Csir Life Sciences

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Copyright © 2007 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
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ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2520-8
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Contents
Preface ............................................................................................................... (v)

Chapter 1 Cell Biology ................................................................................................. 1–60
• General Introduction ................................................................................................ 1
• Cell membrane ........................................................................................................ 4
• Structural organization of a cell ................................................................................ 6
• Cell cycle ............................................................................................................. 12
• Cell reproduction and Cell division .......................................................................... 15
• Cell differentiation and Cell-Cell interaction .............................................................. 23
• Cancer and Malignant growth ................................................................................. 24
– Characteristics of cancer cell ..................................................................... 25
– Types of cancer ........................................................................................ 25
– Protooncogenes and tumor suppressor genes ............................................... 26
• Immune response.................................................................................................. 27
– Innate immunity ........................................................................................ 27
– Adaptive immunity .................................................................................... 28
• Humoral and cell mediated immune response............................................................ 30
• Vaccines ............................................................................................................... 31
• Dosage compensation ............................................................................................ 34
• Sex determination. ................................................................................................. 35
• Practice Test Paper-I ............................................................................................. 37
• Practice Test Paper-II ............................................................................................ 48
Chapter 2 Biochemistry ........................................................................................... 61–139
• Basic Chemistry .................................................................................................... 61
– Properties of water ................................................................................... 61
– Defination of pH and pOH.......................................................................... 61
– Buffers .................................................................................................... 62
viii CSIR-NET Life Sciences
– Atoms ...................................................................................................... 62
– Molecules and chemical bonding ................................................................ 63
• Bioenergetics ........................................................................................................ 65
• Enzymes .............................................................................................................. 66
– Enzyme kinetics ........................................................................................ 70
– Control of enzyme activity ......................................................................... 71
– Mechanism of action ................................................................................. 73
• Lipids .................................................................................................................. 74
• Carbohydrates ...................................................................................................... 79
• Sugars ................................................................................................................. 82
• Glycolysis ............................................................................................................ 83
• Amino acids ......................................................................................................... 90
• Protein Structure and folding .................................................................................. 93
• DNA structure ...................................................................................................... 98
• DNA replication .................................................................................................. 100
• DNA Repair ........................................................................................................ 101
• RNA structure, Transcription and RNA Processing ................................................ 103
• Proteins synthesis ............................................................................................... 106
• Metabolic interrelationship ..................................................................................... 111
• Practice Test Paper-I ............................................................................................ 114
• Practice Test Paper-II .......................................................................................... 127
Chapter 3 Physiology ............................................................................................. 140–186
• Response to stress .............................................................................................. 140
– Water stress ........................................................................................... 140
– Oxygen stress ........................................................................................ 140
– Salt stress .............................................................................................. 141
– Heat stress ............................................................................................. 141
– Cold stress ............................................................................................. 141
• Transport across membrane ................................................................................. 142
• Plant Hormones .................................................................................................. 144
– Auxin ..................................................................................................... 144
– Gibberellin .............................................................................................. 145
– Cytokinin ............................................................................................... 147
– Ethylene ................................................................................................. 148
– Abscisic acid .......................................................................................... 148
• Animal Hormones ................................................................................................ 149
• Summary of endocrine glands and their harmones .................................................. 151
• Reproduction ...................................................................................................... 157
Contents ix
• Gametoenesis ..................................................................................................... 159

• Fertilization in humans ......................................................................................... 161
• Practice Test Paper-I ........................................................................................... 162
Chapter 4 Genetics ................................................................................................ 187–248
• The Foundation of Genetics ................................................................................. 187
• Mendels experiments and the laws of inheritence.................................................... 188
• Some Exceptions to Mendels laws ........................................................................ 193
• Alleles and their Interactions ................................................................................. 195
• Gene interaction .................................................................................................. 197
• Genes and Chromosomes ..................................................................................... 199
• Eukaryotic Chromosomes .................................................................................... 200
• Gene expression .................................................................................................. 201
• The Genetic code ................................................................................................ 203
• Translation: RNA-Directed Polypeptide Synthesis ................................................... 205
• Regulation of gene expression .............................................................................. 206
• Sex determination and sex linked inheritence .......................................................... 209
• Mutations: Heritable changes in Genes ................................................................... 212
• Transposition ...................................................................................................... 216
• Genetic disorders ................................................................................................ 220
Chapter 5 Evolutionary Biology .............................................................................. 249–308

• Origin of Earth and Pre-biotic environment ............................................................ 249
• Major episodes in the history of life....................................................................... 250
• Prebiotic Chemical Evolution and the Origion of life................................................ 251
• Oxygenation of Earth ........................................................................................... 255
• Geological time scale ........................................................................................... 256
• The History of Evolutionary ................................................................................. 260
• Evidences of evolution ......................................................................................... 261
• Theories of Evolution .......................................................................................... 265
• Population genetics .............................................................................................. 270
• Species Concept and Mechanisms of speciation ..................................................... 272
• Polymorphism .................................................................................................... 278
• Molecular Evolution ............................................................................................. 280
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Chapter 6 Environmental Biology .......................................................................... 309–374

• Major Components of Ecology ............................................................................. 309
• Major Areas of Ecological Study ............................................................................ 311
• Population Properties ........................................................................................... 314
– Demographics ........................................................................................ 315
– Survivivorship Curve ............................................................................... 317
– Life Histories .......................................................................................... 319
– Population Growth .................................................................................. 321
– Population Limitating Factors ................................................................... 325
• Community ......................................................................................................... 327
– Community Interactions .......................................................................... 327
– Predation ............................................................................................... 327
– Competition between species ................................................................... 331
– Trophic Structure ................................................................................... 333
– Ecological Succession ............................................................................. 334
• Island Biogeography ............................................................................................ 336
• Flow of Energy through Ecosystems .................................................................... 336
– Ecosystems ............................................................................................ 336
– Energy flow ........................................................................................... 337
– Productivity ........................................................................................... 338
– Chemical cycles ...................................................................................... 340
• Behavioural Ecology ............................................................................................ 342
– Finding Food .......................................................................................... 344
– Fighting ................................................................................................. 345
– Finding Sex ............................................................................................ 346
– Cooperation ............................................................................................ 348
Chapter 7 Biodiversity and Taxonomy .................................................................... 375–420
• Biodiversity ........................................................................................................ 375
– Major biodiversity threats ........................................................................ 376
– Status of Biodiversity in India ................................................................... 377
– Biodiversity hot spots .............................................................................. 380
– Conservation strategies ............................................................................ 382
• DNA finger printing ............................................................................................. 385
• Systematics ........................................................................................................ 387
– Classification .......................................................................................... 387
– Phylogeny .............................................................................................. 390
Contents xi
– Biological nomenclature ........................................................................... 391

– Publishing scientific names ...................................................................... 394
Model Test papers (1-10) ........................................................................................ 421–548
Seven CSIR NET Life Science Papers (Memory Based) .......................................... 549–632
(Dec., 03 – Dec., 06)
Answer Key ......................................................................................................... 633–656

– Chapter (1–7) .................................................................................. 633–639
– Model Test-papers (1–10) ................................................................. 640–649
– CSIR UGC NET .............................................................................. 650–656
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1
Cell Biology
Cell Biology: Structure and function of cells and intracellular organelles (of both
prokaryotes and eukaryotes): mechanism of cell division including (mitosis and meiosis)
and cell differentiation: Cell-cell interaction; Malignant growth; Immune response: Dosage
compensation and mechanism of sex determination.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1. Resolving Power: Ability to distinguish two close points as two separate points by
any optical system is called as its resolving power. The resolving power of human eye
is 100 micron. Mathematically, resolving power = l2 where l is the source of
illumination. Resolving power of compound microscope & electron microscope is 0.3
microns & 10 Å respectively.
2. Zacharis Janssens combined lenses in an effort to improve magnifying efficiency
and resolving power. He produced the first compound microscope which combines
two lenses for greater magnification.
3. About Cell Concept :
(a) Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694), an Italian microscopist, studied the structure
of plants. He believed that the plants are composed of separate structural units
which he called “utricles”.
(b) Robert Hooke (1635-1703), examined thin slices of cork (dead outer bark of an
oak) under his microscope. He saw hundreds of very small hexagonal ‘boxes’ or
‘chambers’ which are together appeared like a ‘honeycomb’. The term ‘cell’
was coined by Robert Hooke to denote these chambers. His observations,
alongwith the figures, were published in 1665 in Micrographia.
(c) Anton von Leeuwenhoek, 1674, using good quality simple lenses (magnifying
upto 200 times) observed unicellular organisms and called them ‘wild
animalcules’. In this way, he was the first to observe “living and moving
individual” cells as compared to the “fixed” cells seen by earlier workers.
(d) H.J.Dutrochet (1824), a French scientist, boiled some tissues and separated
the cells from one another. He expressed the idea of individual cells i.e., cells
2 CSIR-NET Life Sciences
were not just spaces between a network of fibres, but that these were separate
and separable units.
4. Concept of Protoplasm :
Corti (1772) first of all observed that all cells contain a living substance. This was
first observed by Corti (1772). Felix Dujardin (1836), observed it in living amoebae,
and called it ‘Sarcode’. In 1839, J.E. Purkinje used the word ‘protoplasm’ to describe
the living substance. Hugo von Mohl (1846), also suggested the same name – protoplasm
– for the similar substance found in plant cells.
5. Robert Brown, an English naturalist, described in 1828, characteristic dancing of
cell particles. It is now, therefore, known as Brownian movement.
6. Nucleus : In 1831, Robert Brown saw that small spherical body was present in
every plant cell. He used the word ‘nucleus’ to identify them.
7. Cell Theory : Two German biologists, M.J. Schleiden (1838) and Theodor Schwann
(1839) proposed cell theory (or cell doctrine) – which unified the ideas prevailing at
that time. He stated that –
(a) living things are composed of cells and cell products.
(b) cells are the fundamental structural units of living organisms.
In fact, Schwann coined the word “metabolism” for all chemical processes carried on
in the cell. Actually, he called cells “the unit of life”.
8. Rudolf Virchow (1858), a German pathologist, developed the idea of generation to
generation continuity of cell that Omnis cellula e cellula (i.e. cells arise from pre-
existing cells). This occurs by the division of cell.
9. Nucleolus: In 1781, Fontana had seen dense spherical body inside nucleus.
Schleiden (1838) also described it. But, it was given the name “nucleolus” by Bowman
(1840).
10. Nageli and Cramer (1855) gave the name “cell membrane” to the outer boundary of
the protoplasm. Overton (1899) proved its existence. J.Q. Plowe (1931), later on,
called it ‘plasmalemma’.
11. Protoplasm Theory : Max Schultze (1861) proposed the protoplasm theory.
According to it “cell is an accumulation of living substance (or protoplasm) which is
limited by an outer membrane, and possesses a nucleus”.
12. Plastids : N. Pringsheim and J. Sachs (1865-1892) described coloured bodies in the
cytoplasm which were called plastid by Haeckel in 1866.
13. Schimper (1883) classified plastids into three types – Leucoplasts (colourless),
Chloroplasts (green) and Chromoplasts (colour other than green). The green
plastids were also identified by Meyer (1883) who called them autoplasts. However,
Errera gave the name chloroplasts to them.
14. Mitochondria : Kollicker (1880) was the first to observe small thread-like structures
in the cytoplasm of the striated muscle cells of insect. These were called ‘fila’ by
Flemming (1882). Altmann (1890) described them as “bioplasts”. It was Benda (1897)
who coined the term mitochondria.
15. Centrosome : Boveri (1888) used the word “centrosome” for a body found at one
pole of the cell near the nucleus in animal cells. Most of the plant cells were found to
be lacking it.
Cell Biology 3
16. Golgi apparatus : Camello Golgi (1898), an Italian scientist, discovered in the
cytoplasm of nerve cells of owl/cat, a complex structure which he called ‘Internal
reticular apparatus’.
17. Protoplasm is a polyphasic crystallo-colloidal solution. Various theories about the
nature of protoplasm are:
(a) Alveolar theory of Butschli;
(b) Fibrillar theory of Velton;
(c) Granular theory of Altman;
(d) Colloidal theory of Fischer;
(e) Reticular theory of Fromann, and
(f) sol gel theory of Hyman.
But colloidal theory of Fischer is best. Conversion of sol into gel and vice versa is due
to colloidal nature of cytoplasm.
18. Cyclosis of cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells is due to sol gel conversion and
microfilament activities.
19. In Paramoecium, cyclosis moves food vacuoles in ‘8’ like manner.
20. Cytoplasm coagulates at temperature above 60°.
21. Amount of water in cell is usually not more than 3 quarters, i.e. 75%.
22. pH of cytoplasm, nucleoplasm and human blood is 6.9 ± 0.2, 7.4 ± 0.2 and 7.34 ± 0.2
respectively.
23. Proteins and enzymes in the cytoplasm are found in colloidal form. This increases
their surface area. Vitamins, amino acids, minerals, sugars and nucleic acids are
found in solution form.
24. Cell coat (Glycocalyx or extraneous coat) is made up of oligosaccharides which act
as recognition-centre during organ transplantation.
25. Swammerdam was first to describe (RBC of frog). Dutrochet (1824) gave the idea
of individuality of cells.
Term cell (L. cella = hollow space) coined by Hooke (1665) is misnomer as cell is not
a hollow structure. It has cytoplasm and contains organelles, inclusions and nucleus.
Leeuwenhoek (1672) was first to see a free cell under microscope and called them
tiny animalcules. Malphigi (1661) called cells as saccules (utricles).
26. Contribution of scientists in the field of tissue culture
(a) Haberlandt (1902) suggested the idea of tissue culture.
(b) Steward et al (1957) provided first evidence of cellular totipotency by growing
mature problem tissue of carrot roots in a medium supplemented with coconut
milk.
(c) Tissue culture was raised by White (1932) when he grew tomato roots on artificial
medium.
(d) Callus by White, Gauthret and Nobecourt.
(e) Differentiation of Callus into tissues by Skoog and Miller.
(f) Single cell culture (cellular totipotency) by Steward (1957).
(g) Nurse technique to get callus from a single cell by Muir et al (1958).
(h) Microchamber technique for single cell culture by Vasil & Hilderbrandt
(1965).
(i) Embryoid (non zygotic embryo) culture by Steward et al (1963), Halperin &
Wetherell (1964).
(j) Embryo culture by Laibach (1928).
(k) Pollen/Haploid androgenic culture from anthers of Dature by Guha &
Maheshwari (1966).
27. Unicellular eukaryote is 1-1000 mµ in size.
28. Ostrich egg (Largest cell) is 15-20 × 13.5-15 cm in size.
29. Human nerve cell (Longest animal cell) is 90 cm.
30. Largest acellular plant Acetabularia is 10 cm long.
31. Viruses do not have a cellular structure. Ostrich egg is not considered as true cell as
it stores a large amount of reserve food.
32. In human beings, cells of kidney are smallest and of nerve fibre longest.
33. Smallest cell (Mycoplasma gallisepticum – PPLO) is 0.1 to 0.3 to mµ in size.
CELL MEMBRANE
1. All cells are enclosed by a thin, film-like membrane called the plasma membrane
or plasmalemma.
2. Danielli and Davson (1935) proposed a “Trilamellar model”. According to this,
the plasma membrane is formed of a bimolecular layer of phospholipids (35 Å thick)
sandwitched between two layers of proteins (each 20 Å thick). Thus, the total thickness
of plasma membrane, as per their model, should be 20 Å + 35 Å + 20 Å = 75 Å (i.e.,
about 75 Å).
The model was proposed even before the plasma membrane was seen under the
electron microscope.
3. J.D. Robertson (1959) proposed a “unit membrane concept”. According to this, all
biological membranes shared the same basic structure :
(a) These are about 75 Å thick.
(b) These have a characteristics trilaminar appearance when viewed with electron
microscope.
(c) The three layers are a result of the same arrangement of proteins and lipids as
proposed by Danielli and Davson.
4. Singer and Nicolson (1972) put forward the “fluid mosaic model” of membrane
structure. It is the latest and most widely accepted model. According to this model,
the cell membrane consists of a highly viscous fluid matrix of two layers of phospholipids
molecules. These serve as a relatively impermeable barrier to the passage of most
water soluble molecules. Protein molecules on their complexes occur in the membrane,
but not in continuous layer; instead, these occur as separate particles asymmetrically
arranged in a mosaic pattern. Some of these (peripheral or extrinsic proteins) are
loosely bound at the polar surfaces of lipid layers. Others (called integral or intrinsic
proteins), penetrate deeply into the lipid layer. Some of the integral proteins penetrate
through the phospholipids layers and project on both the surfaces. These are called
Trans membranes or tunnel proteins.
5. The plasma membrane contains lipids (32%), proteins (42%), carbohydrates (6%) and
water (20%) although variations are always there.
Cell Biology 5
6. The carbohydrates occur only at the outer surface of the membrane. Their molecules
are covalently linked to (i) the polar heads of some lipid molecules (forming
glycolipids) and (ii) most of the proteins exposed at outer surface (forming
glycoproteins). The carbohydrates so bound to membrane components constitute
the glycocalyx of cell surface.
7. The sugar portions of glycolipids and glycoproteins are involved in
recognition mechanisms:-
(a) Sugar recognition sites of two neighbouring cells may bind each other causing
cell-to-cell adhesion. This enables cells to orient themselves and to form tissues.
(b) Through glycoproteins, bacteria recognise each other (female bacteria are
recognized by male bacteria; Paramoecia of different mating types recognize
each other).
(c) These provide the basic of immune response and various control systems, where
glycoproteins act as antigens.
8. Lipids and integral proteins are amphipathic in nature (i.e. have both hydrophobic
and hydrophilic groups). The hydrophobic ends are situated inside the bilayer while
the hydrophilic groups are directed outwards. Thus, the membrane is held together
primarily by hydrophobic attraction.
However, the lipids have links in their fatty acid tails. These links prevent close
packing of molecules and make the membrane structure more fluid. The fluidity
increases with decreasing length of fatty acid tails.
9. Thousand of different types of proteins can occur in cell membranes. These may be
purely structural (provide elasticity and mechanical support) or have additional
functions as :
(a) Carriers, for transporting specific molecules into or out of the cell.
(b) Receptors, for immediate flow of information into the cells.
10. Gases like O2 and CO2 diffuse rapidly in solution through membranes.
11. Ions and small polar molecules diffuse slowly through the membranes. Unchanged
and fat soluble molecules pass through membranes much more rapidly.
12. Endocytosis occurs by an infolding or extension of plasma membrane to form a
vacuole or a vesicle (small vacuole). It is of two types :
(a) Phagocytosis (i.e. cell eating): Material is taken up in solid form. The cells
involved in phagocytosis are called phagocytes or phagocytic cells (e.g. white
blood cells). The vesicle/vacuole formed is called phagocytic vacuole.
(b) Pinocytosis (i.e. cell drinking): Material is taken up in liquid (solution/colloid/
suspension) form. If the vesicle formed is extremely small, the process is known
as micropinocytosis and the vesicle is micropinocytotic.
13. Exocytosis or reverse of endocytosis by which materials are removed from the cells
including reverse pinocytosis.
14. Membrane Channels: They are of two type’s aqueous channels for the passage of
water and ion channels for the passage of ions. Nehar and Sakmann got Noble prize
for discovery of single ion channels.
15. Pseudopodial Movement: Pseudopodia are blunt outgrowths which are formed by
three developments. Sol-gel changes, cytoplasmic streaming and extension of plasma
membrance e.g., Amoeba, Macrophages, WBC, etc.
17. Undulation: They are small protrusions, projections or ruffings of the membrane
which pass out like a regular wave in the area of contact with a solid substratum.
STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION OF A CELL
1. Smaller cells with smaller volume have more surface area. Surface: volume ratio
decreases with increasing size of cell. Larger cells increase their surface area by
developing a cylindrical shape or by forming numerous extensions of the cell membrane
like microvilli, ER, etc.
2. Smaller cells have more surfaces: volume ratio and higher nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio
hence are more active.
3. Position, cell wall, age, viscosity of cytoplasm, skeleton and function of the cell, control
the shape of cell, e.g., RBC is biconcave to increase surface area. Nerve cells are
large as they are able to conduct impulses.
4. Cells regulate their activities by flow of energy and flow of extrinsic and intrinsic
(genetic) information.
5. Green cells trap radiant solar energy and convert it into chemical (potential) energy
like ATP which on oxidation of food is converted into kinetic energy for doing work.
6. Schwann (1839) recognized that animal and plant cells are alike except that animal
cells lack cell wall. Schleiden stated that cell is the unit of structure and budded off
from nucleus. Rudolf virchow (1855) was first to modify cell theory and gave
generalization- “Omnis cellula e cellula”. Viruses are exception to cell theory. The
specialized cells lose some of their autonomous activities, e.g., muscle and nerve
cells do not divide and RBCs do not respire.
7. Cells show 3 types of organization:
(a) Prokaryotic cells e.g., Bacteria, cyanobacteria, archaebacteria, mycoplasma
(PPLO), rickettsiae. Size 0.1 to 5 µ; DNA : RNA ratio 1 : 2, r-RNA-65%, A + T / G
+ C ratio = 0.88; only one envelope system; membrane bound organelles absent;
histone, nuclear membrane, nucleolus, cyclosis meiosis absent.
(b) Eukaryotic cell. Size 3 to 30 µ, DNA : RNA is 1:1, rRNA = 45%, A + T / G + C
ratio = 1.52; two envelop system, membrane bound organelles; histone and true
nucleus present.
(c) Mesokaryotic cell e.g., Dinoflagellates (a type of algae) – histone protein absent
but nucleus present.
8. Cell organelles (organoids) are of four types on the basis of membranes.
(i) Organelle bounded by single unit membrane. e.g., Microbodies
(peroxisomes, sphaerosomes, glyoxysomes, lysosomes), ER, golgi bodies.
(ii) Organelle bounded by double membrane e.g., Plastids, mitochondria and
nucleus.
(iii) Organelle bounded by triple membrane e.g. Transosomes.
(iv) Organelle without any membrane e.g., Ribosomes, centriole, nucleolus.
9. Protoplasm of eukaryotic cells shows of streaming movements known as cyclosis :
It is of two types.
(i) Rotation (cytoplasm moves around a vacuole in one direction) e.g., Hydrilla
leaf cells.
Cell Biology 7
(ii) Circulation (movement in different direction around different vacuoles e.g.,

staminal hairs of Tradescantia (Rhoeo discolor). These movements are due to
colloidal nature of cytoplasm and microfilament activities.
10. Ribosomes :
(a) Ribosomes were first discovered by Palade in animal cell and called them as
microsomes. Robinson and Brown discovered them first in plant cell. Claude
(1955) called these structures as ribosomes.
(b) Proteins synthesized on free ribosome are used within cell. Proteins synthesized
on bound ribosomes are used outside the cell or incorporated into membrane or
go out as secretory (export) protein.
(c) They are smallest, membraneless organelle and are called ribo-nucleoprotein
or Palade particles. These are negatively charged and contained rRNA and
protein and were seen only after the discovery of electron microscope. Their
size is 150 to 250 A. These act as site of protein synthesis. A ribosome may be 70
S or 80 S. (S=sedimentation coefficient) and consists of a smaller and larger sub
unit. 70 S are found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells & lie freely in
cytoplasm as in prokaryotes. 80 S ribosomes are either attached to endoplasmic
reticulum or nuclear membrane or lie freely in cytoplasm. Ergasomes o r
polyribosomes (Rich. 1963) are formed by the combination of 5 to 6 ribosomes
on a single mRNA. A 70 S ribosome has three molecules of rRNA (16 S, 5 S, 23
S) and 53 protein molecules and 80 S ribosome has 3 molecules of rRNA (18 S, 5
S, and 28 S) and 80 molecules of protein.
11. Endoplasmic reticulum (Ergastoplasm) : It was reported by Porter, Claude and
Fullman (1945). It was named as endoplasmic reticulum by Porter (1953). In muscles,
it is called sarcoplasmic reticulum, in eyes called myeloid bodies and in nerves
as Nissle granules. ER forms intracellular transport system and provides mechanical
support to cytoplasm. GERL (Golgi associated with ER from which lysosomes arise)
system is formed by ER and golgi bodies and form lysosomes. ER is of two types –
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) and Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). RER
arises from nuclear membrane. RER is mainly cisternal and studded with
ribosomes. SER consists of tubules mainly. It constitutues more than half of the total
cell membranes in a cell. SER helps to synthesize lipids and helps in detoxification.
12. Plastids: They are double walled DNA containing largest organelle in plant cells,
discovered by Haeckel (1865). These are developed from colourless proplastids found
in meristems. Three types of plastids are (i) Leucoplasts: Largest, colourless, found
in unexposed parts and store starch (amyloplast), fat (claioplast) or Protein
(aleuronplast). (ii) Chromoplasts: Second largest plastids, have carontenoids to
provide attractive colour to fruits, seeds, flowers. (iii) Chloroplasts: Green plastids
discovered by Sachs (1862) but named Chloroplast by Schimper (1885) store starch
temporarily; shape variable, maximum variation in shape is found in green algae.
Shape is planoconvex or discoid; each chloroplast has two membranes. Its matrix
(stroma) has prokaryotic naked circular DNA (0.5%), RNA, vitamin E and K,
plastoglobules (osmiophillic globules), starch particles; 70 S ribosomes, minerals (Fe,
Mg, Cu, Mn, Zn, Co) and enzymes of dark reaction of photosynthesis. 50% of matrix is
filled with Rubisco enzyme. In matrix are found double membrane bounded tubular
sacs called thylakoids (structural unit of chloroplast) which are stacked to form
grana; number of grana per chloroplast is 40-100 and each granum has 2-100 stacked
thylakoids. Inner membrane of thylakoid bears quantasomes (functional unit of

chloroplast, discovered by Park and Biggins (1962), size 180 × 150 × 100 Å, called
photosynthetic units (PSU) where primary act of photosynthesis (i.e. release of
e – ) occurs. A quantasome has 230 chlorophyll molecules (160 chl a + 70 chl b) and
about 50 carotenoid molecules. One of the molecules of Chl a acts as reaction (trap)
centre. It is P700 in PS I and P680 in PS II. Two grana are joined by Frets channel
(stroma lamella). Chloroplasts and mitochondria are energy transducing. DNA
containing, semiautonomous, double walled organelles and called cell within cell
because they have their own protein machinery and show cytoplasmic inheritance.
No life is possible on this earth without chloroplast.
13. Chl a is C55 H72 O5 N 4 Mg – blue green and has – CH 3 group.
14. Chl b is C55 H70 O6 N 4 Mg – greenish colour and has – CHO group.
15. Pyrenoid is a proteinaceous body around which starch is stored in green algae.
16. Chloroplasts are extremely fragile osmotically and burst in H2 O and hence,
chloroplasts are isolated from green leaves using sugar solution.
17. Golgi bodies: Also called as (Lipochondria, Idiosome or Dalton complex):
They are middle man of cell and discovered by Camello Golgi (1898) in cytoplasm
of nerve cell of owl and cat by silver metallic impregnation technique. They
form internal reticular apparatus (apparato recticulare interno) and take black stain
with Sudan III being rich in lipids. Dalton and Felix (1954) observed them under
TEM and confirmed their existence. In plants, golgi bodies are unconnected and
scattered called dictyosomes. In fungi, a dictyosome is unicisternal. In
vertebrates these are found near the nucleus. A dictyosome has a stack of usually 3-
12 cisternae with swollen ends, tubules and vesicles. It shows polarity. Concave or
maturing (M) face or trans face is near cell membrane and cis or convex or
forming (F) face is towards nuclear membrane. Lysosomes and secretory vesicle
arise from ‘M’ face. New cisternae are formed from SER.
Root cap cells are rich in golgi bodies which secrete mucilage for lubrication of root
tip. They process package and help in transport and release of secretory proteins.
They also cause glycosidation of lipids and glycosylation of proteins to form
glycolipids and glycoproteins. Golgi body forms acrosome in sperm, yolk and cortical
granules in eggs, secretion of insulin, lactoprotein in mammary glands, cellulose,
hemicellulose, mucilage, pectin, cell plate during cell division, root hairs etc. They
regulate fluid balance of cell. All secretory cells are rich in golgi bodies. Main enzyme
in golgi bodies is nucleoside disphosphatase. These bodies arise from SER
mainly.
18. Mitochondria: They are also called as chondriosome, sarcosome, bioplast,
plastochondria:
They are power house of cell, largest organelle in animal cell and 2nd largest
organelle in plant cell. These are double walled, DNA containing, self replicating,
semiautonomous, organelle found only in eukaryotic aerobic cells (except mature
RBC), first observed in insect striated muscles as granular structure by Kolliker
(1850). He called these granules of striated muscles as sarcosomes. Altman (1890)
studied them in detail and called them as bioplasts. He considered them as symbionts
comparable to bacteria. Flemming called them file and term ‘mitochondria’ was
Cell Biology 9
used by Benda (1897) who stained them with Janus green B (a vital stain); size
1 = 10µ × 0.2 – 1 µ; Number 1 per cell in Microsterias and Trypanosoma; 50,000 in
Choas chaos and 30,000 to 3 lakhs in oocytes of sea urchin.
A mitochondrion has two chambers and two membranes. Inner membrane is folded
to form cristae which bear oxysomes (F 0 -F 1 particles, elementary particles, ATPase
particles. (Fernandez and M oran particles). Oxysomes are 104 to 105 in number,
called functional unit of mitochondria, discovered by Fernandez-Moran (1961).
Inner chamber has a double stranded, naked circular 5 µ long prokaryotic DNA with
high G-C ratio, 70S ribosomes, RNA and 70 types of enzymes. 70% of total enzymes of
cell are found in mitochondria. This DNA is 1% of total DNA of cell and discovered by
Nass (1966). Kreb’s cycle and oxidative phosphorylation occur here. Mitochondria are
called cell within cell.
19. Microbodies : These are (lysosomes, sphaerosomes, glyoxysomes and peroxisomes):
They are smallest single membrane bounded organelle. Lysosomes (suicidal bags,
disposal units, scavenger of cell) are microbodies of 0.2-0.8 µ size filled with 40 types
of acid hydrolases to digest (autolysis) almost every type of organic matter except
cellulose. They are common in WBC, liver, spleen etc. They work at pH-5 and cause
lysis of foreign body; discovered accidently by Christian de Duve (1955) from rat
liver. Novikoff (1956) observed them under TEM. They show pleomorphism
(polymorphism).
They are of four types: (i) Primary lysosomes (Storage granules) have inactive
enzymes; (ii) Secondary lysosomes (Heterophagosomes or Digestive vacuoles
or Phagolysosomes) cause digestion (Heterophagy); (iii) Tertiary lysosomes
(Residual bodies or Telolysosomes) removes wastes by ephagy from cell by acting
as scavenger or disposal unit; (iv ) Autophagic vacuoles (Cytolysosome or
Autophagosomes) are complex lysosomes and digest old / injured / dead cells and
tissues to keep cell healthy (autolysis or autodigestion). Scavenging, disappearance
of tail, softening of gums, acrosomal activity of sperm are few other examples.
Autophagy is digestion of stored food (glycogens, fat and proteins) during starvation
to provide energy. Thus autophagy has no role in scavenging. If lysosomes burst and
release their enzymes, the entire cell is digested and liquefied. It is called autolysis.
Osteoclasts (which digest bones) are rich in lysosomes; Plant cells lack lysosomes
except Neurospora, root tip of maize, yeast and seeds of pea and cotton.
Lack of Lysosome cause Pombe’s Disease. They are also involved with diseases such
as Tay-Sachs Syndrome and Rheumatic Arthritis (An Autoimmune disease).
Types of Microbodies
(a) Sogaerisines (Plant lysosomes) are micro bodies filled with hydrolytic enzymes
for fat synthesis. They are highly refractile and rich in fat (98%) and take black
stain with Sudan iii / Osmium tetraoxide. These are abundant in endosperm of
oily seeds.
(b) Transosomes are triple layer bounded organelle in ovary follicle cells of birds
to help in yolk formation.
(c) Lomasomes are boder bodies between cell wall and cell membrane, common in
fungi, discovered by Moore and Mc Allister (1961) and help in cell proliferation
and elongation for diffusion of substances required in cell wall formation.
(d) Peroxisomes (uricosomes) are microbodies containing enzymes for peroxide

formation. Catalase and peroxidase are largest and smallest enzymes
found in peroxisomes. In plants they do photo-respiration in C3 plants (Tolbert,
1972). In animals they take part in lipid synthesis (b-oxidation of fatty acids).
(e) Glyoxysomes- Largest microbody of size upto 10 µ and similar to peroxisomes
as these contain catalase and other enzymes for glyoxylate cycle (a modified
Krebs’ cycle in which fats are converted into carbohydrates). These are common
in germinating oil seeds of castor, groundnut and cucumbers and disappear after
germination.
20. Centrioles: They are minute submicroscopic subcylindrical structures of 300-500
nm length and 150 nm diameter and usually occur in pairs (diplosome) inside a
specialized fibrous cytoplasm called centrosphere. The complex is called centrosome
or central apparatus. Each centriole has a whorl of nine triplet fibrils with
interconnections amongst adjacent triplets (called C-A linkers) as well as with a central
hub through spokes. Thus show 9 ÷ 0 organisation. Centrioles are surrounded by
massules or nucleating centre or pericentriolar satellites for formation of new
centrioles. Centrioles are required to form basal bodies, cilia, flagella and spindle
poles. They occur in most animal cells except some protozoan protests like Amoeba,
common in flagellate forms (e.g., many green algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes and
cycads). Centriole is rich in tubulin, ATP. Centrioles are basically locomotory
structures and their role in cell division to form spindle is secondary.
Basal bodies or basal granules or blepharoplasts are microcylinders that lie below
the plasmalemma at the base of flagella and cilia. The structure is exactly similar to
centriole.
21. Cilia and flagella: They are microtubular vibratile propoplasmic processes studied
by Engleman and have four parts: basal body, rootlets, basal plate and shaft. Shaft
contains of an external membrane (extension of plasmalemma), a semifluid matrix
and an axoneme. Axoneme has nine peripheral doublet fibrils and two central singlet
fibrils. Thus show 9 + 2 fibrillar organization. All the peripheral doublet fibrils are
interconnected by C-A linkers of protein nexin. Subfibre A of each doublet has two
bent arms, the outer one with a hook. The central fibrils and side arms of subfibre A
are made of dyenin protein with ATP-ase activity. Cilia are shorter (5-10 µm as
compared to 150 µm for flagella), more numerous, have sweeping or pendular movement
and beat in a coordinated rhythmic movement.
22. Vacuoles: Vacuoles in plants were reported by Spallanzani. They are noncytoplasmic
fluid filled, lifeless sacs which are separated from cytoplasm by a membrane called
tonoplast.
(a) Sap vacuoles: They enclose sap or water with dissolved inorganic and organic
substances. A mature plant cell has a single large central vacuole. Animal cells
have numerous small sap vacuoles that maintain osmotic pressure. Cell sap is
slightly acidic and contains acids, esters, phenols, organic acids (acetic and formic
acids), enzymes, tannin crystals and pigments etc.
(b) Contractile vacuoles: They occur in some simple fresh water forms (e.g.,
Amoeba, Paramecium, Chlamydomonas). They pick up water from surrounding
cytoplasm, expand (diastole) and collapse (systole) to throw water outside.
Contractile vacuoles perform osmoregulation and excretion.
Cell Biology 11
(c) Gas vacuoles (= pseudovacuoles): Gas or air vacuoles occur in some

prokaryotes. Gas vacuoles store metabolic gases and take part in buoyancy
regulation.
23. Nucleus: A cell may be uni or multinucleated. If a multinucleated condition arises
due to fusion of cells, it is called syncytium e.g., plasmodium, body of slime moulds,
young xylem vessels and if due to repeated nuclear divisions without cytokinesis, it is
called coenocytic e.g. Vaucheria, Rhizopus. Nucleus was reported by Robert Brown
(1831) in orchid cells. Strasburger (1882) proved that nucleus arises from pre existing
nucleus by division. Hertwig and van Beneden showed the role of nucleus in
fertilization. Hammerling (1953) by his grafting experiments on Acetabularia (largest
unicellular green, marine alga) proved the role of nucleus in heredity, growth and
morphology. 1/10th of volume of cell is occupied by nucleus. In a cell, there is a
definite nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio. Nucleocytoplasmic index is Volume of nucleus/
(Volume of cell – Volume of nucleus).
About 10% of nuclear membrane bears simple of compound pores. Nucleus has 80%
proteins (65% non histone, Mol. Wt. high, rich in tyrosine and tryptophan, acidic
and forms enzymes and helps in RNA transaction. 15% proteins are basic, histone
proteins, Mol. Wt. low, rich in lysine and arginine. DNA : histone ratio 1 : 1.
Nucleosomes are structural units of chromatin. Term was given by Outdet. A
nucleosome is an octamer of histone proteins and has a core of 8 molecules of
histone proteins (two each of H 2 A, H 2 B, H 3 , H 4 ) bounded by 13/4 turns of DNA having
about 166 base pairs. H1 histone does not form nucleosome. Size of a chromosome
varies from 0.5 to 32 µ. Minimum number of chromosomes n = 2 e.g., Haplopappus.
Maximum number is 2n = 1262 in Adder’s fern (Ophioglossuin). In animals, minimum
number is 2n = 2 in Ascaris sp. And maximum number is 2n = 1600 in Aulacantha and
Radiolarians.
24. Giant Chromosomes are: (i) Salivary gland chromosomes (size 2000 µm) (ii)
lampbrush chromosomes (size 5900 µm). Those chromosomes help in rapid synthesis
of proteins.
25. Nucleolus: It is a site of ribosome synthesis. Nucleolus was discovered by Fontana
(1781), described by Wagner and numbed by Bowman. There is at least one nucleolus
per haploid set of chromosomes in a cell.
26. Cell inclusions: Ergastic, deutoplasmic, paraplasmic bodies are non living, non
cytoplasmic substances in vacuoles or cell wall or cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells also
called metaplast or deutoplast and are of three types:
(a) Reserve food materials: It can be starch as in plant cells, glycogen as in animal
cells and fungi, fat or aleurone grains (protein rich, found as outermost layer of
cells or endosperms or cereal grains). An aleurone grain in made up of a large
part called crystalloid and a small part called globoid. Crystalloid contains
nitrogen as amides. Starch is found as grains; simple or compound, concentric
or acentric.
(b) Excretory products: These are waste (end) products and useless to plant. They
get accumulated in bark, old leaves, vacuoles and flowers e.g., alkaloids (Quinine,
Atropine, Canada Balsam: a mounting agent from Abies stem), gums, organic
acids, cow milk, latex from Cow tree (Brosimum) and mineral crystals.
Mineral crystals are:

(i) CaCO3 crystals occurring as a mass of crystals in a cellulose wall to form
bunch of grapes called cystolith, e.g., banyan leaf cell. In Momordica,
cystolith is double and in Justicia it is worm like.
(ii) Crystals of calcium oxalate are very common and called raphides (needles
like e.g., Lemna, Pistia), star like (sphaeraphides or druse e.g. Colocasia,
Nerium), prism like in onion scales or crystal sand in Atropa. A cell with
raphides is called idioblast.
(iii) Silica on margin of leaves of grasses.
(c) Secretory products: They are useful to plants e.g., pigments, nectar, essential
oil, enzymes etc. Essential oils are ethereal oils and used in perfumery.
27. Cytoskeltal structures: These are fibrous or fine tubular structures which form
the supportive structures of the cell. These are of three types – microtubules,
microfilaments and Intermediate filaments
(a) Microtubules discovered by Robertis and Franchi, (1953) term coined by
Slautterback (1963), are unbranched hollow non contractile tubules of indefinite
length, 25 nm in thickness with 15 nm core and formed of 13 helically arranged
protofilaments of a and b-tubilin protein. Microtubules grow from nucleating
centres. Microtubules are basic structures of spindle apparatus, centrioles, basal
bodies, cilia and flagella and are responsible for cell motility and maintenance of
shape. Their tips can grow and shorten quickly. GTP, Ca2+, Mg2+ and a
calmodulin bound protein are required for assembly. Colchicine prevents it.
Microtubules are basic structures of spindle apparatus, centrioles, basal bodies,
cilia and flagella. They are also present in other cellular structures like sensory
hair, nerve processes, sperm tail, etc. Microtubules present in cytoplasm provide
shape and polarity to cells. Microtubules are absent in procaryotes (except
Anabaena),Amoeba and Slime Moulds.
(b) Microfilaments are cylindrical solid, contractile rods or filaments of actin and
myosin protein with a diameter of 6 to 10 nm. Microfilaments can form hexagonal
bundles, take part in cytoplasmic streaming, membrane undulations, cleavage,
contraction of muscles, movement of microvilli to absorb food and endocytosis.
(c) Intermediate Filaments are intermediate in size having diameter around 10-
15 nm and are composed of non-contractile proteins. Intermediate fibres (IF)
are of four types–keratin filaments, neurofibrils, glial filaments and heterogeneous
filaments (viz., desmin filaments, vimentin filaments, synemin filaments).They
privide rigidity to cell and maintains the cell structure
CELL CYCLE
I. Interphase and the Control of Cell Division

1. Interphase is the period between divisions of the cytoplasm. A typical eukaryotic cell
will spend most of its life in interphase. Some cells lose the capacity to divide altogether
and stay in interphase indefinitely. Examples of such cells in humans are nerve cells
and muscle cells. Other cells divide regularly, others occasionally.
2. Most cells have two major phases: mitosis and interphase often referred to as the cell
cycle.
Cell Biology 13
3. For most tissues at any given time, only a few cells are in mitosis, and most are in
interphase.
4. Interphase consists of three sub-phases.
• G1 is Gap 1, the period just after mitosis and before the beginning of DNA
synthesis.
• Next is S (synthesis), which is the time when the cell’s DNA is replicated.
• G2 is the time after S and prior to mitosis.
5. Mitosis and cytokinesis are referred to as M phase.
6. The G1-to-S transition commits the cell to enter another cell cycle.
II. Cyclins and other proteins signal events in the cell cycle
1. Transitions from G1 to S and G2 to M depend on activation of a protein called cyclin-
dependent kinase, or Cdk.
2. A kinase is an enzyme that transfers a phosphate from ATP to different protein(s).
This is called phosphorylation.
3. Activated Cdk transfers phosphates from ATP to certain amino acids of proteins that
then move the cell in the direction of cycling.
4. The Cdk effect on the cell cycle is a common mechanism in eukaryotic cells.
• Studies in sea urchin eggs uncovered a protein called the maturation promoting
factor.
• A mutant yeast that lacked Cdk was found, which stalled at the G1–S boundary.
• These two proteins, one from sea urchins and the other from yeast, were similar
in structure and function. Other Cdks have been found in other organisms,
including humans.
5. Cyclin is a protein that interacts with Cdk. Cyclin binding of Cdk exposes the active
site of the kinase.
6. The cyclin-Cdk complex acts as a protein kinase that triggers transition from G1 to S.
The cyclin then breaks down and the Cdk becomes inactive. Several different cyclins
exist, which, when bound to Cdk, phosphorylate different target proteins.
• Cyclin D-Cdk4 acts during the middle of G1. This is the restriction point in G1,
beyond which the rest of the cell cycle is inevitable.
• Cyclin E-Cdk2 acts at the boundary of G1 to S to initiate DNA replication.
• Cyclin A-Cdk2 acts during S and also stimulates DNA replication.
• Cyclin B-Cdk1 acts at the G2-to-M boundary, initiating mitosis.
7. Cyclin-Cdk complexes act as checkpoints. When functioning properly, they allow or
prevent the passage to the next cell cycle stage, depending on the extra- and
intracellular conditions.
• An example is the effect of p21 on the G1-to-S phase transition.
• If DNA is damaged by UV radiation, p21 is synthesized (a protein of 21,000
daltons).
• It binds to the two different types of G1 Cdk molecules, preventing their activation
until damaged DNA is repaired. The p21 is then degraded, allowing the cell
cycle to proceed.
8. Some targets for cyclin-Cdk complexes include proteins that condense chromosomes
and others that cause fragmentation of the nuclear envelope.
9. Cyclin-Cdk defects have been found in some cancer cells.
• A breast cancer with too much cyclin D has been found.
• The protein p53, which inhibits activation of Cdk, is found defective in half of all
human cancers.
III. Growth factors can stimulate cells to divide

1. Cyclin-Cdk complexes provide internal control for cell cycle decisions.
2. Cells in multicellular organisms must divide only when appropriate. They must
respond to external signals, controls called growth factors.
3. Some cells respond to growth factors provided by other cells.
• Platelets release platelet-derived growth factor, which diffuses to the surface of
cells to stimulate wound healing.
• Interleukins are released from one type of blood cell to stimulate division of
another type resulting in body immune system defenses.
• The cells of the kidney make erythropoietin, which stimulates bone marrow
cells to divide and differentiate into red blood cells.
4. Cancer cells cycle inappropriately because they either make their own growth factors
or no longer require them to start cycling.
IV. Regulation of the Cell Cycle

1. Cell cycle is driven by specific chemical signals in the cytoplasm.
2. M phase cells that are fused with any other phase cell, the latter cell will enter
mitosis.
3. Cell cycle control system triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle.
4. Cell cycle checkpoints act as stop and go signals. Three major checkpoints found in
G1, G2, and M phases.
(a) G1 is critical checkpoint. If cells make it past G1, the entire cell cycle is completed.
(b) Non-dividing cells are in G0 state.
5. Fluctuations in cell cycle control molecules abundance and activity control cell cycle.
• Protein kinases are activated by cyclin proteins.
• Activity of protein kinase is correlated with concentration of specific cyclin (cyclin
dependent kinase or “Cdk”).
6. MPF (maturation promoting factor) was first Cdk described.
• Cyclin level rises during interphase.
• At G2, enough active MPF (cyclin + Cdk) is present to promote mitosis.
• Numerous phosphorylation events that cause nuclear envelope to fragment
and activate other enzymes.
• Cyclin is broken down by proteolytic cleavage (MPF inactive) and Cdk is recycled.
• Proteolysis also drives M-phase past anaphase by breaking down proteins that
hold sister chromatids together.
Cell Biology 15
7. Internal and External Cues Regulate Cell Cycle Internal signal delays start of
anaphase (separation of chromosomes) until all kinetochores are attached to spindle
fibers.
• Anaphase promoting complex (APC) is kept in inactive state by proteins associated
with kinetochores.
• Signal ceases when all kinetochores are attached.
8. Growth factors are external signals that stimulate cells to divide.
• Platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) is required for division of fibroblasts.
• PDGF binds to tyrosine kinase receptors on surface of cells and triggers signal
transduction pathway.
9. Density dependent inhibition describes phenomenon whereby cells stop growing
after reaching a certain density. Growth is limited by availability of growth factor.
10. Cancer Cells Have Escaped Cell Cycle Controls
• Cancer cells do not exhibit density dependent inhibition.
• Cancer cells do not stop growing when growth factor is depleted.
• Cancer cells stop at random points in cell cycle (not checkpoints).
• Some cancer cell lines are immortal and can divide indefinitely given the right
ingredients.e.g. HeLa cells.
• p53 gene mutations in tumor suppressor genes (e.g. p53) result in cancer functional
p53 aids cell in checkpoint control at G1 and G2
CELL REPRODUCTION & CELL DIVISION
I. Systems of Cell Reproduction

1. Four events occur before and during cell division.
• A signal to reproduce must be received.
• Replication of DNA and vital cell components must occur.
• DNA must distribute to the new cells.
• The cell membrane (and cell wall in some organisms) must separate the two
new cells.
II. Prokaryotes divide by fission

1. Prokaryotic cells grow in size, replicate DNA, and divide into two new cells. This
process is called fission.
2. Escherichia coli (a bacterium) simply divides as quickly as resources permit. At 37oC,
this is about once every 40 minutes. When resources are abundant, E. coli can divide
every 20 minutes.
3. Prokaryotes generally have just one circular chromosome.
• The E. coli chromosome is 1.6 mm in diameter, making the unfolded circle 100
times greater than the size of the cell. The molecule is packaged by folding in on
itself with the aid of basic proteins that associate with the acidic DNA.
• Circular chromosomes appear to be characteristic of all prokaryotes.
4. The prokaryotes have a site called ori, where DNA replication begins, and a site ter,
where it ends.
• Ori is short for origin of replication.
• Ter is short for terminus of replication.
5. As DNA replicates, each of the two resulting DNA molecules attaches to the plasma
membrane. As the bacterium grows, new plasma membrane is added between the
attachment points, and the DNA molecules are moved apart.
6. Cytokinesis, which is cell partitioning, begins around 20 minutes after chromosome
duplication is completed. A pinching of the plasma membrane to form a constricting
ring separates the one cell into two, each with a complete chromosome.
• A tubulin-like fiber is involved in the purse-string constriction.
III. Eukaryotic cells divide by mitosis or meiosis

1. All reproduction involves reproduction signals, DNA replication, segregation, and
cytokinesis.
2. Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells do not constantly divide whenever environmental
conditions are adequate, although unicellular eukaryotes do so more often than the
cells of multicellular organisms.
• Some differentiated cells of multicellular organisms rarely or never divide.
• Signals to divide are related to the needs of the entire organism, not simply the
opportunity created by resources.
3. Eukaryotes usually have many chromosomes. Eukaryotes have a nucleus, which
must replicate and, with few exceptions, divide during cell division. Mitosis generates
two cells with the same genetic information as the original cell.
4. Meiosis is a specialized cell division used for sexual reproduction. The genetic
information of the chromosomes is shuffled, and the cells, called gametes, typically
get one-half of the original DNA complement.
IV. Mitosis: Distributing Exact Copies of Genetic Information

1. A single nucleus gives rise to two genetically identical nuclei, one for each of the two
new daughter cells.
2. Mitosis is a continuous event, but it is convenient to look at it as a series of steps.
• When the cell enters S phase and DNA is replicated, the centrosome replicates
to form two centrosomes. This event is controlled by cyclin E-Cdk2, whose
concentration peaks at the G1-to-S transition. This is the key event initiating
the direction of mitosis.
• During G2-to-M transition, the two centrosomes separate from each other and
move to opposite ends of the nuclear envelope. The orientation of the centrosomes
determines the cell’s plane of division.
• In many organisms, each centrosome contains a pair of centrioles that have
replicated during interphase. Centrosomes are regions where microtubules form.
These microtubules will orchestrate the movement of chromosomes.
Cell Biology 17
The spindle forms during prophase

