazepine, the
dose of aripiprazole should be doubled.
PALIPERIDONE (TABLET, EXTENDED RELEASE)

Clinical use
• Paliperidone is the primary active metabolite of risperidone.
• Initial dosing: Start at the recommended 6-mg dose; no initial
dose titration is necessary.
• Paliperidone has an extended-release formulation, and once-a-day
morning dosing is recommended.
• If exceeding 6 mg/day, increases of 3 mg/day are not recom-
mended more frequently than every 5 days, up to a maximum of
12 mg/day.
• Paliperidone has high affinity for α1, D2, H1, and 5-HT2C receptors.
• Compared with risperidone, paliperidone has a nearly 10-fold
lower affinity for α2 and 5-HT2A receptors and a nearly three- to
fivefold lower affinity for 5-HT1A and 5-HT1D, respectively.
• Paliperidone currently has FDA indication only for schizophrenia.

• The most common side effects of paliperidone are akathisia, EPS,
tachycardia, headache, and somnolence.
• Prolactin elevation with paliperidone is similar to that seen with
risperidone.
Drug interactions
• Paliperidone is hepatically metabolized by CYP 2D6 and CYP 3A4.
• The dose should be halved when given with a CYP 3A4 inhibitor
such as ketoconazole. The dose should be decreased when given
with a CYP 2D6 inhibitor such as fluoxetine.
• When given with CYP 3A4 inducers such as carbamazepine, the
paliperidone dose should be doubled.
Conventional Antipsychotics
DRUG POTENCY
The term drug potency refers to the milligram equivalence of drugs, not
to their relative efficacy. For example, although haloperidol is more po-
tent than chlorpromazine (haloperidol 2 mg =chlorpromazine 100 mg),
therapeutically equivalent doses are equally effective (haloperidol
12 mg= chlorpromazine 600 mg). Typically, the potency of antipsychotic
drugs is compared with the potency of chlorpromazine 100 mg.
• The high-potency conventional antipsychotics are haloperidol,

fluphenazine, trifluoperazine, pimozide, and thiothixene.
– As a rule, high-potency conventional antipsychotics have an
equivalent dose of less than 5 mg.
– Compared with low-potency conventional antipsychotics, these
drugs are associated with more EPS but less sedation, fewer
anticholinergic side effects, and less hypotension.
• The low-potency conventional antipsychotics are chlorprom-

azine, mesoridazine, and thioridazine.
– These drugs have an equivalent dose of more than 40 mg.
– Compared with high-potency conventional antipsychotics, these
drugs are associated with greater sedation, more anticholinergic
side effects, and more hypotension; however, acute EPS are less
frequent.
• The intermediate-potency conventional antipsychotics are loxa-

pine, molindone, and perphenazine.
– These drugs have an equivalent dose between 5 and 40 mg.
– These drugs have a side-effect profile that lies between the pro-
files of the other two groups.
• Tardive dyskinesia rates for high- and low-potency conventional

antipsychotics do not differ.
• In most circumstances in which conventional antipsychotics are
used, high-potency drugs are preferred, because EPS can usually be
minimized by using the lowest effective dose or by treating them
symptomatically, whereas anticholinergic and autonomic side
effects are potentially more dangerous and difficult to manage.
Pharmacotherapy 261
CONVENTIONAL LONG-ACTING INJECTABLE ANTIPSYCHOTICS

Many clinicians prefer to continue giving oral medication at approxi-
mately half the previous maintenance dose during the first few months
of depot antipsychotic administration, rather than administer a loading
dose of depot medication. Breakthrough psychotic symptoms are
treated with supplemental oral medication, and the dose of the next
scheduled depot injection can be increased accordingly. Side effects
may take months to subside, and withdrawal dyskinesia may not ap-
pear for months after discontinuation of the decanoate formulation.
Haloperidol decanoate
• Patients receive an initial dose that is 20 times the oral mainte-
nance dose (Ereshefsky et al. 1993).
• The maximum volume per injection of haloperidol decanoate
should not exceed 3 mL, and the maximum dose per injection
should not exceed 100 mg.
– If 20 times the oral dose is greater than 100 mg, the dose is given
in divided injections spaced 3–7 days apart.
• Subsequent doses are decreased monthly, to about 10 times the

oral dose by the third or fourth month. Ten times the oral dose,
administered every 4 weeks, is a typical maintenance dose for
haloperidol decanoate.
• Steady-state serum concentrations are achieved after approxi-
mately 20 weeks.
Fluphenazine decanoate
• Most patients respond to a dose of 10–30 mg given every 2 weeks.
• Steady-state serum concentrations are achieved after approxi-
mately 10 weeks (five injection intervals).
Antidepressants
All antidepressants appear to be similarly effective for treating major
depression, but individual patients may respond preferentially to one
agent or another. These medications are significantly different from one
another with regard to side effects, lethality in overdose, pharmacoki-
netics, and the ability to treat comorbid disorders. Antidepressants are
also effective in the treatment of the following conditions (although the
FDA has not evaluated or approved the use of antidepressants to treat

many of them):
• OCD (SSRIs and clomipramine)

• Panic disorder (tricyclic antidepressants [TCAs] and monoamine
oxidase inhibitors [MAOIs])
• Generalized anxiety disorder (selective serotonin-norepinephrine
reuptake inhibitors [SNRIs] and SSRIs)
• Bulimia (SSRIs)
• Dysthymia (SSRIs)
• Bipolar depression (after or with treatment with a mood stabi-
lizer)
• Social phobia (SSRIs)
• Posttraumatic stress disorder (SSRIs)
• Irritable bowel syndrome (TCAs)
• Enuresis (TCAs)
• Neuropathic pain (TCAs, duloxetine)
• Migraine headaches (TCAs)
• Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (bupropion)
• Autism (SSRIs)
• Late luteal phase dysphoric disorder/premenstrual dysphoric
disorder (SSRIs)
• Borderline personality disorder (SSRIs)
• Smoking cessation (bupropion)
• Fibromyalgia (duloxetine)
The antidepressant classes are based on similarity of receptor effects

and side effects. All are effective against depression when administered
in therapeutic doses. The choice of antidepressant medication is based
on the patient’s psychiatric symptoms, his or her history of previous
treatment response, family members’ history of response, medication
side-effect profiles, and comorbid disorders (see Chapter 3, Table 3–4).
Augmentation strategies include lithium, liothyronine (Cytomel), stim-
ulants, and antipsychotics.
Pharmacotherapy 263
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors

The SSRIs include citalopram, escitalopram, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine,
paroxetine, and sertraline (Table 14–3).
SIDE EFFECTS
• Mild nausea, loose bowel movements, anxiety, headache, insom-
nia, and increased sweating are frequent initial side effects of
SSRIs. They are usually dose related and may be minimized with
low initial dosing and gradual titration. These effects typically
decrease after several days of treatment.
• Fluoxetine tends to be the most activating.
• Sexual dysfunction is the most common longer-term side effect
(decreased libido, anorgasmia, and delayed ejaculation).
• Although rarely needed, medication that blocks the 5-HT3 recep-
tor (e.g., ondansetron) can be used to reduce SSRI-induced nausea.
• Serotonin syndrome can be fatal.
– The most common symptoms are lethargy, restlessness, confu-
sion, flushing, diaphoresis, tremor, and myoclonic jerks. As the
condition progresses, hyperthermia, hypertonicity, myoclo-
nus, and death may occur. Chapter 12 of this volume, “Emer-
gency Psychiatry,” provides more information about serotonin
syndrome.
– Treatment involves discontinuing the serotonergic medication
and administering either the 5-HT2A antagonist cyproheptadine
(12 mg, and then 2 mg every 2 hours) or second-generation
antipsychotics (because of 5-HT2A antagonist activity) (note that
efficacy has not been established for these presumed antidotes).
DRUG INTERACTIONS
• SSRIs, especially fluoxetine and paroxetine, inhibit CYP, which
may result in increased levels of some concomitant medications.
• SSRI and MAOI: likely from serotonin syndrome
– If switching from an SSRI to MAOI, the SSRI must be fully
eliminated. This is 5 half-lives of the SSRI: 5 weeks for fluoxe-
tine and about 1 week for the other SSRIs.
– If switching from an MAOI to an SSRI, a 2-week waiting period
is needed to allow resynthesis of the MAO enzyme.
264
TABLE 14–3. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
STARTING USUAL DAILY AVAILABLE ORAL MEAN HALF-LIFE
a
DRUG DOSE (MG) DOSE (MG) DOSES (MG) (HOURS)

Citalopram (Celexa) 20 20–40 10, 20, 40, L 35
Escitalopram (Lexapro) 10 10–20 5, 10, 20, L 32
Fluoxetine (Prozac, Sarafem) 20 20–60 10, 20, 40, L 72–144
Fluoxetine weekly (Prozac weekly) 90 90 90 72–144
Fluvoxamine controlled release (Luvox CR) 100 100–300 100, 150 16
Paroxetine (Paxil) 20 20–50 10, 20, 30, 40, L 20
Paroxetine controlled release (Paxil CR) 25 25–62.5 12.5, 25, 37.5 20
Sertraline (Zoloft) 50 50–200 25, 50, 100, L 26–66
Note. L=Liquid/oral suspension.
a
Average starting dose.
Pharmacotherapy 265
• SSRI and triptans: Symptoms of mild to moderate serotonin syn-

drome have been reported, but most patients tolerate these com-
binations (Gardner and Lynd 1998).
Selective Serotonin-Norepinephrine
Reuptake Inhibitors
Venlafaxine, desvenlafaxine, and duloxetine are selective serotonin-
norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (Table 14–4).
VENLAFAXINE
• Venlafaxine may also have a role in treating chronic pain condi-
tions, but data are limited.
• There is a low likelihood of drug interactions with venlafaxine; it
is least likely to contribute to protein-binding interactions and
unlikely to inhibit CYP.
• Unlike SSRIs, venlafaxine demonstrates a positive dose-response
relationship: mild depression may respond to lower doses and more
severe or recurrent depression may respond better to higher doses.
• Side effects are similar to those of SSRIs: gastrointestinal symp-
toms, sexual dysfunction, increased sweating, and transient dis-
continuation symptoms.
• Dose-dependent hypertension may occur, especially at dosages
higher than 300mg/day. If clinically significant treatment-emergent
hypertension occurs, consider dose reduction or treatment dis-
continuation.
DESVENLAFAXINE
• Active metabolite of venlafaxine
• While dosing is different from venlafaxine, the range of efficacy
and tolerability are similar
DULOXETINE
• Duloxetine also has FDA approval for treatment of diabetic
peripheral neuropathy and fibromyalgia, independent of depres-
sion and anxiety.
• Side effects are similar to those of SSRIs; dry mouth, constipation,
and increased sweating may also occur.
266
TABLE 14–4. Selective serotonin-norephinephrine reuptake inhibitors
DRUG DOSE ( MG) DOSE ( MG) DOSES (MG) (HOURS)

Venlafaxine (Effexor) 37.5 75–225 25, 37.5, 50, 75, 100 5–11
Venlafaxine extended release (Effexor XR) 37.5 75–225 37.5, 75, 150 5–11
Desvenlafaxine extended release (Pristiq) 50 50–400 50, 100 11
Duloxetine (Cymbalta) 60 60–120 20, 30, 60 12
Pharmacotherapy 267
• Dose-dependent nausea may occur in early phases of treatment

but usually subsides in 1 week.
• Duloxetine is rarely associated with increases in serum transami-
nase levels (typically in the first 2 months of treatment).
• Current product labeling contains a caution regarding use in
patients with significant alcohol use or chronic liver disease.
• Duloxetine should not be used in patients with uncontrolled nar-
row-angle glaucoma.
• Duloxetine is a moderate inhibitor of CYP 2D6 and may increase
levels of other medications that use this enzyme.
Bupropion
Bupropion is considered a noradrenergic-dopaminergic antidepressant
(see Table 14–5).
• Relative lack of sexual side effects

• Can be added in low doses to attenuate the sexual dysfunction
caused by other medications
• Is an effective aid in smoking cessation
• Facilitates dopamine transmission, thus is thought to be helpful
for patients with Parkinson’s disease who refuse treatment for
depression
CONTRAINDICATIONS
• Seizure disorders
• Active eating disorder
• Central nervous system tumor
• History of significant head trauma
Use caution in patients who are taking other drugs that lower the sei-
zure threshold.
SIDE EFFECTS
• Most common are initial headache, anxiety, insomnia, increased
sweating, and gastrointestinal upset
• May also get tremor and akathisia
268
TABLE 14–5. Buproprion

Bupropion (Wellbutrin) 150 300 75, 100 14
Bupropion sustained release 150 300 100, 150 21
(Wellbutrin SR, Zyban)
Buproprion extended release (Wellbutrin XL) 150 300 150, 300 21
Pharmacotherapy 269
• Reports of delusions, hallucinations, and paranoia with bupro-

pion-mediated increases in central dopamine; use with caution in
patients with psychotic disorders
Serotonin Modulators
Nefazodone and trazodone are serotonin modulators (Table 14–6).
NEFAZODONE
• Nefazodone is primarily a postsynaptic 5-HT2 antagonist.
• The generic formulation is available, but the branded product was
removed from the market in 2003 after reports of hepatotoxicity.
• This medication is mostly for patients who are currently stable on
the medication and want to continue this treatment rather than
switch to an alternative agent.
• If there is an increase in serum transaminase levels that is three
times the upper limits of the normal range or higher, patient
should be withdrawn from nefazodone and should not be consid-
ered for rechallenge.
• Coadministration with most medications that are metabolized by
CYP 3A3/4 should be undertaken with caution.
TRAZODONE
• Trazodone is associated with significant sedation, which has led
some clinicians to combine low dosages (50–100 mg) with other
nonsedating antidepressant medications for nonspecific insom-
nia. However, little data is available to support the use of this
agent as a hypnotic.
• Trazodone is not recommended as a first-line antidepressant.
• Adverse effects include orthostatic hypotension, arrhythmias,
and priapism. Priapism may be irreversible and require surgery;
be sure to inform patients of this risk.
• Myocardial irritation may occur in overdose if the patient has pre-
existing ventricular conduction abnormalities.
Norepinephrine-Serotonin Modulators
Mirtazapine (Remeron) is a norepinephrine-serotonin modulator (Table
14–7).
270
TABLE 14–6. Serotonin modulators

Nefazodone (Serzone) 50 150–300 100, 150, 200, 250 4
Trazodone (Desyrel) 50 75–300 50, 100, 150, 300 7
Note. Only generic available in U.S.
TABLE 14–7. Norepinephrine-serotonin modulators

DRUG DOSE (MG) DOSE (MG) DOSES ( MG) (HOURS)
Mirtazapine (Remeron) 15 15–45 15, 30, 45 20

Pharmacotherapy 271
• Mirtazapine reduces anxiety and sleep disturbances in depressed

patients as early as 1 week after beginning the medication.
• Adverse effects include weight gain, sedation, hypertension,
vasodilation with peripheral edema, dizziness, dry mouth, and
constipation (anticholinergic). There is minimal sexual dysfunc-
tion and minimal nausea.
• Mirtazapine is unlikely to be associated with CYP-mediated drug
interaction.
• Clinical trials showed that 3 of 2,796 patients developed agranu-
locytosis/neutropenia. Routine monitoring is not recommended.
• Do not use with an MAOI or within 14 days of discontinuing an
MAOI.
Tricyclic and Heterocyclic Antidepressants

The tricyclic and heterocyclic antidepressants include amitriptyline,
clomipramine, doxepin, imipramine, trimipramine, desipramine, nor-
triptyline, protriptyline, amoxapine, and maprotiline (Table 14–8).
• TCAs may be more effective than SSRIs in the treatment of major

depression with melancholic features.
• A baseline electrocardiogram should be ordered if the patient has
heart disease or is over 40 years old.
• Tertiary amine TCAs have more potent serotonin reuptake inhibi-
tion and tend to have more side effects than secondary amine
TCAs.
• Secondary amine TCAs have more potent noradrenergic reuptake
inhibition than tertiary amine TCAs.
• Clinically meaningful plasma levels are available for imipramine,
desipramine, and nortriptyline only. Blood should be drawn
approximately 10–14 hours after the last dose of medication.
• Patients with significant anxiety, panic, or a tendency to be sensi-
tive to side effects should receive a 50% lower initial dose. Also,
lower initial doses are recommended in elderly patients and those
with cardiovascular or hepatic disease.
• Desipramine and protriptyline tend to be activating. Trimipra-
mine, amitriptyline, and doxepin are the most sedating.
272
TABLE 14–8. Tricyclic and heterocyclic antidepressants

DRUG DOSE (MG) DOSE (MG) DOSES ( MG) (HOURS)

Tricyclics
Tertiary amine tricyclics
Amitriptyline (Elavil) 25–50 100–300 10, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150 15.6–26.6
Clomipramine (Anafranil) 25 100–250 25, 50, 75 32–69
Doxepin (Sinequan) 25–50 100–300 10, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150 16.8
Imipramine (Tofranil, Tofranil-PM) 25–50 100–300 10, 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150 7.6–17.1
Trimipramine (Surmontil) 25–50 100–300 25, 50, 100 24
Secondary amine tricyclics
Desipramine (Norpramin) 25–50 100–300 25, 50, 75, 100, 150 17.1
Nortriptyline (Pamelor) 25 50–150 10, 25, 50, 75 26.6
Protriptyline (Vivactil) 10 15–60 5, 10 78.4
Tetracyclics
Amoxapine (Asendin) 50 100–400 25, 50, 100, 150 8
Maprotiline (generic) 50 100–225 25, 50, 75 43
Pharmacotherapy 273
SIDE EFFECTS
• Amoxapine antagonizes D2 receptors and can cause EPS, aka-
thisia, and even tardive dyskinesia.
• Among drugs in this class, nortriptyline is the least likely to pro-
duce orthostatic hypotension.
Anticholinergic effects
• Use these drugs with caution in patients with prostatic hypertro-
phy, narrow-angle glaucoma, or cognitive impairment.
• The most common anticholinergic side effects are dry mouth, con-
stipation, urinary retention, blurred vision, and tachycardia.
• Drugs in this class may cause cognitive impairment and confu-
sion in the elderly.
• Anticholinergic effects result from antagonism of muscarinic
receptors.
• Tertiary amines and protriptyline have a particularly high affinity
for muscarinic receptors and are more likely than other tricyclic
antidepressants to have anticholinergic side effects.
• Pilocarpine oral rinse or eyedrops can be helpful for local relief of
symptoms.
• Consider cholinergic medication (bethanechol 10–15 mg po tid–
qid) only after dose reduction and trying an alternative antide-
pressant with fewer anticholinergic side effects.
• This class of drugs can cause orthostatic hypotension, tachycar-
dia, and cardiac conduction delays; in overdose they can cause
life-threatening arrhythmias.
• PR and QRS intervals are prolonged.
• Avoid these drugs in patients with bundle branch block, because
use can lead to life-threatening second- or third-degree heart
block.
Weight gain
• Weight gain is common with this class of drugs. Secondary amines
are less likely than tertiary amines to produce weight gain.
Seizures
• Dose-related risk of seizures has been found with clomipramine;
the daily dose should not exceed 250 mg.
• Overdoses, particularly of amoxapine and desipramine, are asso-
ciated with seizures.
• It is controversial whether therapeutic doses lower the seizure
threshold; other classes of medications are safer for patients with
epilepsy.
• When the QRS interval is less than 0.10 second, the likelihood of
ventricular arrhythmias decreases.
OVERDOSE
• Tricyclic antidepressants have anticholinergic activity, which leads
to agitation, supraventricular arrhythmias, hallucinations, severe
hypertension, seizures, and anticholinergic delirium in overdose.
• Patients with anticholinergic delirium have hot, dry skin; dry
mucous membranes; dilated pupils; absent bowel sounds; confu-
sion; and tachycardia. Anticholinergic delirium is a medical emer-
gency.
• Hypotension, which may result from norepinephrine depletion,
should be treated with vigorous intravenous fluid.
DRUG INTERACTIONS
• TCAs are metabolized by the liver; CYP 2D6 inhibitors may sig-
nificantly increase TCA levels.
• TCAs rarely affect the metabolism of other drugs; however, val-
proate sodium may have decreased levels when given with TCAs.
• Guanethidine and clonidine lose effectiveness if administered
concomitantly with TCAs.
DOSING GUIDELINES
Nortriptyline
• This drug should be initiated at 25 mg/day and increased to
75 mg/day over 1–2 weeks.
• The therapeutic plasma level is between 50 and 150 ng/mL.
Pharmacotherapy 275
Amitriptyline, clomipramine, doxepin, imipramine, trimipramine,

and desipramine
• Can be initiated at 25–50 mg/day. Divided dosing may be used at
first to minimize side effects, but eventually the entire dose can be
given at bedtime. The dosage can be increased to 150 mg/day the
second week, 225 mg/day the third week, and 300 mg/day the
fourth week.
• Clomipramine should not exceed 250 mg/day because of an
increased risk of seizures at a higher dose.
• Therapeutic plasma levels (reached after 5–7 days):
– For imipramine, the sum of the plasma levels of imipramine
and the desmethyl metabolite (desipramine) should be greater
than 200–250 ng/mL.
– For desipramine, levels should be greater than 125 ng/mL.
Protriptyline
• This drug can be initiated at 10 mg/day; the maximum dosage is
60 mg/day.
• This drug tends to be activating.
Amoxapine
• This drug has an active metabolite that antagonizes dopamine D2
receptors and can cause treatment-emergent EPS.
• This drug has a short half-life and should be given in divided
doses.
Maprotiline
• This drug can be initiated at 50 mg/day, and that dosage should
be maintained for 2 weeks.
• There is increased risk of seizure if the dosage is raised too
quickly.
• The dosage can be increased over 4 weeks to 225 mg/day.
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors

The MAOIs include phenelzine, tranylcypromine, and selegiline; the last
three are irreversible nonselective MAOIs (Table 14–9).
• The MAOIs are not currently used as first-line agents.