3. In prophase, polar microtubules form between the two centrosomes and make up the
developing spindle.
4. Each polar microtubule runs from one mitotic center to just beyond the middle of the
spindle, where it overlaps and interacts with a microtubule from the other side.
Initially, these m icrotubules are constantly form ing anddepolymerizing (“falling apart”)
during this period. Recall that microtubules grow by addition of tubulin dimers to the
+ end of the microtubule. When microtubules from one centrosome contact
microtubules from the other, they become more stable.
5. The mitotic spindle serves as a “railroad track” along which chromosomes will move
later in mitosis.
A prophase chromosome consists of two chromatids
6. During prophase, chromosomes compact and coil, becoming more dense. Prophase
chromosomes consist of two chromatids, held together over much of their length.
The region of tight binding between the chromatids, the centromere, is where the
microtubules will associate with the chromatids.
7. Late in prophase, the kinetochores develop. The kinetochore is located in the region
around the centromere and is the site where microtubules attach to the chromatids.
Chromosome movements are highly organized
8. The movement phases of chromosomes are designated pro-metaphase, metaphase,
and anaphase.
9. During pro-metaphase, the nuclear lamina disintegrates and the nuclear envelope
breaks into small vesicles permitting the fibers of the spindle to “invade” the nuclear
region.
• The spindle microtubules then associate with kinetochores.
• These are called kinetochore microtubules.
• The microtubules from one pole associate with the kinetochore of one of the
members of a pair of chromatids. Microtubules from the other pole associate
with the kinetochore of the other member.
• Repulsive forces from the poles push chromosomes toward the center, or
equatorial plate, in a rather aimless back and forth motion.
• The two chromatids are held together, presumably by proteins called cohesins.
10. During metaphase, the kinetochores arrive at the equatorial plate.
• Chromosomes are fully condensed and have distinguishable shapes.
• Cohesins break down.
• DNA topoisomerase II unravels the interconnected DNA molecules at the
centromere, and all the chromatids separate simultaneously.
11. Anaphase begins when the centromeres separate.
• The process takes 10 to 60 minutes for the chromosomes to move to opposite
poles.
• Molecular motors at the kinetochores move the chromosomes toward the poles,
accounting for about 75% of the motion.
• About 25% of the motion comes from shortening of the microtubules at the
poles.
• Additional distance is gained by the separating of the mitotic centers. This

increase in distance between the poles is done by the polar microtubules, which
have motor proteins associated in the overlapping regions. By this process the
distance between the poles doubles.
Nuclei re-form during telophase
12. When chromosomes finish moving, telophase begins. Nuclear envelopes and nucleoli
coalesce and re-form.
V. Cytokinesis: The Division of the Cytoplasm

1. Animal cells divide by a furrowing (a “pinching in” or constriction) of the plasma
membrane.
2. Microfilaments of actin and the motor protein filament myosin first form a ring
beneath the plasma membrane.
3. Actin and myosin contract to produce the constriction.
4. Plants have cell walls and the cytoplasm divides differently.
• After the spindle breaks down, vesicles from the Golgi apparatus appear in the
equatorial region.
• The vesicles fuse to form a new plasma membrane, and the contents of the
vesicles combine to form the cell plate, which is the beginning of the new cell
wall.
5. Organelles and other cytoplasmic resources do not need to be distributed equally in
daughter cells, as long as some of each are present in both new cells to assure additional
generation of organelles as needed.
VI. Reproduction: Sexual and Asexual

1. Mitosis by repeated cell cycles can give rise to vast numbers of identical cells.
2. Meiosis results in just four progeny, which usually do not further duplicate. The cells
can be genetically different.
Reproduction by mitosis results in genetic constancy
3. Asexual reproduction involves the generation of a new individual that is essentially
genetically identical to the parent. It involves a cell or cells that were generated by
mitosis.
• Variation of cells is likely due to mutations or environmental effects.
4. Sexual reproduction involves meiosis.
• Two parents each contribute one cell that is genetically different from the parents.
• These cells often combine to create variety among the offspring beyond that
attributed to mutations or the environment.
Reproduction by meiosis results in genetic diversity
5. Sexual reproduction fosters genetic diversity among progeny. Two parents each
contribute a set of chromosomes in a sex cell or gamete. Gametes fuse to produce a
single cell, the zygote, or fertilized egg. Fusion of gametes is called fertilization.
Cell Biology 19
6. In each recognizable pair of chromosomes, one comes from each of the two parents.
The members of the pair are called homologous chromosomes and are similar, but
not identical, in size and appearance. (An exception for sex chromosomes exists in
some species.)
7. The homologous chromosomes have corresponding but generally not identical genetic
information.
8. Haploid cells contain just one homolog of each pair. The number of chromosomes in
a single set is denoted by n. When haploid gametes fuse in fertilization, they create
the zygote, which is 2n, or diploid.
9. Some organisms have a predominant life cycle in a 1n (haploid) state. (Algae & fungi)
10. Some organisms have both a 1n vegetative life stage and a 2n vegetative life stage.
(Bryophyte/pteridophytes)
11. In diplontic organisms, which include animals, the organism is usually diploid. (Some
insects are excepted.)
12. Homologous chromosomes exchange parts and recombine during meiosis so that the
chromosomes passed on to gametes are mixtures of those received from two parents.
The two chromosomes of a mixed homologous pair then segregate randomly into
haploid gametes. This shuffling greatly increases the diversity of the population and
opportunities for evolution.
The number, shapes, and sizes of the metaphase chromosomes constitute the karyotype
13. It is possible to count and characterize individual chromosomes.
14. Cells in metaphase can be killed and prepared in a way that spreads the chromosomes
around a region on a glass slide. A photograph of the slide can be taken, and images
of each chromosome can be organized based on size, number and shape. This spread
is called a karyotype.
VII. Meiosis: A Pair of Nuclear Divisions

1. Meiosis consists of two nuclear divisions that reduce the number of chromosomes to
the haploid number.
2. The nucleus divides twice, but the DNA is replicated only once.
3. The functions of meiosis are to reduce the chromosome number from diploid to haploid,
to ensure each gamete gets a complete set, and to promote genetic diversity among
products.
4. Meiosis I is unique for the pairing and synapsis of homologous chromosomes in
prophase I of the first nuclear division. After metaphase I, homologous chromosomes
separate into different cells.
5. Individual chromosomes, each with two chromatids, remain intact until metaphase
of meiosis II (second nuclear division) is completed and the chromatids separate to
become chromosomes.
The first meiotic division reduces the chromosome number
6. Like mitosis, meiosis I is preceded by an interphase in which DNA is replicated.
Meiosis I begins with a long prophase.
7. During prophase I, synapse occurs: The two homologs are joined together held by a
synaptonemal complex of proteins. This forms a tetrad, or “bundle of four,” which
consists of two homologous chromosomes with two sister chromatids.
8. At a later point, the chromosomes appear to repel each other except at the centromere
and at points of attachments, called chiasmata, which appear X-shaped. These
chiasmata reflect the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes,
a phenomenon called crossing-over.
9. This crossing-over increases genetic variation by “mixing and watching” the genes on
the homologs.
10. In the testis cells of human males, prophase I takes about a week.
11. In the egg cells of human females, prophase I begins before birth in some eggs and
can continue for 50 years in others depending on their release in the monthly ovarian
cycle.
12. Following telophase I, in some species, there is a reappearance of nuclear envelopes.
If this occurs, it is called interkinesis, a stage similar to mitotic interphase, but there
is no replication of genetic material and no crossing-over in subsequent stages.
The second meiotic division separates the chromatids
13. Meiosis II is similar to mitosis.
14. One difference is that DNA does not replicate before meiosis II. The number of
chromosomes is therefore half that found in diploid mitotic cells.
15. In meiosis II, sister chromatids are not identical and there is no crossing-over.
Meiosis leads to genetic diversity
16. The products of meiosis I are genetically diverse.
17. Synapsis and crossing over during prophase I mix genetic material of the maternal
with that of the paternal homologous chromosomes.
18. Which member of a homologous pair segregates or goes to which daughter cell at
anaphase I is simply chance.
19. Since most species of diploid organisms have more than two pairs of chromosomes,
the possibilities for variation in combinations becomes huge.
EXTRA CONCEPTS: Cell Reproduction or Cell Division
1. Cell Division was first studied by Strasburger (1875) in plants, W. Flemming (1882)
in animal cells and Prevost and Dumas (1824) in frog egg.
2. Any agent that stimulates cell division is called mitogen. Temperature, cytokinin,
auxin, gibberllin, insulin, steroids and mitogens.
3. The continuation of species from one generation to next is governed by two processes;
syngamy (union of gametes) and division of cells (meiosis and mitosis).
4. A cell divides to have high surface area per unit of volume and high nucleocytoplasmic
ratio. The smaller the size of cell, more the surface area and nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio
it has.
5. Genetic continuity is due to duplication of DNA in cell division that occurs in S-phase.
Cell Biology 21
6. Mitotic poisons are inhibitors of cell divisions. Azides and cyanides inhibit prophase;
colchicines checks spindle formation; chalones inhibit cell division in vivo and in
vitro both; ribonuclease blocks prophase; heat shocks prevent cell division and
Mustard gas agglutinate all chromosomes.
7. Animal cytokinesis is centripetal and plant cytokinesis is centrifugal.
8. In fungi, spindle is formed inside nucleus (intranuclear division); nuclear membrane
remains intact; nucleus divides by furrow (karyochoriosis).
9. Endomitosis is duplication of chromosomes without division of nucleus.
10. Non-disjunction is failure of migration of chromatids at anaphase; discovered by
Bridges (1961).
11. Brachymeiosis: It is believed by some mycologists that in some ascomycetes,
fertilization takes place in single celled stage resulting in a diploid nucleus which
then undergoes free nuclear divisions followed by pairing (dikaryon formation). These
dikaryons then fuse and thus become a tetraploid nucleus. This is ascus mother cell.
If it has to form haploid ascospores it must now undergo two reductional & one
equational division. This is knows as brachymeiosis.
12. Acetocarmine is made by dissolving carmine dye (obtained from cochineal Coccus
insect) in acetic acid. It gives purple red colour to chromosomes.
13. C-mitosis is colchicines induced mitosis. Colchicine is an alkaloid, obtained from
underground corms of autumn crocus – Colchicum autumnale. It was discovered by
Dustin (1934) and used by Blakeslee (1937) to induce polyploidy. Granosan is similar
to colchicines in action. Both inhibit spindle formation.
14. In Cyperus, one meiosis produces one pollen grain instead of four.
15. Cell doubles in size and then stops growing in G1 phase. G1 is longest, most variable
phase in which maximum growth occurs. Circumstances which induce a cell to divide
arise in G1 under the influence of some cytoplasmic clock. Decision for cell division
also occurs here.
16. Size of nucleus increases in interphase; size of nucleolus increases in first four
substages of Prophase-I of meiosis.
17. Aristolochia (duck weed) has all types of tetrads.
18. Protein (histone) for DNA synthesis is formed in S-phase while tubulin protein required
for spindle is synthesized in G2 .
19. All organelles (organoids) including centrioles are doubled in G2 .
20. Amount of DNA doubles in S-phase.
21. Interphase is most active phase followed by prophase. This interphase takes 70-95%
of total time of cell cycle. M-phase takes very less time.
22. Amitosis is called direct or incipient cell division and is found in yeasts, protozoans,
monerans (prokaryotes), cartilage and degenerated/old tissues.
23. Mitosis forms 2 daughter cells that are morphologically and genetically similar. It
distributes chromosomes equally both quantitatively and qualitatively. Term mitosis
was given by W. Flemming (1870). Meristems, cells of bone marrow, base of nails
and skin are used to study mitosis.
24. Spindle is astral (amphiastral) and arises from centriole in animal cell and in plant
cell; it is anastral and arise from cytoplasmic proteins by gelation. It consists of
microtubules made up of sulphur rich tubulin protein (95-97%), RNA (3-5%) and
ATPase. Spindle is seen with polarizing microscope only.
25. Prophase is of longest duration.
26. Metaphasic chromosomes are least coiled. The structure of chromosomes is best
studied at metaphase while shape of chromosomes is best studied at
anaphase.
27. Anaphase is of shortest duration; centromere divides and disjunction occurs here.
About 30 molecules of ATP are needed to move one chromosome from equator to
pole.
28. Telophase is reverse of prophase. Nuclear membrane reappears from ER and remnants
of original nuclear membrane.
29. Meiosis was first discovered by Boveri (1892), studied by Strasburger (1883) and
Winiwarter (1990); term by Farmer and Moore (1905). It is double division in
which nucleus divides twice but chromosomes only once. It is antithesis of fertilization
and havles the number of chromosomes. It maintains number of chromosomes
constant through successive generations.
30. Meiosis occurs in diploid reproductive cells (meiocytes) at the time of reproduction.
31. Anthers of unopened young flowers and testes of grasshopper are widely used to
study meiosis.
32. Zygotene is zipping or synapsis or pairing of homologous chromosomes.
33. Tetrad formation occurs at pachytene stage.
34. Diplotene is of longest duration and involves chiasmata formation very distinctly.
Crossing over begins at pachytene but chiasmata becomes distinct at diplotene, hence
we can say crossing over occurs at diplotene.
35. Transportation is exchange and rejoining of chromatids parts during crossing over.
36. In metaphase-I, migrating chromosomes are dyad, i.e., each chromosome has 2
chromatids.
37. Reduction in number of chromosomes occur in anaphase-I but haploidy (reduction) in
terms of DNA occur during anaphase-II.
38. In Trillium, anaphase-I directly enters into metaphase-II.
39. Tetrad is a group of 4 haploid cells formed during meiosis. It can be tetrahedral,
isobilateral, linear, decussate or T-shaped but tetrahedral tetrad is most common
in plants.
40. Kinetochore is a proteinaceous region of the centromere in chromosome to which
spindle fibres attach.
41. Nucleoprotein complex present between synapsed chromosomes is called synaptinemal
complex.
42. Karyokinesis is division of nucleus. It was first studied by Schleiden.
43. Chromatids move towards the pole at a speed of 1 µm per minute.
44. Chiasmata are the result of crossing over and first observed by Janseens (1909).
Cell Biology 23
45. He La cells are human cancer cells of a patient Henrietta Lack; maintained in
tissue culture since 1953. They divide and double their number in every 24 hrs &
widely used in research.
46. During G2, a cell contains double the amount of DNA (4n) as compared to original
diploid cell (2n).
47. Repair of damaged DNA also takes place in the interphase.
48. In plants, mitosis occur in meristematic tissues (shoot & root tips). Root tip is the
most preferred regions to observe mitosis.
49. Anaphase is a rapid phase lasting only 2-3 minutes. It starts abruptly. The
centromere splits into two; each chromatid is pulled slowly towards a spindle pole
(each chromatid with own centromere now becomes a separate single stranded (1
DNA) chromosome. The chromatids are moved (towards the pole they face) at a
speed of 1µm/minute. The separation of the chromatids starts at the centromeres
while the arms trail behind it. As a result, the chromosomes are pulled into V, J and
T shapes.
50. The telophase lasts for an hour or so.
51. Stimulation of mitosis: Kinetin (6-furturyl amino purine) increases the mitotic
rate in meristems of Allium. At low concentration, it reduces the duration of interphase
and increases the mitotic rate.
52. In human males, meiosis starts after puberty.
53. In human females, meiosis starts at the end of 3rd month of prenatal life. In the fifth
month of prenatal life, the oocytes reach the diplotene stage and remain arrested at
this stage for many (About 12) years, when ovulation occurs.
54. Number of meiosis required to form n number of seeds/grains = n + n/4 (for all cases
except cyperus); in cyperus, it is = n + n.
CELL DIFFERENTIATION AND CELL-CELL INTERACTION:
Specializations of Plasmalemma
They are of three types:
(i) Outpushings (Evaginations) - microvilli, flagellar or ciliary sheaths, stereocilia.
(ii) Inpushings (Invaginations) - pores, mesosomes, lomasomes and transfer cells.
(iii) Junctional Complexes. They are connections between adjacent cells, across intervening
space of 15 - 20 nm width which is often filled with tissue fluid. Cementing material is
called adherenes, fusion as occludens, spot as macula and strip as zonula. Common
junctional complexes are plasmodesmata, gap junctions, interdigitations, intercellular
bridges, tight junctions, desmosomes and terminal bars.
1. Microvilli (Singular-Microvillus). They are numerous (upto 3000) fine plasmalemma
evaginations (each O’ 6 - 0,8 ,um long and 0.1 ,um in diameter) which gives striated or
brush border appearance under optical microscope. Microvilli are supported internally
by micro filaments. Externally they possess glycocalyx. Areas in between the microvilli
are specialised for absorption. Surface area is increased several times, e.g., intestinal
epithelium, hepatic cells, convoluted regions of renal tubules, lining of gall bladder
and uterus.
2. Stereocilia. Nonmotile elongated evaginations of plasma membrane, secretory or

sensory, e.g., macula, crista, epididymus. True cilia and flagella are covered by plasma
membrane sheaths. Evaginations also occur during formation of phagocytic vesicles.
3. Pores. At places plasma membrane is connected with endoplasmic reticulum forming
pores leading to channels of E.R. Infolds also develop during formation of endocytotic
vesicles.
4. Mesosome. Complex infolding of plasma membrane in bacteria that is connected
with nucleoid and is believed to help in nucleoid replication, septum formation and
even respiration. A similar infolding found in fungi is called lomasome.
5. Transfer cells. Both cell wall and plasmalemma show infoldings. Cells are specialized
for solute transfer.
6. Plasmodesmata. They are cytoplasmic bridges between adjacent plant cells that
occur in very fine pores or pits in the cell wall.
7. Gap Junctions (Nexus, Maculae Occludentes). Fine hydrophilic channels formed by
special protein cylinders or connexons of two adjacent cells. Ca2+ is required for their
opening, they are very common.
8. Intercellular Bridges. Plasma projections from adjacent cells that come in contact
in the intercellular space for quick transfer of stimuli.
9. Interdigitations. Membrane outgrowths of adjacent cells which fit into one another,
increase adherence and surface area for exchange of materials.
10. Desmosomes (Spot Desmosomes, Maculae Adherentes). They are just like welded
areas between adjacent cells having intercellular thickening materials, transmembrane
linkers, disc-shaped intracellular thickening adjacent to each membrane, with
tonofibrils. Desmosomes occur in epithelia subjected to disruption. In
hemidesmosome, disc-shaped intracellular thickening occurs in one cell. Collagen
firbils are found in place of intercellular thickening. Septate desmosomes possess
transverse septa in between cells instead of intercellular cement. Tonofibrils are
absent. Septate desmosomes occur in invertebrates.
11. Tight Junctions (Zonulae Occludentes). Plasmalemmae of two cells fused to form
impermeable or occluding junctions, e.g., epithelial cells or capillaries and brain cells.
Function of tight junctions is different in different tissues.
12. Terminal Bars (= Belt Desmosomes, Zonulae Adherentes). Desmosomes which lack
tonofibrils and where discoid thickenings are replaced by bands of microfilaments
and intermediate filaments.
CANCER AND MALIGNANT GROWTH
1. Cancer is a disease of the body’s cells. It occurs when cells in the body become abnormal
and grow out of control. A change which makes the gene faulty is called a mutation.
Some special genes, called control genes, instruct the cell to copy its genes correctly,
and to divide in an orderly manner. They stop controlling cell division, which is
cancer.
2. Benign Tumors: Tumors arise with great frequency, especially in older animals and
humans, but most pose little risk to their host because they are localized and of small
size. The surface interaction molecules that hold tissues together keep benign tumor
Cell Biology 25
cells, like normal cells, localized to appropriate tissues. A fibrous capsule usually
delineates the extent of a benign tumor.
3. Malignant tumor: In contrast, the cells composing a malignant tumor, or cancer,
express some proteins characteristic of the cell type from which it arose, and a high
fraction of the cells grow and divide more rapidly than normal.
4. Some malignant tumors remain localized and encapsulated, at least for a time; an
example is carcinoma in situ in the ovary or breast.
5. Most, however, do not remain in their original site; instead, they invade surrounding
tissues, get into the body’s circulatory system, and set up areas of proliferation away
from the site of their original appearance.
6. The spread of tumor cells and establishment of secondary areas of growth is called
metastasis; most malignant cells eventually acquire the ability to metastasize.
7. Thus the major characteristics that differentiate metastatic (or malignant) tumors
from benign ones are their invasiveness and spread.
Characteristics of Cancer Cells

1. They are usually less well differentiated than normal cells or benign tumor cells. The
presence of invading cells is the most diagnostic indication of a malignancy.
2. Cancer cells can multiply in the absence of growth-promoting factors required for
proliferation of normal cells and are resistant to signals that normally program cell
death (apoptosis).
3. Cancer cells also invade surrounding tissues, often breaking through the basal laminas
that define the boundaries of tissues and spreading through the body to establish
secondary areas of grow th, a process calledmetastasis
4. Both primary and secondary tumors require angiogenesis, the recruitment of new
blood vessels, in order to grow to a large mass.
5. Cancer cells, which are closer in their properties to stem cells than to more mature
differentiated cell types, usually arise from stem cells and other proliferating cells
Types of Cancer
1. Carcinoma: It includes tumors of brain, breast, skin, cervical region. These are
derived from epithelial tissue, originating from either ectoderm or endoderm. These
occurs as solid tumors, located in the nervous tissue on the body surface or associated
glands.
2. Sarcoma: They are the cancers of connective tissues, cartilage, bone or muscles
which are mesodermal in origin.
3. The leukemias: A class of sarcomas, grow as individual cells in the blood, whereas
most other tumors are solid masses. (The name leukemia is derived from the Latin
for “white blood”: the massive proliferation of leukemic cells can cause a patient’s
blood to appear milky)
4. Lymphoma: Lymph nodes, bone marrow, liver and spleen produces excessive
lymphocytes. Cancer in them are called as lymphomas eg. Hodgkin’s disease.
Proto-Oncogenes and Tumor-Suppressor Genes

1. Two broad classes of genes—proto-oncogenes (e.g., ras) and tumor-suppressor genes
(e.g., APC) play a key role in cancer induction. These genes encode many kinds of
proteins that help control cell growth and proliferation; mutations in these genes can
contribute to the development of cancer.
2. Most cancers have inactivating mutations in one or more proteins that normally
function to restrict progression through the G1 stage of the cell cycle (e.g., Rb and
p16). Virtually all human tumors have inactivating mutations in proteins such as p53
that normally function at crucial cell-cycle checkpoints, stopping the cycle if a previous
step has occurred incorrectly or if DNA has been damaged. Likewise, a constitutively
active Ras is found in several human tumors of different origin. Thus normal growth
control and malignancy are two faces of the same coin.
3. An oncogene is any gene that encodes a protein able to transform cells in culture or
to induce cancer in animals.
4. Of the many known oncogenes, all but a few are derived from normal cellular genes
(i.e., proto-oncogenes) whose products participate in cellular growth-controlling
pathways. For example, the ras gene is a proto-oncogene that encodes an intracellular
signal-transduction protein;
5. Conversion, or activation, of a proto-oncogene into an oncogene generally involves a
gain-of-function mutation.
6. Tumor-suppressor genes generally encode proteins that in one way or another inhibit
cell proliferation. Loss of one or more of these “brakes” contributes to the development
of many cancers.
7. Five broad classes of proteins are generally recognized as being encoded by tumor-
suppressor genes:
• Intracellular proteins, such as the p16 cyclin-kinase inhibitor, that regulate or
inhibit progression through a specific stage of the cell cycle
• Receptors for secreted hormones (e.g., tumor derived growth factor ?) that function
to inhibit cell proliferation
• Checkpoint-control proteins that arrest the cell cycle if DNA is damaged or
chromosomes are abnormal
• Proteins that promote apoptosis and Enzymes that participate in DNA repair
Some of the characteristics of Oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes can be

summarized as follows
1. Dominant gain-of-function mutations in proto-oncogenes and recessive loss-of-function
mutations in tumor-suppressor genes are oncogenic.
2. Among the proteins encoded by proto-oncogenes are positive-acting growth factors
and their receptors, signal-transduction proteins, transcription factors, and cell-cycle
control proteins.
3. An activating mutation of one of the two alleles of a proto-oncogene converts it to an
oncogene, which can induce transformation in cultured cells or cancer in animals.
4. Activation of a proto-oncogene into an oncogene can occur by point mutation, gene
amplification, and gene translocation.
Cell Biology 27
5. The first recognized oncogene, v-src, was identified in Rous sarcoma virus, a cancer-
causing retrovirus. Retroviral oncogenes arose by transduction of cellular proto-
oncogenes into the viral genome and subsequent mutation.
6. The first human oncogene to be identified encodes a constitutively active form of
Ras, a signal-transduction protein. This oncogene was isolated from a human bladder
carcinoma.
7. Slow-acting retroviruses can cause cancer by integrating near a proto-oncogene in
such a way that gene transcription is activated continuously and inappropriately.
8. Tumor-suppressor genes encode proteins cell cycle if DNA is damaged or chromosomes
are abnormal, receptors for secreted hormones that function to inhibit cell proliferation,
proteins that promote apoptosis, and DNA repair enzymes.
9. Inherited mutations causing retinoblastoma led to the identification of RB, the first
tumor-suppressor gene to be recognized.
IMMUNE RESPONSE
1. Immunity means protection from disease and especially infectious disease. Cells and
m olecules involved in such protection constitute the immune system and the response
to introduction of a foreign agent is known as the immune response.
2. Not all immune responses protect from disease; some foreign agents, such as the
allergens found in house dust mite, cat dander or rye grass pollen, cause disease as
a consequence of inducing an immune response.
3. Likewise some individuals mount immune responses to their own tissues as if they
were foreign agents. Thus, the immune response can cause the autoimmune diseases
common to man such as multiple sclerosis, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis or
myasthenia gravis.
4. Most individuals do not suffer from autoimmune disease because they have developed
tolerance towards their own (self) tissues.
Innate (or natural) immunity: This is made up of several components.

1. Physical barriers are the first line of defense against infection. The skin and
mucous membranes provide a continous surface which must be breached and back
this up with mechanical protection through cilia and mucous.
2. Physiological factors such as pH, temperature and oxygen tension limit microbial
growth. The acid environment of the stomach combined with microbial competion
from the commensal flora inhibits gut infection.
3. Protein secretions into external body fluids such as lysozyme also help resist
invasion. Soluble factors within the body such as complement, interferons and
collectins and other “broadly specific” molecules such as C-reactive protein are of
considerable importance in protection against infection.
4. Phagocytic cells are critical in the defense against bacterial and simple eukaryotic
pathogens. Macrophages and Polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMN) can
recognise bacterial and yeast cell walls through broadly specific receptors (usually for
carbohydrate structures) and this recognition is greatly enhanced by activated
complement (opsonin) [as well as by specific antibody].
5. Acute Inflammation: The acute inflammatory response which has been described
in previous lectures is a key part of the innate immune system. Many infections,
especially where small wounds are the route of entry, are eliminated by the
combination of complement and recruitment of phagocytes, which flow from the acute
inflammatory response.
A defining aspect of the innate immune system is that it carries no memory of an
encounter with a foreign organism.
What is an antigen?
1. An antigen is defined as “anything that can be bound by an antibody”. This can be an
enormous range of substances from simple chemicals, sugars, small peptides to complex
protein complexes such as viruses.
2. The small antigens are not, however immunogenic in themselves and need to be
coupled to a carrier to elicit an immune response. Such small antigens are referred
to as haptens.
3. Requirement of Antigen to cause immune response are: Non-self, Complex in
structure, should more then 5 KD in size and must have atleast on epitope.
4. In fact antibodies interact specifically with relatively small parts of molecules. These
are known as antigenic determinants or epitopes.
5. Sometimes the epitope is composed of a string of amino acids as might be found in a
short peptide, such epitopes are said to be linear. Other epitopes are formed by more
complex 3-dimensional structures present only as part of a native protein, such epitopes
are called conformational.
Adaptive immunity
Specific memory is the hallmark
of the adaptive immune response
New challenge
antibody response
1° challenge 2° boost
response to new
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
time in days
1. The second level of defence increases in strength and effectiveness with each
encounter. The foreign agent is recognised in a specific manner and the immune
system acquires memory towards it.
Cell Biology 29
2. The first encounter with an antigen is known as the primary response. Re-encounter
with the same antigen causes a secondary response that is more rapid and powerful.
3. Acquired immunity is a useful evolutionary adaptation because it improves the efficacy
of the innate immune response by focusing the response to the site of invasion/
infection as well as providing additional effector mechanisms that are unique to
lymphocytes.
4. The difference between innate and acquired immunity lies in the antigen specificity
of lymphocytes. This property is conferred upon lymphocytes by the expression of cell
surface receptors that recognise discrete parts of the antigen known as antigenic
epitopes.
5. The cell surface receptor of B lymphocytes, (derived and mature in Bone marrow
in mammals or the Bursa of fabricius in chickens) is an immunoglobulin molecule
which, when secreted by the B cell, is known as an antibody.
6. Immunity provided by Immunoglobulins (antibodies) is termed as humoral immunity
(Humor=fluid/blood)
Antibodies work in three ways
1. Agglutination: Antibodies bind to antigens to produce large insoluble complexes,

which render them harmless and facilitate their destruction by other cells of the
immune system.
2. Opsoniation: IgG molecules coat the surface of antigens and this stimulates their
recognition and digestion by phagocytes.
3. Complement mediated cell lysis: Complement system is a group of enzymes.
They are triggered by IgM - IgG bound to the surface of foreign cells. The activity of
some of these enzymes leads to the formation of pores on the plasma membrane of
the invading cell causing them to lyse.
Structure of Antibody: Antibodies have two ends. One end interacts with the antigen
(the variable part) leaving the other (constant ) end free to interact with the
immunoglobulin receptors on these cells. During an immune response, a complex lattice
of interlinked antigens and antibodies, known as an immune complex, will present an
array of constant regions which can activate the various cells mentioned above through
ligation of their immunoglobulin receptors.
1. Antibodies: Immunoglycoproteins secreted by B-lymphocytes in response to antigens.

They are Y shaped molecule made up of two heavy and two light chains [Kappa or
lambda either one of them. They occur in the ratio of 2:1 in human’s era]. The antigen
combining site of molecule is aminoterminus. It is composed of both L and H chains.
The regions in the L and H variable portion that actually combines with the antigenic
determinants are called hot spots or ioditypes. The carboxyterminus of light chain
has a small constant region. The heavy chain also has two to three constant regions
at its carboxy terminus. Depending upon different types of constant regions, five
isotypes of Ig have been identified: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE
Ig G Ig A Ig M Ig D Ig E
Sedimentation Coefficient 7 7 19 7 8
Molecular weight 150,000 160,000 900,000 180,000 190,000

(2 Chains) (5 Chains)
of IgA
Serum concentration (mg / ml) 12 2 1.2 0.03 0.00004
Half life (days) 23 6 10 2.8 2.3
Carbohydrate % 45 42 80 75 50
Complement fixation Å – + – –
Placental transport Å – – – –
Present in breast milk + + – – –
Selective secretion of
seromucous glands – + – – –
Heat stability + + + + –
2. Lymphocytes: Lymphocytes that are critical for immune reactions are of two types:
B-cells and T-cells. Both develop from stern cells located in the liver of the foetus and
in the bone marrow cells of the adult. Those that migrate to the thymus, differentiate
under its influence and are known as “T-cells”; while those that continue to remain
in the bone marrow are called “B-cells”. The young lymphocytes migrate to thymus
and later on lymphoid tissues such as spleen lymph nodes and tonsils where they
undergo final maturation.
HUMORAL AND CELL MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSES
1. Humoral immunity produces antibodies in response to toxins (ex bee venom), free
bacteria, and viruses present in the body fluids.
2. "Humor” is medieval term for body fluids. Here it refers to the fluid of the blood and
the lymph.
Cell Biology 31
3. Antibodies to these types of antigens are synthesized by B- lymphocytes and then

secreted as soluble proteins which circulate through the body in blood plasma and
lymph.
4. Cell-mediated immunity is the response to intracellular bacteria and viruses, fungi,
protozoans, worms, transplanted tissues, and cancer cells.
5. Depends on the direct action of various types of T-lymphocytes rather than antibodies.
6. T-lymphocytes differentiate into 4 different varieties of T-cells.
• Helper/inducer T-cells (Links Cell meduated and Humoral Immunity)
• Suppressor T cells (Suppresses the immune response when antigens are disposed
off)
• Cytotoxic T cells or killer cells (Effector cells of cell mediated immunity)
• Memory T-cells.
7. “Memory B and T cells” are cells that have been exposed to an antigen and are readily
converted to “Effector cells” by a later encounter with the same antigen. Unlike
other lymphocytes, they persist in the body for months or even years.
8. The killer T-cells directly attack and destroy antigens. They move to the site of
invasion and produce chemicals that attract phagocytes. Helper T-cells act to stimulate
antibody production by B-cells, while suppressor T-cells suppresses the total immune
system from attacking the body’s own cells.
9. Thymus-Independent Antigens: Some bacterial polysaccharides can active B-cells.
Antigens capable of doing so are called thymus independent antigens because these
antigens do not require the cooperation of Helper T-cells for activating B-cells.
Thymus dependent antigens; many antigens require the cooperation of T-cells for
activating B-cells. The antigens present on organ transplant are thymus dependent
antigens. So a person whose thymus gland is removed is not able to reject organ
transplant.
10. MHC are major histocompatibilty complex (glycoproteins) prensent on cells which
present processed intracellular antigen to T-Lymphocytes. They are also called as
Human Leucocyte Antigen (HLA) in humans.
11. MHC-I is present on all nucleated cells and are recognized by CD 8+ arms of T-
Cytotoxic cells and present processed antigen to T-cytotoxic cells while MHC-II are
present on T & B lymphocytes, dendritic cells and mast cells and recognized via CD
4+ arm present on T-Helper cell.
12. Lymphokines: They are a family of soluble chemical mediator released by helper T-
cells. Lymphokines have two broad functions. One group of lymphokines is concerned
with growth and differentiation of B and T cells. The other group helps phagocytosis
by attracting phagocytic cells when required through chemotaxis and by activating
the phagocytic cells.
VACCINES
The introduction of vaccination has been one of the most decisive advances leading to the
dramatic downward trend in the incidence of many viral diseases.
The principle of vaccination is to induce a “primed” state in the vaccinated subject so

that, following exposure to a pathogen, a rapid secondary immune response is generated
leading to the accelerated elimination of the organism and protection from clinical disease.
Success depends on the generation of memory T and B cells and the presence in the serum of
neutralizing antibody.
Attributes of a good vaccine
• Ability to elicit the appropriate immune response for the particular pathogen:
Tuberculosis—cell mediated response
Most bacterial and viral infections—antibody
• Long term protection ideally life-long
• Safety vaccine itself should not cause disease
• Stable retain immunogenicity, despite adverse storage conditions prior to
administration
• Inexpensive
Types of Vaccine: Vaccines in general use includes: LIVE vaccines; and KILLED vaccines
A. Live Vaccines
1. Live attenuated organisms
Organisms whose virulence has been artificially reduced by in vitro culture
under adverse conditions, such as reduced temperature. This results in the selection
of mutants which replicate poorly in the human host and are therefore of reduced
virulence. Replication of the vaccine strain in the host reproduces many of the features
of wild type infection, without causing clinical disease. Most successful viral
vaccines belong to this group.
The immune response is usually good—when the virus replicates in the host cells,
both antibody as well as cell mediated immune responses are generated and
immunity is generally long lived. Often, only a single dose is needed to induce long
term immunity.
Potential drawbacks to these vaccines include: the danger of reversion to virulence
and the possibility of causing extensive disease in immuno-compromised individuals.
2. Heterologous vaccines
Closely related organism of lesser virulence, which shares many antigens with the
virulent organism. The vaccine strain replicates in the host and induces an immune
response that cross reacts with antigens of the virulent organism. The most famous
example of this type of vaccine is vaccinia virus: Both cowpox virus and vaccinia
virus are closely related to variola virus, the causitive agent of smallpox. The
eighteenth centuary physician, Edward Jenner observed that milkmaids who had
been infected with cowpox virus were immune to smallpox. Widespread use of vaccinia
virus as a vaccine has lead to the world-wide eradication of smallpox.
3. Live recombinant vaccines
It is possible, using genetic engineering, to introduce a gene coding for an immunogenic
protein from one organism into the genome of another (such as vaccinia virus). The
organism expressing a foreign gene is called a recombinant. Following injection into
Cell Biology 33
the subject, the recombinant organism will replicate and express sufficient amounts
of the foreign protein to induce a specific immune response to the protein.
B. Killed (inactivated) vaccines

1. When safe live vaccines are not available, either because attenuated strains have not
been developed or else because reversion to wild type occurs too readily, it may be
possible to use an inactivated preparation of the virulent organism to immunize the
host.
2. The organism is propagated in bulk, in vitro, and inactivated with either beta-
propiolactone or formaldehyde. These vaccines are not infectious and are therefore
relatively safe. However, they are usually of lower immunogenicity and multiple
doses may be needed to induce immunity. In addition, they are usually expensive to
prepare.
Subcellular fractions
3. When protective immunity is known to be directed against only one or two proteins
of an organism, it may be possible to use a purified preparation of these proteins as a
vaccine. The organism is grown in bulk and inactivated, and then the protein of
interest is purified and concentrated from the culture suspension. These vaccines are
safe and fewer local reactions occur at the injection site. However, the same
disadvantages of poor immunogenicity and the need for multiple boosters apply.
C. Recombinant proteins
Immunogenic proteins of virulent organisms may be synthesized artificially by introducing
the gene coding for the protein into an expression vector, such as E-coli or yeasts. The protein
of interest can be extracted from lysates of the expression vector, then concentrated and purified
for use as a vaccine. The only example of such a vaccine, in current use, is the hepatitis B
vaccine.
D. DNA Vaccines
DNA vaccines are at present experimental, but hold promise for future therapy since they
will evoke both humoral and cell-mediated immunity, without the dangers associated with live
virus vaccines.
The gene for an antigenic determinant of a pathogenic organism is inserted into a plasmid.
This genetically engineered plasmid comprises the DNA vaccine which is then injected into
the host. Within the host cells, the foreign gene can be expressed (transcribed and translated)
from the plasmid DNA, and if sufficient amounts of the foreign protein are produced, they will
elicit an immune response.
E. Vaccines in general use

1. Measles: Live attenuated virus grown in chick embryo fibroblasts, first introduced
in the 1960’s. In developed countries, the vaccine is administered to all children in
the second year of life (at about 15 months). If the vaccine is administered too early,
however, there is a poor take rate due to the interference by maternal antibody. For
this reason, when vaccine is administered before the age of one year, a booster dose
is recommended at 15 months.
2. Mumps: Live attenuated virus developed in the 1960’s. In first world countries it is
administered together with measles and rubella at 15 months in the MMR vaccine.
3. Rubella: Live attenuated virus. Rubella causes a mild febrile illness in children, but
if infection occurs during pregnancy, the foetus may develop severe congenital
abnormalities.
4. Polio: Two highly effective vaccines containing all 3 strains of poliovirus are in general
use:
The killed virus vaccine (Salk, 1954) is used mainly in Sweden, Finland, Holland
and Iceland.
The live attenuated oral polio vaccine (Sabin, 1957) has been adopted in most
parts of the world; its chief advantages being: low cost, the fact that it induces mucosal
immunity and the possibility that, in poorly immunized communities, vaccine strains
might replace circulating wild strains and improve herd immunity.
The inactivated Salk vaccine is recommended for children who are
immunosuppressed.
5. Hepatitis B: Two vaccines are in current use: a serum derived vaccine and a
recombinant vaccine. Both contain purified preparations of the hepatitis B surface
protein. The serum derived vaccine is prepared from hepatitis B surface protein,
purified from the serum of hepatitis B carriers. This protein is synthesised in vast
excess by infected hepatocytes and secreted into the blood of infected individuals. A
second vaccine, produced by recombinant DNA technology, has since become available.
Three doses are given; at 6, 10, and 14 weeks of age. As with any killed viral vaccines,
a booster will be required at some interval (not yet determined, but about 5 years) to
provide protection in later life from hepatitis B infection as a venereal disease.
5. Hepatitis A: A vaccine for hepatitis A has been developed from formalin-inactivated,
cell culture-derived virus.
6. Varicella-Zoster virus: A live attenuated strain of varicella zoster virus has been
developed.
DOSAGE COMPENSATION
Dosage Compensation by X-inactivation in female mammals

1. How does an organism compensate for the fact that some individuals have a double
dosage of sex-linked genes while others have only one? In female mammals, most
diploid cells have only one fully functional X chromosome.
2. The explanation for this process is known as the Lyon hypothesis, proposed by the
British geneticist Mary F. Lyon. In females, each of the embryonic cells inactivates
one of the two X chromosomes. The inactive X chromosome contracts into a dense
object called a Barr body.
Cell Biology 35
3. Barr body = Located inside the nuclear envelope, it is a densely staining object that
is an inactivated X chromosome in female mammalian cells. Most Barr body genes
are not expressed. They are reactivated in gonadal cells that undergo meiosis to form
gametes. Female mammals are a mosaic of two types of cells, those with an active
maternal X and those with an active paternal X. Which of the two Xs will be inactivated
is determined randomly in embryonic cells. After an X is inactivated, all mitotic
descendants will have the same inactive X. As a consequence, if a female is
heterozygous for a sex-linked trait, about half of her cells will express one allele and
the other cells well express the alternate allele. Examples of this type of mosaicism
are coloration in calico cats and normal sweat gland development in humans. A woman
who is heterozygous for this trait has patches of normal skin and patches of skin
lacking sweat glands.
4. X chromosome inactivation is associated with DNA methylation. Methyl groups
(-CH3) attach to cytosine, one of DNA’s nitrogenous bases. Barr bodies are highly
methylated compared to actively transcribed DNA. What determines which of the
two X chromosomes will be methylated? A recently discovered gene, XIST is active
only on the Barr body. The product of the XIST gene, X-inactive specific transcript, is
an RNA; multiple copies of XIST attach to the X chromosome inactivating it.
Dosage Compensation by X-hyper activation in Male of Drossophila

1. In Drossophila Dosage compensation is achieved by hyperactivation of single x
chromosome present in males. The hyperactivity is polytenization of X chromosome
and hypoacetylation of Histones attached to DNA. So Genes are always accessible for
transcription.
SEX DETERMINATION
1. Chromosomal Basis of Sex determination:

• XX-XY is that type of sex determination in which Y determines sex of maleness.
It is found in mammals, several insects.
• XX-XO type in which O determines sex of maleness e.g., bugs, cockroach,
grasshopper, roundworms.
• ZZ-ZW type – W determines sex of femaleness e.g., birds, reptiles, fish,
silkworm.
• ZO-ZZ type – O determines sex of femaleness. It is opposite to XX-XO type e.g.,
butterflies, moth, pigeon, ducks.
2. Haploidy- diploidy e.g., ants, wasps, bees. Males are haploid and females are diploid.
3. Gynandromorph is a sex mosaic (an individual with one half of the body male and
the other half female). These are common in silk moth and Drosophila. A gynander
may be male or female with patches of tissues of other sex on it. Gynandromorphism
is developed due to non-disjunction of X-chromosome/aneuploidy.
4. Genic Balance Theory for sex determination in Drossophilla was given by Bridges
(on the basis of ratio of number of X chromosome to sets of autosomes)
Chromosome
Constitution X/A ratio Sex index
AA + XXX 3/2 = 1.50 Super
AA + XX 2/2 = 1.00 Normal
AAA + XXY 2/3 = 0.67 Intersex
AA + XY 1/2 = 0.50 Normal
AA + X 1/2 = 0.50 Normal
AAA + XY 1/3 = 0.33 Super
5. It was concluded that X/A ratio of > 1.0 expresses super femaleness, 1.0 femaleness,
1.0 femaleness, below 1.0 and above .05 intersexes, maleness and <0.5 super maleness.
6. Y-chromosome is male determiner in man but not in Drossophila.
7. Environmental control of sex determination occurs in Turtles, Crocodiles, Certain
lizards and Alligators.
8. Hormonal Sex determination occurs in Screw’s Cock/ Hen, Free Martin in cattle,
Bonnelia
Practice Test Paper-I
1. In a cell if acidity of Lysome is lost, then loss of:

(a) Phagocytosis of invading bacteria
(b) Elevated phosphatase level
(c) Glycogen degradation
(d) No major effect
2. Bacterial genomes is prevented by its own endonucleases by-

(a) Methylation at restriction sites
(b) Immune mechanism
(c) Nuclease resistant genome
(d) Are not much effective on bacterial genome
3. The function of macrophages is to-

(a) Enzyme Secretion
(b) Engulf Cell organelles
(c) Engulf Foreign Material
(d) Kills Invading Bacteria
4. The difference which distinguish prokaryotic cell from eukaryotic is-
(a) ER (b) Mesosome
(c) Nuclear Membrane (d) Plasma membrane
5. Extra nuclear genetic material is found-

(a) Ribosome (b) ER
(c) Chloroplast (d) Centriole
6. The acrosome of the sperm is formed from the
(a) mitochondria (b) centrosome
(c) lysomome (d) golgi bodies
7. Holiday junction is observed during:

(a) Mitosis (b) Interphase
(c) Recombination (d) DNA Repair
8. A caretenoid less mutant plant was grown under normal sunlight then-
(a) Increased photosynthesis rate
(b) Increased chlorophyll synthesis
(c) Reduced photorespiration
(d) Increased chlorophyll oxidation and necrosis
9. A C3 mustard plant was grown at 300 ppm of CO2 in 14 h light and 10 h dark cycles,
it was transferred to 1000 ppm CO2 . This will lead to (other environmental parameters
remaining identical)-
(a) Increased photosynthesis (b) Decreased Photosynthesis
(c) Increase in Respiration (d) No Change
10. Presence of AIDS virus cannot be detected by-

(a) ELISA (b) Western blotting
(c) Northern Blot (d) Assay of full-length ds DNA
11. Which part of translational modification of proteins does not occur in lumen of ER-
(a) Glycosylation
(b) Ubiquitnation
(c) Conformation folding & formation of quaternary structure
(d) Formation of Disulphide bonds
12. Freshly broken chromosome ends are sticky & tend to fuse, however ends of intact
chromosomes are stable. Their stability is due to presence of-
(a) Centromeres
(b) Telomeres
(c) Special membrane around chromosomes
(d) Kinetochores
13. Plant cell wall is generally made up of-
(a) Cellulose and pectin (b) Cellulose
(c) Chitin (d) Murin
14. Which one of the following is correct for structure of cell wall of fungi and Bacteria?
(a) Both have glycopeptide
(b) Both are made up of N-acetylglucasamine
(c) Both are made up of murin
(d) Both are made up of chitin
15. Nucleus is absent in-

(a) Sieve tube (b) cambium
(c) Phloem parenchyma (d) None of these
16. Among the following which is true cell according cell theory-
(a) Virus (b) Monerans
(c) Protestans (d) Bacteria
17. The characteristic property of metabolically active cell is-

(a) Low nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio
(b) High nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio
(c) High volume to surface area ratio
(d) Small nucleus
Practice Test Paper–Cell Biology 39
18. Plasma membrane the functional as well as structural role is played by-
(a) Proteins (b) Lipids
(c) Cholesterol (d) Oligosaccharides
19. Lipid nature of plasma membrane can be destroyed by-

(a) Hexane (b) Benzene
(c) Chloroform (d) NaOH
20. The plasma membrane of intestine is highly folded into microvilli. The main function
of Microvilli is-
(a) To Secrete digestive enzymes (b) To help in blood circulation
(c) To increase its absorptive surface (d) For ageing of worn out cells
21. The structure formed where two adjacent membrane are thickened with disc shaped
adhesive material in between and tonofibrils radiating out from adhesive region is-
(a) Gap junction (b) Tight junctions
(c) Desmosomes (d) Plasmodesmata
22. The outer part of cytoplasm is usually termed as-
(a) Plasmasol (b) Plasmagel
(c) Nucleoplasm (d) Protoplasm
23. Endoplasmic reticulum originates from-

(a) Nuclues (b) Nucleulous
(c) Golgi Complex (d) Plasma membrane.
24. The endoplasmic reticulum which constitute 50 % of cell is absent in-
(a) Ova (b) Embryonic cells
(c) Mature erythrocytes (d) All of the above
25. Ribosome are attached to endoplasmic reticulum through glycoprotein known as

Ribophorin I & II. The Subunit of ribosome which get attached to ER is-
(a) P site (b) A site
(c) Large subunit (d) Small subunit
26. How you can separate Gram + ve bacteria from Gram –ve bacteria-
(a) Presence of Techoic Acid (b) Absence of periplasmic Space
(c) Exotoxin Produced (d) All of the above
27. Lysosomes are polymorphous organelles enclosed by a single membrane. They contain
vast array of hydrolytic enzymes which can digest any foreign material except-
(a) Cellulose (b) Starch
(c) Glycogen (d) Lipids
28. Spectrin of erythrocytes and cytochrome c of mitochondria, which can be easily
dissociated by high ionic strength and metal ion chelating agent are example of-
(a) Extrinsic Protein (b) Intrinsic protein
(c) Tunnel Protein (d) Cytoplasmic Protein
29. Fats, Sterol and detoxification are found abundant in-

(a) Adipose cells (b) Muscle cells
(c) Liver cells (d) All of above
30. RER is found abundantly in goblet cells, pancreatic cells and liver cells is mainly
engaged in-
(a) Glycosylation of protein
(b) Folding and Secondary Structure formation
(c) Production of Secretory & cytosolic protein
(d) Production and Excretion of protein
31. Microsomes are not found in cell in natural condition. They are-
(a) Present only in certain bacteria
(b) Broken pieces of ER during centrifugation
(c) Broken pieces of golgi during centrifugation
(d) Present in certain fungi
32. Among the following which is not present in smaller subunit of ribosome-
(a) Peptidyl transferase (b) Binding site for t RNA
(c) A Site (d) P site
33. Polyribosome are seen in-
(a) Bacteria (b) Fungi
(c) Angiosperms (d) Mammals
34. r-RNA originates from-

(a) Nucleus (b) Nucleolous
(c) Cytoplasm (d) ER
35. Which organelle is presenting zone of exclusion and have definite polarity-
(a) Golgi (b) ER
(c) Nucleus (d) Ribosome
36. Lysosomes are abundant in-

(a) WBC and osteoblasts (b) RBC and Spleen
(c) Liver and Spleen (d) WBC and Spleen
37. Lysosome membrane is strengthened by cortisol, cortisone, antihistamine, heparin,
chloroquinone and cholesterol but becomes fragile-
(a) Low bile salts and energy radiations
(b) In absence of oxygen
(c) Low Vitamin A & E
(d) Low Progestrone and estrogen
38. Fruit rotting can be checked by slowing down the action of enzyme polygalactouronose
of the organelle-
(a) Golgi (b) Lysosomes
(c) Glyoxysome (d) Peroxisome
39. In prokaryotes where the mitochondria is absent, the site of oxidative phosphorylation
and electron transport chain including dehydrogenases is-
(a) Mesosomes (b) Endosomes
(c) Plasma membrane (d) Microsomes
40. Water soluble phycobillin pigment occur in-

(a) BGA and Green algae (b) BGA and Red algae
(c) Green algae and Red algae (d) Green algae and Brown algae
41. Photosynthetic pigments are located in membrane on specific areas called as-
(a) Oxysomes (b) Quantosomes
(c) Photosystem (d) Antenna molecules
42. Microtubules are 25 nm thick, 15nm core formed of 13 helically arranged

protofilaments made up of-
(a) a tubulin (b) b-tubulin
(c) Myosin (d) both a & b
43. Intermediate filaments are made up of-
(a) Non-contractile proteins (b) b-tubulin
(c) Myosin (d) Actin
44. In hexose m onophosphate shunt, the CO2 molecules evolved is-

(a) Same as in glycolysis (b) Less then glycolysis
(c) More then glycolysis (d) Much lesser then glycolysis
45. The electron donor during nitrogen fixation is-
(a) Water (b) Ferrocynide
(c) Ferodoxin (d) CO2
46. The chromatin is made up of repitative units known-

(a) Chromosomes (b) Chromonemata
(c) Nucleosomes (d) Nucleotides
47. Exocytosis and endocytosis is absent in-
(a) Amoeba (b) Euglena
(c) Mycoplasma (d) Algae
48. Cytochrome oxidase and cytochrome c deficiency in mitochondria causes-

(a) Menke’s disease
(b) Kearns-says syndrome and Menke’s disease
(c) Kearns-says syndrome
(d) Leber’s optic neuropathy
49. Photophosophorylation occurs in-
(a) Plastids (b) Mitochondria
(c) Cytoplasm (d) Cell membrane
50. Which of the following is correct with regard to aneuploidy?

(a) inversion
(b) 2n + 1
(c) All aneuploid individuals die before birth.
(d) 4n
51. If a fragment of a chromosome breaks off and then reattaches to the original
chromosome but in the reverse direction, the resulting chromosomal abnormality is
called
(a) a deletion. (b) an inversion.
(c) a translocation. (d) a nondisjunction.
52. Why are individuals with an extra chromosome 21, which causes Down syndrome,
more numerous than individuals with an extra chromosome 3 or chromosome 16?
(a) There are probably more genes on chromosome 21 than on the others.
(b) Chromosome 21 is a sex chromosome and 3 and 16 are not.
(c) Down syndrome is not more common, just more serious.
(d) Extra copies of the other chromosomes are probably fatal.
53. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, while our closest relatives, chimpanzees,
have 24. Chromosome studies indicate that at some point early in human evolution,
two chromosomes simultaneously broke into a large portion and a small portion. The
large parts combined to form a large chromosome, and the small parts combined to
form a much smaller chromosome (which was subsequently lost). This important
chromosomal change could best be described as
(a) nondisjunction followed by deletion.
(b) translocation followed by deletion.
(c) duplication followed by deletion.
(d) translocation followed by inversion.
54. Each cell in an individual with Down syndrome contains ____ chromosomes.
(a) 3 (b) 22
(c) 24 (d) 47
55. Disorders involving unusual numbers of sex chromosomes show that maleness is
caused by the
(a) presence of an X chromosome.
(b) presence of a Y chromosome.
(c) absence of an X chromosome.
(d) absence of a Y chromosome.
56. A particular allele can have different effects if it was inherited from a male rather
than a female. This phenomenon is known as
(a) extranuclear inheritance. (b) aneuploidy.
(c) sex-linkage. (d) genome imprinting.
57. Human mitochondria

(a) are inherited as an X-linked trait.
(b) are all inherited from the father.
(c) have linear DNA.
(d) are all inherited from the mother.
58. Both chloroplasts and mitochondria

(a) are found within the nucleus.
(b) have linear DNA.
(c) carry extranuclear genes.
(d) are inherited from both parents.
59. Damaged DNA is excised by
(a) restriction enzymes. (b) helicase.
(c) primase. (d) DNA polymerase.
60. Unlike prokaryotic DNA replication, eukaryotic DNA replication

(a) is completed by DNA polymerase.
(b) cannot be completed by DNA polymerase.
(c) is semiconservative.
(d) has a multiple origin.
61. Which of the following is an example of a hydrophobic material?

(a) Paper (b) Sugar
(c) Pasta (d) Wax
62. We can be sure that a mole of table sugar and a mole of vitamin C are equal in their
(a) weight in daltons
(b) number of molecules
(c) volume
(d) number of atoms
63. Among the following which is longest cell-

(a) Hemp (b) Ramie
(c) Jute (d) Nerve fibre
64. The middle lamella of plant cells is made up of calcium magnesium pectate. Pectic
Acid is polymer of-
(a) a-1,4 D-Glucose (b) b-1,6-D Glucose
(c) a-1,4 D-Galactouronic acid (d) b-1,4 D-Galactouronic acid
65. Acid precipitation has lowered the pH of a particular lake to 4.0. What is the hydrogen
ion concentration of the lake
(a) 10–4 M (b) 4.0 M
(c) 10–10 M (d) 104 M
66. The percentage amount of Integral protein of plasma membrane is-

(a) 40 % (b) 50 %
(c) 60 % (d) 70 %
67. Oligosaccharide are usely attached to extrinsic phase of plasma membrane by-
(c) Both a & b (d) Not specific
68. Maximum number of enzymes in a eukaryotic cell is present inside

(a) Cytosol (b) Mitocondria
(c) Lysosome (d) ER
69. Which of the following term includes all others in the list?
(a) Monosaccharide (b) Carbohydrate
(c) Disaccharide (d) Starch
70. The structural level of a protein least affected by a disruption in hydrogen bond is the
(a) secondary level (b) tertiary level
(c) primary level (d) quaternary level
71. To convert a nucleoside to a nucleotide, it would be necessary to:

(a) remove the pentose from the nucleoside (b) add phosphate to the nucleoside
(c) replace purine with pyrimidine (d) replace ribose with deoxyribose
72. Choose the pair of terms that correctly completes this sentence:
Nucleotides are to _______________ as _______________ are to proteins.
(a) amino acids; polypeptides (b) genes; enzymes
(c) nucleic acids; amino acids (d) polymers, polypeptides
73. Post translation modification of secretary proteins occurs in:

(a) RER (b) SER
(c) Mitocondria (d) nucleus
74. Most cells cannot harness heat in order to perform work because
(a) heat is not a form of energy
(b) Cells do not have much heat; they are relatively cool
(c) heat denatures enzymes
(d) temperature is usually uniform throughout a cell
75. Choose the pair of terms that correctly completes this sentence; Catabolism is to
anabolism as ––––––––– is to ––––––––––.
(a) exergonic ; spontaneous (b) free energy ; entropy
(c) exergonic ; endergonic (d) work ; energy
76. According to the first law of thermodynamics
(a) matter can be neither created nor destroyed.
(b) all processes increase the order of the universe.
(c) systems rich in energy are intrinsically stable
(d) energy is conserved in all processes
78. The main Phagocytotic cell in immune response is-

(a) Neutrophils (b) Basophils
(c) Monocytes (d) Lymphocytes
79. The phagocytes are attracted toward microorganisms by-

(a) Chemotaxis (b) Rheotaxis
(c) Diapedesis (d) Thogmotaxis
80. The cell wall of microorganisms is coated with certain plasma protein promoting the
attachment of microbe to phagocytes, only then they can be phagocytosised. The coat
protein are called as-
(a) Globins (b) Opsonins
(c) Ovulbumins (d) Phagosonins
81. After the damage of body tissues, blood vessel is dilated where damage has occurred,
due to which permeability of blood vessel also increases. Vasodilation is caused by-
(a) Histamine (b) Kinin
(c) Prostaglandin (d) All of above
82. The process of sneezing of phagocytes between the endothelial cells of blood vessels
and reaching to damaged area is known as-
(a) Margination (b) Metastasis
(c) Diapedesis (d) Angiobiosis
83. In humans interferon is produced by leucocytes, fibroblasts in connective tissue and
lymphocytes and are termed as a-IFN, b-IFN and g-INF resp. The interferons are-
(a) Antibacterial proteins (b) Antiviral Protein
(c) Anti cancerous protein (d) Anticancer protein
84. During embryonic stage of human B-lymphocytes are produced in-

(a) Bone marrow (b) Spleen
(c) Liver (d) Bursa
85. Haptens are –
(a) Immunogenic antigen
(b) Non Immunogenic Antigen
(c) High molecular weight non immunogenic antigen
(d) Low molecular weight immunogenic antigen
86. Lysosomes are polymorphous organelles containing vast array of hydrolytic enzymes
which can digest any foreign material only at pH-
(a) 5 (b) 6
(c) 9 (d) 7
87. Number of antigen functional binding site in human Immunoglobin-M are-

(a) 2 (b) 5
(c) 10 (d) 20
88. Number of amino acids in light and heavy chain of typical immunoglobin are
respectively-
(a) 110, 220 (b) 220, 440
(c) 440, 880 (d) 880, 1760
89. Among the following which is not essential property of immunoglobin-

(a) Memory (b) Specificity
(c) Diversity (d) Reactivity
90. Spectrin of erythrocytes and cytochrome c of mitochondria, which can be easily

dissociated by high ionic strength and metal ion chelating agent are example of-
(a) Extrinsic Protein (b) Intrinsic protein
(c) Tunnel Protein (d) Cytoplasmic Protein
91. Polyclonal antibodies are-
(a) Clones against single antigen by many B-cells
(b) Clones against single antigen by single B-cells
(c) Clones against many antigen by single B-cells
(d) Clones against many antigen by many B-cells
92. Lymphokines that recruit the macrophages for Phagocytosis are secreted by-
(a) T-cells (b) B-cells
(c) Complement system (d) MHC
93. Liposomes are-
(a) Lipid filled bags (b) Artificial membranes
(c) Liver Fat bodies (d) Eukaryotic organelle
94. Which among the following act as bridge between cell mediated and humoral immunity-
(a) T-cytoxic cells (b) T-suppressor cells
(c) B-cells (d) T-helper cells
95. In humans cell recognition molecules are-
(a) HLA (b) B-cells
(c) T-Cells (d) Immunoglobins
96. Cancers cell are monoclonal, are characterized by uncontrolled growth, invasion of
other tissues and dissemination to other tissues. The phenomenon of invasion to
other tissues is termed as-
(a) Angiobiogenesis (b) Metastasis
(c) Diapedesis (d) Transformation
97. A major protease secreted by cancer cells acts on plasminogen and converts it into
plasmin. Plasmin is proteolytic enzyme that dissolves blood clots and also removes
exposed protein groups at cell surface. If the plasminogen is removed form the medium,
then-
(a) The morphology of cancer cells returns to normal.
(b) The cancer cell will show more exponential growth.
(c) Cancer cell will die
(d) No change will be seen
98. One of the major higher molecular weight glycoprotein component which can be
easily isolated from normal cultured fibroblast by mild treatment of urea, also occur
at “foot prints” that moving culture cells leaves, is totally absent in cancerous cell is-
(a) Fibronectin (b) Albumin
(c) Ferritin (d) Transferin
99. The sex determination in drossophila is based on-
(a) X-Chromosome (b) Y chromosome
(c) Autosome (d) Both a & c
100. Environmental control of sex determination is seen in-

(a) Melandrium (b) Drosophila
(c) Bonelia (d) Apes indica
Practice Test Paper-II
1. Which of the following is not a function of mitotic cell division in

(a) repair of damaged organs (b) production of gametes
(c) asexual reproduction (d) growth
2. Which of the following would not be considered part of a cell’s cytoplasm?

(a) a ribosome (b) the nucleus
(c) a mitochondrion (d) a microtubule
3. It is difficult to observe individual chromosomes with a light microscope during

interphase because:
(a) they have uncoiled to form long, thin strands
(b) they leave the nucleus and are dispersed to other parts of the cell
(c) the DNA has not been replicated yet
(d) the spindle must move them to the metaphase plate before they become
4. The maximum size of a cell is limited by

(a) its need for enough surface area for exchange with its environment.
(b) the number of organelles that can be packed inside.
(c) the materials needed to build it.
(d) the amount of flexibility it needs to be able to move.
5. You would expect a cell with an extensive Golgi apparatus to

(a) make a lot of ATP. (b) secrete a lot of material.
(c) move actively. (d) perform photosynthesis.
6. Which of the following correctly matches an organelle with its function?

(a) mitochondrion . . . photosynthesis
(b) nucleus . . . cellular respiration
(c) ribosome . . . manufacture of lipids
(d) central vacuole . . . storage
7. Mitochondria and cholorplasts share several common features, for example,

(a) both are capable of semiautonomous growth and reproduction.
(b) neither are components of the endomembrane system.
(c) each contains a small amount of DNA
(d) all of the above.
8. In muscle cells the ____ is specialized for the storage and release of calcium.
(a) smooth ER (b) the Golgi apparatus
(c) contractile vacuoles (d) rough ER
9. Of the following organelles, which group is involved in manufacturing substances

needed by the cell?
(a) lysosome, vacuole, ribosome
(b) ribosome, rough ER, smooth ER
(c) vacuole, rough ER, smooth ER
(d) smooth ER, ribosome, vacuole
10. The internal skeleton of a cell is composed of

(a) microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments.
(b) cellulose and intermediate filaments.
(c) cellulose, microtubules, and centrioles.
(d) microfilaments.
11. Cells will usually divide if they receive the proper signal at a
(a) M (b) S
(c) G2 (d) G1
12. Dye injected into a plant cell might be able to enter an adjacent cell through a
(a) tight junction. (b) microtubule.
(c) desmosome. (d) plasmodesma.
13. A researcher made an interesting observation about a protein made by the rough ER
and eventually used to build a cell’s plasma membrane. The protein in the membrane
was actually slightly different from the protein made in the ER. The protein was
probably changed in the
(a) Golgi apparatus. (b) smooth ER.
(c) mitochondrion. (d) nucleus.
14. When elongated, tube-shaped cells from the lining of the intestine are treated with a
certain chemical, the cells sag and become round blobs. The internal structures
disrupted by this chemical are probably
(a) cell junctions. (b) microtubules.
(c) rough ER. (d) dynein.
15. The electron microscope has been particularly useful in studying bacteria, because
(a) electrons can penetrate tough bacterial cell walls.
(b) bacteria are so small.
(c) bacteria move so quickly they are hard to photograph.
(d) with few organelles present, bacteria are distinguished by differences in individual
macromolecules.
16. Cell fractionation is the most appropriate procedure for preparing ____ for study.
(a) isolated cells which are normally found tightly attached to neighbouring cells
(b) cells without a functional cytoskeleton
(c) isolated organelles
(d) the basic macromolecules
17. Which of the following clues would tell you whether a cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic?
(a) the presence or absence of a rigid cell wall
(b) whether or not the cell is partitioned by internal membranes
(c) the presence or absence of ribosomes
(d) whether or not the cell carries out cellular metabolism
18. Seema would like to film the movement of chromosomes during cell division. Her
best choice for a microscope would be a
(a) transmission electron microscope, because of its magnifying power.
(b) scanning electron microscope, because the specimen is alive.
(c) transmission electron microscope, because of its great resolving power.
(d) light microscope, because the specimen is alive.
19. A plant cell was grown in a test tube containing radioactive nucleotides, the parts
from which DNA is built. Later examination of the cell showed the radioactivity to be
concentrated in the
(a) rough ER. (b) peroxisome.
(c) nucleus. (d) central vacuole.
20. When isolated liver cells are combined with nonpolar toxins initial processing in the
___ increases the solubility of these compounds as an initial step in their excretion.
(a) smooth ER (b) Golgi apparatus
(c) mitochondrion (d) rough ER
21. Discontinuous segments of DNA are joined by:

(a) telomerase (b) DNA ligase
(c) exonuclease (d) DNA polymerase
22. The concentration of calcium in a cell is 0.3%. The concentration of calcium in the
surrounding fluid is 0.1%. How could the cell obtain more calcium?
(a) passive transport (b) diffusion
(c) active transport (d) osmosis
23. Phospholipid molecules in a membrane are arranged with their ____ on the exterior
and their ____ on the interior.
(a) hydrophobic heads . . . hydrophilic tails
(b) hydrophilic heads . . . hydrophobic tails
(c) nonpolar heads . . . polar tails
(d) hydrophobic tails . . . hydrophilic heads
24. Sister chromatids:

(a) are created when DNA is replicated
(b) are separated during mitosis
(c) are attached at the centromere prior to division
(d) all of the above
25. Which of the following correctly matches a phase of the cell cycle
(a) S, immediately precedes cell division (b) M, duplication of DNA
(c) G1, immediately follows cell division (d) G2, cell division
26. The kinetochores:

(a) are the primary centromere structures that maintain the attachment
(b) attach to the ring of actin along the cytoplasmic surface of the plasma membrane
(c) move along spindle microtubules during anaphase, dragging
(d) are located at the center of the centromere their function is to provide attachment
site to spindle fibre
27. A biochemist measured the amount of DNA to be doubled during the cells in growing
stages
(a) between prophase and anaphase
(b) between anaphase and telophase
(c) during the M phase of the cell cycle
(d) between the G1 and G2 phases
28. DNA damaged by sunlight:

(a) has undergone depurination (b) has lost its phosphate groups
(c) has formed pyrimidine dimers (d) has lost its hydrogen bonds
29. Which of the following functional processes results from the presence of protein within
the plasma membrane?
(a) enzymatic activity (b) signal transduction
(c) intercellular joining (d) all of the above
30. Select the correct statement concerning membrane carbohydrate.

(a) Carbohydrates are only found associated with the membranes of prokaryotic
cells.
(b) Glucose is the most abundant membrane carbohydrate.
(c) Cell membranes consist of protein and phospholipid; carbohydrate is not a
membrane component.
(d) membrane carbohydrates function primarily in cell-cell recognition.
31. Imagine two solutions separated by a selectively permeable membrane which allows
water to pass, but not sucrose or glucose. The membrane separates a 0.2 M sucrose
solution from a 0.2 glucose solution. With time how will the solutions change?
(a) Nothing happens because the two solutions are isotonic to one another.
(b) Water enters the sucrose solution because the sucrose molecule is a disaccharide,
and is larger than the monosaccharide glucose.
(c) Water leaves the sucrose solution because the sucrose molecule is a disaccharide,
and is larger than the monosaccharide glucose.
(d) The sucrose solution is hypertonic and will gain water because the total mass of
sucrose is greater than that of glucose.
32. During cytokinesis in plants:

(a) a bundle of actin microfilaments called the contractile ring, pinch the cell in half
(b) small vesicles, directed by the phragmoplast, move to the spindle
(c) a cleavage furrow encircles the cell
(d) cytoplasmic division is called cleavage
33. Progression through the eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by:

(a) microtubules (b) the p53 gene
(c) cyclin-dependent kinases (d) DNA ligase
34. The result of the operation of an electrogenic pump would be

(a) an electrochemical gradient on the cell membrane
(b) a resting potential across the membrane
(c) plasmolysis
(d) a cell with a positively charged interior
35. A plant cell is placed in a solution whose solute concentration is twice as great as the
concentration of the cell cytoplasm. The cell membrane is selectively permeable,
allowing water but not the solutes to pass through. What will happen to the cell?
(a) No change will occur because it is a plant cell.
(b) The cell will shrivel because of osmosis.
(c) The cell will swell because of osmosis.
(d) The cell will shrivel because of active transport of water.
36. One consequence of the sidedness of the plasma membrane is that

(a) molecules that begin on the inside face of the ER end up on the inside face of the
plasma membrane
(b) the asymmetrical distribution for membrane proteins, lipids, and carbohydrate
must be determined when the membrane is first constructed
(c) some proteins on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane are attached to the
cytoskeleton
(d) the inside of an ER vesicle is topographical equivalent to the extra cellular surface
of the plasma membrane
37. The p53 gene:

(a) is the most frequently mutated gene in human cancer
(b) can lead to cell cycle arrest at the G1 checkpoint
(c) can trigger apoptosis.
38. During the Ras pathway:

(a) cytoplasmic protein kinases are activated
(b) the growth factor receptor is dephosphorylated
(c) growth factors bind to receptors in the cytoplasm
(d) leads to the production of translation factors
39. If a DNA molecule has a deaminated base, it will be repaired by:

(a) by excision repair pathways
(b) with the help of repair endonucleases
(c) by base excision repair
(d) with the help of DNA glycosylases
40. A benign tumor is one in which the cancerous cells:

(a) have an unusual number of chromosomes
(b) can divide indefinitely if an adequate supply of nutrients is available
(c) migrate from the initial site of transformation to other organs or
(d) remain confined to their original site
41. A DNA molecule is a polymer made of subunits called

(a) bases. (b) amino acids.
(c) nucleotides. (d) nucleic acids.
42. A human somatic cell contains _____ chromosomes.

(a) 23 (b) 47
(c) 2n (d) 46
43. Which of the following is a normal human female?

(a) X Y (b) X X Y
(c) X X (d) X
44. A karyotype would be least likely to show which of the following?

(a) an extra chromosome
(b) part of a chromosome duplicated
(d) a missing chromosome
(d) part of a chromosome turned around
45. The diploid stage of a plant that exhibits an alternation of generation is the
(a) antheridium. (b) gametophyte.
(c) spore. (d) sporophyte.
46. DNA replication occurs

(a) whenever a cell makes protein.
(b) to repair gene damage caused by mutation.
(c) before a cell divides.
(d) whenever a cell needs RNA.
47. Mitosis and cytokinesis result in the formation of ______; meiosis and cytokinesis
result in the formation of ________.
(a) 4 diploid cells; 4 haploid cells
(b) 2 diploid cells; 2 haploid cells
(c) 2 diploid cells; 4 haploid cells
(d) 2 diploid cells; 2 diploid cells.
48. Which of the following occurs during meiosis but not during mitosis?
(a) Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
(b) Chromosomes condense.
(c) Chromosomes migrate to opposite poles.
(d) synapsis
49. At the end of telophase I and cytokinesis there are

(a) 4 haploid cells. (b) 2 diploid cells.
(c) 1 haploid ovum and 3 polar bodies. (d) 2 haploid cells.
50. Synapsis occurs during

(a) anaphase I. (b) prophase I.
(c) cytokinesis. (d) prophase II.
51. During anaphase II

(a) homologues separate and migrate towards opposite poles.
(b) sister chromatids separate and migrate towards opposite poles.
(c) nuclei reform.
(d) chromosomes line up in a single file.
52. During anaphase I

(a) homologues separate and migrate towards opposite poles.
(b) sister chromatids separate and migrate towards opposite poles.
(c) nuclei reform.
(d) chromosomes line up in a single file.
53. Cytokinesis is the

(a) exchange of homologous regions of nonsister chromatids.
(b) formation of tetrads.
(c) independent assortment of chromosomes.
(d) division of one cell into two
54. Centrioles separate during

(a) cytokinesis.
(b) prophase I and prophase II
(c) metaphase I and metaphase II.
(d) anaphase I and anaphase II.
55. Crossing over occurs during

(a) cytokinesis. (b) metaphase I.
(c) prophase II. (d) prophase I
56. Regions where nonsister chromatids cross are called

(a) inversions. (b) homologues.
(c) tetrads (d) chiasmata.
57. In humans, the haploid number of chromosomes is 23. Independent assortment has
the possibility of producing _____ different gametes.
(a) 232 (b) 8 million
(c) 223 (d) 24
58. Crossing over is

(a) the movement of genetic material from one chromosome to a nonhomologous
chromosome.
(b) independent assortment of chromosomes.
(c) the formation of chiasmata.
(d) the exchange of homologous portions of nonsister chromatids.
59. Variation occurs when chromosomes are shuffled in _____ and fertilization.
(a) mitosis (b) genetic drift
(c) meiosis (d) mutation
60. Heritable variation is required for

(a) meiosis. (b) mitosis.
(c) evolution. (d) asexual reproduction.
61. An antigen is
(a) a protein molecule that helps defend the body against disease.
(b) a type of white blood cell.
(c) an invading virus or bacterium.
(d) a foreign molecule that evokes a specific response by a lymphocyte.
62. How do memory cells differ from effector cells?

(a) Memory cells are more numerous.
(b) Memory cells are responsible for the primary immune response.
(c) Memory cells attack invaders; effector cells do not.
(d) Memory cells live longer.
63. Following tissue damage or the entry of microorganisms, an inflammatory response

may be initiated by
(a) the accumulation of phagocytes in an injured area.
(b) the release of interferon by infected cells.
(c) an increased blood flow in an infected or injured area.
(d) the release of chemicals such as histamine by damaged cells.
64. Which of the following could be considered a nonspecific defense?
(a) Intact skin creates a barrier that cannot normally be penetrated by bacteria or
viruses.
(b) Secretions from sebaceous and sweat glands give the skin an acidic pH that
prevents bacterial colonization.
(c) Tears, saliva, and mucous secretions contain lysozome, an enzyme that digests
the bacterial cell wall.
65. During a secondary immune response

(a) selected B generate antibody-producing effector B cells called plasma cells.
(b) the stricken individual may become ill.
(c) about 10 to 17 days are required from exposure to maximum effector response.
(d) the generation of effector cells begins with memory cells produced during the
primary immune response.
66. Most individuals infected with HIV

(a) can live for 15 to 20 years.
(b) never develop AIDS.
(c) die from autoimmune reactions.
(d) die from other infections or cancer.
67. Tissues are typed before an organ transplant to make sure that the _____ of donor
and recipient match as closely as possible.
(a) T cells
(b) antibodies
(c) MHC (major histocompatibility complex) proteins
(d) histamines
68. A vaccine contains

(a) white blood cells that fight infection.
(b) antibodies that recognize invading microbes.
(c) inactivated disease-causing microbes.
(d) a hormone that boosts immunity.
69. When you are immune to a disease,

(a) antibodies against the disease are constantly circulating in your blood.
(b) certain lymphocytes are able to make the proper antibodies quickly.
(c) your nonspecific defenses are strengthened.
(d) B cells are stimulated to quickly engulf invaders.
70. In a series of immune system experiments, the thymus glands were removed from
baby mice. Which of the following would you predict as a likely result?
(a) The mice suffered from numerous allergies.
(b) The mice never developed cancerous tumors.
(c) The mice suffered from autoimmune diseases.
(d) The mice readily accepted tissue transplants.
71. The body produces antibodies complementary to foreign antigens. The process by
which the body comes up with the correct antibodies to a given disease is most like
(a) going to a tailor and having a suit made to fit you.
(b) ordering the lunch special at a restaurant without looking at the menu.
(c) going to a shoe store and trying on shoes until you find a pair that fits.
(d) selecting a lottery prize-winner by means of a random drawing.
72. The antigen-binding sites of an antibody molecule are formed from the molecule’s
variable regions. Why are these regions called variable?
(a) They can change their shapes on command to fit different antigens.
(b) They change their shapes when they bind to an antigen.
(c) They can be different shapes on different antibody molecules.
(d) Their sizes vary considerably from one antibody to another.
73. The biggest difference between cell-mediated immunity and humoral immunity is
(a) how long their protection lasts.
(b) whether a subsequent secondary immune response can occur.
(c) whether clonal selection occurs.
(d) how they respond to and dispose of invaders.
74. Viruses and bacteria in body fluids are attacked by

(a) antibodies from B cells. (b) cytotoxic T cells.
(c) complement proteins. (d) helper T cells.
75. What do the antibodies secreted by plasma cells (the effector cells of humoral
immunity) do to attack their targets?
(a) activate complement to punch holes in them
(b) clump cells together so that phagocytes can ingest them
(c) cause antigen molecules to settle out of solution
76. Tissue macrophages

(a) begin their lives as neutrophils.
(b) have short life spans because they self-destruct after engulfing foreign invaders.
(c) originate from monocytes that leave the circulation and enter the tissues.
(d) are most effective against parasites.
77. The idea behind vaccination is to induce _____ without the vaccinated individual
having to get sick.
(a) passive immunity
(b) the primary immune response
(c) anaphylactic shock
(d) nonspecific defenses
78. A group of researchers have tested many chemicals and found several that have
potential for use in modifying the action of the immune system. Which of the following
would seem to have the most promise as a drug for inhibiting transplant rejection?
(a) Compound A13: acts like histamine
(b) Compound Q6: suppresses cytotoxic T cells
(c) Compound N98: a potent allergen
(d) Compound M31: stimulates helper T cells
79. Collagens:
(a) are high in glycine, hydroxylysine and hydroxyproline
(b) are the most abundant proteins in vertebrates
(c) are the most abundant component of the extracellular matrix in animals
80. The ECM of animals cells consists of what three classes of molecules?
(a) protein-polysaccharides, structural proteins, microtubules
(b) structural proteins, lipid bilayers, adhesive glycoproteins.
(c) lipoproteins, polysaccharides, and adhesive glycoproteins.
(d) structural proteins, protein-polysaccharides, adhesive glycoproteins
81. Procollagen consists of _______ and is formed in the lumen of the:

(a) 2 b sheets, lysosomes
(b) 3 b sheets, E R
(c) 3 a chains, Golgi
(d) 3 a chains, E R
82. The flexibility of the lungs is due mainly to:

(a) laminins (c) elastins
(b) collagens (d) fibronectins
83. A difference between collagen and elastin is that:

(a) elastin has hydroxylysines and collagen does not
(b) collagen does not have hydroxylated proline residues
(c) there are over 15 types of elastins and less than 5 types of collagens
(d) elastin molecules are crosslinked by covalent bonds between lysine residues,
and collagen is not
84. Which is the correct order from least to most complex?

(a) Glucuronate, hyaluronate, proteoglycans, GAG
(b) Hyaluronate, glucuronate, GAG chains, proteoglycans
(c) GAG chains, hyaluronate, glucuronate, proteoglycans
(d) Glucuronate, hyaluronate, GAG chains, proteoglycans
85. Two of the most common adhesive glycoproteins in the ECM are:
(a) laminins and elastins
(b) collagens and elastins
(c) fibronectins and laminins
(d) collagens and fibronectins
86. Fibronectins have an effect on:

(a) blood clotting (b) cell shape
(c) cell movement (d) all of the above
87. The most abundant glycoproteins in the basal lamina are ______
(a) collagens (b) entactin
(c) laminins (d) fibronectins
88. The most abundant protein in human body is-

(a) Collagen (b) Fibronectin
(c) Globin (d) albumin
89. Roles of the glycocalyx include:

(a) cell adhesion (b) cell recognition
(c) creation of permeability barriers (d) all of the above
90. A red blood cell has just been targeted for destruction. This cell:
(a) has an increase in sialic acid groups.
(b) has a decrease in sialic acid groups
(c) has exposed galactose residues
(d) B and C
91. The three most common cell junctions in animals are:

(a) adhesive junctions, tight junctions, gap junctions
(b) adhesive junctions, tight junctions, plasmodesmata
(c) tight junctions, plasmodesmata, adhesive junctions
(d) gap junctions, tight junctions, plasmodesmata
92. The reason urine does not seep out of the bladder is due to the role of:
(a) adherens junctions (b) hemidesmosomes
(c) gap junctions (d) tight junctions
93. Desmosomes and hemidesmosomes are anchored in the cytoplasm by:

(a) desmocollins (c) actin fibers
(b) collagen (d) tonofilaments
94. Gap junctions consist of channels formed by:

(a) hydrophilic, connexons (b) hydrophobic, cadherins
(c) hydrophobic, connexons (d) hydrophilic, cadherins
95. A plant cell wall includes all of the following EXCEPT:

(a) hemicellulose (b) extensins
(c) cellulose (d) collagen
96. Which of the following would be most likely to lead to cancer?

(a) hyperactivity of both a proto-oncogene and a tumor-suppressor
(b) amplification of a proto-oncogene and the failure of a tumor-suppressor gene
(c) hyperactivity of bith a proto-oncogene and a tumor suppressor gene
(d) failure of a proto-oncogene to produce a protein and amplification of tumor
suppressor gene
97. The characteristic strength of woody tissues is due to:

(a) the secondary cell wall (b) hemicellulose
(c) the middle lamina (d) the primary cell wall
98. The rule is derived from the ER and is continuous with the ER of two adjacent plant
cells.
(a) middle lamina (b) annulus
(c) plasmodesma (d) desmotubule
99. One can estimate the length of M phase by knowing:

(a) the S phase (c) the age of the cell
(b) the mitotic index (d) the generation time
100. What is true of proto-oncogenes?
(a) cells produce proto-oncogenes as a by-product of mitosis
(b) proto-oncogenes are necessary for normal control of cell division
(c) proto-oncogenes are genetic junk that has not yet been eliminated by natural
selection
(d) proto-oncogenes are unavoidable environmental carcinogens.
2
Biochemistry
BASIC CHEMISTRY
I. Properties of water
A. Water is polar
B. Effect on non-covalent bonds
1. electrostatic A+ ......... B–
2. hydrogen bonds –
–A–H.......B (A,B=N,O,S)
3. hydrophobic bonds (exclusion by water)
4. van der Waals forces optimal distance (Vanderwall contact distance)
C. Water ionization
1. H2 O < > H+ + OH–
[ H + ][ OH − ] [ H + ][ OH − ]
2. Keq = =
H2O [55 .5 ]
Kw = Keq × 55.5 = [H+] [OH– ] = 1 × 10–14 at 25oC
3. Pure water: [H+] = [OH– ] = 1 × 10–7
II. Definition of pH and pOH

A. General: p“X” = log (1/“X”) = –log“X”
B. pH = –log[H+]
C. pOH = –log[OH– ]
D. pKw = –log Kw = pH + pOH = 14
E. pKa = –log Ka
F. A ten-fold change in [H+] alters the pH by 1.0 unit.
III. Buffers
1. A buffer is a mixture of a weak acid and the salt of that acid.
2. The practical buffer zone is pKa ~
n 1 pH.
3. The Henderson-Hassalbalch equation is used for calculations involving buffers.
[A − ]
pH = pKa + log
[ HA ]
4. pH of a buffer is theoretically independent of dilution (depends only on the ration of
A– /HA and pKa).
IV. Solving pH problems

A. Strong acids (completely dissociated)
[H+] = normality of acid pH = –log[H+]
B. Strong bases (completely dissociated)
[OH– ] = normality of base pOH = –log[OH– ] pH + pOH = 14
C. Weak acids: two kinds of problems
1. % ionization x molarity = [H+]
[ H + ][ A − ] x2 x2
2. Ka = = ~
[ HA ] [ HA ] − x [ HA ]
x = [H+] = {Ka x [HA]}–
V. Atoms
• Atoms are like a planetary system with negative electrons circling around a positively
charged nucleus
• In electricity opposite charges attract one another; like charges repel
• All atoms are formed by the attraction of oppositely charged particles
(electrons & protons)
• Nucleus: has protons with (+) charge and neutrons with (0) charge
• Almost all of mass of an atom is located in the protons and neutrons of the
nucleus
• The number of protons is called the atomic number
• The type of atom is determined by the number of protons: carbon has 6
protons, nitrogen has 7, etc...
• Orbits have electrons with (–) charge
• Orbits are organized in a series of shells around the nucleus
• Electrons have a very small mass
• Chemical reactions involve the electrons, especially those in the outer shell
• Charges in an uncharged atom must balance (electrons = protons)
• Isotopes: if you change the number of neutrons in the nucleus you produce different
isotopes of an element
• Some, but not all, isotopes are radioactive
• Schematic diagram of 3 isotopes of carbon:
Biochemistry 63
• 6 electrons spin around nuclei in 2 shells (inner shell has 2 electrons; outer has
4)
• Nuclei all have 6 protons: this makes them carbon atoms
• Different numbers of neutrons produce different isotopes:
• Carbon–12: 6 neutrons: this is the most common isotope of carbon (over
99%)
• Carbon–13: 7 neutrons: a rare natural isotope
• Carbon–14: 8 neutrons: a radioactive isotope produced in the atmosphere
by cosmic rays; it is also produced in atom bomb tests
• The isotope numbers are the sums of the protons and neutrons and they
give the relative atomic masses
• Carbon–14 has a higher mass and weighs more than carbon–12
• The chemical properties of the 3 isotopes will be almost identical, but some of the
physical properties will be different
• Isotopes are frequently used as “tracers” in research and medicine
VI. Molecules and Chemical bonding

• All interactions between atoms are electrical attractions between charges
• Ionic and covalent bonds hold atoms together to form molecules
• Weak bonds (hydrogen, van der Waals and other types) hold molecules together
• Atoms make bonds by donating or sharing electrons
• Ionic bonds
• Compounds with ionic bonds split into ions in water. Ions conduct electricity.
Gives specialized cells (nerve, muscle) excitable properties.
• Suppose Na gives one of its electrons to Cl; the Na now has a (+) charge and the
Cl will have a (–) charge
• These charged atoms are referred to as ions, and since they have opposite
charges they attract each other and form a chemical bond (they form NaCl,
common table salt)
• Positively charged ions = cations (i.e, Na+)
• Negatively charged ions = anions (i.e., Cl– )
• Covalent bonds
• Each atom donates 1 or more electrons to the bond
• The bonding electrons spend most of their time between the 2 atoms, attracting
both nuclei and pulling them together
• If each atom donates 2 electrons to a bond a double bond is formed
• double bonds are stronger and more rigid than single bonds
• A triple bond is formed when each atom donates 3 electrons to the bond
• This type of bond holds together the long chains of macromolecules. These
molecules do not split apart in water.
• Hydrogen bonds
• Occur when a hydrogen ion is sandwiched between 2 atoms, usually nitrogen
and oxygen
• Much weaker (about 25 times) than covalent or ionic bonds
• Occur between molecular groups with permanent dipoles
• Water: makes water molecules stick together. Responsible for many of the strange
properties of water.
• Proteins: cause protein chains to spiral and bend, giving unique shapes. In DNA:
hold together the 2 chains to form the double helix. Allow chains to “unzip” for
replication and transcription.
• Van der Waals & other weak bonds
• Weak forces that can bond like atoms together
• Especially important between chains of carbon atoms
• Although weak, numerous bonds between the chains can add up to produce
significant cohesion
• Determine physical state of compounds: gas, liquid or solid
• Occur when one atom induces a temporary dipole in another atom
• Important in holding like molecules together. Often determine the solid, liquid
or gas state of a compound. Saturated fats are solid at room temperature because
the have more van der Waals attractions than unsaturated fats, which are liquid.
Rates of and Equilibrium States of Chemical Reactions are Determined by

Concentrations of the Reactants
• Consider a simple reaction in which 2 substances, A & B, react to form a third substance, C:
• A+B«C
• The rate at which C is formed (in moles/second) will be proportional to the
concentrations of A, B and C
• Rate = Kf{A}{B} – Kb{C}
• {A}, {B} and {C} = concentrations of A, B and C, respectively; Kf = rate constant of
forward reaction, Kb = rate constant of backward reaction
• Forward reaction rate = Kf{A}{B}
• Backward reaction rate = Kb{C}
• This relationship is a fundamental law of chemistry, called the Law of Mass
Action
• Note that if you double the concentration of either A or B, the rate of the forward
reaction will double
• Concentrations are the number of molecules or moles per unit of volume
• Usually concentrations are given in moles/litre
• Example: if you have 3 moles of NaCl dissolved in 6 liters of water the
concentration is:
• 3moles/6 litres = 0.5 moles/litre = 500 mM/litre
• Why are chemical reaction rates proportional to concentration?
• Molecules must collide to react & number of collisions per second is proportional
to the concentration
Biochemistry 65
• Other factors affect reaction rates by changing the rate constants:

• Temperature: affects rates in 2 ways:
• High temperature causes molecules to move faster producing more collisions
• At high temperature molecules have more energy and are more likely to
react with other molecules
• Catalysis: reaction rates can be greatly accelerated by certain types of
molecules- this will be discussed in lecture 4 when we consider enzymes
• A chemical reaction proceeds until forward and backward reactions are equal
• At this point the reaction is at equilibrium and concentrations do not change
• At equilibrium:
• Kf{A}{B} = Kb{C}
• Ke = Kf/Kb = {A}{B}/{C}
• The equilibrium constant (Ke) is the forward rate constant (Kf) divided by
the backward rate constant (Kb)
§ Note: at equilibrium {C} = {B}/{C}/Ke; thus, both the rates of reaction and
equilibrium concentrations are determined by concentrations of reactants
BIOENERGETICS
I. Energy producing and energy utilizing systems

A. Catabolic pathways – generation of energy by transformation (glycolysis) or oxidation
(oxidative phosphorylation) of ingested or stored fuels.
B. Anabolic pathways – utilization of energy for biosynthetic purposes (DNA synthesis,
protein synthesis, etc.)
C. ATP – the link between the two pathways
1. Phosphoanhydride bonds as high energy bonds
2. Other nucleotides
(a) GTP: gluconeogenesis and protein synthesis
(b) CTP: lipid synthesis
(c) UTP: glycogen synthesis
(d) All depend on ATP formation: nucleoside diphosphate kinase
3. Other bonds having a high free energy of hydrolysis (> 7 kcal/mole)
(a) 1,3 bis-phosphoglycerate (mixed acid anhydrides)
(b) Phosphoenolpyruvate (enol phosphates)
(c) Creatine phosphate (phosphoguanidines)
(d) Pyrophosphate (phosphoric acid anhydrides)
(e) Acetyl CoA (thiol esters)
II. Thermodynamic relationships and energy rich compounds

A. Laws of thermodynamics
1. First Law: energy may be converted from one form to another, but the total in
a system remains constant. (Glucose ® lactate + ATP)
2. Second Law: Entropy (DS) is a measure of disorder or randomness of a system.

All systems tend to progress towards maximum entropy. Entropy is unavailable
to perform useful work.
3. Free energy (DG): available for useful work
(a) DG = DH – TDS (DH =enthalpy, T = temperature in degrees K)
(b) Exergonic:free energy lost, spontaneous reaction (DG less than 0)
(c) Endergonic:requires energy for reaction to proceed (DG greater than 0)
(d) At DG = 0, the reaction is at equilibrium
(e) The actual free energy change (DG for a reaction is equal to the standard
free energy (DGo’) plus a term tha depends on actual concentrations of
products and reactants
∆G’ =∆Go’+ RTln{[Products]/[Reactants]}
∆G’= ∆Go + 1.4 logP/ (in kcal/mole)
Where ∆Go’ = –Rtln(Keq = –1.4 log(Keq) (inkcal/mole)
(f ) Free energy changes for coupled reactions are ADDITIVE
∆Go’ A + B ®C+D –5.0
D®P+Q+ 4.5
Sum of coupled rx A+B®C+P+Q – 0.5
B. Thermodynamics of membrane transport
1. Uncharged molecules: DGo’ = RT ln {[C2]/[C1]}= 1.4 log{[C2]/[C1]}
where the direction of transport is from C1 to C2
2. Charged molecules: must also consider the membrane potential (inside -ve generally)
DGo’ = RT ln {[C2]/[C1]} + Z(Dy) = 1.4 log {[C2]/[C1]} + 23Z(Dy)
where F = Faraday constant = 23 kcal V–1mole–1
Dy = the membrane potential (in volts)
and Z = the charge on the ion
ENZYMES
1. Enzymes were discovered by Buchner (1897-1903) but term enzyme was given by
Kuhne (1878).
2. Almost all enzymes are proteins. However, ribozyme, ribonuclease P are non
protein enzyme.
3. Every cell produces its own enzymes because they cannot move from cell to cell due
to high molecular weight.
4. All components of cell including cell wall and cell membrane have enzymes.
5. Maximum enzymes in the cell are found in mitochondrion.
6. Smallest enzyme is peroxidase and largest enzyme being catalase found in
peroxisomes.
7. Enzyme urease isolated from Jack bean Canavalia was crystallized by Summer in
1926, who proved protein nature of enzymes.
Biochemistry 67
8. Enzymes show reversible reactions and act by lowering energy of activation by more
than 50%.
9. Enzymes show three dimensional structures.
10. Km (Michaelis Mention Constant) is the substrate concentration at which the
chemical reaction attains half its maximum velocity. It is an inverse measure of the
affinity of an enzyme for its substrate. Small the Km, the greater the substrate affinity.
Allosteric enzymes do not obey Km constant.
11. Over 2000 enzymes have been recorded. Enzymes are synthesized by living cells.
Most of the enzymes remain and function inside the cells. These are called
endoenzymes (or intracellular enzymes). On the other hand, the enzymes which
leave the cells and function outside them are called exoenzymes (or extracellular
enzymes). These retain their catalytic ability even when extracted from cells. Rennet
tablets (containing the enzyme rennin from the calf’s stomach) have been in use for
coagulating milk protein to obtain casein (cheese from milk).
12. A large number of enzymes require an additional non protein component called
prosthetic group for their efficient activity. Prosthetic group may be divided rather
loosely into two groups – (a) Metal activators; (b) Cofactors or coenzymes.
13. In holoenzymes, the apoenzyme (protein part) determines the specificity while
coenzyme (prosthetic group) determines the catalytic functional activity of enzyme.
14. The proteinaceous part of enzyme is called apoenzyme. The apoenzyme plus non
proteinaceous part is called holoenzyme. Some enzymes require a loose association
with certain organic substances for their activity. These prosthetic groups are called
cofactors or coenzymes. Examples of coenzymes are – NAD (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide), NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate), ATP (adenosine
triphosphate), CoA (coenzyme A), FMN (Flavin mononucleotide) and FAD (Flavin
adenine dinucleotide). FAD and FMN contain riboflavin (vitamin B2 ) as a component.
Riboflavin is the hydrogen accepting part of FAD/FMN.
15. Enzymes are required in minute quantities which is sufficient to convert a large
amount of substrates (starting materials of a reaction) to products (ending materials
of a reaction).
16. Every enzyme has its own optimum pH. Any shift towards alkaline or acidic side
results in a decrease in enzyme activity because it denatures the enzyme molecule
(changes its shape). Pepsin of gastric juice has optimum activity at pH 2.0, while
trypsin shows maximum acitivity at pH 8.0.
17. Every enzyme has a specific optimum temperature.
18. Over a range of 0–40°C, the rate of enzyme controlled reaction almost doubles for
every rise of 10°C. (Q10 = 2).
19. Most enzymes show maximum activity in a temperature range of 25–40°C.
20. Enzymes are thermolabile i.e. are denatured at high temperatures. The loss of catalytic
properties begins at 36°C and is almost complete as 60°C is reached. However, dried
enzyme extracts can endure temperature of 100°C–120°C or even higher. That is
why; dry seeds can endure high temperature than germinating seeds.
21. Enzymes are generally specific for the type of reactions they catalyse. This specificity
is very strong for some enzymes.
22. Enzymes are colloidal in nature; and have high molecular weights raning from 10,000–
50,000. However, the molecular weights of catalase and urease are 2,50,000 and
4,83,000 respectively.
23 IUB (1962) has divided enzymes into 6 classes (oxidoreductases, transferases,
hydrolases, lyases, isomerases and ligases). Each class is divided into sub-classes
and each sub-class into sub-sub classes depending upon the type of reaction and nature
of substrate. Thus every enzyme has a four digit code called EC Number (Enzyme
Commission Number).
24. The enzymes are classified into 6 groups on the basis of type of reactions
they catalyse:
(a) Oxidoreductases: Transfer of H and O atoms or electrons from one substance
to another. Examples are dehydrogenase, oxidase.
(b) Transferases: Transfer of a specific group (methyl, aceyl, amino or phosphate)
from one substance to another. Examples: transaminase, kinase.
(c) Hydrolases: Hydrolysis of a substrate. Examples are lipase, amylase, peptidase,
esterase, phosphatase, carbohydrase, and protease.
(d) Lyases: Non hydrolytic removal or addition of group from substrates, C–C, C–
N, C–O, or C–S bonds may be split. Examples are decarboxylase, fumarase, and
aldolase.
(e) Isomerases: Change of a substrate into a related form by intramolecular
rearrangement. Examples are phosphohexose isomerase.
(f) Ligases (synthetases): Joining of two molecules by synthesis of new C–O, C–
S, C–N or C–C bonds with simultaneous breakdown of ATP. Examples are acetyl
CoA synthetase (acting on fatty acids), pyruvate carboxylase.
25. The enzyme lowers the activation energy of a reaction. (The energy required for
substrates to react in order to get converted into product is called energy of activation).
An enzyme (E) combines with its substrates (S) to form a short-lived enzyme-substrate
(ES) complex. Within this complex, the chances of occurring of reaction are greatly
increased. Once a reaction has occurred, the complex breaks up into products and
enzymes. Thus, the enzyme remains unchanged at the end of the reaction; and is
free to interact again with more substrates.
26. Most enzymes are far larger molecules than substrates. Only a small portion of the
enzyme (3-12 amino acids) comes into direct contact with the substrate. This region
is called the active site of the enzyme. An enzyme may have more than one active
site. The remaining amino acids maintain the correct globular shape of the molecule.
It is important for proper functioning of the active site.
Fischer (1890) proposed lock and key hypothesis to explain specificity. He proposed
that enzymes have a particular shape into which the substrate or substrates fit exactly.
For a lock to work, it must be provided with right key. Similar is the case with
enzyme and substrates.
27. The best evidence for this lock and key hypothesis (or template theory) of enzyme
action comes from the observation that compounds similar in structure to the substrate
inhibit the reaction.
28. Evidence from protein chemistry suggested that a slight rearrangement of chemical
groups occurs in both enzyme and substrate when as ES complex is formed. It means
Biochemistry 69
that enzymes and their active sites are rather flexible structures. Koshland (1959),
therefore, suggested induced-fit hypothesis. According to it, when a substrate combines
with an enzyme, it induces change in the enzyme structure. The amino acids
constituting the active site are moulded into a precise formation which enables the
enzyme to perform its catalytic function more effectively.
29. Enzyme action can be inhibited by (a) denaturation of enzymes (b) competitive
inhibition (c) non competitive inhibition (d ) allosteric modification of feedback
inhibition.
(a) Denaturation: Change in the spatial arrangement of polypeptide chain within
the protein molecule so that its unique structure is changed. As a result, the
physical or biological properties are changed.
(b) Reversible Inhibition:
1. Competitive inhibition: A substance which closely resembles actual
substrate structure competes with the substrate for the active site. There
is a decline in the number of actual substrate molecule binding the site, as
many of these are occupied by closely resembling substance. As a result,
enzyme action is inhibited. Can be reversed by increasing the substrate
concentration. Vmax unaffected & Apparent Km increased by factor
(1 + [I]) /KI). Examples:
• Inhibition of activity of succinate dehydrogenase by malonate &
oxaloacetate.
• Sulpha drugs e.g. sulphanilamide inhibit the synthesis of folic acid in
bacteria by competing with p-amino benzoic acid (PABA).
• AZT and AIDS
• Methotrexate and dihydrofolate reductase
2. Non competitive inhibition: The inhibitor has no structural similarity
to the substrate and forms an enzyme-inhibitor complex at a point other
than its active site so that the globular structure of the enzyme is changed.
As a result, even if the substrate is able to bind with the enzyme, catalysis
cannot take place. It is characteristic of allosteric and multisubstrate
enzymes. Km unaffected in simplest case. Vmax decreased by factor (1
+ [I])/KI) Cyanide inhibits the activity of cytochrome oxidase. Di isopropyl
fluorophosphates (nerve gas) effects nerve impulse transfer by combining
irreversibly with amino acid serine of acetylcholine esterase. It also poisons
a number of other enzymes with trypsin, chymotrypsin, phsphoglucomutase,
elastase etc. Iodo acetamide inhibits enzymes having sulphahydrol or
imidazole group.
3. Uncompetitive (I binds to ES complex). Km, Vmax both decrease.
Characteristic of multisubstrate enzymes
(c) Irreversible inhibitors: Generally achieved by Covalent modification. Similar
to non-competitive kinetics (Vmax lowered, Km unaffected) Examples:
(i) PCMB and GAPDH
(ii) DFP and Serine hydrolases (trypsin, chymotrypsin, acetyl choline esterase,
etc)
(iii) Suicide substrates: generation of reactive intermediate by enzyme
(d) Feedback inhibition: The product of an enzyme catalysed reaction/chain of

reactions accumulates and acts as inhibitor of the reaction. e.g. Inhibition of
threonine deaminase by isoleucine. Proteases are added in detergents and
amylase is used for dish washing.
• Trypsin is added to partially predigested food. Immobilisation of enzymes
is done by attaching or trapping enzymes in inert supporting materials for
better efficiency and recovering them after the reaction.
• Alloenzymes are enzymes which are produced by different genes.
• Constitutive enzymes are always present because they are always
required for vital process e.g. glycolysis.
• Repressible enzymes – normally remain present but are repressed when
a specific chemical or product is present e.g. glucokinase.
• Inducible enzymes – are formed in response to presence of its substrate
e.g. lactose.
• ELISA – It is an enzyme linked immunosorbentassay when a protein,
antibody or antigen is detected by means of a specific enzyme e.g. AIDS.
• Restiction endonuclease – These are enzymes which are used to break
DNA ata specific site producing sticky ends. The enzymes are highly
important for genetic engineering. Arber, Nathans and Smith were awarded
Nobel Prize in 1978 for their discovery.
ENZYME KINETICS
A. Quantitation of enzymes
1. activity = “how much” ( moles product formed per minute)
2. specific activity = “how pure” ( moles product/min. per mg protein)
3. Turnover number, kcat = “how efficient” = Vmax/[ET] (moles product/min.
per mole enzyme)
B. Initial velocity plots