276
TABLE 14–9. Irreversible, nonselective monoamine oxidase inhibitors
STARTING U SUAL DAILY MEAN HALF-LIFE
DRUG DOSE (MG) DOSE (MG) AVAILABLE DOSES (MG) (HOURS)

Phenelzine (Nardil) 15 15–90 15 2
Tranylcypromine (Parnate) 10 30–60 10 2
Selegiline transdermal system 6/24-hour patch 6-, 9-,12/24-hour patch 18–25
(Emsam)
Pharmacotherapy 277
• Patients with atypical depression show a preferential response to

MAOI therapy (Liebowitz et al. 1984; Quitkin et al. 1979; Ravaris
et al. 1980; Zisook 1985).
• Patients should be educated to notify their physicians that they
are taking MAOIs before accepting any medication or anesthetic.
• Monoamine oxidase A (MAO A) inhibition appears to be most
relevant to the antidepressant effects of these drugs.
• Drugs that inhibit both MAO A and monoamine oxidase B
(MAO B) are called nonselective. The MAOI antidepressants cur-
rently available in the United States are nonselective inhibitors.
• Because the enzyme needs to be resynthesized, a period of
10–14 days is required after discontinuing irreversible inhibi-
tors and before instituting treatment with other antidepres-
sants or permitting the use of contraindicated drugs or the con-
sumption of contraindicated foods.
• The importance of complying with dietary and medication restric-
tions (Table 14–10) should be discussed with the patient when
nonselective MAOIs are being used; Table 14–11 lists the neces-
sary instructions.
• After tolerance to the hypotensive side effects has developed
(usually after 1 or 2 weeks), the medication can be taken in a single
daily dose in the morning. Morning dosing is preferred because
MAOIs tend to be activating.
SIDE EFFECTS
• The most common side effects seen with this class of drugs are
orthostatic hypotension, headache, insomnia, weight gain, sexual
dysfunction, peripheral edema, and afternoon somnolence.
• Anticholinergic-like side effects are present at the beginning of
treatment, even though there is no significant affinity for musca-
rinic receptors.
Hypertensive crisis
• Large amounts of dietary tyramine can result in a hypertensive
crisis in patients taking MAOIs, because increased amounts of
norepinephrine result in profound α-adrenergic activation.
278
TABLE 14–10. Dietary and medication restrictions for patients taking nonselective monoamine oxidase inhibitors
(MAOIs)
FOODS DRUGS
AVOIDa AVOIDa

SAFE SAFE
Aged cheeses Alcohol (but not tap beer), All sympathomimetic and stimulant Cold and allergy medications
Aged or fermented meats in moderation drugs, including Alka-Seltzer (plain)
(e.g., sausage, salami, Fresh cheeses (e.g., cream Amphetamines Chlor-Trimeton Allergy (without
pepperoni) cheese, cottage cheese, Buspirone decongestant)
All foods that may be ricotta cheese, American Diet medications Robitussin (plain)
spoiled cheese, moderate Ephedrine Steroid inhalers
Fava beans and broad bean amounts of mozzarella) Fenfluramine and dexfenfluramine Tylenol (plain)
pods Fresh yogurt Isoproterenol Other
Meat extracts (i.e., Bovril) Smoked salmon and L-dopa and dopamine Antibiotics
Sauerkraut whitefish Local anesthetic drugs containing Codeine
Soy sauce Yeast and baked goods ephedrine or cocaine Laxatives and stool softeners
Tap beer, including containing yeast Meperidine Local anesthetics without
nonalcoholic tap beer Methylphenidate epinephrine or cocaine
Yeast extracts (i.e., Marmite) Other antidepressant medications Morphine
Phenylephrine Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
Phenylpropanolamine drugs
TABLE 14–10. Dietary and medication restrictions for patients taking nonselective monoamine oxidase inhibitors
(MAOIs) (continued)
FOODS DRUGS
AVOIDa SAFE AVOIDa SAFE
Over-the-counter nasal Robitussin CF, DM, Night Relief, PE

decongestants and cold, sinus, and Sine-Aid
allergy medications containing Sine-Off
pseudoephedrine, phenylephrine, Sinex
Pharmacotherapy
or phenylpropanolamine Triaminic
Actifed Tylenol
Alka-Seltzer Plus Vicks 44D, 44M
Allerest
Contac
Coricidin D
CoTylenol
Dristan
Neo-Synephrine
NyQuil
a
Avoid while taking a monoamine oxidase inhibitor and for 2 weeks after discontinuing the medication.
279
TABLE 14–11. Instructions for patients taking nonselective

monoamine oxidase inhibitors
• Avoid all foods and drugs on the list (see Table 14–10).
• In general, all foods you should avoid are decayed, fermented, or aged
in some way. Avoid any spoiled food, even if it is not on the list.
• If you get a cold or the flu, you may take aspirin or Tylenol. For a cough,
glycerin cough drops or cough syrup without dextromethorphan may
be used.
• All laxatives and stool softeners may be used.
• For infections, all antibiotics (such as penicillin, tetracycline, or
erythromycin) may be safely prescribed.
• Do not take any other medications without first checking with your
doctor. These medications include over-the-counter medicines bought
without prescription, such as cold tablets, nose drops, cough medicine,
and diet pills.
• Eating one of the restricted foods may suddenly increase your blood
pressure. If this occurs, you will get an explosive headache, particularly
in the back of your head and in your temples. Your head and face will
feel flushed and full, your heart may pound, and you may perspire
heavily and feel nauseated. If this rare reaction occurs, do not lie down,
because this increases your blood pressure further. If your blood
pressure is high, go to the nearest emergency center for evaluation and
treatment. Do not wait for a returned phone call from the doctor’s
office.
• If you need dental care or medical care from another doctor while
taking this medication, show these restrictions and instructions to the
dentist or doctor. Have the dentist or doctor call your regular doctor’s
office if he or she has any questions or needs further clarification or
information.
• Side effects such as postural light-headedness, constipation, delay in
urination, delay in ejaculation and orgasm, muscle twitching, sedation,
fluid retention, insomnia, and excessive sweating are quite common.
Many of these side effects lessen after the third week.
• Light-headedness may occur after sudden changes in position. It can be
avoided by getting up slowly. If tablets are taken with meals, this and
the other side effects are lessened.
Pharmacotherapy 281
TABLE 14–11. Instructions for patients taking nonselective

monoamine oxidase inhibitors (continued)
• The medication is rarely effective in less than 3 weeks.

• Care should be taken while operating any machinery or driving; some
patients have episodes of sleepiness in the early phase of treatment.
• Take the medication precisely as directed. Do not regulate the number
of pills without first consulting your doctor.
• In spite of the side effects and special dietary restrictions, your
medication (a monoamine oxidase inhibitor) is safe and effective when
taken as directed.
• If any special problems arise, call your doctor.
Source. Adapted from Jenike 1987.
• The key foods to avoid are aged cheeses, fermented sausage,

sauerkraut, soy sauce, yeast extracts such as Marmite, fava beans
(also called broad beans), and any foods that are overripe or
spoiled.
• Fresh, unaged cheeses—such as cottage cheese, ricotta, and cream
cheese—are safe.
• There are reports of spontaneous hypertension associated with
MAOI therapy even when the patient is compliant with restric-
tions.
• A mild reaction may consist of sweating, palpitations, and a slight
headache.
• A hypertensive crisis consists of severe headache, increased blood
pressure, and possible intracerebral hemorrhage.
• When a patient who is being treated with an MAOI develops a
headache, he or she should check blood pressure at home to deter-
mine whether a true hypertensive crisis might be occurring.
• Treatments for MAOI-induced hypertension include administra-
tion of the calcium channel blocker nifedipine and use of drugs
with α-adrenergic–blocking properties, such as phentolamine
(Regitine, 5 mg iv). Treatment should take place in an emergency
room setting because treatment is associated with cardiac arrhyth-
mias or severe hypotension.
Serotonin syndrome
• See the section on SSRIs earlier in this chapter for a description of
the serotonin syndrome, treatment guidelines, and guidelines for
switching from SSRIs to MAOIs and vice versa.
• The combination of MAOIs with meperidine (Demerol), and per-
haps with other phenylpiperidine analgesics, has also been impli-
cated in fatal reactions attributed to the serotonin syndrome.
• Of the narcotic agents, codeine and morphine are safe in combi-
nation with MAOIs, but lower doses may need to be used.
• MAOIs cause significant hypotension, which is often the dose-
limiting side effect of these drugs.
• Expansion of intravascular volume with the use of salt tablets or
fludrocortisone may be effective.
Central nervous system effects

• Headache and insomnia are common initial side effects that usu-
ally disappear after the first few weeks of treatment.
Weight gain
• Significant weight gain is a common side effect of MAOIs.
Sexual dysfunction
• Sexual side effects seen with MAOIs include decreased libido,
delayed ejaculation, anorgasmia, and impotence.
DOSING GUIDELINES
Phenelzine
• Initiate at a dose of 15 mg in the morning; increase by 15 mg every
other day until a total daily dose of 60 mg is reached.
• If no response occurs within 2 weeks, the dosage may be increased
in 15-mg increments to a usual maximum of 90 mg/day.
• Higher doses are sometimes used, if tolerated, in patients with
severe, refractory depression.
Pharmacotherapy 283
Tranylcypromine
• Initiate at a dose of 10 mg; increase every other day until 30 mg/day
is reached.
• Higher doses may be necessary when the condition is refractory to
treatment.
Selegiline transdermal system

• No dietary restrictions with the 6-mg/24-hour dosage; dietary
modifications are required with 9-mg/24-hour and 12-mg/24-hour
dosages.
Mood Stabilizers
Lithium
INDICATIONS
• Lithium is effective for acute and prophylactic treatment of manic
and depressive episodes in bipolar disorder.
• Patients with rapid-cycling bipolar disorder (four or more mood
disorder episodes per year) respond less well to lithium.
• Lithium is more effective at treating manic symptoms than at
treating depressive symptoms of bipolar disorder.
• Lithium is effective in depressive-episode prophylaxis in patients
with recurrent unipolar depression.
• Lithium may help maintain remission of depressive episodes
after electroconvulsive therapy.
• Lithium may also be used in the treatment of aggression and
behavioral dyscontrol.
CLINICAL USE
• The half-life of lithium is 24 hours.
• Lithium can be administered as a single daily dose because of its
half-life. Evening dosing is preferred because side effects are
more prevalent during peak blood levels.
• Steady-state concentrations are reached in about 5 days, which
is when plasma levels should be checked. Labs should be drawn
12 hours after the last dose.
• Therapeutic plasma levels are 0.5–1.2 mEq/L. Levels of at least

0.8 mEq/L are often required in the treatment of acute manic epi-
sodes. For prophylaxis, levels of 0.6–0.8 mEq/L are commonly
used to balance risks and benefits.
• Once the therapeutic level is reached, check plasma level every
month for 3 months and then every 3 months thereafter.
• Initial evaluation (labs) should include thyroid function, renal
panel, pregnancy test in females, and electrocardiogram in any
patient with cardiac risk factors or over the age of 40 years.
• Check blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine prior to initia-
tion of lithium and every 3–6 months.
CONTRAINDICATIONS
• Lithium should not be used in those with unstable renal function
or in those with sinus node dysfunction (sick sinus syndrome).
• The risk of Ebstein anomaly for infants exposed in utero is
0.1%–0.7% (vs. a 0.1% risk of this anomaly in the general popu-
lation).
RISKS AND SIDE EFFECTS

• Renal: Lithium inhibits vasopressin, which impairs the kidney’s
concentrating ability (nephrogenic diabetes insipidus) and results
in polyuria in up to 60% of patients; this condition may be treated
with diuretics.
– Thiazides may increase lithium levels to the toxic range.
– Amiloride 5 mg bid blocks absorption of lithium in the renal
tubules.
• Thyroid dysfunction
– Lithium causes reversible hypothyroidism in as many as 20%
of patients; this is more likely in females.
– Thyroid function should be evaluated every 6–12 months or if
symptoms that might be due to thyroid dysfunction develop,
including depression and rapid cycling.
• Parathyroid dysfunction
– Patients taking lithium can have hyperparathyroidism that
results in hypercalcemia and causes back pain, kyphoscoliosis,
Pharmacotherapy 285
osteoporosis, hypertension, cardiomegaly, and impaired renal

function.
– If patient is symptomatic, check serum calcium ion levels.
• Neurotoxicity
– A fine resting tremor is common. Use beta-blockers such as
propranolol (<80 mg/day in divided doses).
– Subjective memory impairment is a frequent reason for non-
compliance.
• Cardiac effects
– Benign flattening of T waves is seen in 20%–30% of patients
taking lithium.
– Lithium may suppress sinus node and cause sinoatrial block.
– If the patient is older than 40 years or has cardiac disease,
obtain a baseline electrocardiogram.
• Weight gain
• Dermatological: Acne, follicular eruptions, psoriasis, hair loss, and
thinning are associated with lithium.
• Gastrointestinal
– Nausea and diarrhea may be experienced early in treatment.
– Side effects may improve if medication is taken with meals
– Immediate-release preparations are more associated with nau-
sea, and sustained-release preparations are more associated
with diarrhea.
• Hematological: Leukocytosis (15,000 WBC/mm3) is usually benign

and reversible.
TOXICITY
Emphasize prevention of toxicity by encouraging adequate salt and
water intake, especially during exercise and hot weather. Toxic lith-
ium levels can cause dysarthria, ataxia, and intention tremor (see
Chapter 12, “Emergency Psychiatry”).
DRUG INTERACTIONS
• Thiazides reduce lithium clearance and may increase levels; this
does not occur with loop diuretics.
• Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs may increase levels by
decreasing lithium clearance.
• Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and cyclooxy-
genase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors may increase lithium serum levels.
• Theophylline and aminophylline decrease lithium levels.
• Lithium may potentiate the effects of succinylcholine-like muscle
relaxants.
Valproate
Valproate preparations include valproic acid, sodium valproate, dival-
proex sodium, and extended-release divalproex sodium.
INDICATIONS
• Commonly used for all phases of bipolar disorder
• Also used for mood instability from other causes
CLINICAL USE
• The half-life is 9–16 hours.
• The dosage can be initiated gradually, or a rapid loading strategy
can be used.
• The dosage is usually started at 250 mg tid, with an increase of
250 mg every 3 days.
• Most patients require a daily dose of 1,250–2,000 mg.
• Moderate doses may be given once a day at bedtime to minimize
daytime sedation.
• If rapid stabilization is needed, 25 mg/kg can be given.
• Plasma levels of 85–125 µg/mL are recommended for acute mania.
• The extended-release formulation has 80%–90% of the bioavail-
ability and may require higher dosaging.
• Initial evaluation should include liver function tests, complete
blood count (CBC), and pregnancy test in females.
Pharmacotherapy 287
CONTRAINDICATIONS
• Contraindicated in patients with hepatitis or liver disease
• Linked to spina bifida and other neural tube defects when infants
are exposed during the first trimester

• Hepatic toxicity
– It is estimated that 1 in 118,000 patients taking valproate die
from non-dose-related hepatic failure. No cases have been seen
in patients older than 10 years, but baseline liver function tests
are indicated in all patients regardless of age.
– It is not necessary to discontinue valproate unless the increase
in liver enzymes is greater than three times the upper limit of
normal.
– Increases in transaminase levels are often dose dependent.
– Plasma ammonia levels may be transiently increased, but this
increase does not require discontinuation.
– γ-Glutamyl transferase (GGT) is often elevated with valproate
therapy and is usually not clinically significant.
• Hematological
– Hematological side effects are associated with changes in
platelet counts, but thrombocytopenia is rare.
– Coagulation defects have been reported but are rare.
– If anticoagulation is strictly contraindicated or if the patient is
on anticoagulation therapy, the coagulation profile should be
checked at baseline, after 1 month, and then every 3 months.
• Gastrointestinal
– Indigestion, heartburn, and nausea are common side effects.
– The divalproex sodium preparation and dosing with food mit-
igate the gastrointestinal side effects.
– Pancreatitis is a rare side effect when high doses are used.
• Weight gain: significant weight gain with associated hyperin-

sulinemia that is not dose dependent
• Neurological effects
– Benign essential tremor
– Drowsiness is common but subsides once steady state is
reached. Once-daily dosing at bedtime may also help with day-
time drowsiness.
• Alopecia: may benefit from zinc supplementation, 22.5 mg/day

• Polycystic ovarian syndrome
OVERDOSE
• Overdose results in sedation, confusion, and, ultimately, coma.
• Patient may also have hyper/hyporeflexia, seizures, respiratory
suppression, and supraventricular tachycardia.
DRUG INTERACTIONS
• Valproate inhibits hepatic enzymes.
• Valproate is highly bound to plasma proteins and may displace
other highly protein-bound drugs.
• Drugs that increase valproate levels are cimetidine, macrolide
antibiotics (erythromycin), and felbamate.
• Valproate may increase concentrations of phenobarbital, ethosux-
imide, and the active 10,11-epoxide metabolite of carbamazepine,
thus increasing the risk of toxicity. It may also raise the levels of
lamotrigine.
• Valproate metabolism may be induced by other anticonvulsants
such as carbamazepine, phenytoin, primidone, and phenobar-
bital, thus increasing clearance of valproate and reducing efficacy.
Carbamazepine
Tegretol and Equetro (extended release) are trade names for carbam-
azepine.
INDICATIONS
Carbamazepine is effective in both acute and prophylactic treatment of
mania.
Pharmacotherapy 289
CLINICAL USE
• Initiate at 200 mg twice a day, and increase in 200 mg/day incre-
ments every 3–5 days; titration should be slower if the patient
experiences many side effects.
• Therapeutic plasma levels are 8–12 µg/mL (based on patients
treated for seizures); titrate to desired clinical response with min-
imal side effects.
• Patients may be prone to side effects of sedation, dizziness, and
ataxia during titration phase.
• Carbamazepine induces its own metabolism (autoinduction),
so dose titration may be required for weeks or months to main-
tain therapeutic levels; blood levels will typically decrease after
2–4 weeks of treatment.
• Initial evaluation (labs) should include alanine transaminase
(ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), CBC, pregnancy test, and
sodium level.
CONTRAINDICATIONS
• Because of hematological and hepatic toxicity, avoid carbamaze-
pine in patients with liver disease or thrombocytopenia, and those
at risk for agranulocytosis; carbamazepine is strictly contraindi-
cated in patients receiving clozapine.
• Carbamazepine is contraindicated in pregnant patients because
of increased risk of spina bifida, microcephaly, and craniofacial
defects with in utero exposure.

• Hematological
– Carbamazepine can rarely cause agranulocytosis and aplastic
anemia.
– Leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, and mild anemia occur more
frequently.
– There is no benefit to ongoing monitoring of hematological
functioning if there is no clinical indication.
– The onset of carbamazepine-induced agranulocytosis is rapid;
thus, patients should be educated about the signs and symp-
toms of thrombocytopenia and agranulocytosis.
• Hepatic
– Carbamazepine is occasionally associated with a hypersensi-
tivity hepatitis that appears after a latency period of several
weeks and involves increases in ALT, AST, and lactate dehy-
drogenase (LDH).
– Cholestasis is also possible, with increases in bilirubin and
alkaline phosphatase.
– Mild, transient increases in transaminase levels generally do
not necessitate discontinuation of carbamazepine. If ALT or
AST levels increase more than three times the upper limit of
normal, carbamazepine should be discontinued.
• Dermatological
– Rash is a common side effect, occurring in 3%–17% of patients
taking carbamazepine; and typically occurs within 2–20 weeks
after treatment initiation. The medication is usually discontin-
ued if a rash develops, because of the risk of progression to
exfoliative dermatitis or Stevens-Johnson syndrome.
• Thyroid
– May cause reduction in circulating thyroid hormones
– May induce SIADH (syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic
hormone) with resultant hyponatremia
• Gastrointestinal: Nausea and occasional vomiting may be com-

mon.
• Neurological: Patients may develop dizziness, drowsiness, or
ataxia, particularly during the early phases of treatment; reduce
the dose and use a slower titration schedule if this occurs.
OVERDOSE
• Patients with carbamazepine overdose initially present with neu-
romuscular disturbances, such as nystagmus, myoclonus, and
hyperreflexia, which may then progress to seizures and coma.
• Cardiac conduction changes, nausea, vomiting, and urinary reten-
tion also may occur.
• Treatment of overdose should include induction of vomiting, gas-
tric lavage, and supportive care.
Pharmacotherapy 291
• Blood pressure, cardiac, respiratory, and kidney function should

be monitored for several days after a serious overdose.
DRUG INTERACTIONS
• Carbamazepine induces hepatic CYP enzymes. Medications or
substances that inhibit CYP 3A3/4 may result in significant
increases in plasma carbamazepine levels.
• Oral contraceptive failure may occur in patients taking carbam-
azepine.
Lamotrigine
INDICATIONS
• Lamotrigine is approved for the prevention of mania and depres-
sion in bipolar disorder.
• Lamotrigine is not effective in the acute treatment of mania.
• In clinical trials, it was predominantly effective in the prevention
of depression.
CLINICAL USE
• Lamotrigine requires slow dose titration to minimize the risk of
skin rash: Initiate at 25 mg/day, then increase to 50 mg/day after
2 weeks for another 2 weeks; at week 5, the dosage can be increased
to 100 mg/day, and at week 6 to 200 mg/day. It is essential to fol-
low this titration schedule regardless of the severity of illness.
• For patients taking valproate or any medication that decreases the
clearance of lamotrigine, the dosing schedule and target dose
should be halved.
• The titration schedule and target dose should be increased two-
fold in patients taking carbamazepine.
• Lamotrigine is mildly activating in many patients and thus
should be dosed in the morning.

Lamotrigine is well tolerated and not associated with hepatotoxicity,
weight gain, or significant sedation. Common early side effects include
headache, dizziness, gastrointestinal distress, and blurred or double vi-
sion. The most serious side effect is rash.
• A maculopapular rash develops in 5%–10% of patients taking

lamotrigine, usually in the first 8 weeks of treatment.
• Lamotrigine has also been associated with serious rashes requir-
ing hospitalization and discontinuation of treatment. The inci-
dence of these rashes, which have included Stevens-Johnson
syndrome, is approximately 0.3% in adults on adjunctive treat-
ment for epilepsy, 0.13% in mood disorders clinical trials of
adults receiving adjunctive therapy, and 0.08% in mood disor-
ders clinical trials in adults receiving lamotrigine as initial
monotherapy (Lamictal 2005).
• Prior to initiating lamotrigine, the patient should be educated
about the potential risk of developing a serious rash and the
necessity to call the clinician immediately if a rash emerges.
• Development of a rash with concomitant systemic symptoms is a
particularly ominous sign, and the patient should be evaluated
immediately.
• Ketter et al. (2005) reported a decreased incidence of treatment-
emergent rash when patients starting lamotrigine were advised
to avoid other new medicines and new foods, cosmetics, condi-
tioners, deodorants, detergents, and fabric softeners, as well as
sunburn and exposure to poison ivy and poison oak. Ketter and
colleagues further recommended not starting lamotrigine within
2 weeks of a rash, viral syndrome, or vaccination.
TERATOGENICITY
The North American AED Pregnancy Registry reported five cases of
oral clefts in infants from a total of 684 in utero exposures to lamotrigine
monotherapy (7.3/1,000) (Holmes et al. 2008).
DRUG INTERACTIONS
• Oral contraceptives can decrease concentrations of lamotrigine.
– Lamotrigine should be carefully increased to compensate for
this interaction.
– Conversely, if the oral contraceptive is discontinued, the dose
of lamotrigine should be decreased.
– Lamotrigine does not affect the availability of oral contracep-
tives.
Pharmacotherapy 293
• Valproate increases lamotrigine levels.

• Carbamazepine decreases lamotrigine levels.
Oxcarbazepine
Oxcarbazepine is a keto derivative of carbamazepine, but it does not re-
quire CBC, hepatic monitoring, or serum level monitoring.
• Oxcarbazepine does not induce its own metabolism.

• It may decrease the effectiveness of oral contraceptives.
• The medication is typically initiated at 150 mg bid and titrated by
300 mg/day at weekly intervals. Therapeutic dosages are in the
range of 450–1,200 mg bid.
• The conversion from carbamazepine to oxcarbazepine is at a daily
dose ratio of approximately 1:1.5.
• Side effects of oxcarbazepine include hyponatremia and Stevens-
Johnson syndrome.
Anxiolytics, Sedatives, and Hypnotics

Anxiety and insomnia are prevalent symptoms with multiple etiologies.
Effective treatments are available, but they vary by diagnosis. In most
instances, the best course of action is to treat the underlying disorder,
rather than reflexively institute treatment with a nonspecific anxiolytic.
Many antidepressant medications are also effective in the treatment of
anxiety disorders (see Chapter 4, Table 4–4). Table 14–12 lists some com-
monly used anxiolytic and hypnotic medications.
Benzodiazepines
Benzodiazepines facilitate inhibition by γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA),
the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. The benzodiazepine
receptor is a subtype of the GABAA receptor. Benzodiazepines act rap-
idly because ion channels can open and close relatively quickly.
INDICATIONS
• Benzodiazepines are highly effective anxiolytics and sedatives.
They also have muscle relaxant, amnestic, and anticonvulsant
properties.
TABLE 14–12. Commonly used anxiolytic and hypnotic medications
294
USUAL APPROXIMATE APPROXIMATE
THERAPEUTIC DOSE METHODS OF ELIMINATION HALF-
SINGLE DOSAGE EQUIVALENT ADMINISTRATION AND LIFE, INCLUDING
a
DRUG DOSE (MG) (MG/DAY) (MG)

SUPPLIED FORMS METABOLITES
Benzodiazepines
Alprazolam (Xanax) 0.25–1 14 0.5 po: 0.25, 0.5 mg 12 hours
b
Chlordiazepoxide 5–25 15–100 10 po: 5, 10, 25 mg; iv, im 14 days
(Librium)
Conazepam (Klonopin) 0.5–2 14 0.25 po: 0.5, 2 mg 12 days
Clorazepate (Tranxene) 3.75–22.5 15–60 7.5 po: 3.75, 7.5, 30 mg 24 days
b
Diazepam (Valium) 2–10 4–40 5 po: 2, 5, 10 mg; iv, im 24 days
b
Lorazepam (Ativan) 0.5–2 1–6 1 po, sl: 0.5, 1, 2 mg; iv, im 12 hours
Oxazepam (Serax) 10–30 30–120 15 po: 10,15, 30 mg 12 hours
Nonbenzodiazepines
Buspirone (BuSpar) 10–30 30–60 N/A po: 5, 10, 15 mg 23 hours
Note. im=intramuscular; iv =intravenous; N/A=not applicable; po=orally; sl=sublingual.
a
The clinical duration of action of benzodiazepines does not correlate with the elimination half-life.
b
Intramuscular lorazepam is well absorbed. Intramuscular chlordiazepoxide or diazepam is not recommended.
Source. Adapted from Teboul and Chouinard 1990.
Pharmacotherapy 295
• These medications effectively treat both acute and chronic gener-

alized anxiety and panic disorder.
• Although only a few benzodiazepines are specifically approved
by the FDA for the treatment of insomnia, almost all may be used
for this purpose.
• Benzodiazepines are most clearly valuable as hypnotics in the
hospital setting, where high levels of sensory stimulation, pain,
and acute stress may interfere with sleep.
• Benzodiazepines are used to treat akathisia and catatonia.
• Benzodiazepines are used as adjuncts in the treatment of acute
mania.
• Because alcohol and barbiturates also act, in part, via the GABAA
receptor–mediated chloride ion channel, benzodiazepines exhibit
cross-tolerance with these substances. Thus, benzodiazepines are
used frequently for treating alcohol or barbiturate withdrawal
and detoxification. Note that alcohol and barbiturates are more
dangerous than benzodiazepines because they can act directly at
the chloride ion channel at higher doses. In contrast, benzodiaz-
epines have no direct effect on the ion channel; the effects of ben-
zodiazepines are limited by the amount of endogenous GABA.
SELECTION
• At equipotent doses, all benzodiazepines have similar effects.
• The choice of benzodiazepine is generally based on half-life, rapid-
ity of onset, metabolism, and potency.
RISKS, SIDE EFFECTS, AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

• All benzodiazepines will be metabolized at various levels by the
liver, which leads to an increased risk of sedation and confusion in
hepatic failure.
• Lorazepam and oxazepam are predominantly eliminated by renal
excretion and are reasonable choices if it is necessary to prescribe
this class of medication when there is hepatic dysfunction.
Sedation and impairment of performance

• Benzodiazepine-induced sedation may be considered either a
therapeutic action or a side effect.
• Whether or not sedation is desired, patients must be warned that

driving, engaging in dangerous physical activities, and using haz-
ardous machinery should be avoided during the early stages of
treatment with benzodiazepines.
Memory impairment
Benzodiazepines are associated with anterograde amnesia, especially
when administered intravenously and in high doses.
Dysinhibition and dyscontrol (paradoxical effect)

• Benzodiazepines may occasionally cause paradoxical anger and
behavioral disinhibition.
• A history of hostility, impulsivity, or borderline or antisocial per-
sonality disorder is a potential predictor of this reaction.
• Some caution should be exercised when these medications are
prescribed to patients with a history of poor impulse control and
aggression.
Dependence, withdrawal, and rebound effects

• There is a low abuse potential when benzodiazepines are prop-
erly prescribed and their use is supervised. However, physical
dependence often occurs when they are taken at higher-than-
usual doses or for prolonged periods.
• If a benzodiazepine is discontinued precipitously, withdrawal
effects (including hyperpyrexia, seizures, psychosis, and even
death) may occur.
• Signs and symptoms of withdrawal may include tachycardia,
increased blood pressure, muscle cramps, anxiety, insomnia,
panic attacks, impairment of memory and concentration, percep-
tual disturbances, and delirium. In addition, withdrawal-related
derealization, hallucinations, and other psychotic symptoms
have been reported. These withdrawal symptoms may begin as
early as the day after discontinuation of the benzodiazepine, and
they may continue for weeks to months.
• Most psychoactive medications should be discontinued gradu-
ally. For patients who have been treated with benzodiazepines for
longer than 2–3 months, the dose should be decreased by approx-
imately 10% per week.
Pharmacotherapy 297
OVERDOSE
• Benzodiazepines are remarkably safe in overdose.
• Dangerous effects occur when the overdose includes several sed-
ative drugs, especially alcohol, because of synergistic effects at the
chloride ion site and resultant membrane hyperpolarization.
• In an emergency setting, the benzodiazepine antagonist flumaze-
nil may be given intravenously to reverse the effects of a potential
overdose. However, flumazenil should be used with caution in a
mixed overdose situation where TCA is ingested because it may
precipitate TCA-induced arrhythmias and seizures that were sup-
pressed by benzodiazepines.
DRUG INTERACTIONS
• Most sedative drugs, including narcotics and alcohol, potentiate
sedative effects.
• Medications that inhibit hepatic CYP 3A3/4 increase blood levels
and hence side effects of clonazepam, alprazolam, midazolam,
and triazolam.
• Lorazepam, oxazepam, and temazepam are not dependent on
hepatic enzymes for metabolism.
USE IN PREGNANCY
• Anxiolytics should be avoided during pregnancy and breast-
feeding when possible.
• There have been concerns that benzodiazepines, when adminis-
tered during the first trimester of pregnancy, may increase the risk
of malformations, particularly cleft palate. Pooled data from
cohort studies do not support an increased risk, but data from
case-control studies do suggest a risk (Rosenberg et al. 1983).
• Some reports have noted that use of benzodiazepines at close
proximity to labor may lead to discontinuation symptoms in the
neonate such as hypotonia, apnea, and temperature dysregula-
tion. This risk must be balanced with the risk of worsening of the
patient’s disorder at time of delivery.
Buspirone
• Buspirone is a partial agonist at 5-HT1A receptors and does not
interact with the GABA receptor or the chloride ion channel.
• Buspirone does not produce sedation, interact with alcohol,
impair psychomotor performance, or pose a risk of abuse.
• There is no cross-tolerance between benzodiazepines and bus-
pirone, so benzodiazepines cannot be abruptly replaced with bus-
pirone.
• Buspirone cannot be used to treat alcohol or barbiturate with-
drawal and detoxification.
• Like the antidepressants, buspirone has a relatively slow onset of
action.
INDICATIONS
• Buspirone is effective in the treatment of generalized anxiety.
Although the onset of therapeutic action is less rapid, buspirone’s
efficacy is not statistically different from that of benzodiazepines
(Cohn and Wilcox 1986; Goldberg and Finnerty 1979).
• Buspirone does not appear to be effective against panic disorder
(Sheehan et al. 1990), although it might reduce anticipatory anxiety.
• Buspirone is also used as an augmenting agent in the treatment of
OCD and depression, and there is some evidence that buspirone
therapy may be an effective treatment for social phobia.
CLINICAL USE
• The usual initial dosage is 7.5 mg bid, increased after 1 week to
15 mg bid.
• The usual recommended maximum daily dose is 60 mg, but
many patients safely tolerate and benefit from dosages up to
90 mg/day.
• Buspirone is metabolized by the liver and excreted by the kid-
neys, and thus should not be administered to patients with
severe hepatic or renal impairment.
SIDE EFFECTS
Side effects include nausea, headache, nervousness, insomnia, dizzi-
ness, and light-headedness. Restlessness has also been reported.
Pharmacotherapy 299
OVERDOSE
No fatal outcomes of buspirone overdose have been reported.
DRUG INTERACTIONS
• Buspirone is metabolized by CYP 3A3/4. Therefore, the initial
dose should be lower in patients who are also taking medications
known to inhibit these enzymes, such as nefazodone.
• Buspirone should not be administered in combination with an
MAOI.
Zolpidem and Zaleplon

• Zolpidem (Ambien) and zaleplon (Sonata) are hypnotics that act
at the omega-1 receptor of the central GABAA receptor complex.
This selectivity is hypothesized to be associated with a lower risk
of dependence; however, these agents should not be considered
free of abuse potential.
• Zolpidem and zaleplon do not appear to have significant anxi-
olytic, muscle relaxant, or anticonvulsant properties. However,
amnestic effects may occur.
• The half-life of zaleplon is 1 hour, and the half-life of zolpidem is
1.5–5 hours.
INDICATIONS
• Zolpidem is a short-acting hypnotic with established efficacy in
inducing and maintaining sleep. Because of the short half-life,
most patients taking zolpidem report minimal daytime sedation.
• Zaleplon is an ultra-short-acting hypnotic and can therefore be
administered in the middle of the night. There are minimal resid-
ual sedative effects after 4 hours.
• Zaleplon, zolpidem, and a similar selective GABAA hypnotic,
indiplon, have ongoing trials of different modified-release formu-
lations (CR). These versions may help improve the sleep of those
patients who have sleep maintenance insomnia or early-morning
awakening.
CLINICAL USE
• Both zolpidem and zaleplon are available in 5- and 10-mg tablets.
• The maximum recommended dosage for adults is 10 mg/day for

zolpidem and 20 mg/day for zaleplon, administered at bedtime.
• The initial dose for elderly persons should not exceed 5 mg.
• Caution is advised in patients with hepatic dysfunction.
• In general, hypnotics should be limited to short-term use, with
reevaluation for more extended therapy.
SIDE EFFECTS
• In general, side effects are similar to those of short-acting benzo-
diazepines.
OVERDOSE
• Zolpidem and zaleplon appear to be nonfatal in overdose. How-
ever, overdoses in combination with other central nervous system
depressant agents pose a greater risk.
• Recommended treatment of overdose consists of general symp-
tomatic and supportive measures, including gastric lavage. Flu-
mazenil may be helpful.
Eszopiclone
• Eszopiclone (Lunesta) is thought to act on GABA receptor com-
plexes close to benzodiazepine receptors.
• No anxiolytic effect has been documented in the literature on this
medication.
• The half-life of eszopiclone is approximately 6 hours.
INDICATIONS
• Eszopiclone has established efficacy in inducing and maintaining
sleep.
• Its duration of action is approximately 8 hours.
CLINICAL USE
• Eszopiclone is available in 1-, 2-, and 3-mg tablets for oral admin-
istration.
• The maximum recommended dosage is 3 mg/night.
Pharmacotherapy 301
• In the elderly the maximum dose is reduced to 2 mg.

• No evidence of tolerance or dependence has been reported, and
the FDA has approved this medication for long-term use; how-
ever, caution is still advised in long-term use.
• This medication should be used cautiously in patients who abuse
alcohol or other drugs because trials of eszopiclone have shown
euphoric effects at a high dose.
SIDE EFFECTS
The side effects of eszopiclone are similar to those of short-acting ben-
zodiazepines. Dizziness, headache, and unpleasant taste were the most
commonly reported side effects.
OVERDOSE
• No fatalities have been reported with up to 36 mg of eszopiclone
being taken in overdose.
• Overdose symptoms include impairment in consciousness, som-
nolence, and coma.
• Treatment of overdose is symptom driven and supportive. Flu-
mazenil may be beneficial.
DRUG INTERACTIONS
• Eszopiclone is metabolized in the liver by CYP 3A4. It should not
be used in patients with severe hepatic impairment.
• Dose adjustment and caution are recommended in patients taking
enzyme inhibitors such as ketoconazole, ciprofloxacin, erythro-
mycin, isoniazid, and nefazodone.
Ramelteon
• Ramelteon (Rozerem) is a hypnotic with melatonin receptor ago-
nist activity targeting MT1 and MT2.
• Ramelteon has not been proved to induce dependence.
• As with zolpidem and zaleplon, no known anxiolytic properties
have been elicited.
• The half-life of ramelteon is 1–2.6 hours.
INDICATIONS
Ramelteon is indicated for the treatment of insomnia, specifically for
improving sleep latency.
CLINICAL USE
• Ramelteon is available in an 8-mg tablet for oral administration.
• The medication should be used with caution in elderly patients
because plasma levels in these patients were twice that of healthy
adults in clinical trials.
• Ramelteon should not be used by patients with severe hepatic
impairment.
SIDE EFFECTS
• The most common side effects of ramelteon are somnolence, diz-
ziness, and fatigue. However, because of its short half-life, this
medication is not thought to be associated with daytime sedation.
• Ramelteon is associated with decreased testosterone levels and
increased prolactin levels.
OVERDOSE
• Ramelteon appears to be nonfatal in overdose.
• Supportive measures are recommended if overdose occurs. Gas-
tric lavage should be considered.
DRUG INTERACTIONS
• Ramelteon is metabolized hepatically, and CYP 1A2 is the major
isozyme involved.
• Caution is recommended with other inhibitory agents such as flu-
voxamine.
Stimulants
Stimulants are approved by the FDA for the treatment of ADHD in
children and adolescents and for the treatment of narcolepsy; they are
also used as augmentation therapy in the treatment of depression. Ta-
ble 14–13 lists the formulations of the various stimulant medications.
TABLE 14–13. Stimulant medications
DRUG TRADE NAME FORMULATIONS
Methylphenidate Concerta 18-, 27-, 36-, 54-mg extended-release tablets

Metadate CD 10-, 20-, 30-, 40-, 50-, 60-mg capsules (can be opened and sprinkled over small
amount of applesauce before immediate consumption)
Metadate ER 10-, 20-mg tablets
Must be taken whole
Pharmacotherapy
Methylin 5-, 10-, 20-mg tablets
Methylin 2.5-, 5-, 10-mg chewable tablets
Chewable
Tablets
Methylin ER 10-, 20-mg tablets
Must be taken whole
Methylin Oral 5-mg/5-mL, 10-mg/5-mL grape-flavored solutions
Solution
Ritalin 5-, 10-, 20-mg tablets
Ritalin LA 10-, 20-, 30-, 40-mg extended-release capsules (can be opened and sprinkled
over small amount of applesauce before immediate consumption)
303
304
TABLE 14–13. Stimulant medications (continued)
DRUG TRADE NAME FORMULATIONS
Methylphenidate Ritalin-SR 20-mg sustained-release tablets

(continued) Must be taken whole
Daytrana 10-, 15-, 20-, 30-mg per 9 hour transdermal patches
Dexmethylphenidate Focalin 2.5-, 5-, 10-mg tablets
Focalin XR 5-, 10-, 15-, 20-mg extended-release capsules (can be opened and sprinkled over
applesauce before immediate consumption)
Dextroamphetamine DextroStat 5-, 10-mg tablets
Dexedrine 5-, 10-, 15-mg sustained-release capsules
Spansule
Amphetamine/ Adderall 5-, 7.5-, 10-, 12.5-, 15-, 20-, 30-mg tablets
dextroamphetamine
Adderall XR 5-, 10-, 15-, 20-, 25-, 30-mg extended-release capsules (can be opened and
sprinkled on applesauce before immediate consumption)
a
Because of the risk of hepatic failure, pemoline should not be considered a first-line medication.
Source. Data from Fuller and Sajatovic 2000; Lee et al. 2003; Pentikis et al. 2002; Physicians’ Desk Reference 2007; Tulloch et al. 2002.
Pharmacotherapy 305
Mechanisms of Action
• Stimulants enhance dopamine synaptic transmission (Wilens and
Biederman 1992).
• Methylphenidate stimulates the release of dopamine stores from
vesicles in presynaptic neurons (Russell et al. 1998), and it may
also inhibit presynaptic dopamine reuptake and affect noradren-
ergic and serotonergic neurotransmission (Challman and Lipsky
2000).
• Dextroamphetamine also has been shown to facilitate the release of
dopamine from presynaptic neuron cytoplasmic stores (Masand
and Tesar 1996).
• Pemoline blocks presynaptic dopamine reuptake in animals
(Homsi et al. 2000).
• The exact mechanisms by which these agents effect their specific
actions in treating ADHD have not been definitively established.
Pharmacokinetics
• Stimulants are rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract
with oral administration and are excreted in the urine.
• Stimulants are not highly protein bound.
• Stimulants are lipophilic and thus cross the blood-brain barrier
and the placenta.
Table 14–14 summarizes the pharmacokinetic properties and approx-

imate durations of action of stimulants.
Contraindications
• History of hypersensitivity to the particular drug
• Significant cardiovascular disease
• Moderate to severe uncontrolled hypertension
• Hyperthyroidism
• Significant anxiety/agitation
• Glaucoma
• History of drug abuse
• Concomitant use of MAOIs
306
TABLE 14–14. Pharmacokinetic properties and approximate durations of action of stimulants
TIME TO PEAK PLASMA
CONCENTRATION DURATION OF ACTION
DRUG TRADE NAME (HOURS) HALF-LIFE (MEAN HOURS) INADHD (HOURS)a

Methylphenidate Concerta 1–2 (initial peak) 3.5 10–12
6–8 (second peak)
Metadate CD 1.5 (initial peak) 6.8 8–9
4.5 (second peak)
Metadate ER, Methylin 4.7 3–4 6–8
ER, Ritalin-SR
Methylin, Ritalin 1–2 2–4 4
Ritalin LA 1–3 (initial peak) 2.5 (children) 8–9
5–11 (second peak) 3.5 (adults)
Dexmethylphenidate Focalin 1–1.5 2.2 4–6
Focalin XR 1.5 (initial peak) 2–3 (children) >6
6.5 (second peak) 2–4.5 (adults)
Dextroamphetamine Dexedrine Spansule 8 12 6–8
Dextrostat 2–3 10.5–12 4
TABLE 14–14. Pharmacokinetic properties and approximate durations of action of stimulants (continued)
TIME TO PEAK PLASMA
CONCENTRATION DURATION OF ACTION
DRUG TRADE NAME (HOURS) HALF-LIFE (MEAN HOURS) INADHD (HOURS)a
Amphetamine/ Adderall 3 d-amphetamine: 9.7-11 Dose dependent;

dextroamphetamine l-amphetamine: 11-13.8 3.5 (5-mg dose)
6.4 (20-mg dose)
Adderall XR 7 d-amphetamine: 10–12
Pharmacotherapy
10 (adults)
9 (children)
l-amphetamine:
13 (adults)
11 (children)
Pemoline Cylert 2–4 12 6–8
a
Times are approximate and may vary from patient to patient.
Note. ADHD=attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Source. Data from L.E. Arnold et al. 2004; Biederman and Faraone 2005; Connor and Steingard 2004; Green 2001; McGough et al. 2005a,
2005b; Pelham et al. 1990; Physicians’ Desk Reference 2007; Santosh and Taylor 2000; Swanson et al. 2004; Wigal et al. 2004.
307
• A history of motor tics or a family history of Tourette’s disorder

(some children with ADHD may experience new tics or worsen-
ing of tics)
• Psychosis
Risks, Side Effects, and Their Management

Table 14–15 lists the potential side effects of stimulants.
• Using the lowest effective dose (Table 14–16), taking the medica-
tions with meals, and avoiding doses late in the day are strategies
that help minimize side effects. See Table 14–17 for futher details
concerning drug delivery systems.
• “Rebound” symptoms, including irritability and hyperactivity,
have been described and may occur as plasma concentrations
decrease after the last daily dose. Management of rebound symp-
toms may include using a small dose of medication in the late
afternoon or switching to a long-acting preparation.
• Withdrawal symptoms, more commonly seen in individuals who
chronically abuse high doses of stimulants, include increased
sleep with vivid dreams, increased appetite, fatigue, and drug
craving.
• Sudden deaths have occurred with amphetamine use in children
with cardiac abnormalities, and clinicians are cautioned against
administering amphetamine stimulants to patients with struc-
tural cardiac abnormalities.
Monitoring Guidelines
• Blood pressure, pulse, height, weight, and appetite should be
evaluated, and growth charts should be maintained at baseline
and throughout treatment (Greenhill et al. 2002; Santosh and Tay-
lor 2000).
• The patient should also be evaluated for the onset or exacerbation
of tics or dyskinesias.
• Because thrombocytopenic purpura and leukopenia can occur, a
CBC should be performed periodically.
• Pemoline may affect liver function tests. Discontinue pemoline if
the ALT level increases to more than two times the normal level.
Pharmacotherapy 309
TABLE 14–15. Potential side effects of stimulants
General
Delayed growth Sweating
HEENT
Headache Blurred vision
Cardiovascular
Tachycardia Hypotension
Bradycardia Chest pain
Hypertension Palpitations
Gastrointestinal
Nausea Decreased appetite
Vomiting Weight loss
Dry mouth Abdominal pain
Dermatological
Rash Pruritis
Neurological
Nervousness Dizziness
Insomnia Tics
Movement disorders Tremor
Restlessness Euphoria
Anxiety Dysphoria
Agitation Psychosis
Drowsiness Seizures
Tourette’s disorder Neuroleptic malignant syndrome
Note. HEENT=head, ears, eyes, nose, and throat.
Source. Data from Fuller and Sajatovic 2000; Lee et al. 2003; Pentikis et al.
2002; Physicians’ Desk Reference 2007.
310
TABLE 14–16. Dosing strategies for stimulants
DRUG TRADE NAME GENERAL DOSING STRATEGIES
Methylphenidate Concerta ADHD

Patients ≥ 6 years old: Start at 18 mg qam; increase by 18 mg/day at weekly
intervals
Maximum daily dose: 54 mg/day
Switching from other methylphenidate preparations:
• Start Concerta at 18 mg qam if administering methylphenidate 5 mg bid or
tid or SR methylphenidate 20 mg/day.
Maximum daily dose: 54 mg (some adolescents may be titrated to a maximum of
72 mg/day, not to exceed 2 mg/kg body weight/day)
Must be taken whole
Metadate CD ADHD: Patients ≥6 years old: Start at 20 mg qam; increase by 10–20 mg/day at
weekly intervals as needed to attain response. Maximum daily dose: 60 mg
TABLE 14–16. Dosing strategies for stimulants (continued)
Methylphenidate Metadate ER, ADHD: May be given once every morning in place of total daily dose of immediate-
(continued) Methylin ER, release (IR) methylphenidate to achieve an estimated 8-hour duration of action.
Ritalin-SR, Must be taken whole.
Methylin, Ritalin ADHD and narcolepsy
Children ≥6 years old: Start at 5 mg qam or bid; increase by 5–10 mg/day at
Pharmacotherapy
weekly intervals as needed to attain response. Give three times daily if effect is
needed in evening hours.
Adults: Start at 5–10 mg bid; titrate as above.
Maximum daily dose: 60 mg
Ritalin LA ADHD
Children ≥6 years old: Start at 20 mg once daily (or lower at clinician’s discretion);
increase by 10 mg weekly.
Switching from IR or sustained-release (SR) methylphenidate: Start Ritalin LA at
total daily dose of IR or SR methylphenidate (administer Ritalin LA dose once
daily).
311
312
Dexmethylphenidate Focalin ADHD