1. vo vs [Enzyme] assumed linear
2. vo vs [Substrate] non-linear
C. Assumptions for derivation of Michaelis Menten equation

1. Mechanism E + S <——> ES —> E + P
**2. [ES] constant (“steady state”)
3. [S] >> [Enzyme]
4. [P] ~ O (initial velocity) Not responsible for derivation of Michaelis-Menten
equation
D. Meaning of Km, Vmax, kcat
1. Km is the concentration of substrate required to achieve 1/2 Vmax.
2. kcat, x [Enz] = Vmax
E. Determination of Km, Vmax Lineweaver-Burk plots: 1/vo vs 1/[S]

Biochemistry 71
V. Multi-substrate enzyme mechanisms

A. Sequential: all substrates combine before any product release
B. Ping pong: product release before all substrates combine
ENZYMES: CONTROL OF ENZYME ACTIVITY
I. Overview of factors influencing enzyme activity

A. Environmental factors
1. Temperature
2. Ionic strength
3. pH
4. Concentrations of substrates (reactants), products, cofactors
B. Rate of synthesis and degradation of enzyme (minutes to hours)
C. Isozymes: multiple forms of an enzyme catalyzing the same reaction in the
same organism
D. Covalent modification of enzyme (seconds to minutes)
E. Allosteric regulation (seconds)
F. Proteolytic cleavage:
1. Activation: zymogens are inactive enzyme precursors that are activated by
proteolytic cleavage (e.g. digestive enzymes trypsin, chymotrypsin, etc.)
2. Inactivation by proteolysis: also digestive enzymes
G. Binding of a regulatory protein: e.g. trypsin and trypsin inhibitor
H. Compartmentation:
1. Metabolic channeling: direct transfer of substrate to next enzyme (Pyruvate
dehydrogenase complex)
2. Separate subcellular location of catabolic, anabolic pathways (e.g. fatty acid
oxidation in mitochodria, synthesis in cytosol)
II. Isozymes: different enzymes catalyzing the same reaction

A. Hexokinase and Glucokinase
(The brain enzyme is normally saturated with substrate due to its low Km)
B. Lactic dehydrogenase (LDH)
1. Five (5) isozymes possible (tetramer with 2 types of subunits, H & M)
2. Isozyme pattern varies with tissue
3. Tissue damage results in leakage into serum
Type Composition Location
LDH1 HHHH Myocardium and RBC
LDH2 HHHM RBC and myocardium
LDH3 HHMM Brain and kidney
LDH4 HMMM
LDH5 MMMM Liver and skeletal muscle
C. Creatine (phospho) kinase (CPK or CK)

1. A dimer of M and B subunits forms 3 separate isozymes (MM,MB,BB)
2. Diagnosis of myocardial infarcts (MI)
III. Zymogens and Proenzymes: inactive precursors of enzymes
A. Nomenclature
1. Trypsinogen – inactive precursor of trypsin
2. Procarboxypeptidase – inactive precursor of carboxypeptidase
B. Activation by proteolysis (e.g., digestive enzymes from pancreas)
C. Role of Trypsin inhibitor: block premature activation

D. Specificity comparison T, CT, Elastase
IV. Regulation of enzyme activity by metabolic intermediates

A. Branch points in metabolism A® B « C ® D «
↓
E ®F « G
B. Committed step (first irreversible in specific path)
C. Feedback inhibition/cross regulation
D. Classic regulatory enzyme is ALLOSTERIC
V. Properties of allosteric enzymes
A. Unusual kinetics
1. Classic example is “sigmoid” kinetics (S-shaped Vo v/s [S] curve) which is
referred to as positive cooperativity between subunits
2. Many other possibilities: atypical rate vs [substrate] curves.
B. Usually Multi-subunit, Separate binding site (allosteric site) for activators, inhibitors
(positive or negative modulators or effectors)
C. Example: Protein kinase A
1. cAMP binds to regulatory (R) subunits
2. Catalytic subunits released, active
3. Catalytic and Regulatory sites are on separate polypeptides
D. Example: aspartate transcarbamoylase

1. ATP (substrate) a positive effector
2. CTP (end product of pathway) a negative effector
3. Catalytic and Regulatory sites on separate polypeptides
VI. Models for allosteric enzymes

A. The Concerted (Symmetry) model: R « T
Biochemistry 73
B. The Sequential or induced fit model: block of 4 postage stamps

C. Both involve Tense and Relaxed subunit conformations
VII. Regulation by phosphorylation (covalent modification)

A. Serine, threonine, tyrosine hydroxyls
B. Example: Glycogen phosphorylase
ENZYMES: MECHANISMS OF ACTION
I. Introduction and terms

Nucleophile, electrophile,
carbonium ions, oxonium ions, carbanions,
transition state, intermediate,
activation energy
II. Active site: often polar and ionizable amino acids important
A. Catalytic center
B. Binding site
III. Theoretical explanations for enzyme catalysis

A. “Lock and Key”
1. Proximity - “local concentration”
2. Orientation effects - alignment of bonds to facilitate catalysis
B. Induced fit - Hexokinase (enzyme conforms to substrate)
C. Induced strain - Lysozyme (substrate conforms to enzyme )
D. Transition state stabilization (TSS)
1. Transition state analogs are excellent enzyme inhibitors
2. Drug design based on Transition State analogs
3. Abzymes: antibodies against transition state analogs have enzymatic activity
IV. Enzymatic catalysis mechanisms

A. Acid-base catalysis
1. General model Enz–H+ + R'– OR ® Enz + R'– H + R+
R+ + H2O + Enz ® Enz–H + R – O –H
2. Specific examples: (a) Lysozyme (b) Ribonuclease
B. Covalent catalysis: intermediate with covalent bond between E and S
1. General model: Enz–O– H + A–B ® Enz–O–A + B– H
Enz–O–A + H2O ® Enz – O – H + A – O –H
2. Specific examples:
(a) Chymotrypsin
(b) Subtilisin: convergent evolution
C. Metal ion catalysis

1. Function as Lewis acids
2. Function to stabilize intermediates (chelates)
3. Facilitate binding by neutralizing charges
4. Involved in many redox reactions
LIPIDS
Lipids are esters of fatty acids and polyhydric alcohol. The term ‘lipid’ was first used by
Bloor (1943). These are the compounds of C, H, O but the ratio of H and O is more than
2:1 (i.e., the ratio of oxygen is lesses as compared to carbohydrates). These are water-
insoluble organic substances which can be extracted from the cells by organic solvents
such as ether, chloroform and benzene. Their general form ula is C nH2nO2 . Some lipids
have P, N and S also.
1. Simple lipids – esters of fatty acids with alcohol. Simplest alcohol in fats is glycerol
(a trihydric alcohol) e.g., fats, oils and waxes. Triglycerides are common in nature.
2. Compound lipids – These lipids contain an additional group alongwith fatty acids
and alcohols, e.g., phospholipids, glycolipids and lipoproteins.
3. Derived lipids – These are isoprenoid structures e.g., steroids, terpenes, carotenoids.
• Fatty acids are carboxylic acid with a chain of more than four carbon atoms ending
with COOH group. Plants can synthesize all fatty acids. Animals can not synthesize
linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acid. These are called essential fatty acids.
Their deficiency causes sterility, kidney failure and stunted growth.
• Saturated fatty acids have no double bond. Their melting point is high. Palmitic acid,
stearic acid are saturated fatty acids.
• Unsaturated fatty acids are commonly present in vegetable oils, cod/shark oil. Their
melting points are low. Oleic acid has one double bond, linoleic acid has two, linolenic
acid has three and arachiodonic acid has 4 double bonds. Fatty acids with more than
one double bond are called polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA).
• Drying oils are unsaturated fatty acids which can be converted in hard fats on
being exposed.
• Edible oils can be converted into hard fats through hydrogenation.
• Waxes are esters of long chain monohydric alcohols like cetyl, ceryl or mericyl.
• Lanolin forms a protective, water insoluble coating on animal fur.
• Bees wax secreted from abdominal glands of honey bees has palmitic acid
and mericyl alcohol.
• Paraffin wax is a petroleum product.
• Cutin is formed by cross esterification and polymerization of hydroxyl fatty
acids and other fatty acids without esterification by alcohols other than glycerol.
Cuticle has 50-90% cutin.
• Suberin is condensation product of glycerol and phellonic acid. It makes the
cell wall impermeable to water.
Biochemistry 75
• Phospholipids are triglycerides in which one fatty acid is replaced by phosphoric

acid which is often linked to additional nitrogenous groups like choline (in lecithin),
ethanolamine (in cepalin), serine or inositol. These are amphipathic i.e. have
both polar and non polar groups. These form cell membranes along with proteins.
• Sphingolipids have amino alcohol sphingosine. Sphingomyelins are present in
myelin sheath of nerves. They have additional phosphate attached to choline, are
present in nerve membrane. Cerebrosides are present in nerve membrane and
have galactose.
• Gangliosides – have glucose, galactose, sialic acid and acetyl glucosamine,
present in grey matter, receptors of viral particles, excess causes Tay-Sachs disease.
• Sterols or steroids contain 4 fused hydrocarbon rings called cyclopentane perhydro
phenanthrene and a long side chain e.g. cholesterol, stigmasterol, campesterol,
sitosterol, ergasterol.
• Cholesterol helps in absorption of fatty acids, sex hormones, vitamin D and bile
salts. Potato is rich in cholesterol. Excess of cholesterol causes atheroscherosis.
• Prostagladins are hormone modulators.
• Terpenes are lipid like carbohydrates formed of isoprene units e.g., menthol, camphor,
carotenoids.
• Major function of lipids is to act as energy stores.
• Plants usually store oil than fats. Seeds, fruits and choloroplasts are often rich
in oils.
• Glycolipids are important components of cell membranes, chloroplast
membranes.
• Fatty substance in the cell wall (Wax, cutin, suberin) helps reduce transpiration
and provide mechanical protection from injury and parasites.
• Diosgenin is a steroid obtained from the plant called Dioscorea. It is used for
manufacturing antifertility pills.
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE AND TRANSPORT
I. Functions of membranes
Permeability barrier, transport, communication with the “outside”, cell-cell recognition,
environment for non-aqueous reactions, cell volume regulation and locomotion.
II. Chemical composition of lipids

A. Fatty acid structures:
1. Be able to identify structures of common fatty acids palmitic, stearic,
oleic, linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic.
2. Double bonds and shorter chains lower the melting point
B. Membrane lipids: amphipathic structures
1. Glycerophospholipids
(a) Phosphatidate + “X” (PC, PE, PS, PG, PI, and cardiolipin-)
(b) Plasmalogens (Glycerol ether phospholipids)

(i) Platelet activating factor (PAF): acetyl at R2 and choline at R3
(ii) Lowers blood pressure, causes platelets to aggregate
(c) Lysophosphoglycerides have R2 vacant; detergent action
2. Sphingolipids
(a) Sphingosine as parental compound
(b) Ceramides: N-fatty acyl sphingosine
(c) Cerebrosides: ceramide + glu or gal
(d) Sulfatides: gal-cerebroside that is sulfated
(e) Gangliosides: ceramide + branched sugar, including N-Acetyl-Neuraminic
Acid (NANA or sialic acid).
(i) Ganglioside GM1 is the receptor for cholera toxin
(ii) Variety of Sphingolipid storage diseases (Tay Sachs, etc.)
3. Sphingomyelin: a sphingo-phospho-lipid (Note structural similarity to
glycerophospholipids)
4. Cholesterol: important component of membrane; makes membrane less fluid
& precursor to steroid hormones
III. Properties of lipid aggregates

A. Micelles: spherical aggregates of single-tailed lipid
B. Lipid bilayers: aggregates of double-tailed phospholipids
1. Liposomes: proposed use as drug delivery agents
properties:
(i) impermeant to water solutes
(ii) lateral diffusion rapid
(iii) transverse (flip-flop) motion RARE
(iv) fluidity decreases with chain length, saturation of FA
2. Planar Bilayers: similar properties
IV. Biological membranes

A. The Fluid Mosaic Model of Membranes by Sanger and Nicolson (two dimensional
asymmetric lipid bilayer with proteins suspended within, carbohydrate only attached
on outside of membrane).
B. Membrane proteins:
1. Peripheral or extrinsic
(a) asymmetric in distribution
(b) Variety of membrane anchors
(i) ionic interactions (cytochrome c of mitochondria)
(ii) hydrophobic amino acid sequence (cyto. b5 of E.R.)
(iii) GPI anchors (glycosyl phosphatidylinositol)
Biochemistry 77
(iv) Myristic (C–14) via amide to C-terminal glycine

(v) Palmitic (C–16) acid via thioester to cys
(vi) Prenylated or isoprenoid groups: farnesyl (C–15) or geranyl- geranyl
(C–20) at C-terminal cys
2. Integral or intrinsic
(a) transmembrane helices (>20 hydrophobic amino acids)
(b) specific orientation (N, C termini)
(c) examples: glycophorin (one transmembrane helix); anion channel of RBC
(12 transmembrane helices) (Cl – /HCO – exchanger)
3
(d) Porins – Transmembrane - pleated sheet mitochondria, bacteria)
RARE: almost always alpha-helix across membrane
C. Carbohydrate – external side of plasma membrane
1. Attached to protein side chains
(a) O-linked: SER, THR (within polypeptide)
(b) N-linked: ASN (within polypeptide)
2. Carbohydrate is important for “targeting” proteins to subcellular
compartments
D. Cholesterol with –OH at surface, rings within membrane (decreases fluidity)
V. Properties of biological membranes

A. Membrane fluidity
1. Lipids: lateral motion rapid, transverse rare; asymmetric location
2. Proteins: lateral motion variable (cytoskeleton interactions), transverse rare
3. General barrier to water-soluble molecules, but not to water
B. Erythrocyte (RBC) membrane as example
1. RBC a “dying cell”; no nucleus, no mitochondria (120 days lifetime)
2. Membrane rolls freely around cell yet cell maintains discoid shape
3. Membrane proteins
(a) Glycophorin A
(b) “Band 3” is HCO3 – /Cl– anion exchange protein
(c) Band 3 attached to Ankyrin, which in turn is attached to Spectrin, which
are both part of cytoskeleton
(d) Cytoskeleton limits motion of certain attached membrane proteins
(e) Hereditary elliptocytosis – defective spectrin - malarial belt
VI. Membrane transport of small molecules (nutrients), ions

A. Characteristics of membrane transport: protein mediated, specific, inhibitable,
exhibit saturation kinetics like enzymes.
B. Types of membrane transport
1. Simple Passive Diffusion
(a) not saturable, not specific, not inhibitable
(b) depends on solubility in membrane (non-polar preferred)
2. Facilitated diffusion: Protein mediated (transporters, translocases, porters,

carriers, permeases)
(a) saturation kinetics, specific, specific inhibitors
(b) ACTIVE TRANSPORT – movement AGAINST the electrochemical gradient
(i) primary – uses ATP as energy
(ii) secondary – uses ion gradients for energy (which in turn require ATP)
(c) PASSIVE TRANSPORT – movement DOWN the concentration gradient)
(i) channels (specific) or pores (non-selective) – membrane hole, no binding
of molecule; sometimes gated
(ii) mediated transport – specific binding by protein involved
(d) mode of transmembrane movement
(i) Uniport – molecule moves by itself
(ii) Symport – molecule moves along with another molecule
(iii) Antiport – molecule moves opposite direction from another
(iv) Electroneutral – no net change in transmembrane charge
(v) Electrogenic – transport alters transmembrane charge
C. Thermodynamics of membrane transport
1. An electrical potential across membranes (“membrane potential”) arises from
differences in permeability and concentration for various ions across the
membrane.
2. The energy required to move a molecule across a membrane depends on:
(a) the transmembrane concentration gradient of that molecule, and
(b) the membrane potential if the transport process is Electrogenic
+ Z(deltaPsi)F (in kcal/mole)
where F = 23 kcal V–1 mol–1 (Faraday constant),
Z is the net charge moved, and (deltaPsi) is the membrane potential in
volts.
D. Specific examples of transport systems
1. Passive mediated: glucose transport into muscle, adipose tissue
(a) glucose binds on one surface
(b) conformational change occurs, exposing glucose to the opposite side of the
membrane where it is released
(c) no energy input, moves DOWN conc. gradient
(d) Insulin stimulates movement of transporter protein from internal vesicle
to membrane
2. Active transport
(a) Primary: Na+K+ ATPase of plasma membrane
(i) ATP hydrolysis is directly involved
(ii) both Na+ and K+ move against the electrochemical gradient
(iii) Phosphorylation of specific Asp triggers conformational change causing
INTERNALLY bound Na+ to be released OUTSIDE cell
(iv) Dephosphorylation of Asp causes EXTERNALLY bound K+ to be
released INSIDE cell
Biochemistry 79
(b) Secondary: N a+ glucose symport into intestinal epithelium

(i) ATP only INDIRECTLY involved (to maintain Na+ gradient)
(ii) Na+ gradient supplies the energy for glucose entry
(iii) Glucose exits epithelial cell into the circulatory system via passive mediated
symport
(iv) Amino acids transported similarly
E. Ionophores: bacterial poisons of ion transport systems
1. Mobile carriers: Valinomycin forms cage for K+
2. Channel formers: Gramicidin for small inorganic ions; relatively non-specific
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are mainly compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrates are so
called because in most of them, the proportion of hydrogen and oxygen is the same as in water
(H2 O) i.e., 2:1. Their general formula is CXH2X OX. These are also knows as saccharides
(compounds containing sugar). Carbohydrates are produced by green plants during
photosynthesis. These constitute about 80% of the dry weight of plants. Carbohydrates are
divided into 3 main classes – monosaccharides , derived monosaccharides and
oligosaccharides.
1. Monosaccharides
• These have single saccharide units which cannot be hydrolysed further into still
smaller carbohydrates; have general formula CNH2NON. These are composed of 3–7
carbon atoms, and are classified according to the number of C atoms as trioses (3C),
tetroses (4C), pentoses (5C), hexoses (6C) and heptoses (7C). Of these, pentoses and
hexoses are most common. Monosaccharides are important as energy source and as
building blocks for the synthesis of large molecules.
• All monosaccharides are either aldoses or ketoses. The two simplest monosaccharides
are trioses e.g., glyceraldehydes and dihydroxyacetone.
• Tetroses (e.g. erythrose) are quite rare. Erythrose takes part in the synthesis of
lignin and anthocyanin pigments.
• Ribose, ribulose, xylulose and arabinoses are pentoses. Xyluloses and arabinoses
polymerise to form xylans and arabans which are cell wall materials.
• Glucose, fructose, mannose, galactose are hexoses. These are white, sweet-tasting,
crystalline and extremely, soluble in water.
• Glucose is the universal sugar. It is also known as dextrose or grape sugar or
corn sugar.
• Fructose is the most common form of sugar in fruit. It is also known as levulose. It
is the sweetest among naturally occurring sugars.
• Monosaccharides have ‘free’ aldehyde or ketone group which can reduce Cu++ to Cu+.
Hence, these are also called reducing sugars.
2. Derived monosaccharides
• Deoxy sugar – Loss of oxygen atom from ribose yields deoxyribose, a constituent of
DNA.
• Amino sugar – Monosaccharides having an amino group e.g., glucosamine,

galactosamine.
• Sugar acid – e.g., Ascorbic acid, glucuronic acid, galacturonic acid.
• Sugar alcohol – e.g. glycerol and mannitol (present in brown algae).
3. Oligosaccharides
The sugars with limited numbers (2–10) of monosaccharides are called oligosaccharides.
These include trisaccharides, tetra saccharides, hexasaccharides, heptasaccharides, etc.
• Disaccharides: These are formed by condensation reactions between two
monosaccharides (usually hexoses). The bond formed between two
monosaccharides is called a glycosidic bond. It normally forms between C-
atoms 1 and 4 of neighbouring units (1,4 bond). Once linked, the monosaccharide
units are called residues.
(a) Maltose (glucose + glucose), lactose (glucose + galactose), sucrose (glucose
+ fructose) are most common disaccharides. Sucrose is most abundant in
plants and is known as cane sugar or table sugar. It is the sugar we buy
from market.
(b) On hydrolysis , disaccharides release their respective constituent
monosaccharides (e.g., hydrolysis of sucrose yields one molecule each of
glucose and fructose).
• Trisaccharides: Sugars composed of 3 monosaccharide units are called
trisaccharides (e.g., raffinose). Raffinose is a common saccharide found in
plants. Upon hydrolysis, it yields one molecule each of glucose, fructose and
galactose.
• Larger oligosaccharides are attached to the cell membrane and cell
recognition is due to their presence. They also take part in antigen
specificity.
Polymerisation of a large number of small molecules results in the formation of large
molecules of high molecular weights, which may be branched or unbranched. These are called
macromolecules. These include some polysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids.
Polysaccharides
These are polymers of monosaccharides and are branced or unbranched linear molecular chains.
These are insoluble carbohydrates and are considered to be non-sugars. Starch, glycogen,
cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose, inulin and polysaccharides.
Polysaccharides are of two types –
• Homopolysaccharides – consists of only one type of monosaccharide monomer e.g.
starch, glycogen and celluse, fructan, xylan, araban, galactan.
• Heteropolysaccharide – consists of more than one type of monosaccharide monomer
e.g. chitin, agar, arabanogalactans, arabanoxylan etc.
Polysaccharides are of three main types – storage (e.g. starch and glycogen), structural
(e.g. chitin, cellulose) and mucopolysaccharides (e.g. keratin sulphate, chondroitin sulphate,
hyaluronic acid, agar, aliginic acid, carragenin & heparin).
Biochemistry 81
1. Storage polysaccharide
(i) Starch, glycogen and inulin are reserve food materials. Starch turns blue with
Iodine.
• Starch is a polymer of glucose. It is the major reserve food in plants. Starch has
two components – amylase (an unbranched polymer) and amylopectin (a branched
polymer).
• Amylopectin – consists of 2000 – 200,000 glucose molecules forming straight
chain and branches (after 25 glucose units). Branching point has a, 1-6 glycosidic
linkage.
• Amylose – consists of a, 1-4 glycosidic linkage between a-D glucose molecules.
It is straight chain of 200-1000 glucose units. It is helical; each turn consists of 6
glucose units.
Starch molecules accumulate in the form of layers (stratifications) around a shifting organic
centre (hilum) to form starch grains. In eccentric starch grains, hilum lies on one side. These
are found in potatoes. In concentric starch grains, hilum is present in the centre. These are
found in wheat, maize, and pea.
• Dumb-bell shaped starch grains are found in the latex of Euphorbia.
• Starch grains with single hilum are called simple (e.g. maize); but those with
more than one hilum are called compound (e.g. potato, rice).
(ii) Glycogen: Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch; many fungi also store it.
Glycogen turns red-violet with iodine. It consists of 30,000 glucose units joined by a,
1-4 bonds, much more banched than starch. Branching point has a, 1-6 linkage,
branching occurs after 10-14 glucose units.
(iii) Inulin: It is an unusual polysaccharide and polymer of fructose. It is used as a fructose,
particularly in roots and tubers of the family Compositae (e.g. Dahlia tubers).
II. Structure of polysaccharide

(a) Cellulose: Cellulose is the main structural polysaccharide of plants. It is the most
abundant molecule on earth. It is almost confined to plants, though it is found in
primitive fungi and lower invertebrates also. It is structural component of all plant
cell walls, constituting, on an average, about 20-40% of the wall. Cotton fibres contain
the largest proportion (90%) of cellulose among natural materials.
Molecules are unbranched, consisting of 6000 – b – D glucose units joined by b, 1-4
linkages, and 2000 cellulose molecules from microfibril. Rayon and cellophane are
similar to cellulose xanthate. Cellulose acetate is used to prepare tricot, double
knit, wrinkle proof and mouth proof clothing, cigarette filters. Cellulose nitrate is
used in propellent explosives. Carboxy methyl cellulose is used as emulsifier and
smoothing reagent.
(b) Chitin: Chitin is a polymer of acetyglucosamine (b, 1-4 glycosidic linkage) forming
bundles of long parallel chains like cellulose. It occurs in the cell walls of fungi (and
forms exoskeleton in some animals especially arthropods).
(c) Pectin and hemicellulose: Pectin and hemicelluloses are structural polysaccharides.
Pectins are made up of arabinose, galactose and galacturonic acid. Pectic acid is
a homopolymer of the methyl ester of D-galacturonic acid.
Middle lamella which binds the cells together is composed of calcium pectate. Due
to this substance, water absorption capacity of wall is increased.
Fruit walls contain high percentage of pectin. During ripening, the pectins break
down into sugars resulting in the sweetning and loosening of fruits.
Hemicelluloses are homopolymers of D-xylose linked by b 1-4, Xylans, arabans,
galactans are hemicelluloses. These are rarely used as food (e.g. dates – Phoenix).
III. Mucopolysaccharides
These are gelatinuous polysaccharides formed from galactose and mannose. Slimy substances
of bhindi, agar agar, alginic acid and carrageenin obtained from seaweeds are
mucopolysaccharides. Mycopolysaccharides are found in the cell walls of bacteria also.
(a) Keratin sulphate – consists of acetyl glucosamine, glaactose and sulphuric
acid, provides strength and flexibility to skin and cornea.
(b) Chondroitin sulphate – consists of flycuronic acid and acetyl glucosamine,
present in the vitreous humor of eye, synovial fluid and cerebrospinal fluid etc.
(c) Heparin is a polymer of a, 1-4 glucosamine and glucuronic acid. It is anticoagulant
present in human blood. Husk of Plantago ovata and mucilage of Aloe barbedense
are medicinally used. Agar, alginic acid carragenin are obtained from marine
Brown algae (Phaeophyceae).
SUGARS
I. Sugar chemistry
A. Sugars are carbohydrates (Poly hydroxy aldehydes or Ketones)
1. empirical chemical formula (CH 2 O)n
2. polyalcohols
3. hydrophilic, polar
B. Carbonyl classification of sugars
1. Aldoses – aldehyde at the C-1 carbon
2. Ketoses – carbonyl somewhere other than C-1 (usually C-2)
C. Stereochemistry of sugars
1. all sugars have at least one chiral carbon (except DHA)
2. naturally occuring sugars are in the D-form
3. Fisher projection 2-D representation of sterochem.
4. Epimer – sugars differing in config. at one chiral carbon
D. Intramolecular cyclization of sugars
1. Sugars readily form ring structures
(a) Condensation of a hydroxyl with a carbonyl
(i) hemiacetal – cyclization between aldehyde and hydroxyl
(ii) hemiketal – cyclization between ketone and hydroxyl
(b) Different size cyclic structures may be formed
(i) pyranose – six member ring
(ii) furanose – five member ring
Biochemistry 83
2. Anomeric carbon – new chiral center formed in the cyclization or form many
esenzymes have specificity for the anomeric carbon
3. Haworth projection – 3-D representation of cyclic structure
E. Sugar chemistry
1. Reducing sugars
(a) carbonyl group has reductive potential
(b) anomeric carbon must be free (not polymerized)
(c) can reduce Cu2+(cupric) to Cu+(cuprous)
GLYCOLYSIS
1. All life processes require energy. Much of the food obtained by autotrophic and
heterotrophic nutrition is used as a source of this energy. The energy rich compounds
are broken down to release energy by the process of respiration. Respiration is a
process by which the energy of the food is made available to the cells.
2. Glucose is the most common respiratory substrate.
3. Photosynthesis is 10 times faster than respiration.
4. About 50% of sugar formed in photosynthesis is used in respiration.
5. Efficiency of respiration is 40-45%.
6. Cellular respiration is essentially (a) a catabolic process, (b) involves biological oxidation
of organic molecules and (c) results in the release of the energy in the form of ATP.
ATP is a derivative of AMP (Adenosine monophosphate) to which two additional
phosphate groups are attached through an anhydride linkage. The two bonds are
indicated by symbol (~). When last high energy phosphate bond is hydrolysed 8.9
kcal energy is released. When second phosphate bond is broken, 6.5 k calories of
energy is released. However, if the third phosphate group (i.e., of AMP) is hydrolysed;
only 3.4 kcal of energy is liberated. The energy released by the breaking down of
phosphate groups in ATP and ADP (Adenosine diphosphate) is much more than the
energy released on the hydrolysis of most of the other covalent bonds.
7. ATP is an instant source of energy within the cell. It is mobile and transports chemical
energy to energy requiring processes within the cell. The hydrolysis of ATP releases
energy. Since ATP is found in all living cells, it is called universal energy carrier
or “energy currency” of cells.
8. A respiratory substrate is a “substance which is oxidized to yield the energy necessary
for cell maintenance and growth”. These, include (i) carbohydrates, (ii) fats, (iii) proteins.
9. Types of respiration:
(a) Aerobic respiration. It takes place in the presence of oxygen. Complete
oxidation of the substrate results in the formation of CO2 and water accompanied
by the release of energy e.g.
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O + energy
(Glucose) (686 kcal)
In most forms of life, respiration occurs aerobically.
(b) Anaerobic respiration. It takes place in the absence of oxygen and results in
incomplete degradation of the substrate. CO2 and organic compounds like ethyl
alcohol, lactic acid etc., are produced accompanied by the release of some energy,
water is not a product of this reaction.
C6 H12 O6 ® 2C2 H5 OH + 2CO2 + energy
Usually, anaerobic respiration occurs in the deep seated tissues of plants and
animals, in germinating seeds, in fruits and among many microorganisms e.g.
yeasts and bacteria.
10. A large variety of organisms (anaerobic) employ anaerobic respiration as their major
energy yielding process. In fact, some bacteria are even killed if exposed to substantial
amount of oxygen. These are termed as obligate anaerobes. The organisms which
can respire both in the presence and the absence of the oxygen are called facultative
anaerobes.
11. Mechanism of respiration: In aerobic as well as anaerobic respiration, initial
sequence of events is the same; collectively termed as glycolysis. Glycolysis (splitting
of sugar) results in the breakdown of one molecule of glucose into two molecules of
pyruvic acid. It is completed in the cytoplasm of the living cell not in the
mitochondria and does not require the presence of oxygen. It is also known as Embden-
Meyerhof-Parnas pathway after the names of three German scientists who discovered
it.
12. The process of glycolysis maybe sub-divided into three steps:
(a) Phosphorylation, (b) Splitting of fructose-1, 6-diphosphate, (c) Formation of pyruvic
acid.
13. Fate of pyruvic acid in aerobic respiration: In aerobic respiration, each pyruvic
acid molecules enters a mitochondrion where its oxidation is completed. It is carried
out in the following phases: (a) Formation of acetyl coenzyme A and (b) Krebs cycle.
14. Acetyl CoA is produced not only from pyruvic acid, but also produced as a result of â-
oxidation of fatty acids undergoes TCA cycle. Enzymes required for Kreb’s cycle are
found in the matrix of mitochondria except succinate dehydrogenase which is bound
to inner membrane.
15. TCA: An amphibolic pathway: The TCA cycle is a central metabolic pathway playing
an important role in both: catabolism and anabolism. It serves as a pathway for
oxidation of not only carbohydrates, but fat and proteins also, serving as a common
oxidative pathway (catabolism). On the other hand, the intermediates of the TCA
cycle are used in the synthesis of macromolecules (anabolism).
• The term amphibolic (dual purpose) is preferred for such pathways.
16. One molecule of ATP (via GTP), four NADH, 1 FADH2 and two molecules of CO2 are
released per molecule of pyruvic acid oxidized. However, as two molecules of pyruvic
acid are formed from one glucose molecule, TCA cycle must occur twice for each
molecule of glucose respired. Therefore, 2 ATP, 8 NADH and 2 FADH2 are formed
from 2 molecules of pyruvic acid (coming from one molecule of glucose).
17. The hydrogen ions and electrons removed from respiratory intermediates by
dehydrogenation during glycolysis and TCA cycle are ultimately oxidized to water by
molecular oxygen. They reduce acceptor molecules such as NAD+ and FAD to NADH
and FADH2 respectively. From NADH or FADH2 , these are passed along a chain of
intermediate substances (a chain of electron acceptors and transfer molecules). The
enzymes necessary for the transfer of electrons are present in the inner mitochondrial
Biochemistry 85
membrane in an ordered manner and also function in a specific sequence. This

assembly of electron transporting enzymes is called mitochondrial respiratory
chain or the electron transport chain.
Such mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to protons; these can not diffuse back
into the matrix across the membrane. However, these can enter the membrane via a
proton channel established by the membrane bound adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase).
ATPase is a multienzyme complex containing two parts F 0 and F 1 . F 1 component sits
on the surface of the membrane while F0 component is embedded in it forming a
channel across the membrane. Through this channel, the protons flow to F1 . The
back of protons down the proton gradient provides energy for the synthesis of ATP
molecules. F1 (acting as ATP synthesis) catalyses the synthesis of ATP from ADP.
For each pair of protons flowing back into the matrix, one molecule of ATP
is synthesized. Thus, the three pairs of protons, thre molecules of ATP are generated.
Since FADH2 denotes its electrons to CoQ and not to FMN, only 4 protons are
transported outside the membrane. Therefore, the backflow of these 4 protons through
F0 -F 1 complex results in the formation of only 2 ATP molecules.
18. Not yield of ATP in aerobic respiration of glucose:
(a) In glycolysis, 4 molecules of ATP are produced while two are consumed. Thus,
there is a direct gain of 2 ATP molecules in glycolysis.
(b) In TCA cycle, one molecule of ATP is produced (via GTP) per molecule of pyruvic
acid. Since 2 molecules of pyruvic acid are produced from one molecule of glucose,
2 molecules of ATP per glucose molecules are obtained in TCA cycle.
• Thus, by direct phosphorylation there is a gain of 4 ATP molecules in
respiration.
(c) 10 NADH molecules are also produced (2 in glycolysis and 8 from pyruvic acid.
Each NADH molecule, through electron transfer releases energy for the synthesis
of 3 ATP molecules. Thus, 30 more molecules of ATP are obtained.
(d) Also, 2 molecules of FADH2 are produced in TCA cycle which yield 2 x 2 i.e. 4
ATP molecules.
(e) Thus, 4 + 30 + 4 = 38, i.e. a total of 38 ATP molecules are yielded during aerobic
respiration of glucose.
(f) In most eukaryotic cells, 2 ATP molecules are used up in transporting 2 NADH
molecules produced in glycolysis to the mitochondrion, in such cells, there in a
net gain of 36 ATP molecules instead of 38.
19. Though glycolysis and Krebs cycles constitute a major respiratory pathway, other
respiratory pathways also exist.
(a) Pentose phosphate pathway (Hexose mono-phosphate shunt) occurring in
cytoplasm, requires oxygen and is a major source of 5-C sugars. It
produced 36 ATP molecules and may operate simultaneously along with
normal glycolytic pathway. Net yield is 35 ATP molecules.
(b) Another cycle, Glyoxylate cycle occurs in seeds that possess tissues rich in fat
and enable stored fat to be converted into carbohydrates. Enzymes for the cycle
are present in glyoxysomes.
20. The accumulation of lactic acid in the muscle causes fatigue. However, durng rest,
the lactic acid is again converted into pyruvic acid and undergoes aerobic respiration.
21. Remember
(a) 264 Gms of CO2 is liberated during complete oxidation of 180 gms of glucose.
(b) a-ketoglutaric acid is first dicarboxylic acid formed during Kreb’s cycle.
(c) Number of ATP molecules formed by complete oxidation of pyruvic acid is 15.
(d) Mercury is used in anaerobic respiration experiments because it does
not react with CO2.
(e) Rate of respiration is measured by respirometer.
(f) Fermentation was discovered by Gay Lussac.
(g) Enzyme extracted from yeasts which brings about the fermentation is zymase.
(h) Fruits and seeds are stored at low temperature to reduce the rate of respiration.
(i) If a leaf is kept in sugar solution, the rate of respiration increases.
(j) Dinitrophenol inhibits ATP synthesis (uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation).
(k) Oligomycin inhibits oxidative phosphorylation (energy transfer inhibitor).
(l) Abnormal rise in respiratory rate of ripening fruits is called climactric e.g.
banana.
22. Fermentation differs from anaerobic respiration by following features
(a) Fermentation is an extracellular process.
(b) It usually occurs in the presence of microbes.
(c) Enzymes extracted from cell can perform fermentation.
(d) A small quantity of oxygen rather stimulates fermentation, while anaerobic
respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen.
23. Higher concentration of CO2 and absence of O2 adversely affect the rate of respiration
(except in anaerobic respiration).
24. 1 molecule of glucose or fructose produces a total of 38 ATP molecules out of which
two are used and therefore, net gain of ATP is 36. Out of this 38 ATP, 4 ATP are
formed by direct (substrate) phosphorylation and 32 ATP by oxidative phosphorylation
through ETS and 2 by through GTP.
25. 1 molecule of NADH2 forms 3 ATP and 1 FADH2 forms 2 ATP through ETS located
on inner membrane of mitochondrion.
26. One turn of Krebs cycle produces 12 ATP, 11 ATP through ETS and 1 ATP by substrate
phosphorylation.
27. ATP formation is an endergonic process and occurs in chloroplast and mitochondria.
28. RBC and muscles get energy by glycolysis.
29. Ratio of CO2 formation in aerobic and anaerobic respiration is 3:1.
30. Ratio of ATP in aerobic and anaerobic respiration is 18:1.
31. Kreb’s cycle is basically a catabolic cycle but also functions as anabolic cycle and
hence called amphibolic cycle. Its starting product is citric acid which is a
tricarboxylic acid. It undergoes 4 oxidations and 2 decarboxylations to produce
CO2 and H2 O. It occurs in matrix of mitochondria.
32. ETS, is located on inner membrane of mitochondria, is responsible for ATP synthesis
(oxidative phosphorylation).
Biochemistry 87
33. ETS involves hydrogen and electron carriers and oxysom es (F 0 – F 1 particles) located
on inner membrane of mitochondrion. The sequence of these carriers is:
N A D H 2 → FMN → CoQ → Cyt b → Cyt c1 → Cyt c → Cyt a → Cyt a3 .
34. Flow of electron in ETC is Fe+3 → Fe +2 → Fe +3.
35. Cytochromes are Fe+2 rich intrinsic proteins. Cyt a3 has both Cu+2 and Fe+2 and acts
as cytochrome oxidase.
36. Ratio of the volume of CO2 liberated to the volume of O2 absorbed during respiration
is called Respiratory Quotient, the RQ.
(a) RQ is an index of type of substrate being respired. Different substrates
(carbohydrates/fats/proteins/organic acids) yield different values of RQ on
oxidation.
(b) When carbohydrates are completely oxidized, RQ = 1.
(c) When fats and proteins are respired, RQ is less than one.
(d) For organic acids (malic/oxalic acids etc.), RQ is greater than one.
(e) In succulents (e.g., Opuntia, Bryophyllum) RQ = zero as no CO2 is released (is
fixed into organic acids).
(f) During anaerobic respiration, RQ is infinity (O2 is not absorbed)
C6 H12 O6 → 6C2 H5 OH + 2CO2
(RQ = 2 / 0 = ¥ )
37. Overall reaction
1. 2 pyruvates, 2 NADH and 2 ATP produced per glucose
2. 2 stages (hexose and triose stages)
(a) hexose stage
(i) glucose phosphorylated and cleaved to form two glyceraldehyde-3-P
(ii) uses 2 ATPs per glucose
(b) triose stage
(i) converts two glyceraldehyde-3-P to two pyruvates
(ii) generates 4 ATPs and 2 NADH
3. Oxygen supply determines end product of pathway
(a) Aerobic conditions
(i) NADH is reoxidized by ET/Ox Phos
(ii) pyruvate is used for acetyl CoA synthesis
(b) Anaerobic conditions
(i) NADH is reoxidized by reducing pyruvate to lactate
(ii) lactic acid is produced
38. Pyruvate has multiple fates
1. Anaerobic glycolysis (higher organisms)
(a) Allows glycolysis to continue without O2
(i) NAD+ needs to be regenerated from NADH
(ii) electron transport is inoperable
(iii) LDH reoxidizes NADH
(b) Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)

(i) Reversible & requires NAD+ (NADH)
(ii) lactic acid produced
(c) Physiology:
(i) skeletal muscle becomes anaerobic during exercise
(ii) lactic acid is produced so glycolysis can continue
(iii) during recovery lactate transports to the liver for reconversion to
pyruvate or glucose
2. Anaerobic glycolysis (yeast)
(a) yeast generates ethanol in absence of O2
(i) NAD+ needs to be regenerated from NADH; since electron transport
is inoperable
(iii) alcohol dehydrogenase reoxidizes NADH
(b) pyruvate decarboxylated to acetaldehyde
(i) requires thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP)
(ii) CO2 causes bubbles in champagne and dough to rise
(c) thiamine pyrophosphate
(i) derived from the vitamin thiamine (B1)
(ii) involved in decarboxylation reactions
(d) acetaldehyde converted to ethanol
(i) catalyzed by alcohol dehydrogenase
(ii) NADH reoxidized to NAD+
3. Aerobic oxidation
(a) pyruvate is oxidatively decarboxylated to form acetyl CoA
(b) Acetyl CoA has many fates including the TCA cycle
39. Thermodynamic of glycolysis
A. Overall reaction: Free energy change ( G) is highly negative
B. Individual reactions
1. Reactions with positive Go’
(a) Free energy changes ( G) is 0 or negative
(b) increase substrates and/or decrease products
(c) examples (i) aldolase
2. Highly exergonic reactions are irreversible
(a) hexokinase (b) phosphofructokinase (c) pyruvate kinase
40. Regulation of glycolysis
A. Hexose transport
1. Glucose transported into cell by GLUT
- passive transport; insulin causes more GLUT to move to membrane
- insulin increases glucose uptake by cells
2. GLUT is a family of glucose transporters
(a) GLUT1: most tissues (not in liver or muscle)
(b) GLUT2: pancreatic – cells; regulate insulin release (?)
(c) GLUT4: heart, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue
Biochemistry 89
3. No GLUT in liver: uptake of glucose by liver is not regulated by insulin

B. Hexokinase, Glucokinase
1. Isozymes with different properties
Tissue Km Inhibition by Glucose-6-P
Hexokinase all 0.1 mM yes
Glucokinase liver, pancreas 10 mM no
C. Pyruvate kinase
1. 4 pyruvate kinase isozymes
(a) liver, kidney, and RBC isozymes are allosteric; activated by Fructose–1,6–
BP & inhibited by ATP
(b) liver and intestinal isozymes can be phosphorylated
- phosphorylation by protein kinase A; glucagon stimulates protein kinase A
- phosphorylated pyruvate kinase is less active; glucagon decrease pyruvate
kinase activity
D Phosphofructokinase-1
1. PFK-1 is allosterically regulated by several effectors
2. ATP allosterically increases Km for fructose-6–P
- decreases PFK activity; AMP relieves ATP effect
- ATP varies little (<10%), ADP and AMP vary greatly
3. ADP activates PFK-1 in mammals
4. Citrate inhibits PFK-1
5. Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (F-2,6-BP) is a potent activator of PFK-
(a) One enzyme controls synthesis and degradation of F-2,6-BP
(i) two enzymatic functions on one protein
(ii) activities on separate domains
(iii) phosphorylation of enzyme controls activity
- dephosphoenzyme synthesizes F-2,6-BP
- phosphoenzyme converts F-2,6-BP to F-6-P
- phosphorylation regulated by a cAMP-dependant kinase
- dephosphorylation regulated by a phosphatase
(b) Phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2)
(i) synthesizes F-2,6-BP from fructose-6-P and ATP
(ii) inhibited by citrate & activated by Pi and indirectly by glucagon
(cAMP)
(c) Fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase
- hydrolyzes F-2,6-BP to produce fructose-6-P
41. Pasteur effect – Pasteur Effect is a sudden change from anaerobic to aerobic
respiration due to availability of oxygen. The rate of glucose consumption is greatest
anaerobically
1. aerobic metabolism of glucose produces more ATP/glucose than anaerobic
metabolism
2. ATP/ADP ratio controls glycolysis; glycolysis metabolizes more glucose to

generate equivalent word only ATP levels
AMINO ACIDS
I. Function of amino acids

A. Building blocks of polypeptides
1. polymerized to form polypeptides
(a) linked by a peptide bond
(b) synthesized during translation of messenger RNA
2. primary structure of a protein is the sequence of amino acids
3. both peptides and polypeptides can be functional
–
Structure OOC–CH 2 –CH 2 –NH3 + GABA
Structure +H N–CH –CH –SO – TAURINE
3 2 2 3
B. Amino acids may be functional
1. neurotransmitters
- glutamate and aspartate (excitory)
- glycine, taurine, and aminobutyric acid (GABA) (inhibitory)
C. Precursors to other molecules
1. metabolic intermediates
- citrulline and ornithine in urea cycle
- can be metabolized to form glucose or acetyl CoA
2. neurotransmitters – serotonin, dopamine, epinephrine, etc.
3. tyrosine (thyroid hormone)
4. porphyrins
5. creatine (energy storage)
6. histamine (mediator of immune response)
7. nucleotide synthesis – S-adenosylmethionine
II. Structure of amino acids

A. 20 standard alpha-amino acids
1. Structure.
- alpha-carbon
- alpha-amino group
- alpha-carboxyl group
- side chain (R group)
2. “Standard” amino acids are encoded by messenger RNA
3. Amino acids are abbreviated by a 3-letter and 1-letter code
B. Some amino acids are not incorporated into proteins during translation
1. Modified amino acids
Biochemistry 91
(a) Hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine

(i) hydroxylated enzymatically after translation
(ii) important in collagen structure (Structures of phosphoserine, 4-OH-
proline, 5-OH-lysine)
(b) phosphoamino acids
(i) Tyr, Ser, Thr hydroxyl groups can be phosphorylated
(ii) important in activation and inhibition of enzymatic or signalling activity
2. Other important amino acids
(a) Urea cycle intermediates – ornithine, citrulline, arginosuccinate
(b) Thyroid hormone (tyrosine ® thyroxine)
Abbreviations for the 20 “standard” amino acids
alanine Ala A leucine Leu L

arganine Arg R lysine Lys K
asparagines Asn N methioneine Met M
aspartic acid Asp D phenylalanine Phe F
cysteine Cys C proline Pro P
glycine Gly G serine Ser S
glutamine Gln Q threonine Thr T
glutamic acid Glu E tryptophan Trp W
histidine His H tyrosine Tyr Y
isoleucine Ile I valine Val V
III. Chemical Properties of Amino Acids
A. Physical characteristics
1. Charge
(a) Amino acids are dipolar ions (zwitterions) at neutral pH
(i) zwitterion is a dipolar molecule with pos. and neg. charges spatially separated
(ii) definition of zwitterion in book is incorrect
(b) Ionic states of amino acids depend on pH
(i) amino acids have two or three dissociable protons
(ii) pKa of the dissociable proton and the pH determine its degree of dissociation
H–H equation: pH = pKa + log{[A– ]/[HA]}
2. Titration curve of an amino acid
(a) calculated using the H-H equation
(b) Isoelectric point (pI) – pH at which the molecule has a net charge = 0 (average of
the two appropriate pKa values)
3. Polarity
(a) nine nonpolar amino acids
(i) tend to orient to the inside of proteins
(ii) Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile, Met, Pro, Phe, Trp
(b) eleven polar amino acids
(i) tend to orient to the outside of proteins
(ii) Ser, Thr, Tyr, Asp, Glu, Asn, Gln, Cys, Arg, Lys, His
4. Hydropathicity – index of solubility characteristics in H2 O