Patients ≥ 6 years old: Start at 2.5 mg bid; increase by 2.5–5 mg/day at weekly
intervals.
Switching from IR methylphenidate: Start Focalin at 50% of the methylphenidate
dose (administer Focalin in divided twice-daily doses); titrate as above.
Maximum daily dose: 10 mg bid
Focalin XR ADHD
Children ≥ 6 years old: Start at 5 mg qd; increase by 5 mg/day at weekly intervals.
Adults: Start at 10 mg qd; increase by 10 mg/day at weekly intervals.
Switching from methylphenidate: Start Focalin XR at 50% of the total daily dose
of methylphenidate (administer Focalin XR in a once-daily dose); titrate Focalin
XR as above.
Switching from IR dexmethylphenidate (Focalin): Start Focalin XR at the same
total daily dose of Focalin.
Maximum daily dose: 20 mg/day (children and adults)
Dextroamphetamine Dexedrine ADHD and narcolepsy

Spansule
Dosing similar to Dexedrine dosing, except use once-daily dosing when
appropriate
DextroStat ADHD
Pharmacotherapy
Patients ≥6 years old: Start at 5 mg qam or bid; increase by 5 mg/day at weekly
intervals.
Narcolepsy
Children 6–12 years old: Start at 5 mg/day; increase by 5 mg/day at weekly
intervals.
Patients > 12 years old: Start at 10 mg/day; increase by 10 mg/day at weekly
intervals.
313
314
Amphetamine/ Adderall ADHD

dextroamphetamine
Children ≥ 6 years old: Start at 5 mg qam or bid; increase by 5 mg/day at weekly
intervals.
Narcolepsy
Children 6–12 years old: Start at 5 mg/day; increase by 5 mg/day at weekly
intervals
Patients > 12 years old: Start at 10 mg/day; increase by 10 mg/day at weekly
intervals.
Adderall XR ADHD
Children ≥6 years old: Start at 10 mg qam; increase by 5–10 mg/day at weekly
intervals.
Adults: Recommended dose is 20 mg/day
Amphetamine/ Switching from IR Adderall: Switch to the same total daily dose (administer
dextroamphetamine Adderall XR once daily).
(continued) Not studied in children < 6 years old
Pemoline Cylert ADHD

Patients >6 years old: Start at 37.5 mg qam; increase by 18.75 mg/day at weekly
Pharmacotherapy
intervals.
Maximum daily dose: 112.5 mg
Measure liver transaminase levels before treatment and then every 2 weeks;
discontinue pemoline if ALT level increases to more than two times normal.
Should not be considered first-line agent (risk of hepatic failure)
Obtain written informed consent prior to initiation of treatment.
Note. ADHD=attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; ALT=alanine transaminase; bid=twice a day; qam=every morning; qd=each
day; tid=three times a day.
Source. Fuller and Sajatovic 2000; Physicians’ Desk Reference 2007; Spencer et al. 2003.
315
316
TABLE 14–17. Drug delivery systems of long-acting stimulant formulations
DRUG TRADE NAME DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM
Methylphenidate Concerta Tablet that contains approximately 22% of methylphenidate dose in an IR

capsule overcoat, and 78% within the tablet that is released by an osmotic
process over an extended period of time
Metadate CD Capsules that provide 30% of methylphenidate dose by IR beads and 70% of
the dose by extended-release beads
Metadate ER Slowly absorbed tablet
Ritalin LA Capsule with 50% methylphenidate dose as immediate-release (IR) beads
and 50% as delayed-release beads
Ritalin-SR Slowly absorbed tablet
Dexmethylphenidate Focalin XR Capsules with 50% dexmethylphenidate dose as IR beads and 50% as
delayed-release beads
Dextroamphetamine Dexedrine Spansule Capsule that allows some medication to be released immediately and the
remainder to be released over time
Amphetamine/ Adderall XR Capsules with one bead type providing an immediate release of medication
dextroamphetamine and another bead type releasing medication 4–6 hours after administration
Source. Connor and Steingard 2004; Physicians’ Desk Reference 2007.
Pharmacotherapy 317
Overdose
• Symptoms of stimulant overdose include tremors, hypertension,
fever, tachycardia, hyperreflexia, confusion, agitation, and psy-
chosis.
• Management of overdose includes stopping the medication and
supportive treatment.
Methylphenidate
• Methylphenidate is structurally similar to amphetamine.
• This medication is available in immediate-release, extended-
release, and controlled-release formulations. The immediate-
release formulation has a very short half-life, reaches peak
plasma concentrations in 1–2 hours, and thus is dosed multiple
times per day.
• Methylphenidate is hepatically metabolized to an inactive metab-
olite and excreted by the kidneys.
ADVERSE REACTIONS
• Methylphenidate may decrease therapeutic effects of concomi-
tantly administered antihypertensive medications and may poten-
tiate effects of warfarin, phenytoin, phenylbutazone, and TCAs.
• When methylphenidate and MAOIs are coadministered, hyper-
tensive crisis may result.
Dextroamphetamine
• Dextroamphetamine is the d-isomer of amphetamine.
• This medication is available in immediate-release and extended-
release formulations.
• Dextroamphetamine is functionally more potent than meth-
ylphenidate and may be associated with a greater risk of growth
retardation and abuse.
• The dextroamphetamine/amphetamine combination Adderall is
also more potent than methylphenidate, and it has a longer half-
life.
• Adderall XR, an extended-release formulation, reaches peak
plasma concentrations in 7 hours and has a half-life of approxi-
mately 9–11 hours in children and 10–13 hours in adults. This
long-acting formulation is bioequivalent to a similar total dose of

Adderall administered twice daily (Tulloch et al. 2002) and may
provide therapeutic effects in ADHD over a 12-hour period (Bie-
derman et al. 2002; McCracken et al. 2003).
ADVERSE REACTIONS
• The risk of tachycardia, hypertension, and cardiotoxicity is
increased with coadministration of dronabinol and dextroam-
phetamine.
• Administration of dextroamphetamine with MAOIs may increase
the risk of hypertensive crisis.
• Alkalinizing agents can speed absorption or delay urinary excre-
tion of dextroamphetamine.
• Gastric or urinary acidifying agents can decrease the effects of
dextroamphetamine.
• Propoxyphene overdose can potentiate amphetamine central ner-
vous system stimulation, potentially resulting in fatal convulsions.
Pemoline
• Has a long half-life, allowing for once-daily dosing
• Has fewer stimulating properties than other stimulants and may
have less abuse potential
• Does not require triplicate prescriptions
• Therapeutic action in ADHD occurs by week 3 or 4
• Numerous reports of hepatotoxicity in patients taking pemoline
and therefore not a first-line agent
• Serum hepatic transaminase levels should be determined at base-
line and then every 2 weeks
• Should be discontinued if serum alanine transaminase levels
increase to two times the upper limit of normal
Modafinil
• Modafinil (Provigil) was approved to improve wakefulness in
patients with narcolepsy, obstructive sleep apnea/hypopnea syn-
drome (as an adjunct to standard treatments for the underlying
disorder), and shift work sleep disorder.
Pharmacotherapy 319
• Modafinil has a long duration of action and low potential for

dependence and may be a reasonable first choice in the treatment
of mild to moderate narcolepsy (Silber 2001).
• This medication does not require a triplicate prescription.
• The mechanism of action for modafinil is unclear but is thought to
differ from that of conventional stimulants.
• Modafinil is metabolized by the liver and excreted by the kidneys.
• The half-life of this drug is approximately 15 hours.
• Modafinil can decrease the serum levels and effectiveness of oral
contraceptives.
Nonstimulant Medication for ADHD:

Atomoxetine
Atomoxetine (Strattera) is a nonstimulant medication. It is especially
useful for patients with ADHD who have not done well on stimulants
because of poor efficacy or tolerability, as well as for patients in whom
the abuse potential of stimulants is of particular concern.
• Atomoxetine is available in 10-, 18-, 25-, 40-, 60-, 80-, and 100-mg
capsules.
• In children and adolescents who weigh less than 70 kg, start at a
total daily dose of 0.5 mg/kg body weight and increase after a
minimum of 3 days to a target daily dose of 1.2 mg/kg (either as a
single morning dose or divided evenly into morning and late
afternoon doses), not to exceed a total daily dose of the lesser of
1.4 mg/kg body weight or 100 mg. In patients weighing more
than 70 kg, start at a total daily dose of 40 mg and increase after a
minimum of 3 days to a total daily dose of 80 mg. If needed, the
dose may be increased to 100 mg.
• This drug is highly protein bound and reaches peak plasma con-
centrations in 1–2 hours.
• Atomoxetine is a selective inhibitor of norepinephrine presynap-
tic reuptake transporters that has been shown to increase extra-
cellular norepinephrine and dopamine concentrations in the
prefrontal cortex in rats (Bymaster et al. 2002).
• This medication is contraindicated in patients with narrow-angle
glaucoma or in combination with an MAOI.
• Children and adolescents taking atomoxetine should be moni-

tored for the appearance or worsening of aggressive or hostile
behavior.
Side Effects
• Common side effects include headache, upper abdominal pain,
decreased appetite, nausea, vomiting, irritability, and dizziness
(Wernicke and Kratochvil 2002). Other side effects observed in clin-
ical trials of adults include constipation, somnolence, dry mouth,
insomnia, urinary hesitancy and/or retention, and impaired sexual
function.
• Postmarketing reports suggest severe liver injury in rare cases.
• Atomoxetine may increase heart rate and blood pressure, and it
should be used with caution in patients with hypertension, tachy-
cardia, cardiovascular disease, or cerebrovascular disease. Ortho-
static hypotension has also been reported.
Drug Interactions
• Paroxetine, a potent CYP 2D6 inhibitor, has been shown to
increase plasma concentrations of atomoxetine and significantly
increase the half-life of atomoxetine approximately 2.5-fold in
patients who are extensive 2D6 metabolizers.
• Atomoxetine may potentiate the cardiovascular effects of albu-
terol or other pressor agents.
Cognitive Enhancers
This section describes two classes of pharmacological agents used in
the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: the cholinesterase inhibitors and
the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists.
Cholinesterase Inhibitors
The cholinesterase inhibitors include donepezil, galantamine, rivastig-
mine, and tacrine. The cholinesterase inhibitors cross the blood-brain
barrier and decrease enzymatic hydrolysis of acetylcholine in the syn-
aptic cleft, thereby increasing acetylcholine availability for neurotrans-
mission.
Pharmacotherapy 321
Table 14–18 summarizes dosing guidelines and available formula-

tions, and Table 14–19 summarizes the pharmacokinetics and key fea-
tures of these drugs.
CLINICAL USE
• Treatment should be considered as early as possible after patients
have been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease.
• Donepezil, galantamine, and rivastigmine can each be considered
a reasonable first-choice medication.
• The optimal duration of treatment with cholinesterase inhibitors
has not been definitely established.
– Most randomized, controlled trials in patients with mild to
moderate Alzheimer’s disease have been 26 weeks or less in
duration.
– Some data suggest continued benefits with treatment for 1 year
or longer.
• If a patient has an inadequate treatment response to one cholinest-

erase inhibitor, he or she may benefit from a trial of a different
agent within the class.
• Although clinicians often use each cholinesterase inhibitor in
combination with memantine, the best evidence to date for such
combination treatment is the use of memantine in patients with
moderate to severe Alzheimer’s disease already taking donepezil
(Tariot et al. 2004).
SIDE EFFECTS
• Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain,
diarrhea, and dizziness. These side effects tend to be associated
with treatment initiation or early dose increases and are often
transient.
• Anorexia and weight loss may also occur and may persist through-
out treatment.
• Potentially dangerous side effects include myasthenia, respira-
tory depression, and bradycardia.
• Use these medications with caution in patients with cardiac conduc-
tion problems, because vagotonic effects can lead to bradycardia.
322
TABLE 14–18. Cholinesterase inhibitors available in the United States
DRUG TRADE NAME DOSING GUIDELINES FORMULATIONS
Donepezil Aricept Administer 5 mg po qhs (with or without a meal) for 4–6 weeks. 5-, 10-mg tablets

Some patients then increase to 10 mg/day if tolerated. 5-, 10-mg oral disintegrating
Target daily dosage range: 5–10 mg po qhs tablets (Aricept ODT)
1 mg/mL oral solution
Galantamine Razadyne Administer 4 mg po bid (preferably with meals) for at least 4 4-, 8-, 12-mg tablets
weeks, then increase to an initial target dosage of 8 mg bid for 4-mg/mL oral solution (in
at least 4 weeks. A further dosage increase to 12 mg bid may 100-mL bottle with
be helpful for some patients. calibrated pipette)
Target daily dosage range: 8–12 mg po bid
Razadyne ER Administer 8 mg po qam (preferably with meal) for at least 4 8-, 16-, 24-mg capsules
weeks, then increase to an initial target dosage of 16 mg po
qam. A further dosage increase to 24 mg po qam may be
helpful for some patients.
Target daily dosage range: 16–24 mg po qam
TABLE 14–18. Cholinesterase inhibitors available in the United States
DRUG TRADE NAME DOSING GUIDELINES FORMULATIONS
Rivastigmine Exelon Administer 1.5 mg po bid (preferably with meals) for 2–4 weeks, 1.5-, 3-, 4.5-, 6-mg capsules
then increase in increments of 1.5 mg/dose every 2–4 weeks, 2-mg/mL oral solution (in
as tolerated, to a maximum dosage of 6 mg po bid. bottles of 120-mL with
Target daily dosage range: 3–6 mg po bid dosing syringe)
Exelon Patch Administer 4.6-mg/24-hour dosage for a minimum of 4 weeks, 4.6- and 9.5-mg/24-hour
then increase to 9.5-mg/24-hour dosage patches
Pharmacotherapy
Tacrine Cognex Administer 10 mg po qid for 4 weeks, then 20 mg qid for 4 10-, 20-, 30-, 40-mg
weeks, then 30 mg qid for 4 weeks, and then 40 mg qid. capsules
Titration is based on tolerability and serum transaminase levels.
Refer to current product labeling for guidelines on dose
adjustments, monitoring, and rechallenging.
Note. bid=twice a day; po=orally; qam=every morning; qd=each day; qhs=every bedtime; qid=four times a day.
Source. Doody et al. 2001; Physicians’ Desk Reference 2007; Schneider 2001.
323
324
TABLE 14–19. Pharmacokinetics and key features of cholinesterase inhibitors
PROTEIN HALF-LIFE RELATIONS TO CYTOCHROME
AGENT BINDING (HOURS) P450 (CYP) SYSTEM OTHER KEY FEATURES

Donepezil (Aricept) >95% 70 CYP 2D6 substrate Once-daily dosing
CYP 3A4 substrate
Galantamine (Razadyne, 18% 7 CYP 2D6 substrate Allosteric nicotinic receptor activity
Razadyne ER)
CYP 3A4 substrate Once-daily dosing for ER formulation
Rivastigmine (Exelon) 40% 1.5 None anticipated Not hepatically metabolized (metabolized
by hydrolysis and renally eliminated)
Dual acetylcholinesterase and
butyrylcholinesterase inhibitor
Tacrine (Cognex) 55% 24 CYP 1A2 substrate Risk for hepatotoxicity
CYP 1A2 inhibitor Multiple doses daily
Requires close hepatic monitoring
Source. Bores et al. 1996; Fuller and Sajatovic 2000; Physicians’ Desk Reference 2007; Watkins et al. 1994.
Pharmacotherapy 325
• Caution is warranted in patients with comorbid asthma, chronic

obstructive pulmonary disease, bladder outlet obstruction, or sei-
zures, as well as in patients at risk for gastrointestinal ulcers or
bleeding (Fuller and Sajatovic 2000).
DRUG INTERACTIONS
• All cholinesterase inhibitors can exaggerate the effects of succi-
nylcholine-like muscle relaxants during anesthesia.
• Use of cholinesterase inhibitors in combination with other cholin-
ergic agents, such as bethanechol, can lead to synergistic effects
and increased toxicity.
• Concomitant use of anticholinergic agents and cholinesterase
inhibitors can decrease the effectiveness of both agents.
DONEPEZIL
• Donepezil is a selective, reversible inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase.
• Its long half-life allows for once-daily dosing.
• Although donepezil is currently only approved by the FDA for the
treatment of mild to moderate Alzheimer’s disease, its efficacy
has also been examined in other dementias, including moderate
to severe Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and vascular
dementia.
Side effects
• Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdom-
inal pain, anorexia, weight loss, insomnia, and fatigue.
• Some patients may also experience muscle cramps, dizziness, and
syncope.
GALANTAMINE
Galantamine is a competitive, reversible cholinesterase inhibitor and an
allosteric modulator of presynaptic nicotinic receptors, thereby enhanc-
ing synaptic acetylcholine activity.
Side effects
• Common side effects reported in clinical trials include nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea, anorexia, weight loss, dizziness, abdominal
pain, and tremor.
• Most side effects tend to be dose related and may be decreased

with a slow titration schedule of 4 mg bid every 4 weeks.
RIVASTIGMINE
• Rivastigmine is a reversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitor that is
relatively selective for an acetylcholinesterase subtype found on
postsynaptic membranes. It is also an inhibitor of butyrylcho-
linesterase, which is largely of glial origin.
• Rivastigmine is not hepatically metabolized; however, the phar-
macodynamic interactions (noted earlier in this chapter) associ-
ated with other cholinesterase inhibitors may occur.
Side effects
• Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, and weight loss,
especially with high-dose treatment.
• Recent data suggest that side effects may be decreased by titrating
no faster than 1.5 mg bid every 2 weeks (Vellas et al. 1998).
• Severe vomiting may occur if rivastigmine therapy is resumed
after a treatment interruption.
TACRINE
Tacrine was the first cholinesterase inhibitor to be approved by the FDA
for the treatment of mild to moderate dementia.
• Tacrine is not considered first-line, and it is rarely used because of
the risk of hepatotoxicity.
• Serum transaminase levels must be monitored every 2 weeks from
at least week 4 to week 16 after initiation of tacrine treatment.
• In controlled trials of tacrine for the treatment of dementia, up to
50% of patients taking high-dose tacrine had increased transami-
nase levels (see review by Doody et al. 2001), and 25% had increases
in ALT concentrations beyond three times the upper limit of nor-
mal.
NMDA Receptor Antagonists

Memantine, an NMDA receptor antagonist, is the only medication ap-
proved by the FDA for the treatment of moderate to severe dementia of
the Alzheimer’s type.
Pharmacotherapy 327
• Memantine is available in 5- and 10-mg tablets, and also in oral

solution (2mg/mL).
• The typical starting dose is 5 mg as a single daily dose. Subsequent
dose increases should occur in 5-mg increments (at least 1 week
apart) to a target dosage of 10 mg twice daily (or 5 mg twice daily
in patients with renal impairment).
• Memantine is a moderate-affinity, noncompetitive inhibitor of
NMDA receptors.
• Memantine is not highly protein bound, and it has a half-life of
60–80 hours.
• It is primarily renally excreted unchanged in the urine; however, a
portion of the administered dose is converted to three inactive
metabolites. Clinicians are advised to use lower doses in patients
with renal impairment and to avoid use in patients with severe
renal impairment.
• The most common side effects of memantine are dizziness, head-
ache, confusion, constipation, coughing, hypertension, somno-
lence, pain, vomiting, and hallucinations.
DRUG INTERACTIONS
• Memantine is not a major substrate for hepatic CYP isoenzymes
and has not been shown to significantly inhibit or induce these
enzymes.
• Concomitant use of another medication that uses the same renal
system (e.g., triamterene, hydrochlorothiazide, digoxin, cimeti-
dine, ranitidine, metformin, and quinidine) may affect plasma lev-
els of both drugs.
• Memantine should be not be used in combination with other NMDA
receptor antagonists, such as amantadine or dextromethorphan,
because these combinations have not been formally studied.
• The clearance of memantine can be reduced when the urine is
alkalinized, such as with the concomitant use of sodium bicarbon-
ate or carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, or during severe urinary
tract infections.
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15
Psychotherapy and
Psychosocial Treatments
Psychoanalysis and
Psychodynamic Psychotherapy
Psychoanalysis is a family of psychological theories and methods based
on the work of Sigmund Freud and his successors (e.g., Klein, Kohut).
As a therapy, psychoanalysis is based on the observation that individu-
als are often unaware of many of the factors that determine their emo-
tions and behavior. These unconscious factors may create unhappiness,
sometimes in the form of recognizable symptoms or in the form of trou-
bling personality traits, difficulties in relationships, or disturbances in
self-esteem.
In psychoanalytic theory, the unconscious is a depository for socially
unacceptable ideas, wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful
emotions that are kept from awareness by defense mechanisms (see Ta-
ble 15–1). Psychoanalytic treatment attempts to gradually trace symp-
toms (e.g., anxiety or chronic relationship difficulties) back to their
once-unconscious origin, typically in childhood. In traditional forms of
psychoanalysis, the analyst (therapist/doctor) sits behind as the patient
is lying down on a couch. This is so that the analyst can be a blank slate
onto which the patient will unconsciously transfer emotions felt toward
important people in his or her life. The therapy involves analyzing this
transference. Over time, the patient may express feelings toward the
doctor that are similar to those felt toward other important people in the
331
332
TABLE 15–1. Classic defense mechanisms
Repression Keeping unwanted affects, memories, and drives from consciousness, allowing them to remain in our
behavior outside of awareness. This is the mechanism by which we “forget” unpleasant information
or feelings.