(a) combines hydrophobic and hydrophilic tendencies
(b) can be used to predict protein structure
Hydrophobic Ile>Val>Leu>Phe>Met (listed from most hydrophobic)
Less Hydrophobic Ala>Gly>Cys>Trp>Tyr>Pro>Thr>Ser
Hydrophilic His>Glu>Asn>Gln>Asp>Lys>Arg (arg is most hydrophilic)
5. UV absorbance
(a) aromatic a.a.s (Trp, Tyr, Phe) absorb UV light
(b) absorbs UV light between 260-280 nm
B. Stereochemistry
1. Most amino acids have optical activity
(a) chiral centers are asymmetric centers (usually carbons)
(b) a-carbon of amino acids is chiral
(c) chirality yields stereospecificity
(d) Gly is not chiral (has no a-carbon)
2. L and D enantiomers (stereoisomers)
(a) enantiomers are nonsuperimposable mirror images of the same molecule
(i) L is levorotatory, D is dextrarotatory
(b) L and D nomenclature from L and D-glyceraldehyde (Fisher convention)
(i) not equivalent to R and S
(ii) most natural a.a.s are L
(iii) some a.a.s are R, some are S
(c) L and D forms are chemically and physically distinguishable
(i) different activity, melting points, and spectra
C. Cysteine can form disulfide bonds

1. cysteine is the reduced form (sulfhydryl)
2. cystine is the oxidized form (disulfide)
3. disulfide bridges formed between cysteines are important in protein structure
Biochemistry 93
PROTEIN STRUCTURE AND PROTEIN FOLDING
I. Peptide bond – amide bond between alpha-amino and alpha-carboxyl groups

of 2 amino acids
A. Chemical properties
1. Peptide bond is polar and planar

(a) electron resonance structure
(b) has partial (40%) double bond character
(c) amide group is planar, usually trans
2. Synthesis
(a) condensation produces water
(b) energy required (ATP hydrolysis)
3. Peptide bond is hydrolyzable
(a) acid hydrolysis generates free amino acids
(i) 6N Hydrochloric acid heated at 110°C for 24 hr in a vacuum
(b) base hydrolysis generates free amino acids
(i) 4N Sodium hydroxide heated at 100°C for 4 hr
(c) cyanogen bromide cleaves at the COOH-terminal side of Met
(d) enzymatic hydrolysis of peptide bonds by proteases
(i) peptidases are specific for certain amino acids
4. Polypeptides are polyampholytes
(a) ampholyte has both acidic and basic pKa values
(b) isoelectric point – pH at which the net charge is zero
For example: H3 N +–Ala–Lys–Ala–Ala–COO–
pKa of the Alpha-carboxyl group = 3.6 pKa of the Alpha-amino group = 8.0
pKa of the delta-amino of the Lysine = 10.6
at pH = 1 the net charge is +2 at pH = 6 the net charge is +1
at pH = 14 the net charge is –1
the isoelectric point pI = (pKa2 + pKa3)/2 = (8 +10.6)/2 = 9.3
B. Nomenclature
1. Size
(a) dipeptide (2 aminoacids & 1 peptide bond), tripeptide (3 aminoacids & 2 peptide
bonds)
(b) oligopeptide – several amino acids (up to 20)
(c) polypeptides (more than 20 amino acids). All proteins are polypeptides
II. Physical Forces Governing Protein Conformation
A. Physical forces govern 3-D structure of proteins (Pauling and Corey)

1. bond lengths and angles should be distorted as little as possible
2. structures must follow Van der Waal’s rules for atomic radii
3. peptide bond is planar and trans
4. noncovalent bonding stabilizes structure
5. conformation can change without breaking bonds (flexibility)
B. Types of non-covalent forces important to protein conformation

1. Hydrophobic forces
(a) hydrophobic residues orient to inside
(b) hydrophilic residues orient out
2. Van der Waal’s potential:
includes electron shell repulsion, dispersion forces, and electrostatic interactions
3. Salt bridges, electrostatic forces
4. Hydrogen bonds
C. Angles of rotation of the polypeptide chain determine structure
1. angles of rotation around alpha-carbon are [y (psi) and j (phi)]

(a) y (psi) is the angle of the alpha-carbon bond to the carbonyl-carbon
(b) j (phi) is the angle of the alpha-carbon bond to the amide-nitrogen
2. primary sequence and angles of rotation for each alpha-carbon completely define
protein conformation
3. only a small number of psi and phi angles are allowed
4. statistical analysis of all proteins yields groups of prefered angles
(a) areas of repeating (psi) and (phi) angles are secondary structures
III. Levels of Protein Structure
A. Primary Structure – amino acid sequence of a polypeptide

1. primary structure determines 3-dimensional structure (Anfinsen)
2. always represented N H 2 -terminus to COOH-terminus
B. Secondary structure – regular local conformation of linear segments of the polypeptide

chain
1. Secondary structure are stabilized by hydrogen bonds between amide and carbonyl
groups
2. Several types of secondary structure
(a) alpha-helix
1. right handed helix
Biochemistry 95
2. 3.6 amino acids per turn, rise per helix 5.4 Å, rise per aminoacid 1.5 Å
3. carbonyl oxygen hydrogen bonded to 4th amide hydrogen (n®n+4)
4. amino acid R-groups orient out
5. proline breaks the helix
(b) beta-pleated sheet
(i) polypeptide chains side by side
(ii) polypeptide chains can be parallel or antiparallel
(iii) carbonyl oxygen hydrogen bonded to amide hydrogen
(iv) beta-strand is a single pass of the polypeptide
(c) reverse turn, beta-bend
(i) allows a sharp turn in polypeptide chain
(ii) carbonyl oxygen hydrogen bonded to 3rd amide hydrogen (n®n+3)
(iii) Glycine is required
3. Fibrous proteins demonstrate secondary structure
(a) Fibroin
(i) silk is fibroin
(ii) antiparallel-beta-pleated sheet
(b) alpha-Keratin and tropomyosin
(i) alpha-keratins in wool and hair and epidermal layer
(ii) tropomyosin is a thin filament in muscle
(iii) alpha-helix allows elasticity
(iv) alpha-keratin converts to beta-pleated sheet with heat or stretching
- disulfides are important to maintenance of keratin secondary structure
- alpha-keratins are beta-pleated sheets; feathers and claws
(c) Collagen
(i) structural protein; skin, bones
(ii) triple helix (not alpha-helix)
(iii) sequence (Gly-Xaa-Pro) ‘ x or (Gly-Xaa-HyPro) x
(iv) glycine required for triple helix to form, contains many modified amino
acids
(v) hydroxyproline stabilizes the structure, vitamin C required for hydroxylation;
scurvy
C. Tertiary structure – overall folded conformation of the polypeptide

1. Physical forces affect tertiary structure
(a) Hydrophobic forces - hydrophobic residues orient to inside & hydrophilic orient
out
(b) salt bridges, electrostatic forces
(c) Van der Waals radii
(d) Hydrogen bonds
(e) Disulfide bridges
D. Quaternary structure – subunit structure

1. aggregation of 2 or more subunits
(a) hetero- or homopolymers
2. same forces drive tertiary and quaternary structure
E. Structural elements
1. Sequence motif – small functional linear polypeptide sequence (may not be 3-D)
(a) signal peptide
(b) ER-retention signal
(c) mitochondrial and nuclear targeting signals
(d) RGD cell adhesion motif
2. Supersecondary structure (structural motif)
(a) smallest conformational unit (may be functional)
(b) exam p les àà (helix-loop-helix), hairpin, beta-barrels
- Rossman fold, a nucleotide binding site
- leucine zipper mediates transcription factor dimerization
- zinc finger is a DNA binding motif
3. Domain
(a) the part of a polypeptide chain that can independently fold into a tertiary structure
(b) often domains have units of function
(c) proteins may contain one or many domains
IV. Protein folding
A. Folding occurs step-wise with several intermediates unfolded/secondary structure/

domains/molten globule/native tertiary structure
1. a collapsed structure (molten globule) occurs very quickly
2. steps between molten globule and native tertiary structure usually occur slowly
(a) intermediates are isolatable
(b) multiple pathways are possible
B. Folding is driven by hydrophobic forces
C. Proteins can self assemble but in vivo folding is facilitated by proteins

1. Chaperones are binding proteins which assist folding
(a) chaperones cause misfolded protein to unfold rather than aggregate
(b) many chaperones require ATP hydrolysis for activity
(c) more than one chaperone may act simultaneously and sequentially in the folding
of a single protein
(d) chaperones are specific for specific protein synthesis pathways (cytosolic vs. mito.
vs. endoplasmic reticulum)
Biochemistry 97
2. Enzymes catalyze kinetically slow steps infolding

(a) cis-trans prolyl isomerase
(i) both cis and trans peptide bonds to proline naturally occur
(ii) the isomerization of peptidyl-proline bonds may be slow
(b) protein disulfide isomerase
(i) catalyzes disulfide bond formation and isomerization
D. Denaturation is unfolding
1. Requires some input to overcome hydrophobic forces
(a) heat
(b) denaturant (urea or guanidinium)
2. Requires reductant to reduce disulfide bridges to sulfhydryls
V. Analytical Techniques in Protein Biochemistry
A. Determination of Amino Acid Composition

1. Amino acid analysis provides % of each amino acid in protein
(a) Hydrolysis of polypeptide with 6N HCl
(b) Derivitization of amino acids with dansyl chloride PITC, or O-phthalaldehyde
(OPA)
(c) Liquid chromatographic separation of the tagged amino acids
(d) Quantitation
2. Composition of a protein can be used to identify a protein
B. Determination of primary sequence of a polypeptide

1. Preparation of peptides for sequencing
(a) Removal of disulfide bridges
(i) reducing agent ( -mercaptoethanol or dithiothreitol)
(ii) derivatize sulfhydryls to block disulfides from reoxidizing
(b) Digestion with cyanogen bromide
(i) CNBr cleaves at the carboxyl side of methionine residues
(c) Digestion with proteolytic enzymes
(i) use at least two different enzymes
(ii) overlapping enzymes allows determination of peptide sequence
(d) Separation of peptides
(i) peptides separated by chromatography
(ii) based on differences in ionic, polar, and/or hydrophobic characteristics
2. Edman degradation is used to sequentially determine aminoacid sequence
(a) PITC reacts with the N-terminal amino acid
(b) Strong acid cleaves the peptide bond between the 1st and 2nd amino acids
(c) Product is a PTH derivative of amino acid #1
(d) Determine identity of amino acid-PTH using HPLC chromatography

(e). Repeat steps a-d
Note: Edman degradation has limited success with very long polypeptides
C. Determination of Molecular Mass

1. Gel Filtration (Molecular exclusion chromatography)
(a) protein is loaded on a column of porous beads
(b) small molecules can enter the beads, large ones cannot
(c) an aqueous buffer moves the protein through the beads
2. SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE)
(a) protein is unfolded and coated with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) detergent
(b) proteins are loaded on an acrylamide gel matrix
(c) electricity moves the proteins through the matrix
(d) low molecular weight proteins move faster (farther)
(e) large molecules migrate faster because they bypass beads
D. X-ray Crystallography and NMR

1. Physical techniques to identify 3-D structure of a pure protein
2. Requires tremendous time, effort, and analytical resources
1. To understand the major structural features of immunoglobulins
2. To understand the interaction of immunoglobulins with antigens
3. To learn the major classes of immunoglobulins
4. To understand the analytical uses of immunoglobulins
DNA STRUCTURE
A. DNA is a polymer of deoxyribonucleotide monophosphates

1. bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine
2. linkage is through phosphodiester bonds; 5' and 3' ends
3. every DNA has a specific sequence of nucleotides—its primary structure—genetic
information is stored in the primary structure of DNA
B. Most DNA in a cell exists as the Watson-Crick double helix which is known as
B form DNA
Major features: right handed helix; bases on inside and sugar phosphate backbone on outside;
base pairs are formed through hydrogen bonding; A pairs with T; G pairs with C; bases are
perpendicular to the helical axis stacked on top of each other and interacting through hydrophobic
interactions and van der Waals interactions; 3.4 A per base pair; ~10 base pairs per helical
turn; strands are antiparallel; strands are complementary
• A form – having 11 base pairs (instead of 10 base pairs per turn), the base pairs are
not perpendicular to the axis, but are tilted.
Biochemistry 99
• C form – like B form, but having 9 base pairs per turn.

• D form – like B form, but have 8 base pairs per turn.
• Z-DNA–DNA with left handed coiling is called Z-DNA.
C. DNA supercoiling
1. a supercoil is when the double-helix twists around itself
2. supercoils can be positive or negative but natural DNAs exist in the negative
supercoiled form
3. DNA can be supercoiled if it is circular or if is linear and has fixed ends
4. supercoiled DNA is more compact than relaxed DNA
5. negatively supercoiled DNA molecules are easier to unwind than relaxed molecules
- DNA unwinding is required for replication and transcription
Topoisomerases are enzymes that catalyze changes in DNA supercoiling
1. Type I topoisomerases function by breaking a phosphodiester bond of one strand,
passing the other strand through the break and resealing the break—they can only
remove supercoils
2. Type II topoisomerases function by breaking both strands and passing a double
strand region through the break before resealing the break—require ATP
3. Topoisomerases are targets of numerous chemotherapeutic drugs: adriamycin, VP16
(tenoposide), VM26 (etoposide), camptothecin
D. Nucleases
Enzymes that catalyze hydrolysis of phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids
1. exonucleases cleave terminal nucleotides from either the 5' or 3' end of a polynucleotide
2. endonucleases cleave in the interior of nucleic acid molecule—restriction enzymes
are endonucleases that cleave at specific sequences of DNA
E. Denaturation and renaturation of DNA

1. denaturation is the conversion of the double stranded form of DNA into single stranded
form
(a) DNA can be denatured by heat or alkaline treatment
(b) The temperature at which half the DNA is unwound is defined as the melting
temperature (Tm)
–Tm is dependent on the GC content of the DNA, on the solvent, and on the
ionic strength
(c) Hyperchromic effect: On denaturation of dsDNA into SS DNA UV absorption
at 260 nm increases.
2. renaturation—under proper conditions, complementary single-stranded nucleic acids
can renature into a double-stranded form
3. denaturation/renaturation is the basis of hybridization experiments—this type of
analysis is central to recombinant DNA technology and gene manipulation
F. Packaging of DNA in eukaryotes

1. DNA is packaged in the nucleus as a nucleoprotein complex called chromatin
2. Levels of chromatin packaging:
(a) Nucleosomes: ~200 bp DNA and histones
(i) nucleosome core particles consist of ~140 bp of DNA wrapped around a
protein octamer consisting of 2 subunits each of histones H2A, H2B, H3,
and H4
(ii) linker DNA is the DNA between two core particles; histone H1 binds to the
linker DNA and the core particle
(b) 30 nm fiber (Solenoid): nucleosomes are wound into a solenoid-like structure—
requires histone H1 binding to every linker DNA
3. chromatin is the template for replication and transcription and the substrate for
DNA repair and recombination
DNA REPLICATION
A. DNA replication is semiconservative

B. DNA replication is (usually) bidirectional
C. Chain growth occurs by addition of deoxynucleotidyl monomers to the end of a DNA
chain
1. DNA is always synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction
2. This reaction is carried out by DNA polymerases
(a) general requirements of DNA polymerases
(i) deoxynucleotide triphosphates (dATP, dGTP, dCTP, TTP)
(ii) DNA template
(iii) a primer chain with a free 3'-OH—note that DNA polymerases cannot
start with a single nucleotide
D. At a replication fork one of the new strands is synthesized in a continuous manner
(the leading strand) and the other is synthesized in a discontinuous manner (the
lagging strand)
E. Molecular events of DNA replication (E. coli chromosomal replication)
1. Initiation
(a) an initiator protein (dnaA protein in E. coli) binds to an origin of replication
and “melts” a short DNA sequence —an origin is a unique site on the
chromosome where replication begins, it consists of binding sites for the
initiator protein and a flanking AT-rich sequence
(b) helicase (dnaB/dnaC complex) binds to melted region and further unwinds
parental strands
(c) SSB (single-strand binding protein) binds to unwound region to prevent
reannealing and stabilize the single-stranded form at the replication fork
(d) an RNA primer is synthesized by primase (primase is part of a multi-protein
complex called the primosome)
(e) DNA polymerase III (holoenzyme) is assembled
Biochemistry 101
2. Elongation
(a) DNA polymerase III extends RNA primers
(b) helicase continues to unwind parental DNA strands ahead of polymerase
(i) the leading strand continues uninterrupted (DNA pol III has high
processivity)
(ii) on the lagging strand, approximately 1000 bp are replicated before
primase must synthesize a new RNA primer to be elongated by DNA
pol III. —Okazaki fragments
3. DNA polymerase I (in E. coli)
Klenov fragment have 5’®3’ polymerase (fills in the gap) and 3’®5’
Exonuclease activity (Proofreading activity). Another unit removes RNA
primer (5'-3' exonuclease activity) and
4. DNA ligase
Seals the nicks—E. coli DNA ligase requires NAD+ and Bacteriophage l
requires ATP
5. Termination of replication takes place within a region of the circular E. coli
chromosome called ter
F. The replisome is a large multiprotein “machine” that is thought to replicate both the
leading and lagging strand simultaneously
G. Proofreading: Pol III (and Pol I) has 3'—5' exonuclease activity —if incorrect base is
inserted it can back up 1 nucleotide and then continue polymerization
H. DNA replication in eukaryotes
1. enzymatically the mechanism is basically the same as in prokaryotes
2. each chromosome has multiple origins
3. DNA is replicated only during S phase of the cell cycle and only once during each
cell cycle
4. the substrate (template) for replication is chromatin
5. a special enzyme called telomerase is necessary for replicating the ends of linear
chromosomes
(a) the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes are called telomeres and are made up
of short repetitive sequences
(b) telomerase is an enzyme that contains both protein and RNA components
(c) the RNA component is used as a template to synthesize new telomere repeats
(d) telomerase and cancer
DNA REPAIR
A. DNA damage caused by ultraviolet light

1. cyclobutane-type pyrimidine dimer is the major photoproduct formed
2. a second product, the 6-4 photoproduct, is formed in about 10 % of UV induced
pyrimidine dimers
3. the cyclobutane type dimer can be reversed by a process called photoreactivation
(a) this is carried out by an enzyme called DNA photolyase (photoreactivating

enzyme)
(b) importance of the photolyase enzyme in humans is questionable
4. DNA photoproducts can also be repaired by excision repair
B. Spontaneous deamination of cytosine

1. deamination of cytosine is common and results in the conversion of cytosine to uracil
2. can be repaired by excision repair process
(i) uracil-DNA glycosylase hydrolyzes N-glycosidic bond to remove uracil base
(ii) AP endonuclease removes deoxyribose-phosphate
(iii) gap is extended by exonuclease
(iv) gap is filled by DNA polymerase I and nick is sealed by DNA ligase
C. Depurination
Pathway is similar to that above except that excision repair begins with AP endonuclease
D. DNA damaged by alkylating agents

1. Some simple alkylating agents:
2. examples of products of alkylating agents:
3. many of these products can be repaired by excision repair that is initiated by specific
glycosylases
4. some damage resulting from methylation can be reversed by methyltransferases
(a) O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase
E. Mismatch repair
1. mismatches can occur when DNA polymerase inserts the wrong nucleotide during
replication
2. mismatch repair is “coupled” to replication
3. How do the mismatch repair enzymes distinguish which base is incorrect?
(a) parental DNA is methylated—in E. coli an enzyme called Dam methylase
methylates the C in both strands at the sequence GATC
(b) immediately after replication only the parental strands are methylated (the DNA
is hemimethylated)
4. the defective gene in one form of hereditary colon cancer was recently found to be
the human homologue of mutS
F. Recombinational repair
1. occurs during DNA replication
2. major steps:
(a) DNA polymerase skips over damaged DNA leaving a gap opposite the lesion
(b) the undamaged parental strand recombines into the gap (this is facilitated by
recA protein in E. coli)
(c) the new gap in the parental strand is filled by DNA polymerase and ligase
Biochemistry 103
G. Genetic Defects in DNA repair and human disease

1. Xeroderma pigmentosum is an inherited disease that is characterized by severe
photosensitivity and a very high incidence of skin cancers. It is due to defective
excision repair.
2. Bloom’s syndrome.
3. Cockayne’s syndrome
4. Fanconi’s anemia
5. Ataxia telangiectasia
RNA STRUCTURE, TRANSCRIPTION, RNA PROCESSING
I. Structure of RNA
A. RNA is a polymer of ribonucleotide monophosphates
1. purine bases are adenine and guanine; pyrimidine bases are cytosine and uracil
2. RNA molecules can have extensive secondary structure
(a) intramolecular base pairing
(b) regions of base pairing in RNA form an A-type double helix
(c) many secondary structures of RNA have defined functional roles
II. Classes of RNA molecules

A. Messenger RNA (mRNA): transcribed by RNA polymerase II in eukaryotes; encode
proteins
B. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
1. 18 S, 28 S, and 5.8 S rRNAs are transcribed by RNA polymerase I in eukaryotes
2. 5 S RNA is another type of RNA associated with ribosomes but is transcribed by
RNA polymerase III in eukaryotes
3. rRNA serve structural and catalytic roles in ribosomes
C. Transfer RNA (tRNA): transcribed by RNA polymerase III in eukaryotes.
Note: all three types of RNA’s above are transcribed by the same RNA polymerase in prokaryotes
D. Numerous other small RNA’s are also found in cells—in eukaryotic cells these can be
put into two general classes: snRNA = small nuclear RNA & scRNA = small cytoplasmic
RNA
1. snRNA’s and scRNA’s are found complexed with proteins and carried a variety of
cellular functions (snRNP and scRNP)
III. Transcription
A. RNA molecules are transcribed from a DNA template by RNA polymerases
B. requirements for RNA polymerases: DNA template, ATP, GTP, CTP, UTP, Mg++ (no
primer is necessary for RNA polymerase)
C. chain growth is from 5' to 3'

D. General mechanism of transcription
IV. RNA synthesis in bacteria

A. Steps of transcription
1. Initiation
(a) RNA polymerase binds to DNA and migrates to the promoter
(i) a promoter is a specific DNA sequence that contains a site for transcriptional
initiation—E. coli promoter contain a -10 region and a -35 region that are
important in binding polymerase
(ii) specific interaction between the promoter and RNA polymerase requires
sigma factor
(iii) initial complex between polymerase and promoter is called the closed
complex
(b) RNA polymerase unwinds ~18 bp forming an open complex
(c) first nucleotide, which is almost always a purine, interacts with the open complex
by binding to polymerase and base pairing with the complementary nucleotide
in the template strand
2. Elongation
(a) the second nucleotide binds to the polymerase-template complex and a
phosphodiester bond is formed
(b) sigma factor is released and polymerase moves down the template, unwinding
the template and catalyzing the addition of each successive nucleotide
(c) approximately 12 nucleotides of the growing RNA chain are base paired with the
DNA template during the elongation phase
3. Termination
(a) Termination requires special termination signals
(i) rho-independent termination
(ii) rho-dependent termination
B. Inhibitors of bacterial RNA synthesis

1. actinomycin D—binds to DNA by intercalating between base pairs
2. rifampicin (rifamycin)—binds to the beta subunit of bacterial RNA polymerase
- also inhibits mitochondrial RNA polymerase
- used to treat tuberculosis which is resistant to most other antibiotics
V. DNA synthesis in eukaryotes

A. transcription and processing of mRNA
1. most transcription units have exons and introns
2. Initiation of transcription by RNA polymerase II
(a) polymerase II does not recognize a specific sequence in the promoter; it is
positioned at the correct site by interaction with transcription factors
Biochemistry 105
(b) many genes contain a sequence called the TATA box approximately 30 bp upstream
from the transcriptional start site; a transcription factor named TFIID specifically
binds to the TATA box to help position the polymerase at the initiation site.
Some genes lack a TATA box but also utilize a sequence-specific transcription
factor to target polymerase to the initiation site.
3. Capping of the 5' end of the transcript
(a) very soon after the transcript is initiated a 7-methylguanosine “cap” is added to
the 5' end of the transcript by guanosyl transferase
(b) 7mG cap is an important signal for the translation process and may also help
protect the message from degradation
4. Polyadenylation by Poly (A) polymerase
(a) the 3' end of (most) transcripts is modified by polyadenylation
(b) the poly A tail is usually about 200-250 nucleotides
(c) the poly A tail is not encoded by the gene but is added post-transcriptionally
(d) polyadenylation requires a specific sequence (AAUAAA) in the mRNA
(e) no specific termination signal is known for eukaryotic genes and transcription
proceeds past the polyadenylation signal
5. mRNA splicing
(a) intron sequences are removed from primary transcripts by a process called splicing
(b) splicing requires consensus splicing signals at the 5' and 3' ends of the intron, a
consensus branch point 10-40 bases upstream of the 3' end of the intron
(c) splicing is carried out by a large complex called the spliceosome—the spliceosome
is assembled from small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP’s)
B. Synthesis and processing of rRNA in eukaryotes

1. rRNA is synthesized in the nucleolus by RNA polymerase I
2. genes for rRNA’s are found in multiple copies in tandem arrays on the chromosome
3. all three major ribosomal RNA’s (28S, 18S, 5.8S) are synthesized as part of the same
precursor transcript which is processed by a series of cleavage steps to produce the
mature rRNA’s
4. assembly of rRNA’s and ribosomal proteins into large and small ribosomal subunits
also takes place in the nucleolus
C. Synthesis and processing of tRNA

1. synthesized by RNA polymerase III in eukaryotes
2. primary transcript is a precursor that generally has extra nucleotides on both the 5'
and 3' ends; some tRNA genes also have introns but splicing is by a completely different
mechanism than with mRNA
3. the extra nucleotides are removed from the ends and then 3 nucleotides (CCA, these
are not encoded by the gene) are added to the 3' end post-transcriptionally
4. the bases of tRNAs undergo extensive post-transcriptional modification, up to 10 % of
the nucleotides can be modified
5. mature tRNAs have extensive secondary and tertiary structure that is important for
their function
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
I. Overview of Translation
A. Translation is the process by which a polypeptide chain is synthesized by ribosomes
using the sequence of codons in an mRNA to direct the sequence of amino acids.
B. Translation is the ultimate step in gene expression.
C. The energy cost for protein synthesis is very high.
1. Only a small fraction of the energy input of translation is needed to form the
peptide bond.
2. The majority of energy is invested to assure that the sequence of the polypeptide
is correct.
3. If incorrect polypeptides (e.g. enzymes) are made by the cell, it could have
devastating effects on cell function.
D. The mRNA is always read from 5' to 3'.
E. The polypeptide is always synthesized in the direction of amino-terminus to carboxyl-
terminus.
II. Components of Translation

A. mRNA
The mRNA serves at the template that will determine the sequence of amino acids in the new
polypeptide.
1. Structure of mRNA
(a) 5' untranslated region (5' UTR).
(i) This is the sequence of the mRNA extending from the 5' end of the mRNA
to the initiation codon.
(ii) It is not translated into polypeptide sequence.
(iii) It has a function analogous to the function of a promoter on a gene. It will
direct the binding of the ribosome to the initiation codon.
(b) Initiation codon
(i) This is the triplet codon at which polypeptide synthesis begins.
(ii) It is always AUG and codes for a methionine.
(iii) As a result, all polypeptides are synthsized with an amino-terminal
methionine.
(c) Coding region
(i) This is the sequence of mRNA that contains the consecutive triplet codons
that direct polypeptide synthesis.
(ii) This region spans from the start codon to the stop codon.
(iii) The coding region is often referred to as the open reading frame or ORF.
(d) Stop codon
(i) This is the triplet codon that signals the termination of translation.
(ii) There are three possible stop codon sequences: UAA, UAG, UGA.
(iii) Stop codons have no corresponding tRNA or amino acid.
Biochemistry 107
(e) 3' untranslated region (3' UTR)

(i) This is the nucleotide sequence downstream from the stop codon.
(ii) It extends from the stop codon to the 3' end of the mRNA
(iii) It does not code for amino acid sequence.
(iv) It may function in stabilizing the mRNA.
B. tRNA
1. The function of tRNA is deliver the correct amino acid to the ribosome as directed by
the codon on the mRNA for incorporation into the polypeptide.
2. The tRNA has two important functional features
(a) A tRNA is covalently bound to an amino acid at its 3' end.
(i) This form of tRNA is called an amino acyl tRNA.
(ii) Each tRNA will be bound to only one of the twenty possible amino acids.
However, there can be multiple tRNAs for each amino acid.
(b) The tRNA contains a triplet sequence of nucleotides that are complementary to
the triplet codons of the mRNA. This sequence is called the anti-codon.
(i) The covalently bound amino acid and the anti-codon strictly correspond to
one another.
(ii) As a result, the pairing of codon of the mRNA and the anti-codon of the
amino acyl-tRNA during translation will deliver the correct amino acid to
the growing polypeptide chain.
3. Structure of tRNA
(a) Cloverleaf structure
(i) 73-93 bases in length
(ii) Many unusual bases (Psuedo Uracil, Thymine, Dihdroxy Uracil etc.)
(iii) The nucleotides form many intra-chain base pairs, resulting in a
secondary structure that resembles a cloverleaf.
(b) Acceptor Stem
(i) This is a region of the tRNA that is the site of attachment for the appropriate
amino acid.
(ii) It is formed by seven regular Watson & Crick base pairs between the 5' and
3' ends of the tRNA.
(iii) The 3' terminal end of all tRNAs is always CCA-OH.
(a) It is not base paired and is the site of attachment of the amino acid.
(b) The amino acid is covalently bound through an ester linkage between
the carboxyl group of the amino acid and the 3' hydroxyl group of the
ribose of the tRNA.
(c) Anticodon Loop
(i) The anti-codon loop contains the three nucleotide sequence that is the reverse
complement of the codon of mRNA to which it corresponds.
(ii) It consists of a total of seven unpaired bases; three of which are the anti-
codon.
4. Wobble Hypothesis
(a) Four common bases in mRNA can be arranged in 43 or 64 different combinations
(b) How does this relate to the 20 aa’s available for translation?
(i) Genetic code is redundant

(a) 3 codons used as stops UAA, UAG, UGA.
(b) 61 available as codons
(c) 1965, Francis Crick proposed the Wobble Hypothesis to account for this
inconsistency
(i) Codons in mRNA and anti-codons interact in an anti-parallel manner at the
ribosome so that positions 1 and 2 of the codon form normal Watson-Crick
base pairs.
(ii) The third position allows non-standard base pairing or wobble.
(d) Consequences: Different anti-codons can pair with one codon.
C. Ribosome
1. Performs 3 essential functions
(a) Selection of mRNA initiation site.
(b) Ensures correct pairing of codons and anticodons.
(c) Catalyzes formation of peptide bonds.
2. Ribosomes are large protein-RNA complexes that are divided into a large and small
subunit.
(a) Large subunit.
(i) In prokaryotes this subunit is called the 50S subunit.
(ii) In eukaryotes this subunit is called the 60S subunit.
(iii) It contains the active site for catalyzing polypeptide bond formation. This
enzyme within the ribosome is called the peptidyl transferase.
(b) Small subunit
(i) In prokaryotes this subunit is called the 30S subunit.
(ii) In eukaryotes this subunit is called the 40S subunit.
(iii) It is primarily responsible for positioning the ribosome at the intitiation
codon and pairing codon and anti-codon during synthesis.
III. Mechanism of Translation

A. Three steps in translation process
1. Initiation– The small and large subunits of the ribosome bind at the initiation codon
and the methionine-tRNA anticodon pairs with the start codon.
2. Elongation– The ribosome proceeds down the mRNA one triplet codon at a time,
positioning the correct amino acyl-tRNA with the codon, and catalyzing polypeptide
synthesis.
3. Termination– The ribosome encounters a stop codon. The polypeptide, tRNA, and
mRNA are released. The small and large subunits dissociate from one another.
B. Prokaryotic translation
1. Initiation– three steps to initiation
(a) mRNA binds to 30S.
(i) Ribosome aligned by base pairing of a region of 16S rRNA of the 30S
ribosomal subunit to a region on the mRNA 6-10 bases upstream of the
initiation codon.
Biochemistry 109
(ii) The region is called theShine/Dalgarno sequence.

(b) Methionyl-tRNA binds to 30S-mRNA complex.
(i) First aa-tRNA is positioned complementary to the first codon by the 30S
ribosomal subunit.
(ii) In prokaryotes the first amino acyl-tRNA is always formyl methionyl tRNA
(fMet-tRNAfMet)
(iii) Therefore, all proteins in prokaryotes are synthesized with formyl
methionine as their first amino acid.
(iv) This complex is called the 30S pre-initiation complex.
(c) 50S subunit binds to 30S-tRNA-mRNA complex.
(i) This complex is called the initiation complex.
(ii) Two sites for amino acyl-tRNA binding on 50S subunit.
(a) The peptidyl site or P-site. This is the site where the growing
polypeptide will be anchored to the ribosome. The polypeptide is held
in place by covalent attachment of its carboxyl-terminal amino acid to
its corresponding tRNA. This is called the peptidyl-tRNA.
(b) The amino acyl site or A-site. This is the site adjacent to the P-site
where the next amino acyl-tRNA will bind at the ribosome. It is
positioned directly over the triplet codon to allow codon-anticodon
pairing.
(iii) At initiation, fMet-tRNA is in the P-site and the 2nd codon is positioned at
the A-site.
2. Elongation
(a) Three reactions
(i) Binding of aa-tRNA to A-site
(a) Specificity determined by codon, anticodon pairing.
(b) GTP is hydrolyzed at the ribosome is pairing is correct.
(c) GTP hydrolysis is part of proofreading.
(d) If anti-codon and codon are completely non-complementary, amino
acyl-tRNA will not bind to ribosome.
(e) If complement is sufficient, binding and GTP hydrolysis occur.
(f) If complement is not perfect, the ribosome will reject the amino acyl-
tRNA.
(g) Hydrolysis of GTP must occur before the next step in translation can
occur.
(ii) Transpeptidation
(a) Transfer of the growing polypeptide from peptidyl tRNA at the P-site
to the amino acyl-tRNA at the A-site.
(b) The ester bond between the peptide and tRNA of the peptidyl-tRNA is
broken and the carboxyl-terminus of the peptide reacts with the amino
group of the amino acid of the amino acyl-tRNA to form a peptide bond
at the A-site. The hydrolysis of the ester bond provides sufficient
energy to drive peptide bond formation.
(c) Catalyzed by peptidyl transferase.
(iii) Translocation
(a) Movement of peptidyl-tRNA from A-site to the P-site and release of
deacylated tRNA from the P-site.
(b) Also requires GTP hydrolysis.
(iv) Steps in elongation are repeated until a stop codon is reached.
(v) Many ribosomes at various stages of translation can be bound to a single
mRNA.
(a) This structure is called a polysome.
(b) As a result many polypeptides are synthesized simultaneously from a
single mRNA.
3. Termination
(a) When the ribosome encounters a UGA, UAG or UAA codon, no amino acid is
added to the polypeptide. These codons are called termination codons.
(b) Termination also requires release factors.
(c) Function of release factors
(i) Catalyze hydrolysis of peptidyl tRNA
(ii) Promote dissociation of 50S subunit
(d) 30S dissociates or moves to the next start codon on the polycistronic mRNA.
C. Eukaryotic translation
1. Several differences from prokaryotes in the initiation stage.
(a) Initiation takes place at 1st AUG on the mRNA within Kozak Sequence
(CCRCCAUGG).
(b) Methionyl-tRNAmet is used to initiate translation.
(c) There is no Shine/Dalgarno sequence in eukaryotes. The 40S Rb binds to the 5'
cap structure of the mRNA and scans to kozak sequence.
(d) Initiation complete with association of 60S subunit.
2. Elongation and termination are very similar in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
IV. Energetics of Translation

A. High energy bonds for synthesis of polypeptide chain of (N) amino acid residues
N ATP to charge tRNA
1 GTP for initiation
N-1 GTP for binding of aa-tRNA to A-site
N-1 GTP for translocation step
1 GTP for termination
Sum: 3N
300 aa protein requires 900 high energy bonds; Each bond is 7.5 kcal/mol
900 bonds × 7.5 kcal/bond = 6,750 kcal/mol polypeptide
22.5 kcal/bond
Free energy of peptide bond hydrolysis is –0.5 kcal/mol
At 10% energy conversion, –5 kcal would be sufficient to form a peptide bond.
Biochemistry 111
B. High price paid for synthesizing a defined sequence.

1. Random polymerization is cheaper
2. Only one high energy bond is involved in peptide bond formation
3. Cells need to proofread to insure defined sequence.
4. The ultimate step in gene expression must be correct.
METABOLIC INTERRELATIONSHIPS
I. Review of digestion
A. Carbohydrates, Proteins hydrolyzed and circulated as monomers
1. N a+ dependent uptake into intestinal cells
2. Intestinal cells ® blood ® liver ®
3. Insulin stimulates uptake
B. Fat digestion different from CHO, Protein
1. requires bile salts; Vit. A, E, and K fat soluble
2. breakdown, resynthesis of triglycerides in mucosal cells
3. chylomicrons ® LYMPH, by-passing liver
4. Medium Chain Fatty Acids enter blood directly as free fatty acids
5. Liver takes up VLDL remnants, LDL, resynthesizes VLDL
6. Role of specific apolipoproteins
(a) A-I activates HDL-LCAT (Lecithin-Cholest. Acyl transferase)
(b) B-48, B100, E for CM, VLDL, LDL receptors
(c) C-II activates Lipo Protein Lipase (LPL)
7. Effects of intracellular cholesterol
(a) directly inhibits and decreases synthesis rate of HMG-CoA Reductase
(b) decreases rate of synthesis of LDL receptors
(c) stimulates Acyl-CoA Cholesterol Acyl Transferase (ACAT)
II. Review of Metabolism, Regulation

A. Glycolysis, Gluconeogenesis
1. PFK-2 regulation:
(a) cAMP-dependent PK inhibits it in liver
(b) cAMP-dependent PK activates it in heart
(c) cAMP-dependent PK has no effect in skeletal muscle
2. Futile cycles and regulation
B. Glycogenesis, Glycogenolysis: Ca++, cAMP-dependent phosphorylations
C. Fatty acid oxidation, fatty acid synthesis
1. cAMP ®® Hormone Sensitive Lipase, Acetyl CoA Carboxylase
2. Malonyl CoA blocks CAT transporter of FA into mitochondrion
D. Citric Acid Cycle
1. NADH/NAD+ ratio
2. Ca++ activates ICDH, a-KGDH, PDH

3. [Oxaloacetate] often limiting
E. Oxidative Phosphorylation
1. ATP/ADP,Pi “Mass action ratio” controls (DGATP)
2. ATP synthesis in equilibrium with Proton Motive Force (PMF)
F. Pentose Phosphate Pathway
1. Important source of NADPH, pentoses
2. [NADPH]/[NADP+] ratio controls oxidative steps
3. Pentose-P / Hexose-P ratio controls reversible steps
G. Amino acid synthesis, degradation
1. Both require aminotransferases, glutamic dehydrogenase
2. Ala, Gln major amino acids for N transport in blood
3. Gln, Asp major Nitrogen sources for biosynthesis of other compounds (urea,
purines, pyrimidines, Asn, etc.)
III. Metabolic Division of Labor among Major Organs

A. Liver
1. Major producer of fuel for other tissues: glucose, ketone bodies, VLDL
2. Uses glucose (fed), fatty acids (fasted), and amino acids as fuel (either)
(a) Essential amino acids catabolized only when in excess (high Km enz.)
(b) BCAA ® muscle catabolism
(c) gluconeogenesis from amino acids requires urea synthesis
(d) gluconeogenesis driven by energy from fatty acid oxidation
B. Adipose
1. The major triacylglycerol (and calories) store
2. One of the major fates for excess dietary fats
3. Synthesis and breakdown of triglycerides under hormonal control
4. Synthesis requires glucose (NADPH via PPP; glycerol phosphate)
5. Hormone sensitive lipase (cAMP) releases FA, glycerol
C. Skeletal muscle
1. Fuel preference: Fatty acids > ketone bodies > glucose; BCAA
2. Glucose and glycogen primary fuel during exertion
3. Early starvation (first few days): muscle protein is broken down for energy throughout
body and for gluconeogenesis (liver)
4. Muscle releases amino groups as ALA, GLN
5. As ketone bodies from liver rise, muscle proteolysis shut off
D. Heart
1. Heart has more mitochondria per gm of tissue than muscle, liver
Biochemistry 113
2. Fuel preference: Fatty acids > ketone bodies > glucose

3. Negligible stores of glycogen or triglycerides: requires continual supply of fuels from
blood (glucose, fatty acids, lactate, ketone bodies)
E. Brain
1. Glucose preferred substrate (60% of total glucose consumption at rest)
2. Long term fasting: adapts to ketone bodies as fuel (rate depends on conc.)
F. Other tissues
1. Intestinal cells:
(a) Metabolize ASP, ASN, GLU, GLN for energy
(b) Release citrulline, proline, NH3 , and ala
2. Kidney
(a) Citrulline from intestinal cells used to make ARG
(b) Long term fasting – significant gluconeogenesis
(c) In acidosis, GLN ® ALA + NH4 + (excreted) + HCO3 – (retained)
3. Red blood cells: GLUCOSE, GLUCOSE, GLUCOSE
Some Commonly Used Inhibitors of Protein Synthesis

Inhibitor Subunit Step(s) Reaction Affected Cell Type
or Factor Blocked Affected
Affected
Aurintricarboxylic 30S/40S Initiation Binding of m-RNA Prokaryotes/

acid Eukaryotes
Chloramphenicol 50 S Elongation Peptide bond Formation Prokaryotes
Colcicin E3 30S Initiation Binding of m-RNA Prokaryotes
Elongation Binding of aminoacyl t-RNA
Cyclohexamide 60S Initiation Binding of Initiator t-RNA Eukaryotes

Elongation Translocation (t-RNA release
from P Site)
Diptheria Toxin eEF-2 Elongation Translation Eukaryotes
Erthromycin 50 S Initiation Formation of Initiation complex Prokaryotes
Fusidic Acid EF-G/eEF-2 Elongation Translocation Prokaryotes/
Eukaryotes
Kasugamycin 30 S Initiation Binding of initiator t-RNA Prokaryotes
Puromycin 50S/60S Elongation Peptide bond formation (Trigger Prokaryotes/
immature chain release) Eukaryotes
Spectinomycin 30 S Elongation Translocation Prokaryotes
Streptomycin 30 S Initiation Binding if Initiator t-RNA Prokaryotes
Elongation Binding of aminoacyl t-RNA
(Induced Misreading)
Tetracycline 30 S Elongation Binding of aminoacyl t-RNA Prokaryotes
Termination Binding of RF-1 and RF-2
1. The pH of the blood is maintained by

(a) mineral salts (b) globulins
(c) albumins (d) haemoglobin
2. A protein having both structural and enzymatic traits is

(a) actin (b) haemoglobin
(c) myosin (d) myoglobin
3. Potassium cyanide stops cell activity by

(a) preventing diffusion of O2
(b) blocking trachea
(c) preventing transfer of electrons from cytochrome a3 to O2
(d) coagulating protein carriers
4. Successful Replication of chromosomes does not require the presence of

(a) Ribosomes (b) DNA Template
(c) Nuclear enzymes (d) ATP
5. In a diluted starch solution, a-salivary amylase is added at pH 1.6 and kept at 35°C for
half an hour and then Iodine solution is added. What would be the result?
(a) no black colour will appear
(b) black colour will appear
(c) solution will be clear and colourless
(d) solution will be sweet
6. An amino acid devoid of a free-COOH group can be an

(a) Amine (b) Amide
(c) Imine (d) Purine
7. The most striking example of an unique point mutation is found in a disease called
(a) Night blindness (b) Thalassemia
(c) Down syndrome (d) Sickle cell anaemia
8. For the formation of one molecule of hexose sugar, how many turns of Calvin cycle
are needed ?
(a) Six (b) One
(c) Thirty-six (d) One-sixth
9. The hormone that controls pulse rate and blood pressure is

(a) vasopressin (b) oxytocin
(c) adrenalin (d) thyroxine
Practice Test Paper–Biochemistry 115
10. The maximum number of Hydrogen bonds in which water molecule can participate
is?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
11. Denaturation of proteins leads to loss of biological activity by
(a) formation of amino acid
(b) loss of primary structure
(c) loss of both primary and secondary structure
(d) loss of secondary and tertiary structure
12. The pKa of acetic acid is 4.76. What is the pH of 0.1 M solution of acetic acid?
(a) 5.76 (b) 2.88
(c) 2.43 (d) 1.88
13. 40 g of ice at 0 °C and 80 g water at 40 oC are mixed thoroughly, the temperature of

the mixture will be
(a) 0° C (b) 10 °C
(c) 20 °C (d) 30 °C
14. Galactose and Mannose are two isomeric monosaccharides, which are
(a) Enantiomers (b) Epimers
(c) Anomers (d) Diastereoisorners
15. Proteins absorbs maximally UV radiation at 280 nm due to the presence of

(a) Tryptophan (b) Tyrosine
(c) Phenyl alanine (d) All of the above
16. Which one of the following solutions will have the least Osmotic Pressure?
(a) 0.5 M glucose (b) 0.5 M NaCl
(c) 0.5 M Na2 SO4 (d) 0.499 M Starch
17. The free energy change (DG)at the midpoint of helix-coil transition in DNA melting
curve is equal to
(a) zero (b) 1.0
(c) –1.0 (d) indeterminate
18. DNA is usually dissolved in TRIS-EDTA buffer, EDTA is added to ensure that
(a) DNA is not degraded by nucleases
(b) Divalent metal ions are chelated
(c) Both of the above
(d) pH is kept alkaline
19. Two proteins have same molecular weight and same isoelectric point. The best way
to resolve them will be by
(a) Ion Exchange Chromatography
(b) Gel Filtration Chromatography
(c) Reverse Phase Chromatography
(d) Chromatofocussing
20. Mark the incorrect statement: Ribozyme and Abzyme are

(a) both enzymes
(b) both proteins
(c) RNA and protein respectively
(d) able to hydrolyse phosphodiester and peptide bonds respectively
21. DNA sequencing is done on a sequencing gel, which is

(a) SDS-PAGE (b) Urea-PAGE
(c) Native PAGE (d) Agarose
22. The digestion of lipid takes place in small intestine by lipases, However, it does not
occur till bile fluid mixes with the food. This mixing up of food with bile juice is
essential for digestion of lipids because
(a) lipases present in the intestine require another coenzyme present in the bile
juice for its functioning
(b) Emulsification is must for fats to be digested and for lipases to act upon lipids
(c) lipase can only act at alkaline pH
(d) None of the above
23. Mark the Incorrect statement:

(a) Endocrine signaling is relatively slow because it depends on diffusion and blood
flow
(b) If the same hormone has different effects on different target organs, the receptor
are usually different
(c) Water soluble hormones interact with cell surface receptors, whereas lipid soluble
hormones usually bind to intracellular receptors
(d) The specificity of hormone signaling depends on responsive cells possessing
receptors that bond the hormone tightly by means of multiple weak bonds.
24. Silencers are located to upstream of transcription start site and function-
(a) in both the orientation (b) in forward orientation
(c) in reverse orientation (d) None of the above
25. The renaturation of the genome is a random collision of complementary sequences

and follows
(a) first order kinetics (b) second order kinetics
(c) third order kinetics (d) None of the above
26. Which one of the following electrophoresis dependents least on the charge of the
protein?
(a) Free zone capillary electrophoresis
(b) Gel electrophoresis
(c) SDS-polycrylamide gel electrophoresis
(d) Isoelectric focussing
27. Which one of the following compound has the highest group transfer potential for
phosphate ?
(a) Glucose-6-phosphate (b) Fructose-1, 6-diphosphate
(c) 2-phosphoenolpyruvate (d) Adenosine triphosphate
28. Which one of the following sets of glycolytic enzymes is allosterically regulated?
(a) Glucokinase, phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase
(b) Hexokinase, aldolase and pyruvate kinase
(c) Phosphofructokinase, enolase and pyruvate kinase
(d) Hexokinase, phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase
29. Which one of the following compounds is required for acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl
CoA)to enter the citric acid cycle?
(a) Isocitrate (b) Malate
(c) Oxaloacetate (d) Pyruvate
30. Which one of the following DNA polymerase is essential for both the replication and
repair of DNA?
(a) DNA polymerase I (b) DNA polymerase II
(c) DNA polymerase III (d) DNA polymerase d
31. The factor required only for accurate initiations of transcription in prokaryotes is
(a) alpha (a) (b) beta (b)
(c) rho (r) (d) sigma (s)
32. A post-transcriptional processing event that occurs in the formation of both messenger
RNA (mRNA)and transfer RNA (t-RNA) in eukaryotes is
(a) the addition of the sequence CCA to 3' ends
(b) the removal of introns by splicing
(c) the modification of some of their bases
(d) cleavage event before polyadenylation
33. Eukaryotic mRNAs differ from Prokaryotic mRNAs in that
(a) they do not have a 5' untranslated region
(b) their coding regions are separated by spacers
(c) they do not have 3' UTR
(d) they have a free 3' hydroxy group on each of their ends
34. Degeneracy of the genetic code means that
(a) a given base triplet can code for more than one amino acid
(b) there is no punctuation in the code sequence
(c) the third base in a codon is net important for coding
(d) a given amino acid can be coded for by more than one base triplet
35. Which one of the following sequences is most likely to be a restriction enzyme
recognition site?
(a) CGGC (b) CGC
(c) GTAATG (d) GTCGAC
36. Which step is the first in the formation of a double stranded complementary DNA
(c DNA) target for cloning?
(a) blunt end ligation
(b) DNA dependent DNA synthesis
(c) Restriction enzyme cleavage
(d) Primer annealing
37. Cyclic AMP regulates the lactose (lac)operon by

(a) binding to the operator to turn on transcription
(b) binding to the lac repressor to prevent transcription
(c) combining with the catabolitic activator protein (CAP) to form a complex that
enhances transcriptions upon binding to the promotor .
(d) combining with the CAP to remove CAP’s inhibition of transcription
38. A 4 Kb covalently closed circular (ccc) plasmid has 2 (two) sites for a restriction enzyme
1 kb apart. It is partially digested by the enzyme. The maximum number of bands
that could be seen on a gel will be
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
39. In an enzyme reaction the reaction velocity becomes more than double when the
substrate concentration is doubled. This is possible when the equation governing the
kinetics is
(a) Michelis-Menton Kinetics
(b) Micheils-Menton Kinetics with substrate inhibition
(c) Michelis-Menton Kinetics with product inhibition
(d) Hill Equation
40. A mixture separated on HPLC gives clearly defined peaks whereas in a manually run
column the peaks tend to blend into each other. This is primarily because
(a) the small size of the packing material used in the HPLC column
(b) the better control of flow in HPLC
(c) the use of high pressure in HPLC
(d) the use of better detection systems in HPLC
41. Which is true about enzymes,
(a) they always increase rate of reaction
(b) they always decrease rate of reaction
(c) they do not disturb the equilibrium
(d) Always carry irreversible reactions
42. Linkage present in cellulose molecule is

(a) b (1 ® 4) (b) a ( 1 ® 4)
(c) a (1 ® 6) (d) both (b)and (c)
43. Blocking action of enzyme through blocking its active site is

(a) Allosteric inhibition (b) Feedback inhibition
(c) Competitive inhibition (d) Non-competitive inhibition
44. Which one of the following is without coenzyme activity ?