Regression Returning to an earlier level of maturational functioning
Isolation Separating link between affect and memory. This mechanism is often used by patients with obsessive-
compulsive features or disorder.
Reaction formation Transforming affects into their opposites (e.g., “I don’t love this; I hate it”). This mechanism is often
used by patients with obsessive-compulsive features or disorder.
Undoing Attempting to nullify or atone for forbidden fantasy, affect, or memory. This mechanism is used by
patients with obsessive-compulsive features or disorder.
Projection Sending an unacceptable thought or feeling away and attributing it to an external source (e.g., “I don’t
hate him; he hates me”). Often used by patients with paranoid personality structures or disorders.
Projective identification is a more primitive version of this defense mechanism, in which identity is
ascribed to another, generally in a relationship in which the other accepts the projection.
Identification Taking attributes of important others into our own selves, which we can then modify. This defense
mechanism can be either part of normal growth or pathological, depending on maturational level.
Turning against Taking an impulse intended to be expressed toward someone else and directing it against oneself (e.g.,
biting your tongue by “accident” when you feel like saying something hostile toward another person)
TABLE 15–1. Classic defense mechanisms (continued)
Reversal Taking an impulse and reversing its polarity (e.g., changing sadistic feelings into masochistic ones or
transforming the active role into the passive role)
Psychotherapy and Psychosocial Treatments

Denial Invalidating an unpleasant or unwanted piece of information and living life as though it did not exist,
such as patients with addictions who do not acknowledge the consequences of their behavior. This
mechanism differs from repression in that there is slight consciousness, but a piece of reality is being
denied, not just mental content.
Splitting Keeping “good objects,” pleasurable affects, and good memories apart from “bad objects,”
unpleasurable affects, and bad memories. Early in life, this defense keeps infants from having good
experiences drowned out by bad ones. Later, it prevents people from experiencing others as
multifaceted, complex whole objects possessing both good and bad characteristics. This is often seen
in patients with borderline personality disorder.
Sublimation Turning drives, affects, and memories into healthy and creative outcomes
Source. Adapted from Marmer 2003.
333
patient’s life. For example, someone who is dependent and submissive

toward his or her spouse may begin to behave in that way with the an-
alyst.
Generally, psychoanalysis is less interactive than other forms of talk
psychotherapy, with the patient encouraged to say everything that
comes to mind (free association) and the therapist listening, making com-
ments only when, in his or her professional judgment, an opportunity
for insight on the part of the patient arises. More current versions of psy-
choanalysis are often referred to as “insight-oriented” or “psychody-
namic” psychotherapy (see the next section, “Object Relations Theory,”
in this chapter). These therapies have their roots in psychoanalytic the-
ory but also borrow from other forms of psychotherapy and typically
have the therapist and patient facing each other for more direct interac-
tion. Psychoanalytic principles can also be applied to family therapy
and group therapy.
Freud posited a structural theory of the psyche and hypothesized that
many human problems resulted from unresolved conflicts among the
following dimensions:
• Id. Contains the most primitive desires of rage (aggression) and

sex (libido).
• Superego. Contains internalized norms, morality, and taboos.
• Ego. Mediates between the two and may include or give rise to
the sense of self.
Resistance represents a deeply felt reluctance to bring repressed (un-

conscious) events or feelings to awareness. The patient may avoid mem-
ories or insights that would arouse anxiety.
Countertransference is a condition in which the therapist begins to
transfer his or her own unconscious feelings to the patient. For example,
a therapist may dread a psychotherapy session with a patient because
the patient reminds the therapist of a negative person in the therapist’s
life, or a therapist may feel unusually protective of a patient who re-
minds the therapist of his or her own child. A well-trained therapist will
use such feelings to help understand the patient.
Projective identification is a psychological process in which a patient
projects a set of beliefs or emotions onto the therapist. The patient does
it in such a way that the therapist begins to act as if he or she actually has
the beliefs or emotions the patient projected onto the therapist. For ex-
ample, a patient may feel unlikable and have low self-esteem. Initially,
the therapist does not view the patient this way. However, throughout
Psychotherapy and Psychosocial Treatments 335
the therapy sessions, the patient behaves in such a manner as to cause

the therapist to dislike him or her and to verify the patient’s belief that
he or she is, in fact, unlikable.
Object Relations Theory

Object relations theory is a modern adaptation of psychoanalytic theory
that emphasizes human relationships as the primary motivational force
in life. Object relations theorists believe that we are relationship seeking
rather than pleasure seeking, as Freud suggested. The importance of re-
lationships in the theory translates to relationships as the main focus of
psychotherapy, especially the relationship with the therapist.
Psychodynamic Psychotherapy
Psychodynamic psychotherapy, also called insight-oriented psycho-
therapy, uses the principles of psychoanalysis but is more focused and
has less frequent sessions. As opposed to classic psychoanalysis, in
psychodynamic psychotherapy, the patient and therapist are seated
face-to-face. The goal of treatment is for the therapist to help the patient
understand and work through transference, develop insight, and im-
prove adaptive defenses in order to resolve conflicts (Dulcan et al. 2003;
Gabbard and Bennett 2007; Levenson et al. 2003).
Psychosocial Treatments
Table 15–2 summarizes the evidence-based psychosocial interventions
available for major psychiatric illnesses.
Behavior Therapy
Behavior therapy is founded in the school of behaviorism, which states
that psychological matters can be studied scientifically by observing
overt behavior. Behavior therapy is based on the principles of classical
conditioning developed by Ivan Pavlov and operant conditioning de-
veloped by B.F. Skinner (Skinner 1953). Although the theoretical under-
pinnings of behaviorism can be applied to almost any problem, two
more comprehensive therapy techniques are particularly useful in the
treatment of anxiety disorders: systematic desensitization and exposure
and response prevention (ERP).
Systematic desensitization includes teaching relaxation skills in order
to control fear and anxiety responses to specific phobias. Once the indi-
336
TABLE 15–2. Evidence-based psychosocial interventions for major psychiatric illnesses
DIAGNOSIS INTERVENTION(S)
Any Psychoeducation: Almost all patients can benefit from psychoeducation at varying intensities.

However, for patients with active psychotic symptoms psychoeducation may be most
appropriate when symptoms are stabilized or with key family or support systems.
Major depressive disorder Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) or interpersonal therapy (IPT)
Bipolar disorder CBT, IPT (modified for bipolar disorder with an emphasis on social rhythms; this modification is
called interpersonal social rhythm therapy [IPSRT]), psychoeducation, family-focused therapy
Anxiety disorders CBT and behavior therapy
Schizophrenia Psychoeducation if not actively psychotic, family psychoeducation
Borderline personality Dialectical behavior therapy
disorder
vidual has been taught these skills, he or she uses them to react toward
and overcome situations in an established hierarchy of fears. The goal of
this process is for an individual to learn to cope with and overcome the
fear in each step of the hierarchy. This process will lead to overcoming
the last step of the fear in the hierarchy. For example, if a person is afraid
of flying, lower rungs on the hierarchy might involve imagining enter-
ing a plane or viewing pictures of airplanes. The ultimate step would be
flying itself.
Exposure and response prevention is predicated on the idea that a ther-
apeutic effect is achieved as subjects confront their fears and discontinue
their escape response. An example would be of a person who repeatedly
washes his or her hands after touching any foreign object. The therapy
involves touching feared objects and then resisting the urge to complete
the “safety behavior” (i.e., hand washing). Over time, with success in re-
sisting the response, the patient experiences habituation to the feared
stimulus.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is most often associated with the
work of Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck, dating back to the early 1970s
(Beck 1976; Beck et al. 1979; Ellis and Dryden 1987). In CBT, behaviors
are thought to stem from distorted and irrational thoughts. Hence, ther-
apy focuses on changing thoughts and behaviors directly, as opposed to
trying to understand unconscious processes as in psychodynamic psy-
chotherapy. CBT differs from behavior therapy alone because of the
emphasis on assessment of distorted or irrational thoughts. Behavior
therapy is only concerned with modification of observable behavior.
CBT is an active therapy that involves constant interaction between
clinician and patient. Most often, it involves mutually agreed-upon
goals for change, and progress toward achieving those goals is contin-
ually monitored. It often includes homework assignments between ses-
sions, such as completing relaxation exercises or practicing assertive
communication skills. The goal of CBT is for the patient to learn new
skills and strategies that he or she will eventually implement indepen-
dently as needed.
Interpersonal Therapy
Interpersonal psychotherapy was initially developed to treat depres-
sion (Klerman et al. 1984; Weissman et al. 2000). Stressful interpersonal
events are thought to contribute to the onset of symptoms for individu-
als genetically prone to depression. Thus, this approach focuses on the

interpersonal context in which depression symptoms emerge. Patients
learn to identify problematic social patterns and relate their moods to
these patterns. Clinicians help patients determine which of the follow-
ing core problem areas may be contributing to their symptoms:
• Grief over loss. The clinician assesses for the presence of abnor-
mal grief. In some cases, this form of grief includes grieving over
the lost “healthy” self or opportunities missed due to illness. For
example, a person may grieve because he or she never finished
college or may grieve for a lost relationship. Treatment focuses on
facilitating the mourning process and helping the patient estab-
lish interests and relationships that can substitute for what has
been lost.
• Interpersonal conflicts. The patient and a significant other may
have conflicting expectations about the relationship that may
contribute to symptoms. Treatment goals include identifying the
disputes, making choices about a plan of action, and then modi-
fying communication patterns and/or reassessing expectations
to resolve the dispute.
• Role transitions. When a person has difficulty coping with life
changes that require a role change, the therapist will work with
the patient to give up a previous role. This includes helping the
patient express anger, guilt, and loss. It may also include assis-
tance to develop new attachments and find appropriate support
groups. For example, a person may experience a divorce and have
mood symptoms as a consequence of his or her dissatisfaction
with life events and new status as a single person. The therapist
and patient may work together to recognize the positive aspects
of single life and the dissolution of an unhappy marriage. They
may also work to enhance the person’s social contacts and accli-
mate to this role change.
• Interpersonal skills deficits. The interpersonal therapy model pre-
dicts that interpersonal deficits contribute to mood symptoms.
Those with long histories of inadequate or superficial interper-
sonal relationships may have deficits that lead to social isolation.
The therapist will work with the patient to reduce social isolation
and acquire skills to build more intimate and lasting relation-
ships.
Dialectical Behavior Therapy

Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) was developed initially for use with
patients with borderline personality disorder and has proven effective
in decreasing self-injurious behaviors, suicide attempts, and bulimic be-
havior in this population (Linehan et al. 1993, 2006; Lynch et al. 2006).
The dialectical nature of DBT is that it addresses both the need for ac-
ceptance and the need for change; acceptance and validation of what the
patient is experiencing and change of dysfunctional thoughts, feelings,
and behavior. The goal of DBT is to enhance the patient’s ability to en-
gage in functional (as opposed to dysfunctional) behavior even when
experiencing intense emotions. DBT uses some techniques common to
other types of therapy, such as ERP and cognitive restructuring. It also
uses techniques unique to DBT, including emotion regulation and the
development of distress tolerance skills.
Psychoeducation
Psychoeducation involves teaching patients and their families about
their disorder, treatment options, and how to recognize signs of relapse,
so they can get necessary treatment before their difficulty worsens or re-
curs. Additionally, those close to the patient may learn coping strategies
and problem-solving skills to help them deal more effectively with the
patient.
Most psychoeducational programs are integrative, with providers
choosing a different focus of education depending on illness and patient
characteristics. For example, if a patient demonstrates a persistent prob-
lem taking medications as prescribed, psychoeducation for that person
may focus on developing tools to help the patient be more consistent
(e.g., using a timer, pillbox, or medication checklist posted in a promi-
nent location in the home). Some common psychoeducational topics
include focus on taking medication as prescribed, understanding risk
factors for relapse, recognizing warning signs of relapse, managing
stressful life events, and learning about protective factors. For example,
having daily contact with a supportive friend or attending support
group meetings may be essential to sustain recovery.
Psychoeducation can be simple and straightforward (e.g., a patient
and nurse discussing expected side effects of a new medication) or
more complex and multifaceted (e.g., a psychoeducational “package”
that may include written, visual, and interactive educational materials
about the disorder and treatment). One such package was developed for
use in the Texas Medication Algorithm Project (TMAP) and includes
written materials, a video, pictures depicting important lessons, and in-

structions for an interactive, peer-led group experience. This package
includes tools that provide patient and family education, address symp-
toms and treatment, and emphasize the development of a collaborative
treatment relationship (Toprac et al. 2000). Additional program infor-
mation is available at www.dshs.state.tx.us/mhprograms/TMAP.shtm.
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Toprac MG, Rush AJ, Conner TM, et al: The Texas Medication Algorithm Project
patient and family education program: a consumer-guided initiative. J Clin
Psychiatry 61:477–486, 2000
Weissman MM, Markowitz J, Klerman GL: Comprehensive Guide to Interper-
sonal Psychotherapy. New York, Basic Books, 2000
16
Electroconvulsive Therapy
and Device-Based
Treatments
Electroconvulsive Therapy
The use of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) was originally based on the
observation that some patients with both psychosis and epilepsy were
less psychotic after a seizure, hence the seizure may have been in some
way “treating” the psychosis. Modern ECT is administered under gen-
eral anesthesia and uses an electric current administered via electrodes
placed against the skull to produce a grand mal seizure. Although the
mechanism of action is unclear, ECT remains one of the most effective
treatments for depression.
ECT is appropriate for the following clinical populations:
• Patients with severe major depression

• Patients with major depression with psychotic features
• Patients with mania that is not responsive to medications
• Patients with schizophrenia if there is an affective component or
catatonic symptoms
• Pregnant women with severe symptoms who are in need of
urgent treatment, especially for affective disorders
341
• Geriatric patients who are at risk because they are not eating and
drinking
• Patients who have previously responded to ECT
There are no absolute contraindications to ECT. Relative contraindi-

cations include clinically significant space-occupying cerebral lesions or
conditions with increased intracranial pressure, and significant cardio-
vascular problems, such as recent myocardial infarction, severe cardiac
ischemia, and moderate to severe hypertension (including pheochro-
mocytoma). A medical evaluation must be performed before using ECT
(Table 16–1).
Anesthesia and Muscle Relaxation

Several medications are often used before and during ECT to minimize
complications and discomfort associated with the treatment. Each ECT
center may use a different combination. Pretreatment is often given with
an anticholinergic drug such as atropine (0.4–1.0 mg intravenously [iv])
or glycopyrrolate (0.2–0.4 mg iv) to decrease the morbidity of cardiac
bradyarrhythmias and aspiration.
General anesthesia is induced using a fast-acting anesthetic. Once the
patient is anesthetized, intravenous succinylcholine is used for muscu-
TABLE 16–1. Medical evaluation before electroconvulsive

therapy
• Complete medical and neurological examination

• Complete blood count
• Serum electrolyte analysis
• Electrocardiogram
• Chest X ray (required because of the use of positive pressure
respiration during general anesthesia)
• Evaluation by an anesthesiologist to determine risk of anesthesia
• X ray of the lumbosacral region if spinal orthopedic problems are
suspected
• Computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging of the brain
if there is clinical evidence of a brain tumor or intracerebral bleeding
or if there are central nervous system symptoms of uncertain etiology
Electroconvulsive Therapy and Device-Based Treatments 343
lar relaxation. In general, approximately 0.5–1 mg/kg of intravenous

succinylcholine is administered rapidly, immediately after the onset of
general anesthesia. If there are preexisting skeletal problems or other or-
thopedic problems, a higher dose of succinylcholine may be required,
whereas a history or evidence of pseudocholinesterase deficiency
would call for a lower dose.
Once the succinylcholine is administered, the patient is ventilated
with 100% oxygen until muscle fasciculations occur and motoric relax-
ation of the patient is accomplished. Modern ECT devices allow for si-
multaneous monitoring of the electroencephalogram (EEG) and electro-
cardiogram before, during, and after the ECT procedure. In addition,
there should be frequent monitoring of blood pressure, pulse rate, and
blood oxygen saturation (with pulse oximetry).
Parameters
Two major issues in the administration of the electrical stimulus include
the stimulus dose and the electrode placement (i.e., placement may be
nondominant unilateral or bilateral). Electrodes may be placed unilat-
erally on the nondominant hemisphere (i.e., over the right hemisphere
for a right-handed individual and over the left hemisphere for a left-
handed individual) or bilaterally. Although there have been observa-
tions that unilateral electrode placement is related to fewer cognitive
side effects compared with bilateral stimulus, unilateral placement is
less efficacious if comparable stimulus doses are used. However, recent
studies using higher-dose unilateral ECT have demonstrated improved
efficacy (Eschweiler et al. 2007; Sackeim et al. 2000).
Course of Treatment
In the United States, ECT treatments are generally given on an every-
other-day basis for 2–3 weeks, usually Monday, Wednesday, and Fri-
day. Duration of seizure for longer than 25 seconds per treatment (as
assessed by motor activity, not EEG seizure activity) is considered
adequate for therapeutic purposes. The number of treatments admin-
istered is generally determined by a patient’s clinical response; the ther-
apy is discontinued when successive treatments do not elicit further
beneficial effects. With depressed patients, a typical course of ECT con-
sists of 6–10 treatments, but sometimes more are required. We do not
recommend more than 20 treatments in a single course of ECT.
Psychiatric Medications Affecting ECT

Some data indicate increased neurotoxicity when patients who are
taking lithium receive ECT (Jha et al. 1996). Therefore, lithium should
be discontinued 24 hours before ECT. Benzodiazepines and anticonvul-
sants increase seizure threshold, so clinicians should consider avoiding
these medications within 5 half-lives when using ECT.
Risks and Side Effects

• The mortality risk is primarily related to the risk of general anes-
thesia.
• Ictal and postictal fluctuations in autonomic tone can elicit car-
diac arrhythmias.
• The most frequent complaints of patients are short-term memory
impairment and headaches.
• The initial confusion and cognitive deficits associated with ECT
are usually temporary, lasting approximately 30 minutes after
each treatment, and occur in most patients.
• Longer-term memory difficulty localized to the time immediately
surrounding the ECT administration is frequently reported.
• Longer-term memory impairment is considered rare.
• Factors associated with an increased likelihood of memory
impairment are preexisting cognitive problems, the use of bilat-
eral electrode placement, and longer courses of treatment.
• Memory loss is greatest for public events, with less impairment in
memory for autobiographical information (Lisanby et al. 2000).
Post-ECT Prophylactic Treatment

After an acute course of ECT, long-term treatment is still needed; antide-
pressant medications are most commonly used for this purpose. Longer-
term ECT may be administered at decreasing intervals (e.g., once per
week and then once per month).
Vagus Nerve Stimulation

Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is the first implanted device approved
by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of a psy-
chiatric disorder. It was approved as an adjunctive treatment for chronic
and recurrent unipolar or bipolar depression nonresponsive to four ad-

equate antidepressant treatments. The same device is used for epilepsy.
VNS should not be considered an emergency intervention; response,
when it occurs, is typically delayed by 3–12 months (Rush et al. 2005).
Contraindications to VNS therapy include having a history of a bilateral
or left cervical vagotomy and receiving diathermy (deep-tissue heat
treatment).
Method
A pacemaker-like pulse generator is surgically implanted in the left
chest wall where it delivers an electrical signal through an implanted
lead that is wrapped around the left cervical vagus nerve. The implanted
pulse generator is then programmed with a telemetric wand using a lap-
top or handheld computer to deliver pulses to the vagus nerve. These are
typically set for 30 seconds every 5 minutes, 24 hours a day, or until
turned off.
No portion of the device is in the brain, but the intermittent stimula-
tion of the vagus nerve produces bilateral activation of brain circuits.
Side Effects
Common side effects resulting from device stimulation of the vagus
nerve are voice alteration, increased cough, dyspnea, neck pain, dys-
phagia, laryngismus, and paresthesias.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is currently investigational in
the United States for treatment-resistant depression (Fitzgerald et al.
2006), but it is approved for this indication in Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, the European Union, and Israel.
Method
TMS provides direct stimulation of areas of the brain believed to be in-
volved in depression. A small coil is placed over the left frontal cortex,
and the coil produces a rapidly alternating magnetic field that results in
focal neuronal depolarization.
The patient remains awake during the treatment. Treatments can last
45 minutes and can occur daily. In general, patients tolerate repetitive
TMS (rTMS) well and are able to resume their daily activities immedi-
ately following treatment.
Side Effects and Safety

• The most common side effects of rTMS are headache and neck
pain.
• The primary safety concern with rTMS is seizures.
Deep Brain Stimulation

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is investigational for significantly treat-
ment-resistant depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder (Green-
berg et al. 2006; Mayberg et al. 2005).
Method
The device consists of an implantable battery-powered pulse generator
(IPG) implanted near the clavicle similar to pacemakers or VNS devices.
One or two leads (unilateral or bilateral) are tunneled from the device(s)
under the scalp along the skull. Neuroimaging and brain stimulation re-
cording during the implantation procedure facilitate exact placement of
the lead in the targeted brain area. The anatomic target of DBS differs
depending on the underlying disease, and even with the same disease
there is ongoing debate about optimal targets.
Side Effects
The most common side effects are from the procedure itself. These in-
clude infection, skin erosion, subcutaneous seroma, and intercerebral
hematoma.
References
Eschweiler GW, Vonthein R, Bode R, et al: Clinical efficacy and cognitive side ef-
fects of bifrontal versus right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): a
short term randomized controlled trial in pharmaco-resistant major depres-
sion. J Affect Disorders 101:149–157, 2007
Fitzgerald PB, Benitez J, De Castella A, et al: A randomized, controlled trial of
sequential bilateral repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for treat-
ment-resistant depression. Am J Psychiatry 163:88–94, 2006
Greenberg BD, Malone DA, Friehs GM, et al: Three-year outcomes in deep brain
stimulation for highly resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsy-
chopharmacology 31:2384–2393, 2006
Jha AK, Stein GS, Fenwick P: Negative interaction between lithium and electro-
convulsive therapy—a case-control study. Br J Psychiatry 168:241–243, 1996
Lisanby SH, Maddox JH, Prudic J, et al: The effects of electroconvulsive therapy
on memory of autobiographical and public events. Arch Gen Psychiatry
57:581–590, 2000
Mayberg HS, Lozano AM, Voon V, et al: Deep brain stimulation for treatment-re-
sistant depression. Neuron 45:651–660, 2005
Rush AJ, Sackeim HA, Marangell LB, et al: Effects of 12 months of vagus nerve
stimulation in treatment-resistant depression: a naturalistic study. Biol Psy-
chiatry 58:355–363, 2005
Sackeim HA, Prudic J, Devanand DP, et al: A prospective, randomized, double-
blind comparison of bilateral and right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy
at different stimulus intensities. Arch Gen Psychiatry 57:425–434, 2000
Appendix 1
Commonly Used
Abbreviations
AA Alcoholics Anonymous
AABH Association for Ambulatory Behavioral Healthcare
AACAP American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
AAEP American Association of Emergency Psychiatry
AAIDD American Association on Intellectual and Developmental

Disabilities
AAMC Association of American Medical Colleges
AAMI age-associated memory impairment
AAN American Academy of Neurology
AAPDP American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychi-

atry
AAPL American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law
ABMS American Board of Medical Specialties
ABPN American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology
ACNP American College of Neuropsychopharmacology
349
ACOPSA American College of Psychoanalysts
ACP American College of Physicians; American College of Psychia-

trists; Association for Child Psychoanalysis
ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone
AD Alzheimer’s disease
ADD attention-deficit disorder
ADH alcohol dehydrogenase
ADHD attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
ADMSEP Association of Directors of Medical Student Education in

Psychiatry
ADR acute dystonic reaction
AFMR American Federation for Medical Research
AFSP American Foundation for Suicide Prevention
AFTA American Family Therapy Academy
AGPA American Group Psychotherapy Association
AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
AIMS Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale
AIPP American Institute for Psychotherapy and Psychoanalysis
AJP American Journal of Psychiatry
ALS amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
ALT alanine aminotransferase (alanine transaminase)
AMA against medical advice; American Medical Association

Commonly Used Abbreviations 351
AMHA American Mental Health Alliance
AMSA American Medical Student Association
ANA antinuclear antibody
ANAD National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated

Disorders
ANS autonomic nervous system
AOA American Orthopsychiatric Association
APA American Psychiatric Association; American Psychological As-

sociation
APC Association of Professional Chaplains
APM Academy of Psychosomatic Medicine
APPI American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.
APsaA American Psychoanalytic Association
ASAM American Society of Addiction Medicine
ASLME American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics
AWA away without authorization
BDD body dysmorphic disorder
BEAM brain electrical activity mapping
bid twice a day
BIS Brain Information Service
BMA British Medical Association
BMI body mass index

BPD borderline personality disorder
BUN blood urea nitrogen
CA Cocaine Anonymous
CAT Children’s Apperception Test
CBC complete blood count
CBT cognitive-behavioral therapy
CISD critical incident stress debriefing
CME continuing medical education
CMHC community mental health center
CNS central nervous system
CPT Current Procedural Terminology (AMA); cognitive processing

therapy
CRF corticotropin-releasing factor
CSF cerebrospinal fluid
CT computed tomography
CVA cerebrovascular accident; stroke
DBH dopamine β-hydroxylase
DBS deep brain stimulation
DBSA Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance
DBT dialectical behavior therapy
DHHS U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
DID dissociative identity disorder

DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
DOV discharged on visit
DRG diagnosis-related group
DSM Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
DST dexamethasone suppression test
DTs delirium tremens
EA Emotions Anonymous
EAP employee assistance program
ECA Epidemiologic Catchment Area
ECG electrocardiogram
ECT electroconvulsive therapy
EE expressed emotion
EEG electroencephalogram
EKG electrocardiogram (ECG is preferred abbreviation)
EMDR eye movement desensitization and reprocessing
EMG electromyogram
ESP extrasensory perception
EST electroshock treatment
FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration
GA Gamblers Anonymous
GABA γ-aminobutyric acid

GAF Global Assessment of Functioning
GAP Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry
GHB γ-hydroxybutyric acid
GSR galvanic skin response
Ham-D Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (also HRSD)
HIPAA Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
HMO health maintenance organization
HRSD Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (also Ham-D)
ICD International Classification of Diseases
ICSW International Council on Social Welfare
IND investigational new drug
IOM/NAS Institute of Medicine/National Academy of Sciences
IPT interpersonal (psycho)therapy
IQ intelligence quotient
ITAA International Transactional Analysis Association
IV intravenous(ly)
JCAHO Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organiza-

tions (name changed to The Joint Commission in 2007)
LP lumbar puncture
LSD lysergic acid diethylamide
MA mental age
MAO monoamine oxidase
MAOI monoamine oxidase inhibitor
MBD minimal brain dysfunction
MDI manic-depressive illness
MDMA 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy)
MET motivational enhancement therapy
MHA Mental Health Association
MMPI Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
MMSE Mini-Mental State Examination
MRAA Mental Retardation Association of America
MRI magnetic resonance imaging
MSE mental status examination
NA Narcotics Anonymous
NAMI National Alliance on Mental Illness
NARSAD National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and De-

pression
NAS National Academy of Sciences
NBME National Board of Medical Examiners
NCADD National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence
NCCBH National Council for Community Behavioral Healthcare (for-

merly National Council of Community Mental Health Centers)
NCS National Comorbidity Study; National Comorbidity Survey

NCSE Neurobehavioral Cognitive Status Examination
NIA National Institute on Aging
NIAAA National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
NIDA National Institute on Drug Abuse
NIH National Institutes of Health
NIMH National Institute of Mental Health
NMA National Medical Association
NMDA N-methyl-D-aspartate
NMR nuclear magnetic resonance
NMS neuroleptic malignant syndrome
NOS not otherwise specified
NREM non–rapid eye movement
NSF National Science Foundation
OCD obsessive-compulsive disorder
PCP phencyclidine
PDD pervasive developmental disorder
PDR Physicians’ Desk Reference
PET positron emission tomography
PKU phenylketonuria
PRO peer review organization
PSRO professional standards review organization

PTSD posttraumatic stress disorder
qid four times a day
rCBF regional cerebral blood flow
REM rapid eye movement
RNA ribonucleic acid
SAD seasonal affective disorder
SAMHSA Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administra-

tion
SCID-I Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders
SDA serotonin-dopamine antagonist
SDAT senile dementia of the Alzheimer’s type
SNRI serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor
SOBP Society of Biological Psychiatry
SPECT single photon emission computed tomography
SPEM smooth pursuit eye movement
SSI/SSDI Social Security Insurance/Social Security Disability Insur-

ance
SSRI selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
TIA transient ischemic attack
tid three times a day
TM transcendental meditation
TMS transcranial magnetic stimulation

TRH thyrotropin-releasing hormone
USPHS U.S. Public Health Service
VA Veterans Affairs (formerly Veterans Administration)
VCFS velocardiofacial syndrome
VDRL Venereal Disease Research Laboratory
VNS vagus nerve stimulation
WHO World Health Organization
WMA World Medical Association
WPA World Psychiatric Association

Appendix 2
Trade/Brand Names of
Common Psychiatric
Drugs
TABLE 18–1.
GENERIC TRADE/BRAND NAME
Alprazolam Xanax
Amantadine Symadine, Symmetrel
Amitriptyline Elavil, Endep, Enovil
Amitriptyline/perphenazine Triavil
Amphetamine/dextroamphetamine Adderall
Amoxapine Asendin
Aripiprazole Abilify
Benztropine Cogentin
Bromocriptine Parlodel
Bupropion Wellbutrin
Buspirone BuSpar
Carbamazepine Epitol, Tegretol

Chlordiazepoxide Librium, Libritabs
Chlorpromazine Ormazine, Thorazine
359
TABLE 18–1.
Citalopram Celexa
Clomipramine Anafranil
Clonazepam Klonopin
Clorazepate Tranxene
Clozapine Clozaril
Cyproheptadine Periactin
Dantrolene Dantrium
Desipramine Norpramin, Pertofrane
Dexmethylphenidate Focalin
Desmethylvenlafaxine Pristiq
Dextroamphetamine Dexedrine, Dextrostat
Diazepam Valium
Diphenhydramine Benadryl
Divalproex Depakote
Donepezil Aricept
Doxepin Adapin, Sinequan
Duloxetine Cymbalta
Escitalopram Lexapro
Estazolam ProSom
Eszopiclone Lunesta
Fluoxetine Prozac
Fluphenazine Prolixin
Fluvoxamine Luvox
Gabapentin Neurontin
Trade/Brand Names of Common Psychiatric Drugs 361
TABLE 18–1.
Galantamine Reminyl
Haloperidol Haldol
Hydroxyzine Atarax, Marax, Vistaril
Imipramine Tofranil
Isocarboxazid Marplan
Lamotrigine Lamictal
Levetiracetam Keppra
Lithium Eskalith, Lithobid
Lorazepam Ativan
Loxapine Loxitane
Maprotiline Ludiomil
Mesoridazine Serentil
Methylphenidate Concerta, Metadate, Methylin,
Ritalin
Mexiletine Mexitil
Midazolam Versed
Mirtazapine Remeron
Moclobemide Aurorix
Modafinil Provigil, Alertec
Molindone Moban
Naloxone Narcan
Naltrexone ReVia
Nefazodone Serzone
TABLE 18–1.
Nifedipine Adalat
Nortriptyline Aventyl, Pamelor
Olanzapine Zyprexa
Oxazepam Serax
Oxcarbazepine Trileptal
Paroxetine Paxil
Pargyline Eutonyl
Pemoline Cylert
Perphenazine Etrafon, Trilafon
Phenelzine Nardil
Phenytoin Dilantin
Physostigmine Eserine
Pimozide Orap
Pindolol Visken
Pramipexole Mirapex
Propranolol Inderal
Protriptyline Vivactil
Quazepam Doral, Dormalin

Quetiapine Seroquel
Ramelteon Rozerem
Risperidone Risperdal
Rivastigmine Exelon
Selegiline, L-deprenyl Carbex, Eldepryl

Trade/Brand Names of Common Psychiatric Drugs 363
TABLE 18–1.
Sertraline Zoloft
Sildenafil Viagra
Tacrine Cognex
Temazepam Restoril
Thioridazine Mellaril
Thiothixene Navane
Thyroxine Synthroid
Tianeptine Stablon
Topiramate Topamax
Tranylcypromine Parnate
Trazodone Desyrel
Triazolam Halcion
Trifluoperazine Stelazine
Triflupromazine Vesprin
Trihexyphenidyl Artane
Triiodothyronine Cytomel
Trimipramine Surmontil
Valproate Depakene, Depakote

Venlafaxine Effexor
Verapamil Calan, Isoptin
Zaleplon Sonata
Ziprasidone Geodon
Zolpidem Ambien
Zonisamide Zonegran
Index
Page numbers printed in boldface type refer to tables or figures.
AA. See Alcoholics Anonymous Advanced sleep phase syndrome,

ABC. See Autism Behavior Checklist 120
“ABCD” mnemonic, for first rank Adverse reactions
symptoms of schizophrenia, 33 to dextroamphetamine, 318
Abuse, substance, 128–129 to methylphenidate, 317
defining, 128–129 Aggression, towards people and
in documenting consultations, animals, 231
186 Aging. See also Elderly patients with
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 130 dementia
Abuse history normal decline in cognitive
in the complete psychiatric functioning that occurs with,
evaluation, 7 154
in sample psychiatric initial Agoraphobia, DSM-IV-TR criteria
evaluation, 21 for, 78
Acamprosate (Campral), for Agranulocytosis, a risk with
pharmacological prevention of clozapine, 40, 251
relapse, 137 Akathisia, an extrapyramidal side
Acetylcholine, 241, 244 effect of antipsychotics, 244, 258
Acute dystonic reactions Alcohol dependence, 133–138
an extrapyramidal side effect of associated medical complications,
antipsychotics, 243–244 133
a psychiatric emergency, 207 laboratory markers of heavy
Acute mania treatment, 61, 64 drinking, 135
Acute stress disorder, 87–90 outpatient treatment, 136
differential diagnosis, 88 pharmacological prevention of
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 89–90 relapse, 137–138
treatment, 88, 90 risk factors, 134
ADHD. See Attention-deficit/ screening, 134
hyperactivity disorder subtypes, 134
Admitting orders, 23 type I alcoholism, 134
Adrenergic side effects, of type II alcoholism, 134
antipsychotics, 247
365
Alcohol withdrawal syndrome, Anticonvulsants, 85, 155

treatment of (detoxification), psychiatric side effects of, 190
136–137 Antidepressants, 155, 174, 261–283
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), 128 bupropion, 267–269, 268
Allergies discontinuing, 57–58
in the complete psychiatric guidelines for choosing, 55
evaluation, 6 monoamine oxidase inhibitors,
in sample psychiatric initial 275–283
evaluation, 20 norepinephrine-serotonin
Alopecia, a risk of valproate, 288 modulators, 269, 270, 271
Alprazolam, 138, 294, 297 selective serotonin-
Alzheimer's type dementia, 147, 150 norepinephrine reuptake
American Academy of Pediatrics, inhibitors, 265–267, 266
120, 213 selective serotonin reuptake
American College of Rheumatology, inhibitors, 263–265, 264
195 serotonin modulators, 269, 270
American Psychiatric Association and suicidal behavior in
Practice Guideline, 40, 64, 181 adolescents and young
Aminophylline, 286 adults, 56
Amitriptyline, 169, 272 switching in the treatment of
dosing guidelines for, 275 major depression, 57–58
Amobarbital, 167 for treatment of anxiety, 75
Amoxapine, 272, 274 tricyclic and heterocyclic
dosing guidelines for, 275 antidepressants, 271–275, 272
Amphetamine/dextroamphet- Anti-infectives, psychiatric side
amine, 304, 307 effects of, 190–191
dosing strategies for, 314–316 Antineoplastic agents, psychiatric
Amphetamines, 142 side effects of, 191
Anesthesia, in ECT, 342–343 Antioxidants, 155
Anhedonia, 52 Antiparkinsonian medications,
Anorexia nervosa, 176–182 psychiatric side effects of,
course, 180 191–192
differential diagnosis, 180–181 Antipsychotics, 98, 142, 156, 233,
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 180 239–261
treatment, 181–182 conventional, 260–261
Anticholinergic intoxication drug potency, 260
a psychiatric emergency, 209 fluphenazine decanoate, 261
side effect of antipsychotics, 247 haloperidol decanoate, 261
side effect of tricyclic and indications and efficacy, 242
heterocyclic antidepressants, long-acting injectable, 261
273 mechanisms of action, 239, 242
side effect risk with clozapine, 252 medication selection, 243
symptoms of, 209 risks, side effects, and their
Anticipatory anxiety, 92 management, 243–249
Index 367
use of antipsychotics in Aripiprazole, 61, 242, 244, 248–250,

pregnancy, 249–250 258–259
Antisocial personality disorder, clinical use, 258
102–104, 163 drug interactions, 259
differential diagnosis, 103–104 risks, side effects, and their
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 103 management, 258
treatment, 104 Asperger's disorder, 223
Anxiety disorders, 71–94 differential diagnosis, 223
acute stress disorder, 87–90 DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 224
agoraphobia,78 Assessment
comparison of benzodiazepines, of autistic disorder, 221–222
buspirone, and of the dementia patient, standard,
antidepressants for the 151
treatment of anxiety, 75 of mental retardation, 234
generalized anxiety disorder, of osteoporosis, 178
71–76 for patients presenting to an
medications of choice for specific emergency department with
anxiety disorders, 73 psychiatric problems, 211
obsessive-compulsive disorder, Assessment and documentation,
80–84 1–29
panic attack, 77 additional tests, 15–17
panic disorder, 76–80 admitting orders, 23
panic disorder with agoraphobia, brain imaging, 15
80 common laboratory tests in
panic disorder without psychiatric evaluation, 15
agoraphobia, 79 comparison of computed
posttraumatic stress disorder, tomography with magnetic
84–87 resonance imaging, 16–17
prevalence of anxiety disorders, the complete psychiatric
72 evaluation, 9
social phobia, 92–94 components of the complete
specific phobia, 90–92 psychiatric evaluation, 5–15
Anxiolytics, sedatives, and components of the mental status
hypnotics, 155, 293–302 examination, 12
benzodiazepines, 293–297 detailed assessment of cognitive
buspirone, 298–299 domains, 13–14
commonly used anxiolytic and elements of the physical
hypnotic medications, 294 examination and the
eszopiclone, 300–301 significance of findings, 8–9
ramelteon, 301–302 Global Assessment of
zolpidem and zaleplon, 299–300 Functioning scale, 2–3
Appetite, in the “SIG E CAPS” hospital discharge note, 27–28
mnemonic, 50 informed consent, 26–27
the interview, 4–5
Assessment and documentation in child and adolescent

(continued) psychiatry, 223–229
laboratory testing, 15 differential diagnosis, 229
neurological examination, 10 DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 225–226
normal vs. psychopathology, 6 presentation of through the life
physical examination, 24 cycle, 227–228
privacy and confidentiality, 26 treatment, 229
psychiatric progress notes, 25–26 Atypical antipsychotics, 250–259
sample psychiatric initial aripiprazole, 258–259
evaluation, 19–23 clozapine, 250–253
seclusion and restraint orders, olanzapine, 254–255
24–25 paliperidone, 259
signs and symptoms suggesting a quetiapine, 255–256
nonpsychiatric medical cause risperidone, 253–254
for psychiatric symptoms, 11 ziprasidone, 257
Assessment in eating disorders, Augmentation therapy, in the
175–176 treatment of major depression,
general medical condition 53–54, 56, 242, 302
(baseline and ongoing), 176 Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC),
history, 175 221
Assessment of delirium in Autistic disorder, 218–223
consultation-liaison psychiatry, assessment, 221–222
193–194 behavioral symptoms, 220
additional laboratory tests, differential diagnosis, 222
193–194 social impairments by
basic laboratory tests, 193 developmental level, 220–221
mental status, 193 speech and cognitive deficits, 218
physical status, 193 treatment, 222–223
Assessment of risk for suicide, 17–19 Autoimmune disease, causing manic
documentation for patients at risk or depressive syndromes, 54
for suicide, 19 Autonomic effects, a symptom of
protective factors mitigating serotonin syndrome, 205–206
suicide risk, 19 Avoidant personality disorder, 93,
suicide risk factors for adults, 100, 107–109
17–18 differential diagnosis, 107–108
Associations, loosening of, 32 DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 109
Atenolol, 92 treatment, 108
Atomoxetine, 118, 229, 319–320
drug interactions, 320 Barbiturate detoxification,
side effects, 320 guidelines for, 138, 139
Atropine, 342 Behavior therapy, 229, 335, 337
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity Behavioral symptoms, of autistic
disorder (ADHD), 223–229 disorder, 220
Index 369
Behavioral treatment, for NREM BPD. See Borderline personality

parasomnias, 124 disorder
Benzodiazepines, 41, 72–73, 78–79, Brain imaging, 15
115, 122, 137, 142, 144, 199, Brain stimulation, 346
293–297 Breathing-related sleep disorder,
drug interactions, 297 118–120
indications, 293, 295 causes, 118–119
overdose, 297 central sleep apnea, 118
risks, side effects, and their DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 119
management, 295–296 obstructive sleep apnea, 118–119
selection, 295 treatment, 119–120
for treatment of anxiety, 75 Brief psychotic disorder, 46
use in pregnancy, 297 differential diagnosis, 46
Bethanechol, 247, 273 DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 47
Biofeedback, 171 treatment, 46
Biopsychosocial screening criteria, Brief reactive psychosis, 47
for solid organ transplantation, Bromocriptine, 246
201 Bulimia nervosa, 182–184
Bipolar disorder, 60–68 differential diagnosis, 183–184
acute mania treatment, 61, 64 DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 183
bipolar depression treatment, treatment, 184
64–65, 67 Buprenorphine, 140–141
bipolar I disorder, 65 Bupropion, 145, 229, 267–269, 268
bipolar II disorder, 66–67 contraindications, 267
bipolar spectrum disorders, 61 side effects, 267, 269
in child and adolescent Buspirone, 72–73, 294, 298–299
psychiatry, 236 clinical use, 298
cyclothymia, 67–68 drug interactions, 299
differential diagnosis, 61 indications, 298
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 65–67 overdose, 299
maintenance treatment, 67 side effects, 298
Bizarre behavior, in schizophrenia, for treatment of anxiety, 75
32
Bleuler's “4 A's” of schizophrenia, CAGE questionnaire, 134
32–33 Cannabis, 144
Body dysmorphic disorder, 173–174 Capacity, for health care decision
differential diagnosis, 173 making, 186–187
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 173 Capgras syndrome, 43
treatment, 174 Carbamazepine, 61, 85, 199, 200, 203,
Borderline personality disorder 252, 288–291
(BPD), 103–105 clinical use, 289
differential diagnosis, 104 contraindications, 289
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 105 drug interactions, 291
treatment, 104–105 indications, 288
Carbamazepine (continued) bipolar disorder, 236

overdose, 290–291 conduct disorder, 230–232
risks and side effects, 289–290 developmental milestones and
Cardiovascular disease, causing theories, 213–215
manic or depressive syndromes, major depressive disorder, 236
54 mental retardation, 234–236
Cardiovascular effects oppositional defiant disorder,
of antipsychotics, 248–249 230–232
of lithium, 285 pervasive developmental
of monoamine oxidase inhibitors, disorders, 215–223
282 prevalence estimates of selected
of psychotropic drugs, 199, 200 disorders among children
a risk with clozapine, 252 and adolescents, 218
of tricyclic and heterocyclic theories of development, 216–217
antidepressants, 273 Tourette’s disorder, 232–234
Cardiovascular medications, Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL),
psychiatric side effects of, 192 229
CARS. See Childhood Autism Rating Childhood, social impairments from
Scales autistic disorder in, 221
Cataplexy, 116, 118 Childhood Autism Rating Scales
Catatonic features, major depressive (CARS), 221
disorder with, 52–53 Chlordiazepoxide, 137, 294
Catatonic schizophrenia, 37–38 Chlorpromazine, 247–248
CBCL. See Child Behavior Checklist Cholinesterase inhibitors, 154, 155,
CBT. See Cognitive-behavioral 200, 320–326
therapy availability in the U.S., 322–323
Central nervous system effects, of clinical use, 321
monoamine oxidase inhibitors, donepezil, 154, 325
282 drug interactions, 325
Central sleep apnea, 118 galantamine, 154, 325–326
CFS. See Chronic fatigue syndrome pharmacokinetics and key
CHAT. See Checklist of Autism in features, 324
Toddlers rivastigmine, 154, 326
Checklist of Autism in Toddlers side effects, 321, 325
(CHAT), 221 tacrine, 326
Chief complaint Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS),
in the complete psychiatric medical differential diagnosis
evaluation, 5 for patients with, 198
in sample psychiatric initial Circadian rhythm sleep disorder,
evaluation, 19 120–121
Child and adolescent psychiatry, advanced sleep phase syndrome,
213–237 120
attention-deficit/hyperactivity delayed sleep phase syndrome,
disorder, 223–229 120, 121
Index 371
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 121 Common receptors, in

jet lag type, 121 psychopharmacology, 240–241
shift work sleep syndrome, 120, Communication barriers, reducing
121 in the initial assessment
treatment, 120 interview, 4
types, 120 Competency, for health care decision
Citalopram, 199, 264 making, 186–187
Clanging, 32 Computed tomography (CT), 15
Classic defense mechanisms, compared with magnetic
332–333 resonance imaging, 16–17
Clomipramine, 83, 118, 272, 274 Conazepam, 294
dosing guidelines for, 275 Concentration, in the “SIG E CAPS”
Clonazepam, 122, 125, 297 mnemonic, 50
Clonidine, 142, 274 Conduct disorder, 230–232
Clorazepate, 294 aggression to people and animals,
Clozapine, 40, 239, 242–243, 246, 231
249–253 in child and adolescent
clinical use, 250–251 psychiatry, 230–232
drug interactions, 253 deceitfulness or theft, 231
risks, side effects, and their differential diagnosis, 230
management, 251–253 DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 231–232
Club drugs, 143–144 serious violations of rules, 231
γ-hydroxybutyric acid, 143–144 treatment, 230
Cocaine, 142 Confidentiality issues, 26
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), Conflicts, interpersonal, in
78, 83, 85, 87, 90, 101, 104, interpersonal therapy, 338
114–115, 174, 337 Confusional arousals, 122
adjunctive, 41 Connors' Teaching Rating Scale, 229
for treating insomnia, 115 Consent. See Informed consent
Cognitive domains, detailed Consultation-liaison psychiatry,
assessment of, 13–14 185–202
Cognitive enhancers, 320–327 biopsychosocial screening criteria
cholinesterase inhibitors, 320–326 for solid organ
NMDA receptor antagonists, transplantation, 201
326–327 cardiac side effects of
Cognitive functioning psychotropic drugs, 200
deficient in autistic disorder, 218 competency and capacity for
documenting disturbances in health care decision making,
during consultations, 186 186–187
normal decline in with aging, 154 consultation documentation,
Collateral sources, speaking with in 185–186
the initial assessment interview, delirium, 188–195
4 documentation in, 185–186
Commitment, involuntary, 209 fibromyalgia, 195, 197
Consultation-liaison psychiatry side effects, 346