(a) Vitamin E (b) Thiamine
(c) Biotin (d) Riboflavin
45. Active transport

(a) Releases energy (b) Require energy
(c) Produces energy (d) Produces toxic material
46. A short length of double stranded DNA molecule contains 120 adenine and 120 cytosine
bases. The total number of nucleotides in this DNA fragment is
(a) 60 (b) 120
(c) 240 (d) 480
47. Which of the following element plays an important role in nitrogen fixation?
(a) Manganese (b) Molybdenum
(c) Zinc (d) Copper
48. Specificity of an enzyme depends upon

(a) Active site (b) Linear sequence
(c) Km (d) Turn over number
49. Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate (SDS) is used while separating proteins by polyacrylanide
gel electrophoresis because
(a) It helps in solubilization of proteins thereby making it easier to separate
(b) It binds to proteins and confers uniform negative charge density thereby making
them move during electrophoresis
(c) Decreases the surface tension of the buffer used for electrophoresis
(d) Stabilizes the proteins
50. In a substitution nucleophilic first order reaction (SN1)the stereochemical outcome

is
(a) Raemisation (b) Inversion of configuration
(c) Retention of configuration (d) Difficult to predict
51. Which of the following chemotherapeutic agents works by impairing de novo
purinesynthesis?
(a) acyclovir (acycloguanosine) (b) 5-fluorouracil (antimetabolite)
(c) methotrexate (anti folate) (d) hydroxyurea
52. The largest energy reserve (in terms of kilocalories) in humans is:
(a) liver glycogen (b) muscle glycogen
(c) adipose tissue triacylglycerol. (d) muscle protein.
53. In the interaction of a hormone with its receptor all of the following are true EXCEPT:
(a) more than one polypeptide chain of the hormone may be necessary.
(b) more than one second messenger may be generated.
(c) an array of transmembrane helices may form the binding site for the hormone.
(d) hormones released from their receptor after endocytosis could theoretically
interact with a nuclear receptor.
54. Some hormone-receptor complexes are internalized by endocytosis. This process may
involve:
(a) binding of hormone-receptor complex to a clathrin coated pit.
(b) recycling of receptor to cell surface.
(c) formation of a receptosome.
55. In hypopituitarism it is necessary to maintain the ovarian cycle in female patients. In
the ovarian cycle:
(a) GnRH enters the vascular system via transport by a specific membrane carrier.
(b) corpus luteum rapidly involutes only if fertilization does not occur.
(c) inhibin works by inhibiting synthesis of a subunit of FSH.
(d) LH is taken up by corpus luteum and binds to cytoplasmic receptors.
56. All of the following statements about actin and myosin are true EXCEPT:
(a) the globular head section of myosin has domains for binding ATP and actin.
(b) actin is the major protein of the thick filament.
(c) the binding of ATP to the actin-myosin complex promotes dissociation of actin
and myosin.
(d) F-actin, formed by aggregation of G-actin-ATP-MgH complex, is stabilized when
tropomyosin is bound to it.
57. Starch digestion is more efficient after heating the starch with water because heating:
(a) hydrates the starch granules, making them more susceptible to pancreatic
amylase.
(b) partly hydrolyses a-1, 6 links.
(c) converts the linear amylose to branched amylopectin, which resembles glycogen.
(d) inactivates amylase inhibitors, which are common in the tissues of starchy plants.
58. Micelles:
(a) are the same as emulsion droplets.
(b) form from bile acids at all bile acid concentrations.
(c) although they are formed during lipid digestion, do not significantly enhance
utilization of dietary lipid.
(d) always consist of only a single lipid species.
59. Certain tissues effect Cl– secretion via a Cl– channel (CFTR protein-cystic fibrosis
transmembrane regulatory protein). Cholera toxin abnormally opens the channel
leading to a loss of NaCl. Treatment for cholera and sports drinks for electrolyte
replacement are fluids high in Na+ and glucose. The presence of glucose enhances
NaCl replenishment because:
(a) absorbing any nutrient causes Na+ uptake.
(b) glucose prevents Na+ excretion.
(c) Na+ and glucose are transported in opposite directions.
(d) glucose is absorbed across intestinal epithelial cells via a Na+ -dependent
cotransporter.
60. Of two people with approximately the same weight, the one with the higher basal
energy requirement would most likely be:
(a) taller (b) female if the other were male.
(c) older (d) under less stress.
61. Basal metabolic rate:
(a) is not influenced by energy intake.
(b) may decrease up to 50% during periods of starvation.
(c) increases in direct proportion to daily energy expenditure.
(d) is not responsive to changes in hormone levels.
62. The primary effect of the consumption of excess protein beyond the body’s immediate
needs will be:
(a) excretion of the excess as protein in the urine.
(b) an increase in the “storage pool” of protein.
(c) an increased synthesis of muscle protein.
(d) an enhancement in the amount of circulating plasma proteins.
63. Kwashiorkor is:

(a) the most common form of protein-calorie malnutrition in the INDIA.
(b) characterized by a thin, wasted appearance.
(c) an adequate intake of total calories but a specific deficiency of protein.
(d) an adequate intake of total protein but a deficiency of the essential amino acids.
64. A complete replacement of animal protein in the diet by vegetable protein:
(a) would be expected to have no effect at all on the overall diet.
(b) would reduce the total amount of food consumed for the same number of calories.
(c) might reduce the total amount of iron and vitamin B12 available.
(d) would be satisfactory regardless of the nature of the vegetable protein used.
65. Dietary fat:

(a) is usually present, although there is no specific need for it.
(b) if present in excess, can be stored as either glycogen or adipose tissue
triacylglycerol.
(c) should include linoleic and linolenic acids.
(d) should increase on an endurance training program in order to increase the body’s
energy stores.
66. For diabetics:

(a) the only carbohydrate that must be eliminated in the diet is sucrose.
(b) not all carbohydrate foods raise blood glucose levels at the same rate because
the glycemic index of all foods is not the same.
(c) who are normally in good control, stress will have no effect on their blood sugar
levels.
(d) a vegetarian diet is the only appropriate choice.
67. The effects of vitamin A may include all of the following EXCEPT:
(a) prevention of anemia. (b) serving as an antioxidant.
(c) cell differentiation. (d) the visual cycle.
68. Ascorbic acid may be associated with all of the following EXCEPT:
(a) iron absorption.
(b) bone formation.
(c) wound healing.
(d) participation in hydroxylation reactions.
69. The transmembrane portion of a protein spanning the membrane is most likely to be
composed of aminoacids that are-
(a) basic (b) acidic
(c) glycosylated (d) hydrophobic
70. All the following compounds are Intermediate of the citric acid cycle except
(a) Isocitrate (b) Malate
(c) Pyruvate (d) Succinate
71. Cellulose is a _____ made of many _____.

(a) polypeptide . . . monomers
(b) carbohydrate . . . fatty acids
(c) polymer . . . glucose molecules
(d) protein . . . amino acids
72. The four main categories of macromolecules in a cell are

(a) proteins, DNA, RNA, and steroids.
(b) monosaccharides, lipids, polysaccharides, and proteins.
(c) proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids.
(d) nucleic acids, carbohydrates, monosaccharides, and proteins.
73. The characteristic that all lipids have in common is
(a) they are all made of fatty acids and glycerol.
(b) none of them is very high in energy content.
(c) they are all acidic when mixed with water.
(d) none of them dissolves in water.
74. How you cellulose and starch are different

(a) Cellulose molecules are much too large.
(b) Starch is made of glucose; cellulose is made of other sugars.
(c) The bonds between sugars in cellulose are much stronger.
(d) The sugars in cellulose bond together differently than in starch, giving cellulose
a different shape.
75. In some places a protein molecule may twist or fold back on itself. This is called
_____ and the coils or folds are held in place by _____.
(a) tertiary structure . . . hydrogen bonds
(b) primary structure . . . covalent bonds
(c) secondary structure . . . peptide bonds
(d) tertiary structure . . . covalent bonds
76. A hydrophobic amino acid R group would be found where in a protein?
(a) forming a peptide bond with the next amino acid in the chain
(b) on the outside of the folded chain, in the water
(c) on the inside of the folded chain, away from water
(d) forming hydrogen bonds with other R group
77. The overall three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide is called the

(a) double helix. (b) primary structure.
(c) secondary structure. (d) tertiary structure.
78. How many different kinds of protein molecules are there in a typical cell?
(a) Twenty (b) about a hundred
(c) Thousands (d) billions
79. The building blocks of nucleic acid molecules are called

(a) polysaccharides. (b) amino acids.
(c) fatty acids. (d) nucleotides.
80. Which of the following do nucleic acids and proteins have in common?
(a) They are both made of amino acids.
(b) Their structures contain sugars.
(c) They are hydrophobic.
(d) They are large polymers.
81. Which of the following would probably not be affected when a protein is denatured?
(a) primary structure (b) secondary structure
(c) hydrogen bonds (d) tertiary structure
82. A glucose molecule is to starch as

(a) a steroid is to a lipid. (b) a protein is to an amino acid.
(c) a nucleic acid is to a polypeptide. (d) a nucleotide is to a nucleic acid.
83. Palm oil and coconut oil are more like animal fats than other plant oils. Because they
____ than other plant oils, they can contribute to cardiovascular disease.
(a) contain fewer double bonds (b) are less saturated
(c) contain more sodium (d) are less soluble in water
84. A shortage of phosphorus in the soil would make it especially difficult for a plant to
manufacture
(a) DNA (b) proteins.
(c) cellulose. (d) fatty acids.
85. How does DNA differ from RNA?

(a) DNA is larger.
(b) One of their nitrogenous bases is different.
(c) They contain different sugars.
(d) DNA consists of two strands in a double helix.
86. Which of the following ranks the molecules in the correct order by size?
(a) water . . . sucrose . . . glucose . . . protein
(b) protein . . . water . . . glucose . . . sucrose
(c) water . . . protein . . . sucrose . . . glucose
(d) protein . . . sucrose . . . glucose . . . water
87. On the basis of the principle of complementary base pairing you would expect the
percentage of ___ to be equal the percentage of ____.
(a) A ... T (b) A ... G
(c) T ... G (d) A ... C
88. Lipids differ from other large biological molecules in that they
(a) are much larger. (b) are not truly polymers.
(c) do not have specific shapes. (d) do not contain carbon.
89. Water is a polar molecule. This means that
(a) the opposite ends of the molecule have opposite charges.
(b) water molecules are linear, like a pole.
(c) water is one of the many hydrophobic molecules.
(d) the atoms in water have electronegativites which are equal.
90. Cellular respiration is an example of
(a) an anabolic pathway. (b) a catabolic pathway.
(c) bioenergetics. (d) thermodynamics.
91. Organisms are described as thermodynamically open systems. This means that
(a) the metabolism of an organism is isolated from its surroundings
(b) organisms can reverse the increase in entropy.
(c) organisms acquire energy from their surroundings.
(d) organisms are capable of circumventing the second law of thermodynamics.
92. From the equation delta G = delta H -T delta S it is clear that

(a) a decrease in the system’s total energy will increase the probability of spontaneous
change.
(b) spontaneous change is most probable when the system experiences an increase
in entropy.
(c) increasing the temperature of a system will increase the probability of spontaneous
change.
(d) the capacity of a system to perform work is related to the total energy of the
system.
93. An endergonic reaction is characterized by

(a) its tendency to occur spontaneously.
(b) the net release of free energy.
(c) a value for delta G which is positive.
(d) reactants that are more complex than products.
94. Cells continue to function only when a metabolic disequilibrium is in effect; cells
avoid reaching metabolic equilibrium
(a) because cellular metabolism utilizes only those reactions that are nonreversible.
(b) because the products of one reaction become the reactants for a different reaction
and are unable to accumulate.
(c) because the majority of important metabolic reactions have delta Gs of zero.
(d) by limiting the entry of high free energy molecules once they have been
catabolized.
95. What must be true if the reaction AB plus CD to AC plus BD occurs spontaneously?
(a) The delta G of the reaction must be negative.
(b) the reaction must be exergonic.
(c) the environments has adequate thermal energy to meet the EA requirement.
96. What best characterizes the role of ATP in cellular metabolism?

(a) The release of free energy during the hydrolysis of ATP heats the surrounding
environment.
(b) Its free energy is coupled to an endergonic process via the formation of a
phosphorylated intermediate.
(c) It is catabolized to carbon dioxide and water.
(d) The delta G associated with its hydrolysis is positive.
97. Enzymes are described as catalysts, which means that they
(a) provide activation energy for the reactions they facilitate.
(b) change the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction
(c) stabilize molecules in the transition state.
(d) elevate the EA barrier so the molecules will not spontaneously degrade.
98. What best explains the observation of substrate specificity?

(a) There is a precise compatibility between an enzyme’s active site and the substrate
molecule
(b) Molecules and active sites vary in size; only properly sized molecules can fit.
(c) Reaction-specific enzymes, such as hydrolases, assume a fit by folding around
the most numerous substrate molecules.
(d) Polarity compatibilities; active sites contain electronegative atoms while
substrates tend to carry slight positive charges.
99. Sucrase normally catalyses the catabolism of sucrose to glucose and fructose. What,
if any, changes could be made to the system so that sucrase could synthesize sucrose
from the two products?
(a) increase the temperature of the system
(b) alter the concentration of molecules so that sucrase is low and glucose and
fructose are very high
(c) selectively denature the enzyme by varying the pH
(d) phosphorylate either the glucose or the fructose
100. A plot of enzyme velocity against temperature for an enzyme indicates little activity
at 0 degrees celsius and 45 degrees celsius, with peak activity at 35 degrees celsius.
The most reasonable explanation for the low velocity at 0 degrees celsius is that at
this temperature
(a) the hydrogen bonds that define the enzyme’s active site are unstable.
(b) at low temperatures the substrate becomes an allosteric regulator.
(c) the enzyme was denatured.
(d) there is too little activation energy available.
1. Prokaryotic cells, but not eukaryotic cells, have:

(a) endoplasmic reticulum. (b) histones.
(c) nucleoid. (d) a nucleus.
2. Factors responsible for a water molecule being a dipole include:
(a) the tetrahedral structure of liquid water.
(b) the magnitude of the H-O-H bond angle.
(c) the ability of water to hydrogen bond to various chemical structures.
(d) the difference in bond strength between hydrogen bonds and covalent bonds.
3. Hydrogen bonds can be expected to form only between electronegative atoms such as
oxygen or nitrogen and a hydrogen atom bonded to:
(a) carbon. (b) an electronegative atom.
(c) hydrogen. (d) iodine.
4. The ion product of water:
(a) is independent of temperature.
(b) has a numerical value of 1 × 10–14 at 25°C.
(c) is the equilibrium constant for the reaction H3 O+ and OH– .
(d) requires that [H+] and [OH– ] always be identical.
5. Lysosomal enzymes:
(a) are hydrolases.
(b) usually operate at acidic pH.
(c) are normally isolated from their substrates by the impermeable lysosomal
membrane.
(d) All of the above are correct.
6. In a DNA double helix:

(a) the individual strands are not helical.
(b) hydrogen bonds form between a purine and a pyrimidine base on the same strand.
(c) adenine on one strand is hydrogen bonded to thymine on the opposite strand.
(d) phospho diester bonds are oriented toward the interior of the helix.
7. The A helix of DNA differs from the B helix in all of the following EXCEPT:
(a) appearance of the major and minor grooves.
(b) pitch of the base pairs relative to the helix axis.
(c) thickness of the helix.
(d) polarity of the strands.
8. The Z-DNA helix:

(a) has fewer base pairs per turn than the B-DNA.
(b) is favored by an alternating GC sequence.
(c) tends to be found at the 3'-end of genes.

(d) is inhibited by methylation of the bases.
9. RNA:
(a) incorporates both modified and unmodified purine and pyrimidine bases during
transcription.
(b) does not exhibit any double-helical structure.
(c) structures exhibit base stacking and hydrogen-bonded base pairing.
(d) usually contains about 65-100 nucleotides.
10. Bent DNA:
(a) occurs only in the presence of external agents like the antitumor drugs.
(b) may be a fundamental element in the interaction between DNA sequences and
proteins for such processes as transcription and site-specific recombination.
(c) occurs primarily in the presence of triple-stranded DNA.
(d) requires the presence of inverted repeats.
11. Chaperone proteins:

(a) all require ATP to exert their effect.
(b) cleave incorrect disulfide bonds, allowing correct ones to subsequently form.
(c) guide the folding of polypeptide chains into patterns that would be thermo-
dynamically unstable without the presence of chaperones.
(d) of the hsp70 class are involved in transport of proteins across mitochondrial and
endoplasmic reticulum membranes.
12. Proteins may be separated according to size by:
(a) isoelectric focusing.
(b) polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.
(c) ion-exchange chromatography
(d) molecular exclusion chromatography.
13. Changes in protein conformation can be detected rapidly by:
(a) ultraviolet absorbance spectroscopy.
(b) fluorescence emission spectroscopy
(c) optical rotatory dispersion.
(d) all of above.
14. Which of the following statements about E. coli DNA polymerases is correct?
(a) All polymerases have both 3' to 5' and 5' to 3' exonuclease activity.
(b) The primary role of polymerase III is in DNA repair.
(c) Polymerases I and III require both a primer and a template.
(d) Polymerase I tends to remain bound to the template until a large number of
nucleotides have been added.
15. Both strands of DNA serve as templates concurrently in:
(a) replication. (b) excision repair.
(c) mismatch repair. (d) transcription-coupled repair.
16. All of the following statements about telomerase are correct EXCEPT:
(a) the RNA component acts as a template for the synthesis of a segment of DNA.
(b) it adds telomeres to the 5' ends of the DNA strands.
(c) it provides a mechanism for replicating the ends of linear chromosomes in most
eukaryotes.
(d) it is a reverse transcriptase.
17. A transition mutation:

(a) occurs when a purine is substituted for a pyrimidine, or vice versa.
(b) results from the insertion of one or two bases or base analogs into the DNA
chain.
(c) decreases in frequency in the presence of base analogs such as 2-amino purine.
(d) results from the substitution of one purine for another or of one pyrimidine for
another.
18. Homologous recombination:
(a) occurs only between two segments from the same DNA molecule.
(b) requires that a specific DNA sequence be present.
(c) requires that one of the duplexes undergoing recombination be nicked in both
strands.
(d) may result in strand exchange by branch migration.
19. Of the following are true about transpositions EXCEPT:

(a) transposons move from one location to a different one within a chromosome.
(b) both the donor and target sites must be homologous.
(c) transposons have insertion sequences that are recognized by transposases.
(d) the transposon may either be excised and moved or be replicated with the
replicated piece moving.
20. All of the following are true about nucleotide excision repair EXCEPT:
(a) removal of the damaged bases occurs on only one strand of the DNA.
(b) it removes thymine dimers generated by UV light.
(c) it involves the activity of an excision nuclease, which is an endonuclease.
(d) only the damaged nucleotides are removed.
21. During the elongation stage of eukaryotic protein synthesis:
(a) the incoming aminoacyl-tRNA binds to the P site.
(b) a new peptide bond is synthesized by peptidyl transferase site of the large
ribosomal subunit in a GTP-requiring reaction.
(c) the peptide, still bound to a tRNA molecule, is translocated to a different site on
the ribosome.
(d) streptomycin can cause premature release of the incomplete peptide.
22. Termination of protein synthesis:

(a) requires a stop codon to be located at the P site of the large ribosomal subunit.
(b) occurs when a non-ribosomal protein release factor binds to the ribosome.
(c) requires the action of a non-ribosomal hydrolase to release the peptide.

(d) does not require energy.
23. 4-Hydroxylation of specific prolyl residues during collagen synthesis requires all of
the following EXCEPT:
(a) Fe2+ (b) a specific amino acid sequence.
(c) ascorbic acid (d) succinate.
24. Diphtheria toxin:

(a) releases incomplete polypeptide chains from the ribosome.
(b) activates translocase.
(c) prevents release factor from recognizing termination signals.
(d) attacks the RNA of the large subunit.
25. Targeting a protein to be degraded within proteasomes usually requires ubiquitin. In

the functions of ubiquitin all of the following are true EXCEPT:
(a) ATP is required for activation of ubiquitin.
(b) linkage of a protein to ubiquitin does not always mark it for degradation.
(c) the identity of the N-terminal amino acid is one determinant of selection for
degradation.
(d) ATP is required by the enzyme that transfers the ubiquitin to the protein to be
degraded.
26. In all enzymes the active site:
(a) contains the substrate-binding site.
(b) is contiguous with the substrate-binding site in the primary sequence.
(c) contains a metal ion as a prosthetic group.
(d) contains the amino acid side chains involved in catalyzing the reaction.
27. Enzymes may be specific with respect to all of the EXCEPT:

(a) chemical identity of the substrate.
(b) the atomic mass of the elements in the reactive group (e.g., 12 C but not 14 C).
(c) Optical activity of product formed from a symmetrical substrate.
(d) which of a pair of optical isomers will react.
28. The transport system that maintains the Na+ and K+ gradients across the plasma
membrane of cells:
(a) involves an enzyme that is an ATPase.
(b) moves Na+ either into or out of the cell.
(c) is an electrically neutral system.
(d) in the membrane, hydrolyzes ATP independently of the movement of Na+ and
K+.
29. A mediated transport system would be expected to:
(a) show a continuously increasing initial rate of transport with in increasing substrate
concentration.
(b) exhibit structural and/or stereospecificity for the substance transported.
(c) be slower than that of a simple diffusion system.

(d) establish a concentration gradient across the membrane.
30. The group translocation type of transport system:
(a) does not require metabolic energy.
(b) involves the transport of two different solute molecules simultaneously.
(c) has been demonstrated for fatty acids.
(d) results in the alteration of the substrate molecule during the transport process.
31. AIP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters:
(a) all have both a membrane-spanning domain that recombine substrate and an
ATP-binding domain.
(b) all effect translocation by forming channels.
(c) all have two functions-forming a channel and con regulation.
(d) are all P-glycoproteins.
32. The mitochondrial membrane contains a transporter for:

(a) NADH. (b) acetyl CoA.
(c) GTP. (d) ATP.
33. If rotenone is added to the mitochondrial electron transport chain:
(a) the P/O ratio of NADH is reduced from 3: 1 to 2: 1
(b) the rate of NADH oxidation is diminished to two-thirds of its initial value.
(c) succinate oxidation remains normal.
(d) electron flow is inhibited at site II.
34. If cyanide is added to tightly coupled mitochondria that are actively oxidizing succinate:
(a) subsequent addition of 2,4-dinitrophenol will cause ATP hydrolysis.
(b) subsequent addition of 2,4-dinitrophenol will restore succinate oxidation.
(c) electron flow will cease, but ATP synthesis will continue.
(d) subsequent addition of 2,4-dinitrophenol and the phosphorylation inhibitor,
oligomycin, will cause ATP hydrolysis.
35. The chemiosmotic hypothesis involves all of the following EXCEPT:

(a) a membrane impermeable to protons.
(b) electron transport by the respiratory chain pumps protons out of the
mitochondrion.
(c) proton flow into the mitochondria depends on the presence of ADP and Pi’
(d) only proton transport is strictly regulated; other positively charged ions can
diffuse freely across the mitochondrial membrane.
36. Suppose the specific defect were a mutant pyruvate dehydrogenase (the first catalytic
subunit) with poor binding of its prosthetic group. In this type of defect, sometimes
greatly increasing the dietary precursor of the prosthetic group is helpful. In this
case increasing which of the following might be helpful?
(a) thiamine(TPP) (b) niacin (for NAD)
(c) pantothenic acid (for CoA) (d) riboflavin (for FAD)
37. In glycolysis ATP synthesis is catalyzed by:

(a) hexokinase.
(b) 6-phosphofructo-I-kinase.
(c) glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase.
(d) phosphoglycerate kinase.
38. The irreversible reactions of glycolysis include that catalyzed by:

(a) phosphoglucose isomerase.
(b) 6-phosphofructo-l-kinase.
(c) fructose bisphosphate aldolase.
(d) glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase.
39. Glucokinase:
(a) has a Km considerably greater than the normal blood glucose concentration.
(b) is inhibited by glucose 6-phosphate.
(c) is also known as the GLUT-2 protein.
(d) has glucose 6-phosphatase activity as well as kinase activity.
40. In the Cori cycle:

(a) only tissues with aerobic metabolism (i.e., mitochondrial O2 ) are involved.
(b) a three-carbon compound arising from glycolysis is converted to glucose at the
expense of energy from fatty acid oxidation.
(c) glucose is converted to pyruvate in anaerobic tissues this pyruvate returns to
the liver, where it is converted into glucose.
(d) the same amount of ATP is used in the liver to synthesis glucose as it is released
during glycolysis, leading to no net loss on whole-body energy balance.
41. Gluconeogenic enzymes include all of the following EXCEPT

(a) glucose 6-phosphatase.
(b) phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase.
(c) phosphoglucomutase.
(d) pyruvate carboxylase.
42. Glycosaminoglycans:
(a) are the carbohydrate portion of glycoproteins,
(b) contain large segments of a repeating unit typically consisting of a hexosamine
and a uronic acid.
(c) always contain sulfate.
(d) exist in only two forms.
43. All of the following statements about acetyl-CoA carboxylase are correct EXCEPT:
(a) it undergoes protomer-polymer interconversion during its physiological
regulation.
(b) it is inhibited by cAMP-mediated phosphorylation.
(c) it is activated by both palmitoyl CoA and citrate.
(d) its content in a cell responds to changes in fat content in the diet.
44. Primary bile acids:

(a) are any bile acids that are found in the intestinal tract.
(b) are any bile acids reabsorbed from the intestinal tract.
(c) are synthesized in hepatocytes directly from cholesterol.
(d) are converted to secondary bile acids by conjugation with glycine or taurine.
45. Structural features that are common to all prostaglandins include:

(a) 20-carbon atoms.
(b) an oxygen-containing internal heterocyclic ring.
(c) a peroxide group at C-15.
(d) two double bonds.
46. Amino acids considered nonessential for humans are:
(a) those not incorporated into protein.
(b) not necessary in the diet if sufficient amounts of precursors are present.
(c) the same for adults as for children.
(d) generally not provided by the ordinary diet.
47. Aminotransferases:
(a) usually require a-ketoglutaramate or glutamine as one of the reacting pair.
(b) catalyze reactions that result in a net use or production of amino acids.
(c) catalyze irreversible reactions.
(d) require pyridoxal phosphate as an essential cofactor for the reaction.
48. The amide nitrogen of glutamine:

(a) represents a nontoxic transport form of ammonia.
(b) is a major source of ammonia for urinary excretion.
(c) is used in the synthesis of asparagine. purines. and pyrimidines.
(d) can be recovered as ammonia by the action of glutaminase.
49. S-Adenosylmethionine:
(a) contains a positively charged sulfur (sulfonium) that facilitates the transfer of
substituents to suitable acceptors.
(b) yields a-ketobutyrate in the reaction in which the methyl is transferred.
(c) donates a methyl group in a freely reversible reaction.
(d) generates H2 S by transsulfuration.
50. In humans, sulfur of cysteine may participate in all of the following EXCEPT:
(a) the conversion of cyanide to less toxic thiocyanate.
(b) the formation of thiosulfate.
(c) the formation of taurine.
(d) the donation of the sulfur for methionine formation.
51. More free energy is released during the citric acid cycle than during glycolysis, but
only 1 mole of ATP is produced for each mole of acetyl CoA that enters the cycle.
What happens to most of tile remaining free energy that is produced duril1g the
citric acid cycle?
(a) It is used to synthesize GTP
(b) It is used to reduce electron carriers
(c) It is lost as heat
(d) It is used to reduce pyruvate
52. The reduction of pyruvate to lactic acid during fermentation allows glycolysis to
continue in the absence of oxygen. Why?
(a) Water is formed during this reaction
(b) This reaction is a kinase reaction
(c) This reaction is coupled to the oxidation of NADH to NAD+
(d) This reaction is coupled to the reduction of NAD+ to NADH
53. Assume that eukaryotic cell has abundant glucose and O2 but needs ATP. The proton
gradient in mitochondria of the cell will be generated by_____________ and used
primarily for ––––––––––––––.
(a) the electron transport chain; ATP synthesis
(b) the electron transport chain; substrate-level phosphorylation
(c) glycolysis; production of H2 O
(d) fermentation; NAD reduction
54. The general name for an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a
Protein is
(a) Protein kinase (b) Phosphorylase
(c) Phosphatase (d) ATPase
55. All of the following arc potential control mechanisms for regulation of gene expression
in eukaryotic organisms EXCEPT
(a) Gene amplification (b) The degradation of mRNA
(c) The lactose operon (d) Transcription
56. It is theoretically possible for a gene from any organism to function in any other
organism. Why is this possible?
(a) All organisms have similar nuclei
(b) All organisms have the same genetic code
(c) All organisms are made up of cells
(d) All organisms have transfer RNA
57. DNA fragments from a gel are transferred to a membrane via a procedure called
Southern blotting. The purpose of Southern blotting is to
(a) Analyze the RFLPs in the DNA
(b) Separate out the PCRs’
(c) Permanently attach the DNA fragments to a substrate
(d) Separate the two complementary DNA strands
58. 5'-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate’(PAPP) is an intermediate in

(a) the de nevo synthesis of purine nucleotides
(b) the de novo synthesis of pyrimidine nueleotides
(c) the salvage pathway for the synthesis of purine nucleotides
(d) All of the above
59. In Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome lack of activity of the defective enzyme (HGPRTase) should
result in higher than normal tissue concentrations of all of the following EXCEPT
(a) adenine (b) guanine
(c) uric acid (d) hypoxanthine
60. A complete lack of adenosine deaminase causes SCID (Severe combined
immunodeficiency). Which of the following is LEAST true
(a) Loss of the enzyme causes increased levels of dATP because there is less turnover
of adenosine nucleosides in general
(b) Increased dATP decreases the concentration of all rNTPs, blocking RNA synthesis
(c) Increased dATP inhibits ribonucleotide reductase, such that de novo production
of all rNDPs is inhibited
(d) Adenosine deaminase loss causes SCID because T cells are particularly sensitive
to DNA replication inhibition
61. DNA and RNA synthesis polymerization [of deoxynucleotides] which takes place
(a) In a 3' to 5' direction
(b) In a 5' to 3' direction
(c) In either (or both)directions
(d) DNA in 5' to 3' and RNA in 3' to 5'
62. TATA boxes and Pribnow boxes are components of

(a) Operators (b) Promoters
(c) Enhancers (d) Activators
63. The RNA in the cell with the greatest sequence diversity is
(a) Messenger RNA (b) Ribosomal RNA
(c) Transfer RNA (d) (a) and (c)
64. During the overall process of protein synthesis, amino acids become covalently attached
to
(c) Transfer RNA (d) More than one of the above
65. Proteins whose binding to DNA acts to prevent transcription are known as
(a) Activators (b) Operators
(c) Repressors (d) Transcription factors
66. A common target for antibiotics in bacteria is

(a) Microsomes (b) Mesosomes
(c) Ribosomes (d) None of the above
67. A piece of DNA of length 10 KB obtained using EcoRI digestion is being inserted in a
pBR322 plasmid (approximately 4 KB) vector which was first digested by the restriction
enzyme EcoRI. The optimum vector: insert ratio (µg/µg) should be approximately
(a) 0.1 (b) 0.5
(c) 1 (d) 5
68. Dried fish treated with salt and nitrates has been found to contain the mutagen
2-chloro-4-methylthiobutanoic acid (CMBA). From what amino acid is CMBA derived?
(a) Lysine (b) Cysteine
(c) Methionine (d) Valine
69. In experiments designed to explore whether there is protein transverse asymmetry

in membranes, it was shown that when trypsin was used to treat intact erythrocytes,
the carbohydrate groups of the transmembrane protein glycophorin was released
from the N-terminus of the protein (as glycopeptides). This was taken as evidence
that the N-terminus of the glycophorin must be on the exterior side of the membrane
because
(a) trypsin is too large to get inside the cell to attack interior parts of glycophorin.
(b) trypsin only attacks carbohydrate residues, not proteins
(c) trypsin always attacks near the N-terminus of a protein and never near the
C-terminus
(d) trypsin specifically cleaves proteins at lysine or arginine residues
70. When a muscle contracts, what is happening to the Ca++ levels inside and outside the
cell?
(a) High amounts of cytosolic Ca++ are released to the extracellular space
(b) Ion channels open to allow extracellular Ca++ to flow into the cell
(c) Ca++ from the nucleus is released to the cytoplasm and this triggers contraction.
(d) Ca++ ions attach stoma and this causes muscle contraction
71. Acetyl CoA enters the TCA cycle by combining with:
(a) oxaloacetate. (b) succinate.
(c) citrate. (d) alpha-ketogluterate.
72. Cytochrome c is a moveable peripheral proteins that is oxidized by complex:

(a) I . (b) II .
(c) III . (d) IV.
73. Which of these complexes work by rotational catalysis?
(a) NADH dehydrogenase (complex I)
(b) Cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV)
(c) Glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase (glycerol phosphate shuttle)
(d) ATP synthase
74. In which of the following ways are peroxisomes NOT similar to mitochondria?
(a) Engages in oxidative metabolism.
(b) Has DNA that encodes a few of its genes.
(c) Generated by splitting from pre-existing organelles.

(d) Imports preformed proteins from the cytosol.
75. Complex III (cytochrome bc1 ) receives electrons directly from __________, which is a
lipid soluble membrane molecule.
(a) ubiquinone (b) cytochrome c
(c) NADH + (d) FADH2
76. Where are ATP synthase complexes found in the mitochondrion?

(a) On the outer membrane. (b) In the intermembrane space.
(c) Attached to the cristae. (d) Floating in the matrix.
77. ATP synthase is powed by a (n):

(a) proton motive force. (b) electron gradient.
(c) K+ gradient. (d) ATP.
78. Both the mitochondrion and the chloroplast have all of the following EXCEPT
(a) an inner and an outer membrane. (b) ATP synthase.
(c) cristae. (d) electron transport.
79. Which of these molecules or complexes has a greater oxidizing potential than oxygen?
(a) Photosystem I (P700+) (b) Photosystem II (P680+)
(c) NADP + (d) plastiquinone
80. In the Calvin cycle, CO2 is fixed to ribulose bisphosphate catalyzed by an enzyme
familiarly known as
(a) Ribozyme (b) LHCII
(c) Rubisco (d) P680
81. GLUT4 is an example of

(a) simple diffusion. (b) facilitated transporter.
(c) active transporter. (d) cotransporter.
82. A hydropathy plot identifies potential membrane spanning regions of a protein by
analyzing the
(a) primary
(b) secondary
(c) tertiary
(d) quaternary structure of the protein.
83. ABO blood types are determined by a saccharide attached to what?

(a) Phosphoglyceride (b) Sphingolipid
(c) Cholesterol (d) Ion channel
84. Cholesterol does what to membranes?
(a) Lowers the transition temperature.
(b) Accumulates on the outer leaf.
(c) Makes the membrane more hydrophilic.
(d) Blurs the transition between gel state and fluid state.
85. Which of these integral proteins is an active transporter?

(a) Kv channel (b) GLUT4
(c) Na/K ATPase (d) aquaporin
86. Acetocholine and norepinephrine are examples of:

(a) glycoproteins. (b) integral proteins.
(c) ion channels. (d) neurotransmitter.
87. Epithelial cells within the intestine can absorb glucose against a concentration gradient
by linking glucose transport with sodium transport, since sodium is much more
concentrated outside the cell. What term best describes this strategy?
(a) Antiport (b) Active transport
(c) Cotransport (d) Importation
88. This most abundant ECM protein is formed of alpha-helix trimers that are bundled to
form rigid cable-like fibrils.
(a) Collagen (b) Proteoglycans
(c) Fibronectin (d) Laminins
89. Which of these molecules definitely indicates the presence of secondary cell walls?
(a) Cellulose (b) Hemicellulose
(c) Pectin (d) Lignin
90. The concept that proteins possess amino acids that act as an address code is called
the
(a) signal hypothesis. (b) cell theory.
(c) peptide transferase proposal. (d) protein address concept.
91. Which of the following does NOT happen in cyclic photophosphorylation?
(a) ATP is produced
(b) Photosystem I reaction center is active
(c) Electron transport occurs in the photosynthetic membranes
(d) NADPH is formed
92. The conversion of light energy to chemical energy during photosynthesis begins when
an excited pigment molecule:
(a) undergoes fluorescence (b) loses energy as heat
(c) undergoes an oxidation reaction (d) increases its molecular motion
93. An overall result of photosynthesis in plants is the use of electrons from water to
reduce:
(a) glucose (b) carbon dioxide
(c) oxygen (d) NADPH
94. Which of the following is NOT true of photosystem II?

(a) It is located in thylakoid membranes.
(b) It is involved in the oxidation of water.
(c) It has a special oxidizable chlorophyll, P680.
(d) It is required for cyclic photophosphorylation.
95. The electron transport chain is located predominantly in the:

(a) Outer membrane of the mitochondria
(b) Intermembrane space of the mitochondria
(c) Inner membrane of the mitochondria
(d) Matrix of the mitochondria
96. What cellular compartment becomes acidic (high concentration of hydrogen ions)
during mitochondrial electron transport?
(a) Mitochondrial stroma
(b) Cytoplasm
(c) Endoplasmic reticulum
(d) Space between inner and outer mitochondrial membranes
97. In the absence of oxygen, the primary purpose of fermentation is to:
(a) produce amino acids for protein synthesis
(b) oxidize glucose to generate reduce electron carriers
(c) generate alcohol for beverages
(d) regenerate NAD+ from NADH allowing glycolysis to continue
98. Which statement about enzyme catalyzed reactions is NOT true?

(a) enzymes form complexes with their substrates.
(b) enzymes lower the activation energy for chemical reactions.
(c) enzymes change the K eq for chemical reactions.
(d) many enzymes change shape slightly when substrate binds.
99. Activation energy is

(a) energy that must be added to get a reaction started, which is recovered as the
reaction proceeds
(b) difference in energy between reactants and products
(c) energy that is lost as heat
(d) free energy
100. Energy-requiring reactions can occur in biological systems because enzymes allow
their coupling to other reactions with:
(a) an increase in entropy
(b) a low activation energy
(c) no inhibitors
(d) products of lower free energy than the reactants
3
Physiology
RESPONSE TO STRESS
Stress: Stress can be defined as any environmental factor that can have an adverse effect on a
Plant’s growth, reproduction, and survival. Plants can respond to stress in several ways they
can escape the effects of stress by completing their growth during less stressful periods or they
may suffer injury if the stress is present and they cannot cope. Plants can cope with
environmental stress through a combination of development and physiological responses.
Response to water stress

On bright, warm, dry day, a plant may be stressed by a water deficiency because it is losing
water by transpiration faster than the water can be restored by uptake from the soil. This
continuous drought can stress plants for weeks or month. Severe water defict, may kill a plant.
But plants have control systems that enable them to cope with less extreme water deficts.
Many of a plants responses to water defict help the plant conserve water by reducing the rate
of transpiration. Water defict can stimulates increased synthesis and release of abscisic acid
from mesophyll cells in the leaf, and this hormone helps keep stomata closed by acting on
guard cell membranes and causes guard cell to loose turgor. Leaves respond to water defict in
several other ways, because cell expansion is a turgor- dependent process, a water defict will
inhibit the growth (expansion) of yong leaves. This response minimizes the transcriptional loss
of water by slowing the increase in leaf surface. When the leaves of many grasses and other
plants wilt from a water defict, they roll into a shape that reduces transcription by exposing
less leaf surface to the sun. While all of these responses of leaves help the plant conserve
water, they also reduces photosynthesis. This is one reason a drought diminished crop yield.
Response To Oxygen Stress

An overwatered house plant may suffocate because the soil lacks the air spaces that provide
oxygen for cellular respiration in the roots. Some plants are structurally adapted to very wet
habitats. For example, the submerged roots of trees called mangroves, which inhabit coastal
Physiology 141
marshes, are continuous with aerial roots that provide access to oxygen. Experimentally it was
shown that oxygen deprivation stimulates the production of hormone ethylene, which causes
some of the cells in the roots cortex to age and die. Enzymatic destruction of the cell walls
creates air tubes that function as ‘snorkes’ providing oxygen to the submerged roots.
Response To Salt Stress

An excess of sodium chloride or other salts in the soil threatens plants for two reasons. First,
by lowering the water potential of the soil solution, salt can cause a water defict in plants even
though the soil has plenty of water. This is because in an environment with a water potential
more negative than that of the root tissue, roots will lose water rather than absorb it. The
second problem with saline soil is that sodium and certain other ions are toxic to plants when
their concentration is relatively high. The selectively permeable membranes of root cells impede
the uptake of most harmful ions, but this only aggravates the problem of acquiring water from
soil that is rich in solutes. Many plants can respond to moderate soil salanity by producing
compatible solutes, organic compounds that keeps the water potential of cells more negative
than that of the soil solution without admitting toxic quantities of salt. However, most plants
cannot survive salt stress for very long. The exception are halophytes, salt tolerant plants with
special adaptations such as salt glands, which pump salts out of the plant across the leaf
epidermis.
Response to Heat Stress

Exccesive heat can harm and eventually kill a plant by denaturing its enzymes and damaging
its metabolism in other ways. One function of transpiration is evaporative cooling. On a warm
day, for example, the temperature of a leaf is below air temperature which favours transpiration
and causes water deficiency in many plants; the closing of stomata in response to this stress
conserves water but sacrifices evaporative cooling. This dilemma is one of the reasons that
very hot, dry days take such a toll on most plants. Many plants response to this stress by
synthesizing relatively large quantities of special proteins called heat shock proteins. Some
heat shock proteins are identical to chaperon proteins, which function in unstressed cells as
temporary scaffolds that other proteins fold into their functional conformations.
Response to Cold Stress

One problem plants face when the temperature of the environment falls is a change in the
fluidity of cell membranes. When a membrane cools below a critical point, it loses its fluidity as
the lipids become locked into crystalline structures. This alters solute transport across the
membrane and also adversely affects the functions of membrane proteins. Plants respond to
cold stress by altering the lipid composition of their membranes. For example, membrane
lipids increase in their proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, which have shapes that help keep
membranes fluid at lower temperature by impeding crystal formation. Freezing is a more
severe version of cold stress. At freezing temperatures, ice crystals begin to form in most
plants. If ice crystals are confined to cell walls and Intercellular spaces, the plant will probably
survive. However, if ice crystals begin to form within protoplasts, the sharp crystal perforate
membranes and organelles, killing the cells. However, plants like oaks, maple, rhododendrons
native to regions where winters are cold have special adaptations that enable to cope with
freezing stress. For example, changes in the solute composition of live cells allow the cytosol to
cool below 0 degree Celsius without crystal formation Although ice crystals may form in the
cell walls.
TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANES
1. Movement of Small Molecules Across Membranes can involve simple

diffusion or protein-mediated transport. Cell membranes are selectively
permeable.
(a) Passive Diffusion. Lipophilic solutes cross the membrane freely by dissolving
in the lipid bilayer. This is passive diffusion. Examples: ethanol (alcohol,
contains both polar and non-polar regions); also fatty acids, glycerol, steroids,
etc. Also nonpolar gases like O=O (O2 )
(b) Selective transport by protein carriers = “permeases”. Polar or ionic
small solutes may be transported across membranes if specific protein carriers
are in the membrane. Examples: sugars, amino acids, ions.
(c) Many substances cannot cross the membrane. Examples: large molecules
such as proteins, nucleic acids. Also small polar molecules or ions for which
there is no protein carrier.
2. Some protein transporters require energy; others do not. There are 2 possible
situations:
(a) facilitated diffusion. Membrane has specific protein carrier, will bind to
molecule and bring it across cell membrane. No energy required. No preferential
direction. If molecule is more concentrated outside than inside cell, net movement
will be out of cell. Examples include-
• Glucose transporters- 5 different GLUT proteins and 2 types that cotransport
Na and glucose (these are used for secondary active transport)
• Water channels- 8 different types of aquaporins
(b) active transport. Membrane has specific protein carrier, also a requirement
for energy (ATP or other form of energy). Will move solute against a concentration
gradient, so can concentrate material even if diffusion would favor opposite
direction of flow.
Example: Na +- K+ ATPase in nerve cells. Pumps Na+ to outside, K+ in,
maintains electrical potential against diffusion. When nerve cell “fires”,
momentary gates open to let diffusion occur. Then pumps are turned back on to
restore potential.
3. Active transport can involve ATP pumps, symport, or antiport
(a) ATP pumps.
• ATP-powered pumps (ATPases) couple the splitting, or hydrolysis, of ATP
with the movement of ions across a membrane against a concentration
gradient.
• ATP is hydrolyzed directly to ADP and inorganic phosphate, and the energy
released is used to move one or more ions across the cell membrane.
• As much as 25% of a cell’s ATP reserves may be spent in such ion transport.
• Examples include:
1. The Na+-K+ ATPase pumps Na+ out of the cell while it pumps K+ in.
Because the pump moves three Na+ to the outside for every two K+
that are moved to the inside, it creates an overall charge separation
known as polarization. This electrical potential is required for nervous
Physiology 143
system activity, and supplies energy needed for other types of transport
such as symport and antiport.
2. Ca++ ATPases are responsible for keeping intracellular Ca++ at low
levels, a necessary precondition for muscle contraction.
(b) Symport
• To transport some substances against a concentration gradient, cells use
energy already stored in ion gradients, such as proton (H+) or sodium (Na+)
gradients, to power membrane proteins called transporters.
• When the transported molecule and the co-transported ion move in the
same direction, the process is known as symport.
• Example: transport of amino acids across the intestinal lining in the human
gut.
(c) Antiport
Cell uses movement of an ion across a membrane and down its concentration
gradient to power the transport of a second substance “uphill” against its gradient.
• In this process, the two substances move across the membrane in opposite
directions.
• Example: transport of Ca2+ ions out of cardiac muscle cells. Muscle cells
are triggered to contract by a rise in intracellular Ca2+ concentration, so it
is imperative that Ca2+ be removed from the cytoplasm so that the muscle
can relax before contracting again. This antiport system is so effective that
it can maintain the cellular concentration of Ca2+ at levels 10,000 times
lower than the external concentration.
4. Movement of Large Molecules: Exocytosis & Endocytosis
(a) Large molecules (proteins, nucleic acids, polypeptides larger than a few amino
acids, polysaccharides larger than a few sugars) are not carried by transport
proteins.
(b) There are mechanisms for moving larger molecules, but they don’t enter into
cytoplasm.
(i) Exocytosis: membrane vesicle fuses with cell membrane, releases enclosed
material to extracellular space. Ex: release of digestive enzymes from
pancreatic cells; mucus, milk, hormones, etc.
(ii) Endocytosis: cell membrane invaginates, pinches in, creates vesicle
enclosing contents. Three common situations:
1. Phagocytosis: Typically works on debris, bacteria, other particulate
matter. Contents of the “phagosome” are usually fused with lysosome
to create “phagolysosome”, where material is broken down. Especially
common in white blood cells such as macrophages and other
leukocytes.
2. Pinocytosis: similar to phagocytosis, but ingests fluid rather than
particulate matter. “Cell drinking”. Ex. cells lining blood capillaries
take fluid from blood (but not red cells), move fluid across their
cytoplasm, release into extracellular space surrounding cells outside
the capillary.
3. Carrier-mediated endocytosis (CME)/ receptor-mediated

endocytosis: very specialized system. Certain important molecules
or ions are not brought into cell by transport processes, but by CME.
The body uses hormones to regulate membrane transport in this way
Eg. 1. iron is carried through blood tightly bound to transferrin protein
carrier. To get iron into cells, cell membrane contains special receptor
proteins that bind transferrin, move towards special regions of
membrane under which lie clathrin proteins. Endocytosis occurs inside
clathrin “cage”, moves inside cell. Cage eventually recycles back to
cell surface, returning transferrin proteins to cell exterior. However,
iron is released inside cell, exits from vesicles, becomes bound to
ferritin.
5. Cells Regulate Permeability by Adding & Removing Membrane Transport
Proteins
(a) Insulin is transported by transporter GLUT4. Insulin causes glucose transport
molecules to be inserted into muscle and adipose tissue cells. Glucose is then
taken up into those tissues, lowering the blood concentration.
(b) Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) is transported via aquaporin. ADH causes aquaporin
2 proteins to be added to the kidney collecting duct membranes. The result is
water conservation.
(c) Aldosterone is transported by Na Pump. Aldosterone causes cells in the distal
tubules and collecting duct of the kidney to make more Na pump molecules.
The final result is that the body retains more Na and secretes more K into the
urine.
PLANT HORMONES
In all plants, there occur in minute quantities of certain substances (plant growth regulators or
phytohormones) which regulate growth and differentiation. Five major types of growth
substances are recognized: auxins and gibberellins (both concerned with cell enlargement and
differentiation); cytokinins (concerned with cell division); abscisic acid (with resting states like
lateral buds); and ethylene (with senescence-ageing),
1. Auxins
The auxins are weak organic acids with the acidic group positioned at the end of the side chain
attached to an unsaturated ring(s) system. Presently, indole acetic acid (IAA) and other natural
or synthetic growth-regulating substances having structures and functions similar to IAA, are
termed auxins.
(i) Charles Darwin conducted his experiments concerning growth on canary grass
(Phalaris canariensis).
(ii) Went is credited with the discovery of auxin.
(iii) Auxins are synthesized mainly in apices and exhibit polar transport.
(iv) Using Avena curvature test, Kogl and Haagen Smit (1931) found that human urine
contained a growth substance, which was isolated and given the name auxin a
(auxentriolic acid). In 1934, Kogl and coworkers isolated another compound auxin-b
Physiology 145
(auxenolinic acid) from corn germ oil and heteroauxin (now known as IAA or indole 3-
acetic acid) from human urine. The auxins a and b could not be isolated again and
their existence is doubtful but IAA has been isolated in crystalline form from different
sources by different investigators at different times.
(v) Plants having excurrent habit (palms, conifers, polyathia) have greater apical
dominance.
Functions of auxins
(i) Cell elongation
(ii) Cell divisions
(iii) Phototropism
(iv) Geotropism
(v) Apical dominance
(vi) Root initiation
(vii) Abscission
(viii) Feminising effect
(ix) Parthenocarpy
(x) Weedicide
(xi) Prevention of lodging
Applications of synthetic auxins

1. Rooting: IBA, IBA-alanine and NAA are used.
2. Parthenocarpy: IAA, IBA.
3. Weedicide: 2,4-D, 2,4, 5- T.
4. Flowering: NAA and 2,4-D for litchi and pineapple.
5. Storage: Methyl ester of NAA for storage of potato.
6. Pre harvest fruit drop: 2,4-D for citrus fruits, NAA for tomato.
7. Prevention of lodging: Naphthalene acetamide.
8. Vegetable crops: Chlorophenoxypropionic acid is used to improve quality of vegetable
crops.
9. Dwarf shoots: NAA for increasing dwarf shoots and number of fruits in apple.
2. Gibberellins
Gibberellins are synthesized in the apices of young leaves and roots and are transported through
xylem. Anti-giberellins are synthetic compounds which interfere with the synthesis of gibberellins
in the plant body, hence called growth retardants e.g. maleic hydrazide, phosphon D,
chlorocholine chloride (CCC).
Japanese farmer noticed ‘bakanae’ or ‘foolish seedling disease of rice’. As a result of the
disease, certain rice seed lings grew excessively tall and rapidly; and toppled over before forming
seeds. Crop losses as high as 40% were reported. In the beginning of twentieth century, it
became known that the disease is caused by a fungus Gibberella fujikuroi (perfect state of
Fuasarium moniliforme).
Kurosowa (1926) showed that the sterile filtrates of the fungus are capable of causing the
symptoms of bakanae disease in otherwise normal seedlings. Yabuta and Hayashi (1910) isolated
the growth inducing principle and called it Gibberellin. In 1938, Yabuta and Sumiki were able
to isolate the crystalline form of gibberellin from the culture of the fungus. This and other
similar compounds isolated were called gibberellins (after the name of the fungus Gibberella)
and were numbered GA1 , GA2 , GA3 .
Chemically all gibberellins arc terpenes a complex group of plant chemicals related to
lipids. All are weak acids. Gibberellins are found in abundance in young expanding organs
being synthesized especially in embryos, young apical leaves, buds, seeds and root tips. After
synthesis, these are translocated up or down the plants from the leaves.
Applications of gibberellins
(i) Internodal elongation: Like auxins, the main effect of gibberellins is on stem
elongation mainly by affecting cell elongation. Gibberellins stimulate stem elongation
and leaf expansion, but do not affect roots. Thus, gibberellins restore normal size and
growth to genetically dwarf varieties of pear and maize. Though stem growth of
normal plants is also promoted, but here these do not induce marked elongation. It is
believed that certain specific types of dwarfness in plants are due to deficiency of
gibberellin.
(ii) Bolting: In many plants, leaf development is profuse, while internode growth is
retarded. This form of growth is called “rosette” e.g., cabbage. Just before the
reproductive phase, the internodes elongate enormously causing a marked increase
in height. The stem sometimes elongates from 5-6 times the original height of the
plant. This is called bolting. Bolting requires either long days or cold nights. So if a
cabbage head is kept under warm nights, it returns to its rosette habit. However,
application of gibberellins to these plants can induce bolting even under the conditions
that would normally favor rosette form. The gibberellins thus appear to have a role
in bolting or not bolting of a plant. Some gibberellin-like substances found in greater
amounts in bolted plants than in the non-bolted form.
(iii) Germination of seeds: especially in cereals, is triggered by soaking the seed in
water. After imbibition of water, the embryo secretes gibberellin which diffuses to
the aleurone layer, stimulating the synthesis of several enzymes, including amylase,
proteases, lipases. These enzymes catalyse the breakdown of food reserves in the
endosperm and the products liberated diffuse to the embryo, where they are used in
growth.
(v) Control of flowering: Gibberellins promote flowering in long day plants and inhibit
it in short day plants. These also control sex-expression in certain species. In general,
the application of gibberellins promotes the production of male flowers in female
plants of Callilabis.
(vi) Control of fruit growth: Along with gibberellins, the auxins control fruit growth
and development. Gibberellins cause parthenocarpy in pome fruits (apple, pear etc.)
and are now-a-days used extensively to increase the fruit size and bunch length in
grape.
(vii) Vernalization: Gibberellins can substitute vernalization.
(viii) Dormancy: Gibberellins overcome natural dormancy of buds, tubers, seeds etc.
Physiology 147
Commercial application
1. Fruit growth – increase number and size of grapes, tomato.
2. Parthenocarpy – in pomes.
3. Malt - Increase yield of mall from barley.
4. Delayed ripening – in citrus.
5. Overcoming dormancy – in photoblaslic seeds of tobacco and lettuce.
6. Flowering – in long day plants in non-inductive period.
3. Cytokinins
Cytokinins are substances which act primarily on cell division and have little or no effect on
extension growth. A number of compounds capable of promoting cell division are found in
plants.
During the period 1954-1956, Skoog found that coconut milk contained it substance that
stimulated cell division in tobacco pith cultures. In 1955, Miller et. al. separated from yeast
DNA an active stimulant of cell division which they called kinetin (because of its involvement
in cell division i.e. cytokinesis). Later on, the substance was identified as 6-furfuryl aminopurine.
Subsequently, the term cytokinin was adopted.The first naturally occurring cytokinin to be
chemically identified was from young maize (Zea mays) grains in 1963 and was called zeatin.
Applications of cytokinins
(i) Cell-division: Cytokinins are quite abundant wherever, rapid cell division occurs,
especially in growing tissues such as embryos, developing fruits and roots. In mature
plants, these are frequently synthesized in the roots and move to the shoots through
xylem.
(ii) Morphogenesis: Cytokinins promote cell division. However, these never act alone.
In the presence of auxins, cytokinins promote cell division even in non-meristematic
tissues. In tissue cultures of parenchyma, mitotic divisions are accelerated when
both auxin and cytokinin are present. However, no response occurs with auxin or
cytokinin alone. Also, the ratio of cytokinins to auxins also controls cell differentiation.
When both of these are present in relatively equal quantities the cells do divide but -
fail to differentiate. If there is more cytokinin than auxin, shoot buds develop.
Relatively more auxin than cytokinins leads to the developments of roots.
(iii) Apical Dominance: Cytokinin and auxin can act antagonistically in the control of
apical dominance. While auxins promote the growth of apical buds, the cytokinin
stimulate the growth of lateral buds.
(iv) Delay in senescence: Cytokinins delay the senescence of plant organs by controlling
protein synthesis and mobilization of resources. This is evidenced by the fact the cut
leaves dipped in cytokinins stay green longer than the control leaves. This is called
Richmond Lang effect.
(v) Flowering: Cytokinins also induce flowering in certain species of plants and are also
responsible for breaking the dormancy of seeds of some plants
(vi) Phloem transport and Accumulation of salts in the cells.
(vii) Sex-expression – promote femaleness
Commercial application
1. Tissue culture.
2. Shelf life of vegetables, flowers is increased.
3. Overcoming senescence.
4. Ethylene
Ethylene is the only gaseous natural plant growth regulator. Some of the inhibitory effects
which were earlier thought to be due to auxins are now known to be the effect of ethylene.
A ripe or injured fruit in a container hastens the ripening of other fruits. ‘This is very
common observation and belief. Merchants have been using kerosene lamps and hay for hastening
the development of color in fruits. These effects are due to ethylene. In 1930’s it became known
that ethylene gas hastened the ripening of citrus fruits and affected plants growth in different
ways. Later on, it was found that certain ripe fruits e.g., bananas produced a gas with similar
effects. In 1934, maturing apple was shown to emit ethylene. Later on, it was found that
ethylene is emitted by a wide variety of ripening fruits, and from wounded organs.
Ethylene is produced by most or all plant organs. High concentrations of auxin induce the
formation of ethylene. Though it is a gas, it does not genenrally move through the air spaces in
the plants. Rather, it escapes from the plants surface.
Applications of ethylene
(i) Growth: It inhibits stem elongation and stimulates its transverse expansion. As a
result, the stem looks swollen.
(ii) Abscission: It accelerates abscission of leaves, flowers and fruits.
(ii) Fruit ripening: Its chief effects are on the ripening of fruits accompanied by a rise
in the rate of respiration (climacteric).
(iv) Flowering: Application of ethylene induces flowering in pineapp.12 and stimulates
the ripening of citrus fruits and tomatoes. Its application increases the number of
female flowers and fruits in cucumber plants.
A commercial compounds ‘ethephon’ breaks down to release ethylene in plants. It is
particularly applied to rubber plants to stimulate the flow of latex.
5. Abscisic Acid
For a long time it has been suspected that dormancy is caused by inhibitors. A group of scientists
led by Wareing initiated studies to find them. In 1964, pure crystals of a substance were called
dormin. It was found to be similar to another compound isolated from young cotton fruits in
1963 by another group of scientists. This substance accelerated abscission and was called
abscission II. In 1967 it was decided to call it abscisic acid.(ABA)
Since then, it has been found in all groups of Plants (from mosses to higher plants). In
liverworts and algae a compound lunularic acid had been found having activities similar to
ABA. Chemically, ABA is a terperioid. It is the only growth substance in its class.
ABA is synthesized in the leaves, stems, fruits and seeds. Isolated chloroplast can synthesize
it. It is distributed through the vascular system, especially phloem. ABA is a major inhibitor of
growth in plants and is antagonistic to all the three growth promoters.
Physiology 149
APPLICATIONS OF ABA
(i) Stoppage of cambial activity – It inhibits mitosis in vascular cambium.

(ii) Bud dormancy – It induces axillary buds to become dormant as the winter
approaches.
(iii) Seed dormancy – It induces dormancy in seeds.
(iv) Transpiration – It is a ‘stress hormone’ and helps the plant to cope with adverse
environmental conditions especially drought. In wilting tomato leaves, ABA brings
about the closure of stomata.
Commercial uses
1. It may be sprayed on tree crops to regulate fruit drop at the end of the season.
2. Application of ABA to green oranges turns them yellow by inducing synthesis of
caretenoids.
3. Anti-transpirant.
ANIMAL HORMONES
1. Exocrine glands are those which drain out their secretion through a duct, e.g.
liver, intestinal glands, gastric glands.
2. Endocrine glands. The glands, which lack duct and discharge, their secretions into
the blood stream are called as Endocrine glands. They are also called as ductless
glands. The chemical secretions of endocrine glands are called hormones and are
popularly called the chemical messengers of the body. They affect definite part of
the body and prepare it for a specific function. The part of the body where a hormone
produces its effect is called the target.
• Endocrine secretion. Target organs lies at a distance or is far removed from
the site of origin of hormone.
• Paracrine secretion. Acting on cells in near vicinity.
• Autocrine secretion. Acting on same cells, which secrete it.
3. Mechanism of action of hormones:
Protein hormones act on the target receptors present on plasma membrane. These
receptors in turn excite second messengers inside the nucleus for action on DNA for
differential transcription second messenger can be.
• cAMP (3'5' cyclic adenosine mono phosphate) e.g. TSH, LH, ACTH, FSH,
vasopressin, parathyroid hormone, glucagons, secretin, catecholamines.
• Ca++ ions and calmodulin (calcium binding protein) e.g. ?
• Inositol phosphate and diacylglycerol
4. The name hormone was first used by the English physiologists. M. Bayliss and
E.H. Starling in 1909. A hormone (Gr. Hormao = to excite) may be defined as a
specific organic product of an endocrine gland secreted into the blood which carries it
to some part of the body (target organ) where it regulates a definite physiological
effect.
5. Heterocrine glands are those glands which are exocrine as well as endocrine in
functions e.g. testes, ovaries.
6. Hormones are required in specific amount. Their hyposecretion (secretion in lesser
amount than normal), as well as hypersecretion (secretion in larger amount than
normal) produces serious physiological disturbances in the body.
7. Properties of hormones:
The hormones have the following properties:
(a) They have low molecular weight.
(b) They are soluble in water and blood.
(c) They have no cumulative effect.
(d) They can act in very low concentration.
(e) They are non-antigenic.
(f) They are organic catalysts.
8. Kinds of hormones: Based on their influence on physiological activities and control,
the hormones may be divided into following 5 categories.
(i) Hormones concerned with metabolism e.g. Insulin etc.
(ii) Hormones for growth and development e.g. Somatotropin etc.
(iii) Horomones of digestion e.g. Gastrin, Secretin etc.
(iv) Hormones for reproduction e.g. Gonadotropic and Sex hormones.
(v) Hormones that control other endocrine glands e.g. Thyrotropin etc.
9. Biochemical Classifaction of hormones: All hormones, depending upon their
chemical structure, may be classified under the following categories.
(i) Amines: Hormones of pineal gland (melatonin) and adrenal medulla
(catecholmines, viz., adrenaline, nonadrenaline).
(ii) Modified Amino Acids: Hormones of thyroid are iodinated tyrosine, e.g.,
thyroxine.
(iii) Peptides: Hormones of hypothalamus (ARH, TRH, GRH, GIH), intermediate
(MSH) and posterior lobes of pituitary (ADH, oxytocin). ACTH of anterior pituitary
and calcitonin of thyroid belong to this category. They may further be
differentiated into short peptides (e.g., oxytocin, ADH) and long peptides (e.g.,
calcitonin, ACTH).
(iv) Proteins: Hormones of pancreas (e.g., insulin, glucagon), gastrointestinal tract,
some female hormones (e.g., relaxin of ovary and hCG of placenta), parathormone
(PTH) and most hormones of anterior pituitary except ACTH (e.g., TSH, FSH,
LA, LTH, GH) are proteinaceous.
(v) Steroids: Hormones are derived from cholesterol and other steroids, e.g.,
aldosterone, cortisol, sex corticoids (adrenal cortex), testosterone, estradiol,
progesterone (gonads except relaxin, placenta except hCG).
10. RIA – Radioimmunoassay technique to measure the hormones, their precursor and
their metabolic end products quantitatively in a living body.
11. Endocrine glands in human beings: In man the following major endocrine glands
are present.
(i) Pituitary gland or Hypophysis
Physiology 151
(ii) Pineal Gland

(iii) Thyroid gland
(iv) Parathyroid gland
(v) Adrenal gland
(vi) Gonads
(vii) Islets of Langerhands in Pancreas
(viii) Placenta
(ix) Thymus gland
(x) Hypothalamus
(xi) Gastro-Intestinal lining
SUMMARY OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES
I. Pituitary Gland
It consists of three lobes, anterior, middle and posterior.
Location: Floor of diencephalons and attached to the hypothalamus by a stalk to form
hypothalamic – pituitary system.
(a) Anterior lobs of Pituitary: It possesses acidophils (a- cells), basophils (b-cells) and
chromophobes (precursors of other two). Acidophils produce two hormones (GH and
LTH) while basophils secrete five hormones (TSH, Lipotropin, ACTH, FSH, LH).
(i) Somatotropin or Growth Stimulating Hormone (GH)
Functions: Stimulates growth by accelerating the protein synthesis and retention
of calcium.
Effect of hyposecretion: Less secretion of GSH leads to dwarfism and
acromicria in adults.
Effect of Hypersecretion: 1. Gigantism. Due to excess secretion of GSH during
childhood.
2. Acromeagly in adults.
(ii) Prolactin/ Lactogenic or Luteotrophic Hormone (LTH)– Proteinaceous
hormone (often included under gonadotrophins) that stimulates development of
mammary glands during pregnancy and lactation after childbirth. It is also called
maternity hormone.
(iii) Lipotropin or Adipokinetic Hormone– The hormone stimulates liberation of
fatty acids from stored fats.
(iv) Gonadotropins: The hormones, which regulate the sexual activity of gonads,
and other structures of the body. They include:
1. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Functions: Stimulation of testes in male to form the sperms from the
seminiferous tubules: In females, the FSH stimulates ovary for the
maturation of ovation follicle. Here, it also stimulates the follicular cells to
secrete estrogen. The latter is responsible for the secondary sexual
characters in female.
Effect of hyposecretion: Failure of gamete formation from the gonads.
2. Intestinal Cells Stimulating Hormone (ICSH) in males.

Functions: Stimulates the interstitial or Leydig’s cells or testis to produce
testosterone. The latter brings about secondary sexual characters of male.
Effect of hyposecretion: Impaired development of the external genitalia.
3. Leutinizing hormone in females (LH) (or Lutropin).
Functions: Release of ovum from ovary (ovulation); formation of corpus
luteum and the secretion of progesterone from corpus luteum.
Effect of hyposecretion: Sterility in females.
(v) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Function: Production of thyroid hormones from thyroid gland
(vi) Adrenocortiocotropin Hormone (ACTH):
Function: Brings about the production and release of hormones from adrenal
cortex.
(b) Intermediate lobs of pituitary
Hormone: Melanocytes stimulating hormone (MSH)
Function: May be connected with pigment maintenance in hair, pregnancy related
skin pigmentation.
(c) Posterior lobs of pituitary
Hormones
(i) Oxytocin (Pitocin): Stimulation of uterine contraction during child birth. Stimulation
of milk flow by mammary glands under the control of Prolactin or LTH.
(ii) Vasopressin (Pitressin, ADH): Influences water balance by reducing output of urine
by reabsorption of water from nephric filtrate in DCH and CT. Also, causes arteriole
constriction, raise blood pressure and causes contraction of several smooth muscles
like those of intestine, gall bladder, urinary bladder etc.
Hyper secretion
Causes Diabetes insipidus (Drinker’s disease) It is hormonal abnormality of polyuria
(excessive urine) or micturating dilute urine (hypotonic, sugar-free) several times a
day.
II. Pineal Gland

It is a stalked small rounded gland found behind the anterior choroid plexus on the epithalamus.
Calcification occurs in middle age. It has pineal and glial cells.
Hormones
The gland secretes two biogenic amine hormones
(i) Serotonin: Also by disintegrating blood cells. Constricts (Vasoconstriction) blood vessel
at site of injury and gives burning sensation.
(ii) Melatonin:. The hormone develops pale skin color in amphibians. It shows a marked
diurnal rhythm with maximum concentration at midnight and minimum during noon.
The hormone controls sleep, mood, ovarian cycle, delays puberty, opposes FSH and
LH hormones (hence anti-gonadotrophic).
Physiology 153
III. Thyroid
Location: Base of larynx
Hormones:
(i) Thyroxine
(ii) Triodothronine (Both are iodinated amino acids)
Functions: Regulate cellular oxidation of food and basal metabolism, growth and
differentiation.
Effect of hyposecretion:
(i) Cretinism in children, and Myxodema in adult.
(ii) Iodine deficiency goiter.
(iii) Hashimoto Disease: It occurs in middle aged females due to sensitization of their
own thyroid protein called thyroglobulin. There is mild hypothyroidism. The thyroid
gland is enlarged.
Effect of Hypersecretion: Exophthalamic goiter/ Grave disease indicated by
protruding eyes, loss of weight, nervous- ness and fast heart beat.
(iv) Calcitonin (Protein): Regulates calcium and phosphorus
IV. Parathyroids
Location: Behind thyroid
Hormones: Parathormone (protein)
Functions: Regulates calcium and phosphorus balance in the blood.
Effect of hyposecretion: Reduces Ca in blood and results in severe cramps Parathyroid
tetany.
Effect of Hypersecretion: High Ca level in blood by releasing it from bones and leading
to ostestis fibrosa cystica.
V. Adrenals
Each adrenal has two parts, an outer cortex and inner medulla.
Location: Over the superior end of kidneys.
(a) Adrenal Cortex. The outer part of adrenals which further consists of three zones
(i) Zona glomerulosa:
Hormones: Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
Functions: Regulation of Na+ and K+ in blood. Increases Na+ level, and lowers
that of K+
(ii) Zona Fasciculata
Hormone: Glucocorticoids (Mainly cortisol)
Function: Increase glucose level in body by changing proteins and fast to
carbohydrates.
Hypersecretion: Cushing’s syndrome due to high glucose level, and high Na+
level caused by excess of glucocorticoids. High B.P. and rise in blood volume.
(iii) Zona reticulosa
Hormone: Androgens (Male sex hormones)
Function: Development of male secondary sexual characters.

Hypersecretion: Adrenal virilism due to excess of androgens secreted in female
who develops certain masculine features.
(b) Adrenal medulla (The inner portion of adrenals)
The adrenals are commonly called the glands of emergency because of the role of
their hormones.
Hormone:
(i) Noradrenaline (= Norepinephrine) Secreted under normal conditions.
Function: Regulate blood pressure under normal condition by constricting small
arteries.
(ii) Adrenaline (= Epinephrine) secreted under conditions of physical and mental
stress such as grief, pain, injury, anger, fall in blood pressure and blood sugar,
cold fear, etc. In man, adrenalin is produced in much more amount than
nonadrenaline.
Function: Increase of heart beat rate, breathing rate and blood sugar. Dilation
of small arteries of heart, brain and skeletal muscles. Constriction of small
arteries of skin: constriction of small arteries of skin; contraction of spleen to
squeeze out the reserve, dilation of pupil, contraction of arrector pili muscles
(goose flesh condition).
VI. Gonads
(a) Testes. A heterocrine gland. The endocrine portion is represented by the Leydig’s
cells (Interstitial cells) present between the seminiferous tubules.
Location: Situated in Scrotum
Hormones: Testosterone and other androgens.
Functions:
1. Growth of the reproductive system to full size and to functional state.
2. Stimulates sperm formation.
3. Formation of sexual characters of female.
Hyposecretion: Eunuchoidism (Inadequate formation of reproductive system,
incapability of sperm formation).
(b) Ovaries
Location: In the abdominal cavity.
Hormones:
(i) Oestrogen from follicular cells.
Function: Growth of female reproductive system to full size, formation of
secondary sexual characters of female.
(ii) Progesterone (secreted by corpus luteum).
Function:
(a) Suspends the ovulation.
(b) Formation of placenta.
(iii) Relaxin (produced by corpus luteum at the end of pregnancy)
Physiology 155
Function: Controls the development of foetus, Relaxation of cervix, and ligaments

of pelvic girdle to facilitate the birth.
VII. Pancreas
A myxocrine gland. Its endocrine part is represented by Islets of Langerhans which have two
type of cells the a (alpha) cells, and b (beta) cells.
Location: In the duodenal loop.
(a) Beta cells
Hormone: Insulin (an anabolic hormone)
Function:
(i) Conversion of glucose to glycogen in liver and muscles.
(ii) Promotes protein synthesis in tissues.
(iii) Promotes synthesis of fats from fatty acids
(iv) Inhibits breakdown of proteins and fats.
Hyposecretion: Diabetes mellitus indicated by the rise of glucose level in blood, and
higher level of cholesterol, excretion of sugar by the kidneys in urine; excessive
thirst; delayed wound healing of proteins in tissues, and gangrene.
(b) Alpha cells
Hormone: Glucagon
Function:
(i) Converts glycogen to blood glucose in liver
(ii) Formation of glucose from amino acids.
VIII. Placenta
Location: A living connection between the foetus and uterine wall.
Hormones:
(i) Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
Function: Produced in large amount in first few months of pregnancy. It stimulates
the enlargement of corpus luteum to secrete progesterone. Presence of hCG in urine
is indication of pregnancy, used for pregnancy test
(ii) Progesterone: Functionally same as the one produced by corpus luteum.
(iii) Estrogen: : Similar role as that produced by the follicular cells of ovary
IX. Thymus
Location: Near the heart. Gets reduced in adults.
Hormone: Thymosin (Protein)
Function: Proliferation of lymphocytes, and also regulates growth; important for immune
system.
Hyposecretion: Poor development of immunity. Retarded development of sex organs.
X. Hypothalamus
(Composed of neurosecretory cells of the floor of diencephalons secrete neurohormones).
Location: Floor of diencephalons of brain; connected to the anterior lobe of pituitary by

hypophyseal blood vessel, and with posterior lobe of pituitary through the axons of its neurons.
Some hormones are poured into adenohypophysis (anterior, and intermediate pituitary), through
hypophysial portal system while two hormones (oxytocin and ADH) are directly taken by
nerve cells in neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary). Hormones poured in adenohypophysis
function as releasing or inhibiting hormones. They are peptide in nature.
Hormones:
(i) Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (T-RH): Release of TSH from anterior pituitary.
(ii) Adrenocorticotropin- Releasing Hormone (A-RH): Release of ACTH from anterior
pituitary.
(iii) Somatotropin Releasing hormone (S-RH): Release of SH from anterior pituitary.
(iv) Gonadotropin- Releasing hormone (G-RH): Release of goandotropins from the
anterior pituitary.
(v) Growth inhibiting hormone (GIH) or somatostatin: Inhibits the hormone from
pituitary.
XI. Gastrointestinal lining

Location: Inner layer of wall of gut.
(a) Stomach
Hormone: Gastrin
Function: Stimulation of gastric glands to release gastric juice. Also stimulates
stomach movements.
(b) Intestine
(i) Secretin
(1) Stimulates pancreas to release enzymes.
(2) Stimulates gall bladder to release bile.
(ii) Cholecystokinin Pancreozymin (CCK – PZ): Stops the secretion of gastric
juice and slows down gastric movements.
(iii) Enterogastrone: Stops the secretion of gastric juice and slows down gastric
movements.
(iv) Enterocrininn: Release the intestinal juice from crypts of Liberkuhn.
(v) Duocrinin: Release of mucus from Brunner’s Glands
(vi) Villikrinin: Accelerates the movement of villi.
Local Hormones (Tissue Hormones)

(i) Local hormones are those hormones which do not pass into blood but diffuse to the
target as the same is nearby. They are also called paracrines or parahormones
(ii) The important ones are acetylcholine (from nerve endings), kinins (bradykinins) and
prostaglandins. Prostaglandins are fatty acid derivatives, which have diverse functions
including blood flow regulation, uterine contractions, antithrombotic, relaxation of
arterial smooth muscles, etc. Kinins or bradykinins are polypeptides that cause
contraction of smooth muscles and dilation of blood vessels.
(iii) The gaseous hormone, nitric oxide (also an air pollutant), is also a local hormone.
Molecule of the year 1994, it has been used in rescuing end stage patients in respiratory
Physiology 157
distress. It is a signalling molecule of cardiovascular system that regulates blood

pressure and blood flow besides relaxing smooth muscle cells. It is currently used in
male potency drug viagra.
Pheromones
(i) They are chemicals used for communication amongst individuals of the same species.
Pheromones are produced by exocrine glands and are transmitted to other members
through air or excrements (e.g., urine in dogs).
(ii) Pheromones invoke a specific response in other members like recognition, attraction,
warning, etc. Bombykol is sex attractant pheromone produced by female silkworm
moth, which is received by male antenna several kilometers away.
(iii) Ant trail is due to pheromone. Queen Bee is recognized by workers due to release of
9-oxydecenoic acid by it. Dormitory effect is also believed to be due to pheromones.
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the formation of new similar young living organisms by the grown up individuals
of a species or race. It is meant for perpetuation of the race/species because individuals are
bound to die after a life span. Reproduction provides group immortality. Four processes are
basic to reproduction – DNA replication, cell division, formation of reproductive units and
development of a new individual. Animal reproduction is of two types, asexual and sexual.
Asexual Reproduction
It is a mode of reproduction or formation of new young individuals from a specialized or
unspecialized part of single parent without the formation and fusion of gametes. Besides being
uniparental and absence of gametes, asexual reproduction is characterized by divisions through
mitosis only, genetic similarity between parent and young ones, rapidity and absence of haploid-
diploid alteration. Asexual reproductive propagule is called blastos. It contains totipotent cells
like archaeocytes (sponges), interstitial cells (cnidaria), parenchyma (platyhelminthes)
and neoblasts (annelids), etc. An individual produced through asexual reproduction is ramet.
Clone is group of all genetically similar individuals formed through asexual reproduction.
1. Fission: It is a type of asexual reproduction in which the body of an individual
undergoes division to produce two or more equal sized daughters.
(i) Binary Fission. The mature individual divides into two equal sized daughter
individuals. Binary fission is irregular (can occur in any plane) in Amoeba,
longitudinal in Euglena, oblique in dinoflagellates and transverse in Paramecium
and Planaria. In unicellular forms, binary fission is accomplished through mitotic
nuclear division followed by cytokinesis. In multicellular individuals like Planaria
the posterior part is fixed firmly to substratum while anterior part extends forward
and exerts a pull causing the middle part to break.
(ii) Multiple Fission: It is formation of a number of small daughters by division of
a parent. In unicellular forms, the nucleus divides a few times followed by
collection of cytoplasm around each daughter nucleus forming a number of
daughter cells, e.g., Amoeba, Plasmodium, Monocystis.
(iii) Plasmotomy: Cleavage of plasmodium or multinucleate body into multinucleate

parts, e.g., Opalina, Pelomyxa.
(iv) Strobilisation: A modification of multiple fission is strobilisation in multicellular
animals (body segmentation for reproduction as forming zooids in coelenterates
like Aurelia and proglottides in Tapeworm).
2. Cysts and Spores: They are minute propagules, which function as dissemules as
well as perennating structures. Each cyst or spore gives rise to a new individual.
3. Budding: It is a mode of asexual reproduction in which new organisms develop as
outgrowth or buds from a parent.
(i) Exogenous/ External Budding. The bud develops externally on the parent. In
the young condition the two are internally connected to provide nourishment to
the bud. Later on, the bud enlarges and becomes nutritionally independent. It
then separates as a new individual, e.g., Yeast, Hydra. However, in some cases,
the new individual remains joined to the parent to form colony, e.g., Scypha.
(ii) Endogenous/ Internal Budding. Internal buds or gemmules/ statoblasts occur
in sponges/bryozoans to help in dispersal as well as perennation.
4. Fragmentation: It is breaking of an individual into two or more parts due to external
(e.g., Star fish) or internal forces (e.g., Tunicates). Each fragment grows into a new
individual.
Sexual Reproduction
It is mode of multiplication in which the new individuals or young ones are formed through the
process of formation and fusion of gametes. Haploid (gametes)- diploid (individual) alternation
occurs. Gametogenesis involves meiosis. Fusion of gametes or fertilization restores the
chromosome number. The offspring is produced by the growth of the fusion product of gametes
called zygote. Sexual reproduction is commonly biparental. A number or variations appear in
the offspring.
Parthenogenesis (Apomixis)
It is the development of a new individual from a single gamete (generally the egg/ovum) without
involving fertilization. On the basis of chromosome sets, parthenogenesis is of two types:
(i) Arrhenotoky (Haploid Parthenogenesis). Haploid eggs grow to form haploid males,
e.g., arachnids, some insects.
(ii) Thelotoky (Diploid Parthenogenesis). Diploid eggs grow without fertilization into
diploid individuals, generally females, e.g., Gall Fly
Parthenogenesis can be natural or artificial. Natural parthenogenesis may be obligatory
or cyclic.
Natural Parthenogenesis
1. Obligatory/Complete Parthenogenesis: Males are absent. Females develop
parthenogenetically, e.g. rotifers, Typhlina brahmina (small lizard), Lacerta saxicola-
armeniaca (Caucasian Rock Lizard), Cnemidophorus (Whiptail lizard of America)
2. Cyclic/Incomplete Parthenogenesis: Both sexual and parthenogenetic individuals
occur. In aphids, several generations of parthenogenetic females develop followed by
Physiology 159
formation of both males and females to perform sexual reproduction. In Turkey, 40%
of the males develop parthenogenetically. In Honey Bee, male or drone develops
parthenogenetically (no meiosis at the time of spermatogenesis) while queen and
workers develop from fertilized eggs. Also in wasps and ants. In Gall Fly, larvae may
lay eggs that develop parthenogenetically (paedogenesis).
Artificial/Induced Parthenogenesis
Sugar, salt, alkaloids and other chemicals, heat, cold, pricking and other stimuli can stimulate
eggs to undergo cleavage and form parthenogenetic embryos. Being haploid, they generally do
not survive.
GAMETOGENESIS
The process of formation off gametes in the gonads is called gametogenesis. Gametes are
produced by way of meiotic division resulting in the reduction of number of chromosomes to
one half. The production of sperms in the seminiferous tubules of testis is called spermatogenesis
and production of ova in ovaries is called oogenesis.
1. Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the process of formation of haploid functional spermatozoa from
diploid germinal cells of seminiferous tubules. Lining layer of seminiferous tubules
possesses primary germ cells and indifferent cells that mature into nurse cells or
Sertoli cells.
(i) Multiplication Phase: Diploid primary germ cells undergo repeated mitosis to
form a number of diploid spermatogonia.
(ii) Spermatocytogenesis: Each spermatogonia divided mitotically to from two
interconnected primary spermatocyte
(iii) Growth Phase: Primary spermatocytes grow in size.
(iv) Maturation Phase: Each diploid primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis I to
form two haploid secondary spermatocytes. All the secondary spermatocytes
derived from a single spermatogonium remain attached to one another. Secondary
spermatocytes- divides by meiosis II, each giving rise to two haploid spermatids.
The spermatids become partially embedded in Sertoli cells for nourishment and
support.
(v) Spermiogenesis: Spermiogenesis is differentiation of a spermatozoon from a
spermatid. Golgi apparatus forms acrosome. Centriole divides into two. Distal
centriole forms axial filament. Mitochondria collect around upper part of axial
filament. Nucleus undergoes condensation. A spermatozoon now separates while
the unused cytoplasm degenerates. Heads of spermatozoa remain embedded for
some time in Sertoli cells but ultimately the spermatozoa are released into
lumen of seminiferous tubule for onward passage.
Sperm
Human sperm is dart-like flagellate structure of 60 µm length. It has four parts—
(i) Head. Knob-like terminal part has two components, acrosome and nucleus. Acrosome
contains sperm lysins. Nucleus is compact mass of DNA having some protamines.
On the outside is present a double membrane head cap.
(ii) Neck. It is short narrow part between head and middle piece, which contains two
centrioles, unconnected proximal centriole and distal centriole attached to axial
filament (that passes into middle piece).
(iii) Middle Piece. It is cylindrical part. It has axial filament surrounded by 10-14 spiral
turns of mitochondria and bearing towards the end a ring centriole or annulus.
Mitochondria provide energy for swimming but food is limited.
(iv) Tail. It is narrow vibratile long part, with two regions, main and end piece. Main
piece of tail is 0.5 mm in diameter near the beginning but gradually narrows behind.
It has an axial filament, small amount of cytoplasm and plasma membrane. In the
end piece, cytoplasm and membrane are absent.
2. Oogenesis
It is the process of formation, development and maturation of haploid ova from diploid germinal
cells of ovary. Oogenesis occurs in three phases
(i) Multiplication Phase. Diploid primary germ cells from germinal epithelium of
ovary multiply mitotically and form oogonia. The latter produce ovigerous cords or
egg tubes of Pfluger in mammals.
(ii) Growth Phase. It is prolonged and slow. Oogonia form rounded masses or egg nests
at the tips of egg tubes of Pfluger. An egg nest forms ovarian follicle. One central
oogonium grows and functions as primary oocyte. The others form the covering
follicular cells. The latter provide nourishment to primary oocyte. Some nourishment
also comes from outside. Enlarged primary oocyte secretes mucoprotein membrane
or zona pellucida outside its own plasma membrane or vitelline membrane. There is
increase in reserve food, size of nucleus, number of mitochondria, functioning of
Golgi apparatus and complexity of endoplasmic reticulum.
(iii) Maturation Phase. Meiosis occurs. Nucleus shifts towards animal pole and undergoes
meiosis I. A daughter nucleus alongwith small quantity of cytoplasm is extruded as
primary polar body or polocyte below zona pellucida. Simultaneously primary oocyte
is changed into haploid secondary oocyte. Ovum is generally shed in secondary oocyte
stage. Meiosis II is completed in fallopian tube at the time of fertilization. It then
produces a small secondary polar body and a large ovum. The primary polar body
may also divide.
Ovum
Human egg or ovum is noncleidoic and alecithal (nearly microlecithal), rounded female gamete
having a diameter of about 100 mm. The ovum possesses three coverings – inner thickened
plasma membrane or vitelline membrane, middle mucoprotein zona pellucida and outer cellular
corona radiata with radially elongated scattered cells held in mucopolysaccharide (hyaluronic
acid). In between plasma membrane ( = vitelline membrane) and zona pellucida is peri-vitelline
space in which are present 1- 3 polar bodies towards animal pole. The opposite end is vegetal
pole. Cytoplasm of ovum is called ooplasm. It has a large nucleus or germinal vesicle. Ectoplasm
possesses
Physiology 161
FERTILIZATION IN HUMANS
Only a single ovum is released in human females from one of the two ovaries towards the
middle of ovarian/menstrual cycle. It passes into fallopian tube and rests inside ampulla for
some time. Human male produces 300 - 400 million sperms per ejaculation. They are deposited
in vagina during coitus. The process of deposition of sperms in the female genital tract is called
insemination. A number of them are demobilised or eaten.
Fertilization involves the following steps:
(i) Approximation of Sperm and Ovum. Sperms can remain motile for 24-48 hours.
They swim at the rate of 1. 5 - 3.0 mm/min. They are able to reach the ampulla part
of female genital tract partly by their own swimming and partly by contraction of
uterus and fallopian tubes. One sperm comes to lie against the ovum and undergo
fertilizin (from ovum) and antifertilizin (from sperm) compatibility reaction (Lillie,
1919) in the region of animal pole.
(ii) Acrosome Reaction. It prepares the sperm to fertilize ovum. The phenomenon is
called capacitation. In contact with corona radiata, the acrosome covering lyses to
release acrosome. With the help of sperm lysins (chiefly hyaluronidase), acrosome
dissolves corona radiata and zona pellucida in front of it.
(iii) Egg Reaction. A small protuberance or fertilization cone (cone of reception), develops
from the surface of ovum in the region of animal pole.
(iv) Penetration of Sperm. Sperm head establishes contact with lateral surface of
fertilization cone. Plasma membranes of the two dissolve. Contents of head (nucleus),
neck and middle piece of sperm enter ooplasm. Tail is left outside. Fertilization cone
subsides. Depolarisation of egg membrane kills other sperms. Plasma membrane of
the egg is now modilled with the help of mucopolysaccharide cortical granules into
fertilization membrane. A perivitelline space is created between it and zona pellucida.
(v) Activation of Ovum. Ovum (previously in secondary oocyte stage) undergoes meiosis
II and extrudes a secondary polar body. It is now the actual ovum or female gamete.
(vi) Fusion of Sperm and Egg Nuclei. The envelopes of the sperm and egg nuclei
degenerate and their chromosomes intermingle to form ‘synkaryon’. The act is called
karyogamy or syngamy. The proximal centriole brought by sperm help~ form the
spindle for the division of synkaryon (cleavage nucleus). Fertilized egg is also called
zygote
1. Mineral nutrients
(a) are not essential to plant growth, since all a plant needs is water and CO2 .
(b) contribute little to the weight of a plant.
(c) enter plants via the stomata.
(d) are organic nutrients.
2. Professor Arun claims to have discovered a new macronutrient required for plant
growth. Most of Professor Arun’s colleagues are skeptical of this claim. Why might
they consider it unlikely?
(a) All the nutrients required for plant growth have already been found.
(b) It is very difficult to prove that a plant needs a certain nutrient.
(c) Plants need thousands of nutrients; a new one is not significant.
(d) Any nutrient needed in large amounts has probably been found already.
3. Soil could be deficient in any of the following nutrients. If you had to supply one of
them, which would be needed in the smallest amount?
(a) iron (b) phosphorus
(c) nitrogen (d) potassium
4. Which of the following is a symptom of magnesium deficiency?
(a) yellowing of younger leaves’ prior to yellowing of older leaves.
(b) enhanced plant growth, since magnesium is toxic to plants.
(c) chlorosis
(d) decreased transpiration
5. Topsoil
(a) is the relatively inert upper layer of soil.
(b) does not retain water.
(c) is a mixture of rock fragments, living organisms, and humus.
(d) is uniform in texture.
6. The roots of many aquatic plants have special structures that project above the surface
of the water. For example, cypress trees (which grow in swamps) have knees that
extend upward above water level. Which of the following is the most logical function
of these structures?
(a) obtaining carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
(b) nitrogen fixation
(c) obtaining oxygen for the roots
(d) transpiration
7. The clay particles in soil are important because they
(a) are composed of nitrogen needed by plants.
(b) eliminate spaces for air and facilitate drainage.
Practice Test Paper–Physiology 163
(c) fill spaces and keep oxygen out of the soil.

(d) are charged and hold ions needed by plants.
8. Soil can easily become deficient in _____, because these ions are negatively charged
and do not stick to negatively charged clay particles.
(a) potassium. (b) calcium.
(c) magnesium. (d) nitrate.
9. Fertilizers are usually enriched in

(a) iron, manganese, and zinc.
(b) calcium, boron, and carbon.
(c) nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
(d) molybdenum, copper, and magnesium.
10. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil

(a) convert nitrates to N2 .
(b) convert ammonia into ammonium.
(c) convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia.
(d) use nitrates to make amino acids that plants can use.
11. Nitrogen fixation is
(a) using nitrogen to build molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.
(b) converting nitrogen in the air into a form usable by plants.
(c) recycling nitrogen from organic matter in the soil.
(d) absorbing N2 from the soil.
12. The enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia is
(a) catalase. (b) nitrogenase.
(c) reductase. (d) rubisco.
13. The relationship between legumes and Rhizobium is

(a) mutualistic. (b) parasitic.
(c) competitive. (d) commensalism
14. Mycorrhizae are

(a) nutrients required by plants in relatively small amounts.
(b) plants such as mistletoe that parasitize other plants.
(c) cells that control evaporation of water from leaves.
(d) associations of roots with beneficial fungi.
15. The term alternation of generations refers to a plant’s life cycle alternating between
(a) the production of haploid gametes by meiosis with the production of diploid spores
by mitosis.
(b) a haploid gametophyte generation and a haploid sporophyte generation.
(c) a haploid gametophyte generation and a diploid sporophyte generation.
(d) a flower producing generation and a leaf-producing generation.
16. Self-incompatibility
(a) works the same way in all plants.
(b) are all based on the same mechanism of transplant rejection seen in animals.
(c) maintains variation.
(d) is the rejection of a graft by a plant.
17. In angiosperms, each pollen grain produces two sperm. What do these sperm do?
(a) Each one fertilizes a separate egg cell.
(b) One fertilizes an egg and the other fertilizes the fruit.
(c) One fertilizes an egg and the other is kept in reserve.
(d) One fertilizes an egg and the other fertilizes a cell that develops into stored food.
18. What is endosperm?
(a) male reproductive cells in plants
(b) stored food in a seed
(c) cells that make up the bulk of a pollen grain
(d) the fleshy part of a fruit such as an apple or strawberry
19. The correct arrangement of the meristematic tissue of an embryo is

(a) a ring of lateral meristem surrounding apical meristem.
(b) a ring of procambium surrounding a ring of meristem surrounding a ring of
protoderm.
(c) a ring of hypocotyl surrounding a ring of radicle surrounding a ring of epicotyl.
(d) a ring of protoderm surrounding a ring of ground meristem surrounding
procambium.
20. The scutellum

(a) is a specialized cotyledon found in certain monocots.
(b) develops into the seed coat.
(c) presents a barrier to self-fertilization.
(d) is a specialized cotyledon found in dicots.
21. After fertilization, the _____ develops into a seed and the _____ develops into a fruit.
(a) ovule . . . ovary
(b) pollen grain . . . ovule
(c) ovary . . . ovule
(d) egg . . . ovule
22. Plants growing in harsh environments such as deserts, sand dunes, and arctic tundra
often reproduce vegetatively. This is because
(a) there are few animals available to pollinate them.
(b) they are members of plant families that only reproduce asexually.
(c) fruits would freeze or dry out in these environments.
(d) vegetative reproduction is not as risky as making seeds.
23. In contrast to animals, plants exhibit ______ and _____.

(a) determinate growth . . . persistent morphogenesis
(b) indeterminate growth . . . are not capable of morphogenesis throughout their
lifespan
(c) indeterminate growth . . . persistent morphogenesis
(d) growth . . . morphogenesis
24. Which of the following seedlings will probably bend toward the light?
(a) tip covered with a cap made of black plastic
(b) tip separated from base by a gelatin block
(c) tip separated from base by aluminum foil
(d) tip cut off and place a block of agar over half of the cut portion; the side with the
agar block will bend towards the light
25. In shoots, branching is inhibited by _____ from the tip of a growing shoot, but this
effect is countered by _____ from the roots.
(a) cytokinins . . . auxins
(b) gibberellins . . . ethylene
(c) auxins . . . cytokinins
(d) gibberellins . . . abscisic acid
26. As leaf lettuce matures, the basal edible leaves suddenly send up a tall flowering
shoot. After the plant bolts like this, it no longer produces broad, tasty leaves. Suppose
you wanted to prevent bolting so that you could harvest lettuce longer. You might
look for some way to interfere with the effects of
(a) abscisic acid. (b) gibberellins.
(c) cytokinins. (d) ethylene.
27. Seeds of many desert plants will not germinate until a heavy rain washes away their
(a) phytochrome. (b) abscisic acid.
(c) gibberellins. (d) auxins.
28. The abscission layer

(a) causes a shoot to bend toward light.
(b) secretes cytokinin.
(c) is the location of the biological clock in a plant.
(d) is where a leaf separates from a stem.
29. When a plant structure such as a leaf is injured, it produces ______, which may cause
the part to age and drop off.
(a) cytokinins (b) ethylene
(c) auxins (d) abscisic acid
30. Once a flower is pollinated, changes occur that make it less attractive to insects. Its
petals, for example, shrivel and fall off. Pollination must
(a) increase the output of cytokinins in the flower.
(b) block the flow of auxins from the roots.
(c) trigger the release of ethylene in the flower.

(d) increase the formation of phytochrome, which sets the biological clock.
31. In the autumn, the amount of ____ increases and the amount of ____ decreases in
fruit and leaf stalks, causing a plant to drop fruit and leaves.
(a) ethylene . . . auxin
(b) gibberellin . . . abscisic acid
(c) cytokinin . . . abscisic acid
(d) auxin . . . ethylene
32. Plant hormones act by affecting the activities of
(a) genes. (b) genes and enzymes.
(c) enzymes. (d) genes, membranes, and enzymes.
33. _______ appear to be responsible for gravitropism.

(a) Statoliths (b) phytochromes
(c) Gibberellins (d) Cytokinins
34. A rapid loss of water in specialized cells in the sensitive plant Mimosa pudica causes
(a) the plant to bend toward light.
(b) stomatal opening so photosynthesis can begin.
(c) stress that results in the production of PR proteins.
(d) leaves to droop.
35. A biological cycle with a period of about 24 hours is called

(a) thigmotropism. (b) a circadian rhythm.
(c) photoperiod. (d) abscission.
36. An Rajasthani hunter was worried about being attacked by grizzly tigers, so he left
the lights in his cabin on all the time. Plants near the cabin flowered a month early.
Which of the following best explains this?
(a) They must have been long-night plants.
(b) The lights must have emitted far-red light.
(c) They must have been long-day plants.
(d) They must have been short-day plants.
37. Most plants flower when

(a) the soil reaches a certain temperature.
(b) the days are of right length.
(c) a certain number of days have passed since they last flowered.
(d) the nights are of right length.
38. A certain short-day plant flowers when days are less than 12 hours long. Which of the
following would cause it to flower?
(a) a 9-hour night and 15-hour day with 1 minute of darkness after 7 hour.
(b) an 8-hr day and 16-hour night with a flash of white light after 8 hr.
(c) a 13-hour night and 11-hour day with 1 minute of darkness after 6 hr.
(d) a 12-hour day and 12-hour night with a flash of red light after 6 hr.
39. A chemical change in a substance called phytochrome

(a) causes a plant to bend toward light.
(b) triggers fruit drop.
(c) enables a plant to respond to the presence of light.
(d) is responsible for gravitropism.
40. Which of the following tissues produces voluntary body movements?

(a) smooth muscle (b) simple cuboidal epithelium
(c) cardiac muscle (d) skeletal muscle
41. Which of the following best illustrates homeostasis?
(a) All the cells in the body have much the same chemical composition.
(b) Cells of the skin are constantly worn off and replaced.
(c) When blood CO2 increases, you breathe faster and get rid of CO2 .
(d) All organs are composed of the same four kinds of tissues.
42. How does a gastrovascular cavity differ from an alimentary canal? The gastrovascular
cavity
(a) stores food but does not digest it.
(b) absorbs food molecules but does not produce hydrolytic enzymes.
(c) has only a single opening.
(d) functions in digestion but not absorption.
43. In humans, most nutrient molecules are absorbed by the

(a) stomach. (b) liver.
(c) small intestine. (d) large intestine.
44. The largest variety of digestive enzymes function in the

(a) large intestine. (b) oral cavity.
(c) stomach. (d) small intestine.
45. Which of the following is not an essential nutrient for a human?