(continued) Defense mechanisms, classic,
medical differential diagnosis for 332–333
patients with chronic fatigue Delayed sleep phase syndrome, 120,
syndrome and fibromyalgia 121
syndrome, 198 Delirium, 188–195
medical disorders that commonly assessment, 193–194
cause or exacerbate clinical features of, 189
psychiatric symptoms, 187 differential diagnosis, 194–195
other issues commonly seen in examples of reversible causes of
psychiatric consultation, delirium and their
199–202 treatments, 196
pseudoseizures, 199–200 prevalence of, 188
psychiatric side effects of treatment, 195
medications, 190–192 Delirium tremens (DTs), 133
psychological factors influencing Delusional disorder, 43–46
drug refusal, 200–201 differential diagnosis, 43–44
treating difficult patients, 201–202 DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 45
treating psychiatric disorders in treatment, 46
the medical setting, 197, 199 Delusions, 81, 96, 163
Continuous Performance Test, 229 in schizophrenia, 31
Continuous positive airway pressure Dementia, 147–157. See also
(CPAP), 119–120 Nondementias
Conversion disorder, 167–169 of the Alzheimer's type, 147, 150
differential diagnosis, 168 diagnostic features common to
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 168 all, 148
treatment, 169 differential diagnosis,
Countertransference, 334 nondementias, 152–154
CPAP. See Continuous positive due to Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease,
airway pressure 150
Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease, dementia due to HIV disease, 151–152
due to, 150 due to Huntington's disease, 152
Cross-tapering, 58 due to multiple sclerosis, 152
CT. See Computed tomography due to Parkinson's disease, 152
Cyclothymic disorder, 67–68 due to Pick's disease, 150
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 68 potentially reversible causes of,
149–150
Dantrolene, 246 standard assessment of the
DBS. See Deep brain stimulation dementia patient, 151
DBT. See Dialectical behavior substance-induced persisting
therapy dementia, 152
Deceitfulness, 231 subtypes, 147–152
Deep brain stimulation (DBS), 346 treatment, 154–157
method, 346
Index 373
vascular dementia (multi-infarct Dexmethylphenidate, 304, 306, 312,

dementia), 150 316
Dependence, substance, 129 dosing strategies for, 312, 316
defining, 129 Dextroamphetamine, 117, 304, 306,
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 131–132 313, 316, 317–318
a risk with benzodiazepines, 296 adverse reactions, 318
Dependent personality disorder, dosing strategies for, 313, 316
109–110 Diagnoses in psychiatry, according
differential diagnosis, 109 to multiaxial classification, 1
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 110 Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT),
treatment, 109 105, 339
Depression, with psychotic features, Diazepam, 122, 137, 294
56 Dietary restrictions, for patients
Dermatological emergencies, 203, taking nonselective MAOIs,
205 278–279
Stevens-Johnson syndrome, 205 Difficult patients, treating, 201–203
toxic epidermal necrolysis, 205 Disorganized schizophrenia, 32, 37
Dermatological risks Dissociation, 84–85, 87
of carbamazepine, 290 Disturbances in cognition, in
of lithium, 285 documenting consultations, 186
Desipramine, 272, 274 Disulfiram (Antabuse), for
dosing guidelines for, 118, 275 pharmacological prevention of
Desvenlafaxine, 265, 266 relapse, 137–138
Detoxification, from barbiturates, Divalproex, 199
139 Documentation. See also Assessment
Development. See also Pervasive and documentation
developmental disorders patients at risk for suicide, 19
milestones and theories in child Documentation of consultations,
and adolescent psychiatry, 185–186
213–215 disturbances in cognition, 186
theories of in child and adolescent medical/surgical illness, 185
psychiatry, 216–217 medications or substance abuse,
Developmental history 186
in the complete psychiatric pain management, 185–186
evaluation, 7 psychiatric symptomatology and
in sample psychiatric initial behavior, 186
evaluation, 21 reason for referral, 185
Device-based treatments, 341–347 Donepezil, 125, 322, 324, 325
deep brain stimulation, 346 side effects, 325
electroconvulsive therapy, Dopamine, 240, 248
341–344 Dosing guidelines for MAOIs,
transcranial magnetic 282–283
stimulation, 345–346 phenelzine, 282
vagus nerve stimulation, 344–345
Dosing guidelines for MAOIs Eating disorders, 175–184

(continued) anorexia nervosa, 176–182
selegiline transdermal system, assessments, 175–176
283 bulimia nervosa, 182–184
tranylcypromine, 283 suggested laboratory assessments
Dosing guidelines for stimulants, for patients with, 177–179
310–315 Ecstasy, 144
amphetamine/dextroamphet- ECT. See Electroconvulsive therapy
amine, 314–316 Education, for NREM parasomnias,
dexmethylphenidate, 312, 316 122
dextroamphetamine, 313, 316 Ego-syntonic detachment, 99, 111
methylphenidate, 310–311, 316 Elderly patients with dementia, risks
pemoline, 315 of antipsychotics, 249
Dosing guidelines for tricyclic and Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT),
heterocyclic antidepressants, 341–344
274–275 anesthesia and muscle relaxation,
amitriptyline, 275 342–343
amoxapine, 275 course of treatment, 343
clomipramine, 275 medical evaluation before
desipramine, 275 electroconvulsive therapy,
doxepin, 275 342
imipramine, 275 parameters, 343
maprotiline, 275 post-ECT prophylactic treatment,
nortriptyline, 274 344
protriptyline, 275 psychiatric medications affecting
trimipramine, 275 ECT, 344
Doxepin, 272 requiring written consent, 27
dosing guidelines for, 275 risks and side effects, 344
Dronabinol, 318 Emergencies, 203–209
Drug refusal, psychological factors acute dystonic reaction, 207
influencing, 200–201 algorithm for drug-related skin
Drug-related skin eruptions, a eruption, 206
psychiatric emergency, 206 anticholinergic intoxication, 209
DTs. See Delirium tremens dermatological emergencies, 203,
Duloxetine, 76, 169, 265, 266, 267 205
Duration, of schizophrenia, 35 lithium toxicity, 207–209
Dysinhibition and dyscontrol management of the unconscious
(paradoxical effect), a risk with psychiatric patient, 204–205
benzodiazepines, 296 the potentially violent patient, 203
Dysthymic disorder, 58–60 serotonin syndrome (serotonin
differential diagnosis, 58 toxicity), 205–207
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 59–60 the unconscious psychiatric
treatment, 60 patient, 203
Emergency psychiatry, 203–211
Index 375
psychiatric emergencies, 203–209 Factitious disorder by proxy (FDBP),

the psychiatric emergency 161
department, 209–211 DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 162
symptoms of anticholinergic Factitious disorders, 159–162
intoxication, 209 differential diagnosis, 161
triage checklist for patients as a differential diagnosis for
presenting to an emergency dementia, 153–154
department with psychiatric DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 160
problems, 211 Munchausen syndrome, 161
Endocrine disorder, causing manic treatment, 161–162
or depressive syndromes, 54 Family history
Endocrine effects, of antipsychotics, in the complete psychiatric
247–248 evaluation, 7
Energy, in the “SIG E CAPS” in sample psychiatric initial
mnemonic, 50 evaluation, 21
EPS. See Extrapyramidal side effects FDA. See U.S. Food and Drug
of antipsychotics Administration
ERP. See Exposure and response FDBP. See Factitious disorder by
prevention proxy
Escitalopram, 76, 264 Fears, of aging and death, 171
Eszopiclone, 300–301 Fenfluramine, 207
clinical use, 300–301 Fever, a risk with clozapine, 252
drug interactions, 301 Fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS), 195,
indications, 300 197
overdose, 301 medical differential diagnosis for
side effects, 301 patients with, 198
Evidence-based psychosocial Flumazenil, 297
interventions, for major Fluoxetine, 83–84, 118, 199, 263, 264
psychiatric illnesses, 336 Fluphenazine decanoate, 243, 249,
Exposure and response prevention 261
(ERP), 335, 337 Fluvoxamine, 83–84, 264, 302
Exposure therapy, 90 FMS. See Fibromyalgia syndrome
Extrapyramidal side effects (EPS) of Free association, 334
antipsychotics, 195, 239, 243–246
acute dystonic reactions, 243–244 γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA), 293
akathisia, 244 γ-Glutamyl transferase (GCT), 287
drugs commonly used to treat, γ-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), 117,
245 143–144
neuroleptic malignant syndrome, GABA
246 See γ-Aminobutyric acid
parkinsonian syndrome, 244 GAD. See Generalized anxiety
a risk with clozapine, 251 disorder
tardive dyskinesia, 244, 246 GAF. See Global Assessment of
Functioning scale
Galantamine, 322, 324, 325–326 Health Insurance Portability and

side effects, 325–326 Accountability Act (HIPAA), 26
Gastrointestinal disease, causing Hematological disease, causing
manic or depressive syndromes, manic or depressive syndromes,
54 54
Gastrointestinal effects Hematological effects
of carbamazepine, 290 of carbamazepine, 289
of lithium, 285 of lithium, 285
of valproate, 287 of valproate, 287
GCT. See γ-Glutamyl transferase Hepatic disease, patients with, 197
General identifying information Hepatic risks, of carbamazepine, 290
(ID). See Patient ID Hepatic toxicity, a risk of valproate,
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), 287
71–76 Heroin, 140
differential diagnosis, 71–72 HIPAA. See Health Insurance
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 74 Portability and Accountability
treatment, 72–73, 76 Act
GHB. See γ-Hydroxybutyric acid Historical descriptions of
Global Assessment of Functioning schizophrenia, 32–33
(GAF) scale, 1, 2–3 Bleuler's “4 A's” of schizophrenia,
Glycopyrrolate, 342 32–33
Grief over loss, in interpersonal Schneiderian first-rank
therapy, 338 symptoms, 33
Guanethidine, 274 History. See also Abuse history;
Guidelines. See also Dosing Family history; Medical history;
guidelines Psychiatric history; Social
for barbiturate detoxification, 139 history
for choosing antidepressant in assessing eating disorders, 175
medications, 55 of present illness, 5, 19–20
for the initial assessment Histrionic personality disorder, 103,
interview, general, 4 106
for monitoring stimulants, 308 differential diagnosis, 106
Guilt, in the “SIG E CAPS” DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 106
mnemonic, 50 treatment, 106
HIV disease, dementia due to,
Hallucinations, 116, 163 151–152
in schizophrenia, 31 Hospital discharge note, 27–28
Hallucinogens, 142–143 suggested guidelines for
street names of, 143 termination of patient
Haloperidol decanoate, 195, 199, treatment, 28
242–243, 248–249, 261 Huntington's disease, dementia due
Health care decision making, to, 152
competency and capacity for, Hyperactivity-impulsivity, 225–226
186–187
Index 377
Hypersalivation, a risk with considering time constraints, 4

clozapine, 252 ensuring safety first, 4
Hypersomnia, 49 establishing rapport, 4
Hypertensive crisis, an effect of general guidelines, 4
monoamine oxidase inhibitors, reducing communication barriers,
277, 281 4
Hypnagogic hallucinations, 116 speaking with collateral sources,
Hypnopompic hallucinations, 116 4
Hypnotics, 138–139. See also specific techniques, 4–5
Anxiolytics, sedatives, and Inpatient notes, 25
hypnotics “SOAP” mnemonic, 25
guidelines for barbiturate Insomnia, 113–115
detoxification, 139 classifications, 113–114
nonbenzodiazepine, 115 primary, 113–114
Hypochondriasis, 171–173 secondary, 114
differential diagnosis, 171–172 treatment, 114–115
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 172 Interest, in the “SIG E CAPS”
treatment, 172–173 mnemonic, 50
Hypomanic episode, DSM-IV-TR Interpersonal therapy, 337–338
criteria for, 62 grief over loss, 338
interpersonal conflicts, 338
Identification, projective, 334–335 interpersonal skills deficits, 338
Identifying patients. See Patient ID role transitions, 338
Identifying the problem, for patients Interviews
presenting to an emergency initial assessment, 4–5
department with psychiatric narcoanalytic, 167
problems, 211 Intoxication, 128, 129
Illness. See Medical/surgical illness; defining, 128
individual disease conditions DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 129
Illusions, 31
Imaging. See Brain imaging; Jet lag type sleep disorder, 121
Magnetic resonance imaging
Imipramine, 169, 272 Korsakoff’s syndrome, 133–134, 194
dosing guidelines for, 275
Implantable pulse generator (IPG), Laboratory testing, 15, 15–17
346 for assessing delirium, 193–194
Induction schedule, for suboxone markers of heavy drinking, 135
(buprenorphine/naloxone), 141 Lamotrigine, 41, 65, 85, 203, 291–293
Infancy, social impairments from clinical use, 291
autistic disorder in, 220–221 drug interactions, 292–293
Informed consent, 26–27 indications, 291
electroconvulsive therapy risks and side effects, 291–292
requiring written, 27 teratogenicity, 292
Initial assessment interview, 4–5 Levels, of mental retardation, 234
Lithium, 41, 61, 65, 197, 199, 200, treatment, 163

283–286 Manic-depressive disorder. See
clinical use, 283–284 Bipolar disorder
contraindications, 284 Manic episode, DSM-IV-TR criteria
drug interactions, 286 for, 63
indications, 283 MAOIs. See Monoamine oxidase
risks and side effects, 284–285 inhibitors
stopping, 67 Maprotiline, 272
Lithium toxicity, 207–209, 285 dosing guidelines for, 275
a psychiatric emergency, 207–209 Mazindol, 117
signs and symptoms, 207, 208 Mechanisms of action
treatment, 207, 209 of antipsychotics, 239, 242
Longitudinal course, in of stimulants, 305
schizophrenia, classification of, Medical complications, associated
36 with alcohol dependence, 133
Lorazepam, 144, 195, 294, 295, 297 Medical conditions
in assessing eating disorders
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), (baseline and ongoing), 176
15, 117, 125 exclusion in schizophrenia, 36
compared with computed pain disorder associated with, 171
tomography, 16–17 that commonly cause or
Maintenance treatment, 40 exacerbate psychiatric
in bipolar disorder, 67 symptoms, 187
in major depression, 57 Medical conditions that can cause
Major depression manic or depressive syndromes,
differential diagnosis, 53 54
DSM-IV-TR criteria for major autoimmune disease, 54
depressive episode, 51–52 cardiovascular disease, 54
“SIG E CAPS” mnemonic, 49 endocrine disorder, 54
treatment, 53–58 gastrointestinal disease, 54
Major depressive disorder malignancy and hematological
with atypical features, 52 disease, 54
with catatonic features, 52–53 metabolic disease, 54
in child and adolescent neurological disease, 54
psychiatry, 236 pulmonary disease, 54
a differential diagnosis for Medical evaluation, before
dementia, 153 electroconvulsive therapy, 342
with melancholic features, 52 Medical history
Malignancies, causing manic or in the complete psychiatric
depressive syndromes, 54 evaluation, 7
Malingering, 162–163 in sample psychiatric initial
differential diagnosis for evaluation, 21
dementia, 153–154 Medical setting, treatment of
signs, 162–163 psychiatric disorders in, 197, 199
Index 379
Medical/surgical illness, in Metabolic disease, causing manic or

documenting consultations, 185 depressive syndromes, 54
Medication Methadone, 140
affecting ECT, 344 Methadone maintenance, 142
in the complete psychiatric Methamphetamine, 117
evaluation, 6 Methylphenidate, 117, 303–304, 306,
in documenting consultations, 310–311, 316, 317
186 adverse reactions, 317
for NREM parasomnias, 122 dosing strategies for, 310–311, 316
psychiatric side effects of, 190–192 Midazolam, 297
restrictions for patients taking Mirtazapine, 270
nonselective MAOIs, 278–279 Mixed episode mood disorders,
in sample psychiatric initial DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 64
evaluation, 20 Mixed personality disorder, 95
selection of antipsychotics, 243 Modafinil, 118–119, 229, 318–319
for specific anxiety disorders, 73 Molindone, 249
in treating anorexia nervosa, 181 Monitoring, 41
Melancholic features, major guidelines for stimulants, 308
depressive disorder with, 52 Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
Memantine, 326–327 (MAOIs), 79, 207, 275–283
Memory impairment, a risk with dosing guidelines, 282–283
benzodiazepines, 296 irreversible, nonselective, 276
Mental compulsions, 80–81 nonselective, 278–281
Mental retardation, 234–236 side effects, 277, 281–282
assessment, 234 Mood disorder exclusion, in
in child and adolescent schizophrenia, 35
psychiatry, 234–236 Mood disorders, 44, 49–69
differential diagnosis, 234 bipolar disorder, 60–68, 65–67
a differential diagnosis for cyclothymic disorder, 68
dementia, 152 dysthymic disorder, 58–60
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 235 guidelines for choosing
levels of, 234 antidepressant medications,
treatment, 235–236 55
Mental status hypomanic episode, 62
in assessing delirium, 193 major depression, 49, 53–58
changes in symptomatic of manic episode, 63
serotonin syndrome, 206 medical conditions that can cause
Mental status examination (MSE) manic or depressive
in the complete psychiatric syndromes, 54
evaluation, 9 mixed episode, 64
components of, 12 Mood stabilizers, 283–293
in sample psychiatric initial carbamazepine, 288–291
evaluation, 21 lamotrigine, 291–293
Meperidine, 207, 282 lithium, 283–286
Mood stabilizers (continued) in the complete psychiatric

oxcarbazepine, 293 evaluation, 7, 9
valproate, 286–288 in sample psychiatric initial
Morphine, 140 evaluation, 21
Multiaxial classification, diagnosis Neuromuscular excitation, a
according to, 1 symptom of serotonin
Multiple sclerosis, dementia due to, syndrome, 205
152 Neuroprogressive model, proposed,
Munchausen syndrome, 161 for schizophrenia, 34
Muscle relaxation, in ECT, 342–343 Neurotoxicity, a risk of lithium, 285
NFTs. See Neurofibrillary tangles
NA. See Narcotics Anonymous Nicotine, 145–146
Naltrexone (ReVia), for nicotine replacement, 145
pharmacological prevention of non-nicotine pharmacotherapies,
relapse, 137 145
NAMI. See National Alliance on varenicline, 145–146
Mental Illness Nifedipine, 281
Narcissistic personality disorder, 107 Nightmare disorder, 124, 125
differential diagnosis, 107 DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 125
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 108 NMDA receptor antagonists,
treatment, 107 326–327
Narcoanalytic interviews, 167 drug interactions, 327
Narcolepsy, 115–118 Non-nicotine pharmacotherapies,
assessment, 117 145
differential diagnosis, 116–117 Nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics, 115
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 116 Nondementias, 152–154
treatment, 117–118 major depressive disorder, 153
Narcotics Anonymous (NA), 128 malingering and factitious
National Alliance on Mental Illness disorder, 153–154
(NAMI), 41 mental retardation, 152
Nefazodone, 269, 270, 299 normal decline in cognitive
Negative symptoms, of functioning that occurs with
schizophrenia, 32 aging, 154
Neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), 150 schizophrenia, 152
Neuroimaging, 346 Nonpsychiatric medical causes for
Neuroleptic malignant syndrome, an psychiatric symptoms, 7
extrapyramidal side effect of signs and symptoms suggesting,
antipsychotics, 246 11
Neurological disease, causing manic Nonselective MAOIs, 278–281
or depressive syndromes, 54 dietary and medication
Neurological effects restrictions for patients
of carbamazepine, 290 taking, 278–279
of valproate, 288 instructions for patients taking,
Neurological examination, 10 280–281
Index 381
irreversible, 276 risks, side effects, and their

Nonstimulant medication for management, 255
ADHD, atomoxetine, 319–320 Olanzapine/fluoxetine combination,
Norepinephrine-serotonin 65, 242
modulators, 240, 269, 270, 271 Opioids, 140–142
Norfluoxetine, 199 buprenorphine, 140–141
Normal decline in cognitive clonidine, 142
functioning that occurs with methadone maintenance, 142
aging, a differential diagnosis pharmacological treatment for,
for dementia, 154 140–142
Normality, vs. psychopathology, 6 suboxone (buprenorphine/
North American AED Pregnancy naloxone), 140
Registry, 292 Oppositional defiant disorder,
Nortriptyline, 272, 273 230–232
dosing guidelines for, 274 in child and adolescent
Nursing care measures, taking psychiatry, 230–232
immediately for patients differential diagnosis, 230
presenting to an emergency DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 233
department with psychiatric treatment, 230
problems, 211 Organ transplantation, a
consideration in treating
Object relations theory, 335 psychiatric disorders, 199
Obsessive-compulsive disorder OSA. See Obstructive sleep apnea
(OCD), 44, 80–84 Outpatient notes, 25–26
differential diagnosis, 81, 84 Outpatient treatment for alcohol
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 82–83 dependence, 136
a risk with clozapine, 253 absolute contraindications, 136
treatment, 83–84 relative contraindications, 136
Obsessive-compulsive personality Oxazepam, 137, 294, 295, 297
disorder, 110–111 Oxcarbazepine, 203, 293
differential diagnosis, 111
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 111 Pain disorder, 169–171
treatment, 111 differential diagnosis, 169
Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), 115, DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 170–171
118–119 treatment, 169, 171
Occupational dysfunction, in Pain management, in documenting
schizophrenia, 35 consultations, 185–186
OCD. See Obsessive-compulsive Paliperidone, 242, 259
disorder clinical use, 259
Ocular effects, of antipsychotics, 248 drug interactions, 259
Olanzapine, 61, 195, 199, 242, risks, side effects, and their
247–249, 254–255 management, 259
clinical use, 254–255 Panic attack, DSM-IV-TR criteria for,
drug interactions, 255 77
Panic disorder, 76–80 PDDs. See Pervasive developmental

with agoraphobia, DSM-IV-TR disorders
criteria for, 80 Pemoline, 305, 318
differential diagnosis, 77, 81 dosing strategies for, 315
treatment, 78–79 Performance impairment, a risk with
without agoraphobia, DSM-IV-TR benzodiazepines, 295–296
criteria for, 79 Personality disorders, 95–112
Paradoxical effect, dysinhibition and antisocial personality disorder,
dyscontrol with 102–104
benzodiazepines, 296 avoidant personality disorder,
Paranoid personality disorder, 96–99 107–109
differential diagnosis, 96, 98 borderline personality disorder,
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 99 104–105
treatment, 98 clusters of disorders, 96
Paranoid schizophrenia, 37 dependent personality disorder,
Parasomnias, 121–125 109–110
NREM, 121–124 DSM-IV-TR general diagnostic
REM, 124–125 criteria for, 97
Parathyroid dysfunction, a risk of evidence of treatment
lithium, 284–285 effectiveness, 98
Parkinsonian syndrome, an general treatment for patients, 96
extrapyramidal side effect of histrionic personality disorder,
antipsychotics, 244 106
Parkinson's disease, dementia due key points, 95
to, 152 narcissistic personality disorder,
Paroxetine, 76, 83, 199, 263, 264, 320 107
Past medical history. See Medical obsessive-compulsive personality
history disorder, 110–111
Past psychiatric history. See paranoid personality disorder,
Psychiatric history 96–99
Patient ID Pervasive developmental disorders
in the complete psychiatric (PDDs), 215–233
evaluation, 5 Asperger's disorder, 223
in sample psychiatric initial autistic disorder, 218–223
evaluation, 19 relationship to schizophrenia, 36
Patients PET. See Positron emission
with hepatic disease, 197 tomography
with renal disease, 197, 199 Pharmacokinetics of stimulants, 305
treating difficult, 201–203 Pharmacokinetics of stimulants and
Patients taking nonselective MAOIs approximate durations of
dietary and medication action, 306–307
restrictions for, 278–279 Pharmacological prevention of
instructions for, 280–281 relapse in alcohol dependence,
PCP. See Phencyclidine 137–138
Index 383
acamprosate (Campral), 137 Polysomnography, 122, 124

disulfiram (Antabuse), 137–138 Positive symptoms of schizophrenia,
naltrexone (ReVia), 137 31–32
Pharmacotherapy, 239–330 bizarre or disorganized behavior,
antidepressants, 261–283 32
antipsychotics, 239–261 delusion, 31
anxiolytics, sedatives, and hallucination, 31
hypnotics, 293–302 thought disorder, 32
cognitive enhancers, 320–327 Positron emission tomography
common receptors in (PET), 15
psychopharmacology, 240– Post-ECT prophylactic treatment,
241 344
mood stabilizers, 283–293 Posttraumatic stress disorder
nonstimulant medication for (PTSD), 84–87
ADHD, 319–320 differential diagnosis, 85, 88
for opioid use, 140–142 DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 86–87
stimulants, 302–319 treatment, 85, 87
for treating attention-deficit/ Potentially violent patients, a
hyperactivity disorder, 229 psychiatric emergency, 203
for treating dementia, 155–156 Pramipexole, 125
for treating insomnia, 115 Prazosin, 85
Phencyclidine (PCP), 142 Pregnancy
Phenelzine, 276 use of antipsychotics in, 249–250
dosing guidelines for, 282 use of benzodiazepines in, 297
Phentolamine, 281 Prescription narcotics, 140
Physical examination Presentation of ADHD, through the
in the complete psychiatric life cycle, 227–228
evaluation, 7, 9 Prevalence
elements of, and the significance of anxiety disorders, 72
of findings, 8–9 of delirium, 188
initial, 24 of personality disorders in the
in sample psychiatric initial National Comorbidity
evaluation, 21 Survey Replication study, 97
Physical status, in assessing of selected disorders among
delirium, 193 children and adolescents, 218
Pick's disease, dementia due to, 150 of substance-related disorders,
Pimozide, 242, 248 128
Plan Primary insomnia, 113–114
in the complete psychiatric DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 114
evaluation, 9 Privacy issues, 26
in sample psychiatric initial Progress notes, 25–26
evaluation, 22–23 inpatient notes, 25
Polycystic ovarian syndrome, a risk outpatient notes, 25–26
of valproate, 288 Projective identification, 334–335
Prophylactic treatment, post-ECT, physical and neurological

344 examination, 7, 9
Propoxyphene, 318 plan, 9
Propranolol, 92, 244, 285 psychiatric review of systems, 6–7
Protective factors, mitigating suicide social and developmental history,
risk, 19 7
Protriptyline, 118, 272 source of information, 5
dosing guidelines for, 275 substance abuse history, 7
Pseudodementia, 153 Psychiatric history
Pseudoseizures, 199–200 in the complete psychiatric
Psyche, structural theory of, 334–335 evaluation, 6
Psychiatric disorders in sample psychiatric initial
substance-induced, 129–130 evaluation, 20
treating in the medical setting, Psychiatric initial evaluation
197, 199 complete, 9
Psychiatric emergencies, 203–209 sample, 22
acute dystonic reaction, 207 Psychiatric progress notes, 25–26
anticholinergic intoxication, 209 inpatient notes, 25
dermatological emergencies, 203, outpatient notes, 25–26
205 protected under HIPAA, 26
drug-related skin eruption, 206 Psychiatric review of systems
lithium toxicity, 207–209 in the complete psychiatric
management of the unconscious evaluation, 6–7
psychiatric patient, 204–205 in sample psychiatric initial
the potentially violent patient, 203 evaluation, 20
serotonin syndrome (serotonin Psychiatric symptomatology and
toxicity), 205–207 behavior
the unconscious psychiatric in documenting consultations,
patient, 203 186
Psychiatric emergency department, medical disorders that commonly
209–211 cause or exacerbate, 187
Psychiatric evaluation nonpsychiatric medical causes
allergies, 6 for, 11
assessment, 9 Psychiatry, diagnosis according to
chief complaint, 5 multiaxial classification, 1
complete, components of, 5–15 Psychoanalysis, 331, 334–335
family history, 7 and object relations theory, 335
general identifying information, 5 structural theory of the psyche,
history of present illness, 5 334–335
medications, 6 Psychodynamic psychotherapy, 335
mental status examination, 9 Psychoeducation, 339–340
past medical history, 7 Psychological factors
past psychiatric history, 6 influencing drug refusal, 200–201
pain disorder associated with, 170
Index 385
Psychomotor activity, in the “SIG E Quetiapine, 61, 65, 242, 247–250,

CAPS” mnemonic, 50 255–256
Psychopathology, vs. normality, 6 clinical use, 255–256
Psychopharmacology, common drug interactions, 256
receptors in, 240–241 risks, side effects, and their
Psychosocial rehabilitation, 41 management, 256
Psychosocial treatments, 335–340
for attention-deficit/hyper- Ramelteon, 115, 120, 301–302
activity disorder, 229 clinical use, 302
behavior therapy, 335, 337 drug interactions, 302
cognitive-behavioral therapy, 337 indications, 302
dialectical behavior therapy, 339 overdose, 302
evidence-based psychosocial side effects, 302
interventions for major Rapport, establishing in the initial
psychiatric illnesses, 336 assessment interview, 4
interpersonal therapy, 337–338 RBD. See REM behavior disorder
psychoeducation, 339–340 Rebound effects, 308
Psychotherapy and psychosocial a risk with benzodiazepines, 296
treatments, 331–340 Referrals, in documenting
classic defense mechanisms, consultations, mentioning
332–333 reason for, 185
psychoanalysis and psychody- Rehabilitation, vocational and
namic psychotherapy, 331, psychosocial, 41
334–335 Relapse, 67
Psychotic disorders, 31–48 in alcohol dependence,
brief psychotic disorder, 46 pharmacological prevention
delusional disorder, 43–46 of, 137–138
with depression, 56 REM behavior disorder (RBD), 124
differential diagnosis of REM parasomnias, 124–125
schizophrenia, 39 assessment, 124–125
proposed neuroprogressive nightmare disorder, 124, 125
model of schizophrenia, 34 treatment, 125
schizoaffective disorder, 42–43 types, 124
schizophrenia, 31–41 Renal disease, patients with, 197, 199
schizophreniform disorder, 42, 43 Renal effects, of lithium, 284
shared psychotic disorder, 46–47 Repetitive TMS (rTMS), 345–346
Psychotropic drugs Residual schizophrenia, 38
cardiac side effects of, 200 Resistance, 334
in treating psychiatric disorders, Restraint orders, 24–25
199 Reversible causes
PTSD. See Posttraumatic stress of delirium, examples of, and
disorder their treatments, 196
Pulmonary disease, causing manic potentially, of dementia, 149–150
or depressive syndromes, 54
Risks and side effects neurological, 290

of alcohol dependence, 134 thyroid, 290
of antipsychotics, 243–249 Risks and side effects of clozapine,
of aripiprazole, 258 251–253
of atomoxetine, 320 agranulocytosis, 251
of bupropion, 267, 269 anticholinergic, 252
of buspirone, 298 cardiovascular, 252
of cholinesterase inhibitors, 321, extrapyramidal, 251
325 fever, 252
of deep brain stimulation, 346 hypersalivation, 252
of donepezil, 325 obsessive-compulsive disorder
of ECT, 344 symptoms, 253
of eszopiclone, 301 sedation, 251
of galantamine, 325–326 seizures, 252
of lamotrigine, 291–292 weight gain, 252
of olanzapine, 255 Risks and side effects of lithium,
of paliperidone, 259 284–285
of quetiapine, 256 cardiac, 285
of ramelteon, 302 dermatological, 285
of risperidone, 254 gastrointestinal, 285
of rivastigmine, 326 hematological, 285
of selective serotonin reuptake neurotoxicity, 285
inhibitors, 263 parathyroid dysfunction, 284–285
of stimulants, 308, 309 renal, 284
of suicide, 17–18 thyroid dysfunction, 284
of transcranial magnetic weight gain, 285
stimulation, 346 Risks and side effects of monoamine
of vagus nerve stimulation, 345 oxidase inhibitors, 277, 281–282
of zolpidem and zaleplon, 300 cardiovascular effects, 282
Risks and side effects of central nervous system effects,
benzodiazepines, 295–296 282
dependence, withdrawal, and hypertensive crisis, 277, 281
rebound effects, 296 serotonin syndrome, 282
dysinhibition and dyscontrol sexual dysfunction, 282
(paradoxical effect), 296 weight gain, 282
memory impairment, 296 Risks and side effects of tricyclic and
sedation and impairment of heterocyclic antidepressants,
performance, 295–296 273–274
Risks and side effects of anticholinergic effects, 273
carbamazepine, 289–290 cardiovascular effects, 273
dermatological, 290 seizures, 274
gastrointestinal, 290 weight gain, 273
hematological, 289 Risks and side effects of valproate,
hepatic, 290 287–288
Index 387
alopecia, 288 Schizoaffective disorder, 42–43

gastrointestinal, 287 differential diagnosis, 42
hematological, 287 DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 44
hepatic toxicity, 287 treatment, 42–43
neurological, 288 Schizoaffective exclusion, in
polycystic ovarian syndrome, 288 schizophrenia, 35
weight gain, 287 Schizoid personality disorder,
Risperidone, 61, 243, 247–249, 99–101
253–254 differential diagnosis, 99–100
clinical use, 253–254 DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 100
drug interactions, 254 treatment, 101
risks, side effects, and their Schizophrenia, 31–41
management, 254 characteristic symptoms, 35
Rivastigmine, 323–324, 326 classification of longitudinal
side effects, 326 course, 36
Role transitions, in interpersonal course of schizophrenia, 33
therapy, 338 differential diagnosis for, 33
Ropinirole, 125 as a differential diagnosis for
rTMS. See Repetitive TMS dementia, 152
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 33, 35–36
Safety DSM-IV-TR subtypes of, 37–38
ensuring in the initial assessment duration, 35
interview, 4 evaluation, 40
with transcranial magnetic historical descriptions of, 32–33
stimulation, 346 negative symptoms, 32
Sample psychiatric initial evaluation neuroprogressive model of, 34
allergies, 20 positive symptoms, 31–32
assessment, 22 proposed neuroprogressive
chief complaint, 19 model of, 34
family history, 21 relationship to a pervasive
history of present illness, 19–20 developmental disorder, 36
ID, 19 schizoaffective and mood
medication, 20 disorder exclusion, 35
mental status examination, 21 social/occupational dysfunction,
past medical history, 21 35
past psychiatric history, 20 substance/general medical
physical and neurological condition exclusion, 36
examination, 21 subtypes, 37–38
plan, 22–23 treatment, 40–41
psychiatric review of systems, 20 treatment resistance, 41
social and developmental history, Schizophreniform disorder, 42, 43
21 DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 43
source of information, 19 Schizotypal personality disorder,
substance abuse history, 21 100–102
Schizotypal personality disorder nefazodone, 269

(continued) trazodone, 269
differential diagnosis, 101 Serotonin syndrome (serotonin
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 102 toxicity), 205–207
treatment, 101 drugs most likely to cause
Schneiderian first-rank symptoms of serotonin syndrome, 207
schizophrenia, 33 an effect of monoamine oxidase
Screening. See also Biopsychosocial inhibitors, 282
screening criteria a psychiatric emergency, 205–207
for alcohol dependence, 134 symptoms, 205–206
for drug use, 179 treatment of serotonin syndrome,
Seclusion, 24–25 207
Secondary insomnia, 114 Sertindole, 247
Sedation Sertraline, 83–84, 199, 264
a risk with benzodiazepines, Sexual side effects
295–296 of antipsychotics, 248
a risk with clozapine, 251 of monoamine oxidase inhibitors,
Sedatives, 138–139. See also 282
Anxiolytics, sedatives, and Shared psychotic disorder, 46–47
hypnotics Shift work sleep syndrome, 120, 121
guidelines for barbiturate Side effects. See Risks and side effects
detoxification, 139 “SIG E CAPS” mnemonic, 49–50
Seizures appetite, 50
a risk with clozapine, 252 concentration, 50
threshold for lowered with energy, 50
antipsychotics, 249 guilt, 50
from tricyclic and heterocyclic interest, 50
antidepressants, 274 psychomotor activity, 50
Selective serotonin-norepinephrine sleep, 49
reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), suicidal thoughts, 50
265–267, 266 Signs of malingering, 162–163
desvenlafaxine, 265 delusions, 163
duloxetine, 265, 267 hallucinations, 163
venlafaxine, 265 Single photon emission computed
Selective serotonin reuptake tomography (SPECT), 15
inhibitors (SSRIs), 72, 78–79, 83, Skills deficits, interpersonal, in
105, 122, 181, 199, 200, 207, 253, interpersonal therapy, 338
263–265, 264 Sleep, in the “SIG E CAPS”
drug interactions, 263, 265 mnemonic, 49
side effects, 263 Sleep disorders, 113–126
Selegiline, 118 breathing-related, 118–120
Selegiline transdermal system, 276 circadian rhythm, 120–121
dosing guidelines for, 283 insomnia, 113–115
Serotonin modulators, 240, 269, 270 narcolepsy, 115–118
Index 389
nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics, Source of information

115 in the complete psychiatric
parasomnias, 121–125 evaluation, 5
Sleep fragmentation, 116 in sample psychiatric initial
Sleep paralysis, 116 evaluation, 19
Sleep terrors disorder, 122 Specific phobia, 90–92
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 123 differential diagnosis, 90
Sleepwalking disorder, 122 DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 91
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 123 treatment, 90, 92
SNRIs. See Selective serotonin- SPECT. See Single photon emission
norepinephrine reuptake computed tomography
inhibitors Speech deficits, in autistic disorder,
“SOAP” mnemonic, for inpatient 218
notes, 25 Splitting, 201
Social dysfunction, in schizophrenia, SSRIs. See Selective serotonin
35 reuptake inhibitors
Social history Stevens-Johnson syndrome, 205,
in the complete psychiatric 292–293
evaluation, 7 Stimulants, 142–143, 302–319
in sample psychiatric initial contraindications, 305, 308
evaluation, 21 dextroamphetamine, 317–318
Social impairments in autistic dosing strategies, 310–315
disorder, 220–221 mechanisms of action, 305
early childhood, 221 methylphenidate, 317
infancy, 220–221 modafinil, 318–319
later childhood, 221 monitoring guidelines, 308
Social phobia, 92–94 overdose, 317
differential diagnosis, 92, 94 pemoline, 318
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 93 pharmacokinetic properties, 305,
treatment, 92 306–307
Sodium oxybate, 118 risks, side effects, and their
Somatization disorder, 164–166 management, 308, 309
differential diagnosis, 164 stimulant medications, 303–304
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 165–166 Street names, of hallucinogens, 143
treatment, 164, 166 Structural theory of the psyche,
Somatoform disorders, 163–174 334–335
body dysmorphic disorder, countertransference, 334
173–174 projective identification, 334–335
conversion disorder, 167–169 resistance, 334
hypochondriasis, 171–173 Suboxone (buprenorphine/
pain disorder, 169–171 naloxone), 140
somatization disorder, 164–166 induction schedule for, 141
undifferentiated somatoform Substance exclusion, in
disorder, 166–167 schizophrenia, 36
Substance-related disorders, 127–146 Tardive dyskinesia, an

abuse, 128–129, 130 extrapyramidal side effect of
alcohol dependence, 133–138 antipsychotics, 244, 246
cannabis, 144 Temazepam, 125, 297
club drugs, 143–144 Teratogenicity, of lamotrigine, 292
dependence, 129, 131–132 Termination of patient treatment,
ecstasy, 144 suggested guidelines for, 28
general concepts and definitions, Texas Medication Algorithm Project
128–130 (TMAP), 339–340
general treatment principles, Theft, 231
130–132 Theophylline, 286
hallucinogens, 142–143 Thiazides, 286
intoxication, 128, 129 Thioridazine, 247–249
key points, 127–128 Thought disorder in schizophrenia,
nicotine, 145–146 32
opioids, 140–142 clanging, 32
persisting dementia, 152 loosening of associations, 32
prevalence of substance-related word salad, 32
disorders, 128 Thyroid risks
sedatives and hypnotics, 138–139 of carbamazepine, 290
stimulants, 142–143 of lithium, 284
substance-induced psychiatric Time constraints, for the initial
disorders, 129–130 assessment interview, 4
withdrawal, 129, 132 TMAP. See Texas Medication
Succinylcholine, 342–343 Algorithm Project
Suicidal thoughts, in the “SIG E TMS. See Transcranial magnetic
CAPS” mnemonic, 50 stimulation
Suicide risk factors for adults, 17–18 Tourette’s disorder, 232–234
demographics, 18 in child and adolescent
diagnoses associated with suicide psychiatry, 232–234
risk, 18 differential diagnosis, 232–233
Sundowning, 150 DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 234
Surgery. See Medical/surgical illness treatment, 233
Switching, in the treatment of major Toxic epidermal necrolysis, 205
depression, 53–54, 56 Toxicity. See also Detoxification
Systematic desensitization, 335, 337 lithium, 207–209, 285
Transcranial magnetic stimulation
Tacrine, 323–324, 326 (TMS), 345–346
Tapering, 67, 145. See also Cross- method, 345
tapering side effects and safety, 346
Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of Transplants. See Organ
California, 203 transplantation
Tranylcypromine, 276
dosing guidelines for, 283
Index 391
Trazodone, 269, 270 for paranoid personality disorder,

Treatment. See also Device-based 98
treatments for REM parasomnias, 125
for acute mania, 61, 64 for schizoid personality disorder,
for acute stress disorder, 88, 90 101
for anorexia nervosa, 181–182 for schizophrenia, 40–41
for attention-deficit/ for schizotypal personality
hyperactivity disorder, 229 disorder, 101
for autistic disorder, 222–223 for serotonin syndrome, 207
for avoidant personality disorder, for somatization disorder, 164,
108 166
for bipolar depression, 64–65, 67 Treatment for insomnia, 114–115
for body dysmorphic disorder, cognitive-behavioral therapy
174 techniques, 115
for borderline personality pharmacotherapy options, 115
disorder, 104–105 Treatment for major depression,
for breathing-related sleep 53–58
disorders, 119–120 antidepressant switching, 57–58
for bulimia nervosa, 184 antidepressants and suicidal
for circadian rhythm sleep behavior in adolescents and
disorder, 120 young adults, 56
for conduct disorder, 230 augmentation and switching,
for conversion disorder, 169 53–54, 56
for delirium, 195, 196 depression with psychotic
for dementia, 154–157, 155–156 features, 56
for dependent personality discontinuation of
disorder, 109 antidepressants, 57–58
of difficult patients, 201–202 maintenance treatment in major
with ECT, course of, 343 depression, 57
for factitious disorders, 161–162 Treatment for NREM parasomnias,
general principles, 130–132 122, 124
for histrionic personality behavioral treatment, 124
disorder, 106 education, 122
for hypochondriasis, 172–173 medication, 122
for lithium toxicity, 207, 209 Treatment for psychiatric disorders
for malingering, 163 in the medical setting, 197, 199
for mental retardation, 235–236 cardiac side effects of
for narcissistic personality psychotropic drugs, 199
disorder, 107 considerations for organ
for narcolepsy, 117–118 transplantation, 199
for obsessive-compulsive patients with hepatic disease, 197
personality disorder, 111 patients with renal disease, 197, 199
for pain disorder, 169, 171 Treatment resistance, in
schizophrenia, 41
Triage checklist for patients overdose, 288

presenting to an emergency risks and side effects, 287–288
department with psychiatric Varenicline, 145–146
problems, 211 Vascular dementia (multi-infarct
assessing seriousness of problem, dementia), 150
211 Venlafaxine, 76, 118, 265, 266
identifying problem, 211 Violations of rules, serious, 231
taking immediate nursing care Violent patients, a psychiatric
measures, 211 emergency, 142, 203
Triazolam, 297 VNS. See Vagus nerve stimulation
Tricyclic and heterocyclic Vocational rehabilitation, 41
antidepressants, 65, 79, 200, 229,
271–275, 272 Weight gain
dosing guidelines, 274–275 a risk of antipsychotics, 247
drug interactions, 274 a risk of lithium, 285
overdose, 274 a risk of monoamine oxidase
side effects, 273–274 inhibitors, 282
Trimipramine, 272 a risk of tricyclic and heterocyclic
dosing guidelines for, 275 antidepressants, 273
12-step programs, 128 a risk of valproate, 287
Type I alcoholism, 134 a risk with clozapine, 252
Type II alcoholism, 134 Wernicke’s encephalopathy, 133, 194
“WITCHED-TM” mnemonic, for
Unconscious psychiatric patients, differential diagnoses of
management of, 204–205 delirium, 194
a psychiatric emergency, 203 Withdrawal, 129, 132
Undifferentiated schizophrenia, 38 defining, 129
Undifferentiated somatoform DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 132
disorder, 166–167 a risk with benzodiazepines, 296
differential diagnosis, 166 Word salad, 32
DSM-IV-TR criteria for, 167 Work schedule. See Shift work sleep
treatment, 166 syndrome
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA), 56, 76, 143, 154, 242, 344 Zaleplon. See Zolpidem and zaleplon
Ziprasidone, 61, 195, 199, 248–250, 257
Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), clinical use, 257
344–345 drug interactions, 257
method, 345 risks, side effects, and their
side effects, 345 management, 257
Valproate, 41, 61, 252, 274, 286–288, 291 Zolpidem and zaleplon, 299–300
clinical use, 286 clinical use, 299–300
contraindications, 287 indications, 299
drug interactions, 288 overdose, 300
indications, 286 side effects, 300

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BOOK OF THE MONTH TERMS OF USE

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Lucy A. Epstein, M.D.

Chad Lemaire, M.D.

Molly McVoy, M.D.

Sandyha Prashad, M.D.

Julie Young, M.D.

Lauren B. Marangell, M.D.

Disclosure of Competing Interests................... xi

1 Assessment and Documentation ...................... 1

2 Psychotic Disorders ......................................... 31

4 Anxiety Disorders ........................................... 71

5 Personality Disorders ...................................... 95

6 Sleep Disorders............................................. 113

9 Factitious Disorders and Somatoform

10 Eating Disorders ...........................................175

11 Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry ....................185

12 Emergency Psychiatry ................................... 203

13 Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.................. 213

15 Psychotherapy and Psychosocial

ȱȱȱgreat pleasure to write the preface to this excellent ad-

featuring commonly used abbreviations, and another listing trade

Robert E. Hales, M.D., M.B.A.

Stuart C. Yudofsky, M.D.

ȱ ȱ¢ modern textbooks, this work has benefited greatly

¢¢ǰȱlike all areas of medicine, relies on proper diagnosis.

TABLE 1–1. Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF)

TABLE 1–1. Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF)

40 Some impairment in reality testing or communication (e.g.,

Components of the Complete

TABLE 1–2. Normal or psychopathology?

NORMAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY (AXIS I)

Symptoms are transient Symptoms occur nearly every day

Past psychiatric history: Document prior treatment and treaters, includ-

Past medical history: It is imperative to rule out nonpsychiatric causes

• Current family relationships and supports

TABLE 1–3. Selected elements of the physical examination and

TABLE 1–3. Selected elements of the physical examination and

the neurological examination are presented in Table 1–4. Signs and

TABLE 1–4. Neurological examination

Stance and gait

TABLE 1–5. Signs and symptoms suggesting a nonpsychiatric

Psychiatric symptoms after age 40 (first onset)

TABLE 1–6. Components of the mental status examination

TABLE 1–7. Detailed assessment of cognitive

Level of consciousness Inspect the patient.

TABLE 1–7. Detailed assessment of cognitive

TABLE 1–8. Common laboratory tests in psychiatric evaluation

Complete blood cell count

TABLE 1–9. Comparison of computed tomography (CT) with

TABLE 1–9. Comparison of computed tomography (CT) with

• It does not require use of X rays. (However, the long-term biological

Assessment of Risk for Suicide

Suicide Risk Factors for Adults

• Males (for completed suicide)

DIAGNOSES ASSOCIATED WITH SUICIDE RISK

• Major affective disorders (major depression and bipolar disorder)

ȱȱȱgreat pleasure to write the preface to this excellent ad-

ȱ ȱ¢ modern textbooks, this work has benefited greatly

¢¢ǰȱlike all areas of medicine, relies on proper diagnosis.

¢ is a syndrome and can occur in many disorders (e.g., bi-

disorders are illnesses that significantly impact an individual’s