(a) linoleic acid, a fatty acid (b) glucose, a monosaccharide
(c) methionine, an amino acid (d) ascorbic acid, a vitamin
46. Individuals lacking adequate levels of enterogastrone would have the greatest difficulty
digesting
(a) fats. (b) proteins.
(c) carbohydrate (d) nucleic acids.
47. It is important to get some vitamin B-1 every day, but it is all right if intake of
vitamin A varies a bit. Why?
(a) Vitamin B-1 is an essential nutrient, and vitamin A is not.
(b) Vitamin A can be stored by the body, but vitamin B-1 cannot.
(c) The body needs much larger amounts of vitamin B-1 than vitamin A.
(d) The body requires vitamin B-1, but vitamin A is just an “extra.”
48. How would you expect the digestive system of a hawk, a carnivore, to compare with
that of a sparrow, a seed-eater?
(a) The hawk would have a larger gastrovascular cavity.
(b) The sparrow’s digestive system would be longer.
(c) The hawk would have a gizzard, but the sparrow would not.
(d) The hawk digestive system would be longer.
49. Gallstone surgery sometimes requires that the gallbladder be remove. Patients are
then advised to avoid ingesting large amount of fat because
(a) the gallbladder makes bile, which is necessary for fat emulsification.
(b) without the bile produced by the gallbladder, fats cannot be enzymatically
hydrolyzed.
(c) the gallbladder produces the hormone enterogastrone.
(d) the gallbladder stores large quantities of bile, releasing it when necessary.
50. Researchers provided radioactively labeled food to a dog, and traced the movement of
absorbed molecules. Which type of molecule would move along a different path than
all the others?
(a) carbohydrates (b) proteins
(c) nucleic acids (d) fats
51. The cardiac sphincter surrounds the cardiac orifice. If this sphincter failed to properly
constrict, there might be a problem with
(a) regurgitation of food into the esophagus.
(b) movement of the bolus into the trachea rather than the esophagus.
(c) rapid emptying from the stomach to the small intestine.
(d) rapid emptying from the small intestine to the large intestine.
52. Which of the following might make the most effective antiulcer medication? A chemical
that
(a) stimulates parietal cells of the gastric glands.
(b) kills bacteria in the stomach.
(c) inhibits mucous cells of the gastric glands.
(d) stimulates chief cells of the gastric pits.
53. The lungs consist of many small air sacs and blood vessels, which greatly increase
surface area and improve the transfer of substances through their walls. The
structures in the digestive system similar in function to these air sacs and capillaries
are the
(a) villi. (b) colon and rectum.
(c) gastric glands. (d) high-density lipoproteins.
54. During some types of antibiotic treatments, patients often experience diarrhoea
because
(a) antibiotics are toxic to the colon’s epithelium as well as to bacteria.
(b) the bacterial flora of the large intestine digest fiber, which otherwise would
create osmotic pressure and result in decreased water reabsorption.
(c) antibiotics interfere with the vitamin absorption process normally occurring
within the large intestine.
(d) after intestinal bacteria have been killed, an unusually large amount of water is
reabsorbed.
55. Imagine that you have eaten a meal containing the following nutrients. Which would
not have to be digested before being absorbed?
(a) protein (b) polysaccharide
(c) disaccharide (d) amino acid
56. Which of the following best describes an artery?

(a) carries blood away from the heart
(b) carries oxygenated blood
(c) contains valves
(d) has thin walls
57. In a fish, blood circulates through ____, while in a mammal, it circulates through
____.
(a) two circuits . . . four circuits (b) one circuit . . . two circuits
(c) four circuits . . . two circuits (d) one circuit . . . four circuits
58. A recording of the electrical activity of a patient’s heart shows that the atria are
contracting regularly and normally, but every few beats the ventricles fail to contract.
Which of the following is probably functioning improperly?
(a) AV node (b) semilunar valve
(c) coronary artery (d) pacemaker
59. Stroke occurs when

(a) the pacemaker becomes defective, producing an irregular heartbeat.
(b) a blood clot enters and blocks one of the coronary arteries.
(c) a blood clot dislodges from a vein and moves into the lung, where it blocks a
pulmonary artery.
(d) a blood clot enters the cerebral circulation, blocking an artery and causing the
death of brain tissue.
60. An advantage of gas exchange in water, compared with gas exchange in air, is that
(a) water usually contains a higher concentration of oxygen than air.
(b) water is easier to move over the respiratory surface.
(c) the respiratory surface does not dry out in water.
(d) ventilation requires less energy in water.
61. In the blood, bicarbonate ions

(a) help transport oxygen.
(b) act as buffers to guard against pH changes.
(c) are transported by hemoglobin.
(d) attach to numerous carbon dioxide molecules, keeping them from solution.
62. Most oxygen is carried by the blood __. Most carbon dioxide is carried by the blood__.
(a) attached to hemoglobin . . . in the form of bicarbonate ions
(b) dissolved in the plasma . . . dissolved in the plasma
(c) in the form of H+ ions . . . in the form of bicarbonate ions
(d) attached to hemoglobin . . . attached to hemoglobin
63. Which of the following is an endotherm?

(a) mouse (b) iguana
(c) frog (d) trout
64. As filtrate passes through the long loop of Henle, salt is removed and concentrated in
the interstitial fluid of the kidney medulla. (a)Because of this high salt concentration,
the nephron is able to
(a) excrete the maximum amount of salt.
(b) neutralize toxins that might accumulate in the kidney.
(c) control the pH of the interstitial fluid.
(d) establish a hypertonic interstitial medullary concentration.
65. Uric acid is the nitrogenous waste excreted by birds, insects, and many reptiles. An
advantage of excreting uric acid is that it ____ , but a disadvantage is that it _____ .
(a) saves water . . . costs energy
(b) saves energy . . . is highly toxic
(c) is not very toxic . . . wastes a lot of water
(d) is much more soluble in water than other wastes . . . costs energy
66. On a cold day, blood vessels in the skin

(a) dilate, allowing blood to keep the skin warm.
(b) constrict, forcing blood to flow through vessels in the skin.
(c) constrict, reducing heat loss from blood at the surface.
(d) dilate, causing blood to pass through the cold skin more quickly.
67. The animals in which of these pairs have similar problems regulating water balance?
(a) freshwater fish and saltwater fish
(b) land animal and freshwater fish
(c) osmoconformer and freshwater fish
(d) saltwater fish and land animal
68. Which would have the toughest time surviving over the long term in the environment
given?
(a) an osmoconformer in seawater
(b) an endotherm in a warm environment
(c) an ectotherm in a cold environment
(d) an ectotherm in a warm environment
69. Most aquatic animals excrete ammonia, while land animals excrete urea or uric acid.
What is the most likely explanation for this difference?
(a) They have different diets.
(b) Land animals can get the energy needed to make urea or uric acid.
(c) Ammonia is very toxic, and it takes lots of water to dilute it.
(d) Land animals cannot afford the energy needed to make ammonia.
70. Which of the following hormones has the broadest range of targets?
(a) ADH (b) TSH
(c) epinephrine (d) ACTH
71. Every time you eat a cookie or candy bar, your blood sugar increases. This triggers
an increase in the hormone
(a) insulin (b) epinephrine.
(c) adrenocorticotropin(ACTH). (d) glucagon.
72. Every hormone

(a) is a protein.
(b) is produced in response to stress.
(c) is under the control of the pituitary gland.
(d) enters a cell and interacts with DNA.
73. Since most chemical signals are unable to pass through the plasma membrane, the
cellular action they initiate results from
(a) ligand binding.
(b) the activation of a signal transduction pathway.
(c) direct stimulation of the cell’s DNA.
(d) the enzymatic behaviour of the signal molecule.
74. Which of the following hormones have antagonistic (opposing) effects?

(a) thyroxin and calcitonin
(b) insulin and glucagon
(c) growth hormone and epinephrine
(d) ACTH and glucocorticoids
75. What is the role of a second messenger in hormone action?

(a) It signals a cell to secrete a hormone.
(b) It informs a gland as to whether its hormones are having an effect.
(c) It relays a hormone’s message inside a target cell.
(d) It stops hormone action when it is no longer needed.
76. When the levels of juvenile hormone (JH) are maintained at artificially high levels,
insects will
(a) be unable to molt.
(b) bypass some larval stages and pupate prematurely.
(c) molt more frequently.
(d) be unable to advance to a pupal stage.
77. The action of a local regulator is illustrated when

(a) prostaglandins released from the placenta alter the excitability of the muscle of
the uterus.
(b) histamine promotes the secretion of hydrochloric acid by stomach cells.
(c) the relaxation of arterial smooth muscle caused by nitric oxide.
78. Some glands produce hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands. Which of the
following hormones specifically acts to trigger secretion of hormones by another
endocrine gland?
(a) thyroid hormone (T3 and T4)
(b) progesterone
(c) adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)
(d) antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
79. How is the level of thyroxin in the blood regulated?
(a) Thyroxin stimulates the pituitary to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
(b) TSH inhibits secretion of thyroxin from the thyroid gland.
(c) Thyroxin stimulates the hypothalamus to secrete TRH.
(d) Thyroxin and TSH inhibit secretion of TRH.
80. The endocrine and nervous systems share which of the following in common?
(a) Both utilize feedback.
(b) Several chemicals serve as both hormones and neurotransmitters.
(c) Nerve impulses can cause endocrine glands to release hormone.
81. It takes much longer for sex hormones and other steroids to produce their effects
than it takes nonsteroid hormones. Why?
(a) Steroids are bigger, slower molecules.
(b) Steroids usually must be carried longer distances by the blood.
(c) Steroids cause target cells to make new proteins, which takes time.
(d) Steroids must relay their message via a second messenger.
82. Which disorder is correctly matched with its cause?
(a) pituitary dwarfism and hyposecretion of growth hormone
(b) infant cretinism and hypersecretion of thyroxin
(c) low blood calcium and hypersecretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH)
(d) acromegaly and hyposecretion of growth hormone
83. Injections of a hormone are sometimes given to strengthen contractions of the uterus
during childbirth. What hormone might this be?
(a) adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)
(b) thyroxin
(c) oxytocin
(d) follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
84. Type I diabetes mellitus

(a) an autoimmune disease that develops following immune attack on pancreatic
cells.
(b) a commonly seen in overweight individuals older than forty.
(c) is treated by improving insulin receptor efficiency rather than by giving insulin.
(d) is the most common form of the disease; more than 90% of all diabetics have
type I.
85. Jet lag occurs when a person moves rapidly from one time zone to another, causing
conflict between the body’s biological rhythm and the new cycle of light and dark.
Some scientists suspect that jet lag may result from disruption of a daily hormone
cycle. Which of the following hormones do you think is the most likely suspect?
(a) epinephrine (b) insulin
(c) melatonin (d) estrogen
86. As a young girl, Sunita suffered a head injury that damaged her pituitary. An injury
to the pituitary is particularly serious because of all the functions controlled by this
gland As Sunita got older, she and her doctors found that all of the following except
_____ were affected.
(a) metabolic rate (b) blood sugar level
(c) her menstrual cycle (d) milk production
87. A hormone from the parathyroid gland works in opposition to a hormone from the
_____ to regulate _____ .
(a) posterior pituitary . . . metabolic rate
(b) thyroid gland . . . blood calcium
(c) pancreas . . . water reabsorption
(d) adrenal medulla . . . blood calcium
88. Diabetes insipidus is an inherited endocrine malfunction (unrelated to diabetes
mellitus) in which the kidneys fail to reabsorb normal amounts of water. Victims of
this disease produce gallons of urine each day, and their kidneys soon wear out.
Treatment of this disease involves replacing a missing hormone. Which of the following
do you think it is?
(a) glucagon (b) epinephrine
(c) glucocorticoids (d) antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
89. Because only the _____________ gland uses iodine to make its hormones, radioactive
iodine is often used as a treatment for tumors of this gland.
(a) pituitary (b) pancreatic
(c) thyroid (d) adrenal
90. Which of the following is a form of sexual reproduction?
(a) budding (b) fission
(c) fragmentation (d) hermaphroditism
91. A peak in ______ triggers ovulation on about the ______ day of the monthly cycle.
(a) LH . . . seventh
(b) FSH . . . second
(c) LH . . . fourteenth
(d) estrogen . . . twentieth
92. External fertilization occurs mostly in

(a) land animals.
(b) insects.
(c) aquatic animals.
(d) animals that reproduce asexually.
93. On its way to fertilize a human egg, a sperm cell does not have to pass through which
of the following?
(a) oviduct (b) vagina
(c) ovary (d) vas deferens
94. Which of the following hormones is the first to increase significantly every 28 days or
so and initiates the ovarian cycle?
(a) progesterone
(b) follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
(c) estrogen
(d) lutenizing hormone (LH)
95. After ovulation occurs, the empty follicle

(a) can be recycled to produce more eggs.
(b) changes into the corpus luteum and makes hormones.
(c) quickly degenerates.
(d) immediately initiates menstruation.
96. Oogenesis in comparison to spermatogenesis is somewhat unusual in humans in that
(a) cytokinesis is unequal during the meiotic divisions.
(b) the sequence from primary oocyte to ovum is interrupted by a relatively long
resting period.
(c) the first meiotic division is not completed unless reactivated by a hormone.
97. Birth control pills contain synthetic estrogen and progesterone. How might these
hormones prevent pregnancy?
(a) They trigger premature ovulation, before an egg is mature.
(b) They cause the lining of the uterus to be sloughed off.
(c) They cause the corpus luteum to degenerate.
(d) They keep the pituitary from secreting FSH and LH, so ovulation does not
occur.
98. Pregnancy tests detect a hormone hCG in a woman’s urine that is present only when
an embryo is developing in her uterus. This hormone is secreted by
(a) the ovary. (b) the embryo.
(c) a follicle. (d) the endometrium.
99. In many mammals the testes are located outside the abdominal cavity within the
scrotum because
(a) the elevated pressure within the abdominal cavity would collapse the small
passage ways within the testes.
(b) this location allows for a shorter pathway to the urethra.
(c) blood flow to the scrotum is not interrupted during erection.
(d) sperm are unable to properly mature at the higher temperatures found within
the abdominal cavity.
100. Because the genetic composition of the foetus is not identical to that of the mother, it
is somewhat surprising that the foetus is not rejected as a foreign body. It appears
that this is because
(a) the embryo does not expresses paternal antigens on its cells until after birth.
(b) the embryo produces signal molecules that turn off the mother’s immune system
for the 9 months of pregnancy.
(c) a protective layer, the trophoblast, surrounds the embryo and prevents direct
contact with maternal tissue.
(d) special maternal immune cells produce antigenic modifier proteins (AMPs), which
mask the foreign antigens.
1. One early, and inexpensive, approach to infertility is to test a woman’s urine for a
hormone that would indicate a high probability of ovulation. What hormone is this
test kit designed to detect?
(a) oxytocin
(b) follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
(c) testosterone
(d) lutenizing hormone (LH)
2. A sperm has several components; the function of the acrosome is
(a) produce base to neutralize the acidic environment of the female reproductive
system.
(b) metabolize the sugars provided for energy by the semen.
(c) release an enzyme that breaks down the membrane of the ovum.
(d) propel the sperm as they swim through the fluid of the female reproductive
tract.
3. The drug RU486 was developed in France and is widely used in Europe as a method
of birth control. Its introduction to the United States has been controversial, however,
the drug is taken after sexual intercourse. It blocks the implantation of the developing
blastocyst. Opponents of the drug say it is an abortion pill. Its defenders point out
that it works the same way as
(a) the familiar birth control pill used for the last 30 years.
(b) spermicidal foam.
(c) an intrauterine device (IUD).
(d) tubal ligation.
4. Acetylcholinesterase is the enzyme that degrades acetylcholine. What effect on nerve

transmission would occur following the administration of a chemical that inhibited
acetylcholinesterase?
(a) no effect
(b) Synaptic transmission would be prevented; muscle paralysis would occur.
(c) It would be identical to giving an anesthetic, but would last permanently.
(d) The pre-synaptic neuron would be inactivated.
5. Anesthetics block pain by blocking the transmission of nerve signals. Which of these
three chemicals might work as anesthetics?
(a) a chemical that prevents the opening of sodium channels in membranes;
(b) a chemical that inhibits the enzymes that degrade neurotransmitters;
(c) a chemical that blocks neurotransmitter receptors.
(d) a and c both
6. What is the difference between a neuron and a nerve?

(a) One is sensory in function, the other motor.
(b) Nerves are found only in the central nervous system.
(c) They consist of different numbers of cells.

(d) Neurons are made of white matter, nerves of gray matter.
7. The first stage of embryonic development is ______. This process produces _______.
(a) gastrulation . . . a three-layered embryo
(b) gestation . . . a gastrula
(c) ovulation . . . a zygote
(d) cleavage . . . a hollow ball of cells
8. The function of the amnion in birds, reptiles, and mammals is
(a) to digest yolk and form a network of blood vessels to distribute nutrients to the
embryo.
(b) to collect uric acid.
(c) to create an aqueous environment in which development can occur.
(d) to transport oxygen to the embryo.
9. Up to the eight-cell stage, the blastomeres of a mouse embryo can each form a complete
embryo if isolated. This indicates that
(a) differentiation does not depend on cytoplasmic determinants.
(b) the mouse embryo is strongly polarized.
(c) only the zygote is totipotent.
(d) cytoplasmic determinants are equally distributed during the early cleavage
divisions.
10. One difference between the blastula and gastrula stages of development is that
(a) blastula cells are more differentiated than gastrula cells.
(b) there are many more cells in a blastula.
(c) the blastula consists of more cell layers.
(d) there is an opening from the cavity inside the gastrula to the outside.
11. Among the following which disease is not related to vitamin deficiency:
(a) Osteomalacia (b) Xerophthalmia
(c) Marasmus (d) Pellagra
12. A protein deficiency disorder characterized by match stick legs, protruded belly, oedema
of certain parts is:
(a) Marasmus (b) Kwashiorkor
(c) Rickets (d) Osteomalacia
13. Vitamin which cause Pernicious anaemia, glossitis, loss of peripheral sensation due
to its deficiency and also called as Erythrocyte Maturing Factor is-
(a) Vit B2 (b) Vit B6
(c) Cobaltamine (d) Folic Acid
14. The type of anemia caused by deficiency of folic acid is-

(a) Megablastic (b) Macrocytic
(c) Pernicious (d) Thalassemia
15. Among the following the fat soluble vitamin is

(a) Folic Acid (b) Calciferol
(c) Ascorbic Acid (d) Biotin
16. Vitamin which is anti-sterility factor, anti-oxidative for membrane lipids, skin and
hair reduces atherosclerosis is:
(a) Tocopherol (b) Calciferol
(d) Phylloquinone (d) Pyridoxine
17. Among the following essential aminoacids is:

(a) Arginine (b) Histidine
(c) Tyrosine (d) Glutamine
18. Which mineral is required for blood clotting, muscle contraction, ATPase, nerve
impulse transmission, heart functioning etc:
(a) Mg (b) Ca
(c) K (d) Fe
19. Mineral engaged in maintaining enamel and checking dental decay is:
(a) Selenium (b) Potassium
(c) Calcium (d) Fluorine
20. Among the following, which are not peptide hormone:

(a) ARH, MSH (b) Oxytocin, ACTH
(c) Calcitonin, , ADH (d) TSH, LTH, FSH
21. Relaxin is secreted by:
(a) Anterior Pituitary (b) Posterior pituitary
(c) Corpus Luteum (d) Grafian follicle
22. Which among the following is not a function of parathormone for maintaining optimum
level of Ca
(a) By mobilization from bone
(b) Reduced urinary excretion
(c) Increased absorption from intestine
(d) By mobilization from muscles
23. Which among the following is gastro-intestinal hormone:
(a) Insulin (b) Glucagons
(c) Serotonin (d) Secretin
24. Dormitory effect (synchronization of menstrual cycle of women living together) in

females is believed to be due to-
(a) Estrogen (b) Progesterone
(c) Pheromone (d) Oxytocin
25. Female contraceptive pills such as Mala-D generally contains :
(a) Progesterone (b) Estrogen
(c) Both a & b (d) hCG
26. Complete (Obligate) Parthenogenesis (males completely absent) is present in:

(a) Lacerta saxicola armeniaca (Caucasian rock lizard)
(b) Typhilina brahmina (Small lizard)
(c) Cnemidophorus (Whiptail lizard of America)
(d) All the above
27. The cells which functions as nurse cells for differentiating spermatozoa:
(a) Leydig cells (b) Interstitial cells
(c) Sertoli cells (d) Copus Epididymus
28. The type of egg/ovum of higher mammals on basis of amount of yolk is-
(a) Alecithal (b) Microlecithal
(c) Macrolecithal (d) Mesolecithal
29. Glands of male reproductive system are:

(a) Prostrate, seminal vesicle , mammary
(b) Prostrate, Bertholin’s, seminal vesicle
(c) Seminal vesicle, Bertholin’s gland
(d) Prostrate, seminal vesicle, Cowper’s
30. Temperature in Scortum necessary for sperm formation should be:
(a) 2 °C Above body temperature
(b) 2 °C Below body temperature
(c) 4 °C Above body temperature
(d) 4 °C Below body temperature
31. The Process of differentiation of a spermatozoa from a spermatid is known as:

(a) Spermiogenesis (b) Spermatogenesis
(c) Spermatocytogeneis (d) Spermatoneogenesis
32. During fertilization compatabilty reaction takes place between:

(a) Fertilizin (from ovum)& antifertilizin (Sperm)
(b) Fertilizin (from sperm)& antifertilizin (ovum)
(c) Fertilizin (sperm head)& antifertilizin (Sperm tail)
(d) Fertilizin (sperm tail)& antifertilizin (Sperm head)
33. Zygote formation by sperm and egg is result of phenomenon called-
(a) Fusion (b) Endocytosis
(c) Phagocytosis (d) En-nucleation
34. Which hormone is called as stress hormone:

(a) Auxin (b) Epinephrine
(c) Ethylene (d) Nitrous oxide
35. Which disease is not related to thyroid gland:
(a) Grave’s disease (b) Hashimoto disease
(c) Addison disease (d) Cretinism
36. Among the following which is not correctly matched-

(a) cAMP-Protein Kinase A Pathway
(b) IP 3 /DAG-Protein Kinase C Pathway
(c) cGMP-Protein Kinase G Pathway
(d) None of these
37. Among the following which pair of hormone is secreted by posterior pituitary
(a) FSH & LH (b) ADH & Oxytocin
(c) GH and PRL (d) ACTH and TSH
38. Among the following shortest peptide hormone is-
(a) Thyrotropin releasing hormone
(b) Gonadotropin releasing hormone
(c) ACTH
(d) Insulin
39. Among the following, which hormone acts on sertoli cells of seminiferous tubules to
increase protein in sperm and other proteins; acts on ovarian follicle to stimulate the
maturation of ovum and production of estradiol-
(a) FSH (b) LH
(c) hCG (d) Progestrone
40. Which hormone stimulates pancreatic acinar cells to release bicarbonate and water
in duodenum at pH values below 4.5 to elevate duodenal pH
(a) cholecystokinin (CCK) (b) Gastrin
(c) Secretin (d) Erythropoeitin
41. Among the following which is not secreted by ovarian corpus luteum-
(a) Relaxin (b) estrogen
(c) Human placental lactogen (hPL) (d) Progestrone
42. Which hormone stimulates bone resorption; stimulates phosphate excretion by kidney
and raises serum calcium level-
(a) Calcitonin (b) Serotonin
(c) Parathormone (d) Endothelin
43. Epinephrine is synthesized from amino acids-

(a) Phenyl allanine/Tyrosine (b) Methionine/cysteine
(c) Leucine/Isoleucine (d) Glycine/Proline
44. With anterior pituitary hormones TSH, LH and FSH-

(a) a-subunits are all different
(b) b-subunits are specifically recognized by receptors
(c) b-unit alone can bind to receptor
(d) intracellular receptors recognize these hormones
45. Steroid hormones are synthesized from-

(a) Fatty acids (b) Sterols
(c) Amino acids (d) Alcohols
46. The C-21 steroid hormone include-

(a) aldosterone (b) estradiol
(c) testosterone (d) Vitamin D3
47. Among the following which hormone binds to the membrane receptors-
(a) Thyroxin (b) Estrogen
(c) insulin (d) testosterone
48. Among the following which protein is not involved in photo transduction cascade
during reception of light by rod cells
(a) Rhodopsin (b) Tranducin
(c) Phosphodiestrase (d) Adenylate cyclase
49. Among the following which is not an type of excitatory neurotransmitter in nervous
tissue-
(a) Acetyl choline (b) Dopamine
(c) Histamine (d) g-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
50. Thick filament of muscle is-

(a) Actin (b) Myosin
(c) Tropomyosin (d) Troponin
51. Classic hemophelia is due to deficiency of –
(a) Factor IV (b) Factor VIII
(c) Factor IX (d) Factor XI
52. The Effect of Vitamin A may include all of the following except-
(a) Prevention of anemia (b) Serving as antioxidant
(c) The visual cycle (d) Induction of certain cancers
53. In the propagation of nerve impulse by an electrical signal-
(a) the electrical potential across the membrane is maintained by ATP driven Na+-
K+ pump becomes more negative
(b) local depolarization of membrane causes protein conformational changes in ion
channels that allow Na+ and K+ to move down concentration gradient
(c) Charge propagation is bidirectional along axons
(d) “Voltage gated” ion channels have finite recovery time so the amplitude of the
impulse changes as it moves along the axon.
54. ATP concentration is maintained relatively constant during muscle contraction by-
(a) increasing the metabolic activity
(b) the action of adenylate cyclase
(c) the action of creatine phosphokinase
(d) All the above
55. An excessive intake of calories-

(a) usually doesn’t have adverse metabolic consequences
(b) leads to metabolic changes that are usually irreversible
(c) frequently leads to elevated serum level of free fatty acid, cholesterol and tri
acyl glycerol
(d) is only component o obesity
56. A complete replacement of animal protein in diet by vegetable protein

(a) would reduce the total amount of food consumed for the same number of calories
(b) might reduce total amount of Iron and cobaltmaine available
(c) Would be satisfactory regardless of nature of vegetable protein used
(d) Could not satisfy protein requirements
57. Among the following, which is NOT a function of tocopherol (Vitamin-E)
(a) Antioxidant (b) enhance heme synthesis
(c) Prevent oxidation of LDL (d) carboxilation of prothrombin
58. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) may be associated with all of the following EXCEPT-
(a) iron absorption
(b) bone formation
(c) acute renal disease when taken in high dose
(d) wound healing
59. Stomata opens when guard cells-

(a) sense an increase in CO2 in the air spaces of leaf
(b) flap open because decrease in turgor pressure
(c) become more turgid because of an influx of K+ , followed by entry of water
(d) close aquaporins, preventing water uptake.
60. The movement of sap from a sugar source to sugar sink
(a) occurs through apoplast of sieve tube members
(b) may translocate sugars from the breakdown of stored starch in a root tip to
developing shoots
(c) is similar to flow of xylem sap in depending on tension or negative pressure
61. The productivity of crop declines when leaves begin to wilt mainly because-
(a) the chloroplast of wilting leaves decomposes
(b) flaccid mesophyll cells are incapable of photosynthesis
(c) stomata close, preventing CO2 from entering the leaf
(d) Photolysis of water cannot occur
62. Micronutrients are needed in very small amount because-

(a) most of them are mobile in plants
(b) most function as cofactor for enzymes
(c) most are supplied in large quantities in seed
(d) only the growing region of plant require them
63. Mycorrhyzae enhance plant nutrition mainly by

(a) absorbing water and minerals through fungal hyphae
(b) converting atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia
(c) enabling the roots to parasitize neighboring plants stimulating the development
of root hairs
(d) stimulating the development of root hairs
64. Carnivorous plant mainly compensate for soil that has relatively low content of-
(a) K+ (b) Nitrogen
(c) PO4 – (d) Ca++
65. A mineral deficiency is likely to affect older leaves more then younger leaves if
(a) the mineral is micronutrient
(b) mineral is mobile within plant
(c) mineral is required for chlorophyll synthesis
(d) Deficiency persists for longer time
66. The Thompson seedless grape is triploid, with three copies of each chromosome.
Which phase of the cell cycle would you expect triploid cells to be unable to complete.
(a) meiosis 1 (b) S
(c) meiosis 2 (d) G2
67. Some organisms are capable of asexual or sexual reproduction. Under favorable
conditions, reproduction proceeds asexually. When conditions become more stressful
reproduction switches to a sexual mode. Why?
(a) Sexual reproduction is simple and more rapid allowing larger numbers of offspring
to be produced.
(b) Sexual reproduction requires two separate individuals, who can mutually provide
nutrient support during stress.
(c) Asexual reproduction requires more energy.
(d) Sexual reproduction produces individuals with new combinations of recombined
chromosomes increasing diversity.
68. The stage of meiosis where cells become haploi(d)

(a) prophase I (b) prophase II
(c) anaphase I (d) anaphase II
69. One of the earliest events that distinguishes meiosis occurs in prophase I and involves:
(a) Condensation of chromosomes
(b) Loss of the nuclear membrane
(c) Movement of chromosomes towards the metaphase plate
(d) Pairing of homologous chromosomes
70. Coral in the ocean grows by budding, where the new organism grows out of the old
one by mitosis. This form of replication is an example of:
(a) meiosis to produce a zygote (b) asexual reproduction
(c) sexual reproduction (d) gamete formation
71. ________ most closely resembles events of mitosis except that the cells are ________.
(a) interphase, diploid (b) meiosis II, diploid
(c) interphase, haploid (d) meiosis II, haploid
72. Which of the following is not alive, but requires life to be able to reproduce?
(a) Eubacteria (b) Fungae
(c) Protozoa (d) Viruses
73. In plants IAA causes cell elongation due to-

(a) Increase in pH of Apoplast (b) Increase in pH of cytoplasm
(c) Decrease in pH of Apoplast (d) Increase in pH of cytoplasm
74. A hormone that controls closure of stomata in response to water stress is-
(a) Abscissic acid (b) Gibberellins
(c) Proline (d) Ethylene
75. Which of the following plays the important role in the maturation of spermatocyte
outside the seminal vesicle of testis-
(a) Leydig Cells (b) Sertoli Cells
(c) Sperms (d) Spermatocytes
76. Among the following which phytohormone increases the femaleness tendency in plants-
(a) GA (b) IBA
(c) Ethylene (d) Kinetin
77. Which hormone is related with á-amylase activity in germinating seeds-
(a) GA (b) Kinetin
(c) Auxin (d) ABA
78. The amino acid which help in osmo regulation during stress condition is-
(a) Proline (b) Alanine
(c) b-glycine (d) Both a&c
79. The plants are termed as halophytes if they are growing in soil having salt concentration
above-
(a) 0.1 % (b) 0.2 %
(c) 0.4 % (d) 0.5 %
80. CAM mechanism is observed in plants having-

(a) water stress (b) Salt stress
(c) No stress (d) Oxygen stress
81. Which among the following is not an endocrine gland?
(a) Pineal (b) Pituitary
(c) Adrenals (d) Gonads
82. The excreta of lizards is rich in

(a) urea (b) uric acid
(c) guanidine (d) alantoin
83. Which one of the following supports glycogen synthesis

(a) High cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels
(b) Inactive adenyl cyclase
(c) Active phosphorylase-a
(d) Epinephrine
84. Which of the following vitamins, if taken in excess is least likely to cause problems in
a healthy person?
(a) Vitamin A (b) Vitamin B
(c) Vitamin C (d) Vitamin D
85. When a muscle contracts, what is happening to the Ca++ levels inside and outside the
cell?
(a) High amounts of cytosolic Ca++ are released to the extracellular space
(b) Ion channels open to allow extracellular Ca++ to flow into the cell
(c) Ca++ from the nucleus is released to the cytoplasm and this triggers contraction
(d) Ca++ ions attach stoma and this causes muscle contraction
86. Na+-K+ pump is-

(a) Symport system (b) Antiport system
(c) ABC transporter (d) Diffusion pump
87. Consider the following statements. Which is correct?
(a) Intracellular concentration of Na+ is always high
(b) Intracellular concentration of K+ ion is low
(c) Extra cellular concentration of K+ and Na+ ion is isotonic to intracellular
concentration
(d) Extra cellular concentration of Na+ and intracellular concentration of K+ is always
high in normal cell.
88. The nutritional medium was supplied to growing bacteria. If whole nutrient get
depleted in 20 cycles, then stage at which the amount of nutrient was half used-
(a) At end of 10 cycle (b) At beginning of 19 cycle
(c) At end of 19 cycle (d) At end of 11 cycle
89. Phytohormone responsible for conversion of stored proteins into glucose in germinating
cereals is-
(a) Cytokinin (b) Auxin
(c) Gibberellin (d) Abscissic Acid
90. Direct oxidation of peroxides in plants is carried our by-
(a) Superoxide Dismutase (b) Glutathione Synthase
(c) Catalase (d) Peroxidase
91. A strong peptide bond is present in arginine and aspartic acid. This Bond will be weak
if arginine is being replaced by-
(a) Glutamic Acid (b) Lysine
(c) Histidine (d) Proline
92. Mainly absorption of glucose by intestine is by-

(a) Na-K Pumps (b) Diffusion
(c) Na-glucose Symporters (d) Uniporters
93. Pepsin which digest protein donot digest the cells of intestine because-
(a) Intestine cells do not have proteins
(b) Half life of pepsin is very low
(c) Pepsin acts only in acidic pH
(d) Pepsin do not digest intestine proteins
94. During nerve impulse when acetyl choline binds receptors, there is-
(a) In flow of Na & K ions
(b) In flow of Na and outflow of K ions
(c) In flow of K ions and outflow of Na ions
(d) In flow of K and H ions
95. Cellulose digester digest cellulose of fermentation. Fore gut fermentors such as rabit
and elephant ferment before intestine while hind gut digestor like deer ferment in
large intestine. It suggest that-
(a) Hind gut fermentor are effective digestor of Cellulose
(b) Fore gut fermentor are effective digestor of Cellulose
(c) Both hind gut & fore gut fermentor are effective digestor of Cellulose
(d) Cellulose digestion do not depend on gut position
96. Addison disease and Cushing syndrome are due to malfunctioning of –

(a) Adrenal medulla (b) Adrenal cortex
(c) Thyroid (d) Pituitary
97. Which hormone is present in high amount during pregnancy in urine and used for
pregnancy test-
(a) hCG (b) Progestrone
(c) Estrogen (d) Relaxin
98. Osmotic potential in plant cell is maintained by-

(a) Proline & beta Glycine (b) Histidine
(c) Lysine (d) Glycine
99. Sperms are morphologically fit but are unable to swim due to defect in-
(a) Spermatogenesis (b) Spermiogenesis
(c) Prostrate glands (d) Epidydimis
100. Which hormone play important role in water stress

(a) Absiccic acid (b) Ethylene
(c) Gibberlic acid (d) Auxin
4
GENETICS
THE FOUNDATION OF GENETICS
• Five thousand years ago or earlier, people were using applied genetics in the form of
plant and animal breeding. The foundation for the science of genetics was laid in
1866, when Gregor Mendel used varieties of peas to conduct experiments on
inheritance. Mendel’s research was ignored until the turn of the twentieth century.
Plant breeders showed that both parents contribute equally to inheritance

• Plants have some desirable characteristics for genetic studies.
• Plants can be grown in large quantities. They produce large numbers of offspring.
Many have both male and female reproductive organs in the same plant, which allows
self-fertilization. The generation time is relatively short. It is easy to control which
individuals mate.
• Josef Gottlieb Kölreuter made a few observations that Mendel later found useful.
• Kölreuter’s research focused on the relative contribution of males and females to the
genetics of plants. Reciprocal crosses helped prove that both male and female parents
contribute equally to the characteristics inherited by offspring. An example is a cross
of a male white plant with a female pink plant, and the reciprocal cross of a male pink
with a female white plant. The resulting progeny have the same appearance.
• Before the acceptance of Mendel’s research, the concept of blending was favored. An
example of this form of inheritance would be purple progeny resulting from red and
blue parents. As a consequence of blending, the purple color would be forever blended
and could not be separated.
Mendel’s discoveries were overlooked for decades

• Gregor Mendel was a monk with scientific training in mathematics, physics, and
biology. Mendel presented his nine-year-long project orally in 1865 and in writing in
1866. His data challenged the blending concept, but he was ahead of his time. His
theory was ignored, perhaps because his biological peers were not accustomed to
reviewing mathematical data. Even Darwin, whose evolutionary theory rests on genetic
variation among individuals, failed to understand Mendel’s point and relied on the
blending concept.
• In 1900, Hugo de Vries, Karl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak each independently
published papers on the quantitative outcomes from crosses. Each cited Mendel’s
then rediscovered 1866 paper. By 1900, meiosis had been described and Mendel’s
ideas were finally accepted.
MENDEL’S EXPERIMENTS AND THE LAWS OF INHERITANCE
Mendel devised a careful research plan

• Mendel chose garden peas as his subjects as they are easily grown and their pollination
is easily controlled. He controlled pollination by manually moving pollen between
plants. He could also allow the plants to self-pollinate (using emasculation and bagging).
Mendel examined varieties of peas for heritable characters and traits for his study. A
character is a feature, such as flower color. A trait is a particular form of a character,
such as white flowers. “Heritable” means the trait can be passed from parent to
progeny.
• Mendel looked for characters that had well-defined alternative traits and that were
true breeding. A trait is true breeding when it is the only trait that occurs through
many generations of breeding individuals that share that trait. A true-breeding white-
flowered plant would have only white-flowered progeny when crossed with others in
its strain.
• True-breeding plants, when used for crossing with other plants that have an alternative
trait, are called the parental generation, designated P. The progeny from the cross of
the P parents are called the first filial generation, designated F 1 . When F 1 individuals
are crossed to each other or self-fertilized, their progeny are designated F2 .
• Mendel’s well-organized plan allowed him to observe and record the traits of each
generation in sufficient quantity to explain through analysis the relative proportions
of the kinds of progeny. His paper is recognized today as a model of clarity.
Genetics 189
Mendel’s Experiment 1 examined a monohybrid cross

• Mendel crossed true-breeding plants that differed for a given character. A monohybrid
cross involves one (mono) character and different (hybrid) traits. Pollen from true-
breeding pea plants with wrinkled seeds (one trait) was placed on stigmas of true-
breeding plants with spherical seeds (another trait).
• The F1 seeds were all spherical; the wrinkled trait failed to appear at all. Because the
spherical trait completely masks the wrinkled trait when true-breeding plants are
crossed, the spherical trait is called dominant, and the wrinkled trait is called recessive.
• The F1 plants were allowed to self-pollinate. This step was the monohybrid cross.
This is also called an F1 cross. Self-pollination is sometimes called selfing.
• The progeny, called F 2 , were examined: 5,474 were spherical and 1,850 were wrinkled
in ratio 3:1
• Mendel proposed that the units responsible for inheritance were discrete particles.
They existed within an organism in pairs, separated during gamete formation, and
retained their integrity. This is called the particulate theory, which is in sharp
contrast to the blending theory. Each pea has two units of inheritance for each
character. During production of gametes, only one of the pair members for a given
character passes to the gamete. When fertilization occurs, the zygote gets one from
each parent, restoring the pair.
• Mendel’s units of inheritance are now called genes. Different forms of a gene are
called alleles. Each allele is given a symbol. In the case of wrinkled seeds, S might
represent smooth and s wrinkled. By convention, uppercase S represents the dominant;
lowercase s represents the recessive.
• True-breeding individuals would have two copies of the same allele. Wrinkled would
be ss (two copies of same allele = homozygous). Smooth true-breeding would be SS
(two copies of same allele = homozygous). Some smooth-seeded plants could be Ss,
although they would not be true-breeding. Individuals that are smooth, but had a
wrinkled parent, are heterozygous: Ss.
• When an organism is studied for three different genes and has the alleles AABbCC, it
is homozygous for A and C genes but heterozygous for the B gene.
• The physical appearance of an organism is its phenotype. Wrinkled-seed would be a

phenotype. The actual composition of the organism’s alleles for a gene is its genotype:
Ss is a genotype.
• Organisms have many different genes—some have thousands, and complex organisms
have 10 times that number. Most of these genes are yet to be described in terms of the
DNA sequence or the amino acid sequence of the gene product.
Mendel’s first law says that alleles segregate

• When an individual produces gametes, alleles separate, so each gamete receives one
member of the pair of alleles. This is Mendel’s first law, the law of segregation.
• When fertilization occurs, pairs are reestablished by receiving one copy from each
parent.
• The Punnett square is a simple box-like device that helps us to consider all genetic
combinations and can provide clarity by showing the expected frequencies of genotypes.
The S and s symbols represent the single allele each gamete receives. Fertilization
provides the two alleles for the new individual, one from the male (sperm) and one
from the female (egg).
• The Punnett square shows that the genotypes and associated ratios for a monohybrid
cross are 1 SS: 2 Ss :1 ss.
• Any progeny with an S would have the dominant (smooth) phenotype, so the phenotypic
ratio is 3 smooth to 1 wrinkled.
• Now it is known that a gene is a portion of the chromosomal DNA that resides at a
particular site, called a locus (plural is loci). The gene codes for a particular function.
Mendel arrived at the law of segregation with no knowledge of meiosis or chromosomes.
The mechanism of chromosome separation in meiosis I today explains his law of
segregation.
Genetics 191
Mendel verified his hypothesis by performing a test cross

• A test cross can determine the genotype (heterozygous or homozygous) of an individual
with a dominant trait. It involves crossing the individual to a true-breeding recessive
(homozygous recessive).
• If the unknown is heterozygous, approximately half the progeny will have the
dominant trait and half the recessive trait (Ratio 1:1).
• If the unknown is homozygous dominant, all the progeny will have the dominant
trait.
• Back cross is cross of F1 with any one of the parent. Generally, back cross with
homozygous recessive parents is made in plant breeding application to ensure
maximum homozygosity in order to obtain pure line variety.
Deviation from Mendelian Monohybrid cross:

• While Mendel discussed traits, we now know that genes are segments of the DNA
that code for specific proteins. These proteins are responsible for the expression of
the phenotype. The basic principles of segregation and independent assortment as
worked out by Mendel are applicable even for sex-linked traits.
• Codominant alleles: Codominant alleles occur when rather than expressing an
intermediate phenotype, the heterozygotes express both homozygous phenotypes.
An example is in human ABO blood types, the heterozygote AB type manufactures
antibodies to both A and B types. Blood Type A people manufacture only anti-B
antibodies, while type B people make only anti-A antibodies. Codominant alleles are
both expressed. Heterozygotes for codominant alleles fully express both alleles. Blood
type AB individuals produce both A and B antigens. Since neither A nor B is dominant
over the other and they are both dominant over O they are said to be codominant.
• Incomplete dominance: Incomplete dominance is a condition when neither allele
is dominant over the other. The condition is recognized by the heterozygotes
expressing an intermediate phenotype relative to the parental phenotypes. If a red
flowered plant is crossed with a white flowered one, the progeny will all be pink.
When pink is crossed with pink, the progeny are 1 red, 2 pink, and 1 white.
• Flower color in snapdragons is an example of this pattern. Cross a true-breeding red
strain with a true-breeding white strain and the F1 are all pink (heterozygotes). Self-
fertilize the F1 and you get an F2 ratio of 1 red: 2 pink: 1 white. This would not
happen if true blending had occurred (blending cannot explain traits such as red or
white skipping a generation and pink flowers crossed with pink flowers should produce
ONLY pink flowers).
Mendel’s second law says that alleles of different genes assort independently
• The second law describes the outcome of dihybrid (two character) crosses, or hybrid
crosses involving additional characters. A dihybrid is an individual that is a double
heterozygote (e.g., with the genotype SsYy).
• Mendel’s second law states that the Ss alleles assort into gametes independently of
the Yy alleles. The dihybrid, SsYy, produces gametes that have one allele of each
gene. Four different gametes are possible and will be produced in equal proportions:
SY, Sy, sY, and sy. Random fertilization of gametes yields the outcome visible in the
Punnett square. Note its 4 × 4 table construction to accommodate 16 possible
phenotypes. Filling in the table and adding the like cells reveals a 9:3:3:1 ratio of the
four possible phenotypes (smooth yellow, smooth green, wrinkled yellow, and wrinkled
green). The law of independent assortment states that alleles of different genes
assort independently of one another during gamete formation.
• In fact, this law is not always true. The law of independent assortment is accurate for
genes that are on separate chromosomes, but not necessarily for genes that are on
the same chromosome (due to Linkage).
• Genes that are close to each other on the same chromosome tend to stay together, but
crossing over during meiosis may separate them. The closer together on the same
chromosome genes are, the more they tend to stay together.
Punnett squares or probability calculations: A choice of methods

• Multiplying probabilities: If two coins, a penny and a dime, are tossed, each acts
independently of the other. The probability of both landing on heads would be 1/2 × 1/
2 = 1/4. To find the probability that independent events will both happen, the general
rule is to multiply the probabilities of the individual events.
• Monohybrid cross probabilities: In the example of smooth and wrinkled seeds,
heterozygotes produce S and s gametes. The probability of a gamete being S is 1/2.
The probability of that an F2 plant will be SS is 1/2 × 1/2 = 1/4.
• Adding probabilities: The probability of an event that can occur in two or more
ways is the sum of the probabilities for each way in which the event can occur. For
example, the genotype Ss can result from s in the egg and S in the sperm, or from S
in the egg and s in the sperm. Thus, the probability of heterozygotes in the F2
generation of a monohybrid cross is 1/4 + 1/4 = 1/2.
• The dihybrid cross: To calculate the probabilities of the outcomes of dihybrid crosses,
simply multiply the outcomes from each of the individual monohybrid components.
For example, the probability of the SSYy genotype can be calculated as follows: An F 1
Genetics 193
(dihybrid) cross of SsYy generates 1/4 SS, 1/2 Ss, 1/4ss, and 1/4 YY, 1/2 Yy, 1/4 yy. The
probability of the SSYy genotype is the probability of the SS genotype, which is 1/4,
times the probability of the Yy genotype, which is 1/2. This would be 1/8 (1/4 × 1/2).
Mendel’s laws can be observed in human pedigrees

• Patterns for over 2,500 inherited human characteristics have so far been determined.
Humans cannot be studied using planned crosses, so human geneticists rely on
pedigrees, which show phenotype segregation in several generations of related
individuals. Since humans have such small numbers of offspring, human pedigrees
do not show clear proportions. The actual number of affected versus unaffected
offspring is impossible to predict for a certain couple because outcomes for small
samples fail to follow closely the expected outcomes.
• If neither parent has a given phenotype, but it shows up in progeny, the trait is
recessive and the parents are heterozygous. The chance of other children getting the
trait is 1/4. Half of the children from such a cross will be carriers (heterozygous for
the trait). The probability of a carrier (heterozygote) for a rare allele unknowingly
marrying another unrelated carrier is quite low.
• For a dominant allele, every affected person has an affected parent. About half of
the offspring of an affected person are also affected (assuming only one parent is
affected). The phenotype occurs equally in both sexes.
• For a rare recessive trait, Affected people usually have parents who are both not
affected. One-quarter of the children, on average, of unaffected parents would be
affected. The phenotype occurs equally in both sexes.
• Marriage between close relatives results in a higher likelihood that both parents will
be carriers of a rare allele and produce affected children. The major use of pedigree
analysis is in clinical evaluation and counseling of patients with inherited abnormalities.
SOME EXCEPTIONS TO MENDEL’S LAWS
I. Linkage
If two different genes are located relatively close to each other on the same chromosome they
can not segregate independently. Term centimorgan (cM) is used in eukaryotic genetics
and map unit/Morgan in microbial genetics. The numbers of linkage groups are equal to
number of haploid sets of chromosomes. But in XX-XY type of organisms, number of linkage
groups will be one more in male than in the female as in male X and Y both are different
chromosomes.
• Cis – tans arrangement of genes: If the dominant alleles A, B of two linked genes
are present on the same chromosome and their recessive alleles are present on the
homologous chromosomes, the arrangement of genes is called cis-arrangement.
On the other hand, if one dominant gene and other recessive gene are present on the
same chromosome (A,b) and their alleles type (a,B) on the homologous chromosome,
this type of arrangement is called trans-arrangement.
Number of recombinats
• Recombination Frequency = × 100
Total progeny
• Several ascomycetes fungi (e.g., Neurospora) produce asci, which hold the haploid
ascospores produced after meiosis in a specific linear order, an ordered tetrad. This
order reflects the organization and chromatids involved in recombination (crossover)
at meiosis.
• Maximum recombination frequency possible is 50 %.
• Crossing over is absent in case of male Drosophilla and female Bombyx mori (silkworm)
Interference
Crossing over take place at chaismata. These are physical structures involving two chromatids.
Not surprisingly the presence of one chaismata in a particular chromosome region can reduce
the frequency of others forming close to it. This is termed as interference.
• The extent of interference is calculated as coefficient of coincidence (S), which is
equal to observed number of double crossover divided by the expected number of
double crossover.
• Coefficient of Interference is 1 minus coff of coincidence (1 – S). If it comes to be
positive values interference is termed as positive while if the value is negative it is
termed as negative interference.
II. Dominance
Mendel actually investigated complete dominance, i.e. dominant gene totally masks the recessive.
A. Incomplete dominance
A blending of the effects of two alleles which creates an intermediate form. E.g. RR – red,
rr – white, Rr – pink. At first this appears to be blending inheritance – but use a Punnett square
to predict the colors obtained from crossing two pinks (Rr).
B. Codominance
Both genes are expressed, e.g. human AB blood types.
III. Multiple alleles

Three or more alleles for same gene, e.g. three alleles for human blood groups A, B, O with O
the recessive and A and B codominants. Human blood types exhibit both codominance and
multiple alleles. B. There are about 100 alleles for hair color in mammals.
IV. Polygenic Inheritance

Traits are determined by more than one pair of genes. E.g. human eye color and height.
Therefore generally get continuous variation in characteristics and a bell shaped curve.
V. Pleiotropy
One allele can affect two or more traits. E.g. sickle cell anemia is caused by a single mutation
in the hemoglobin gene. It produces a number of effects.
Genetics 195
VI. Environment may affect the expression of genes. Examples

Eg.1. Siamese cats have dark ears, nose and paws because they are colder than rest of the
body. The enzyme responsible for the dark color only functions at lower temperatures (recall
effect of temperature on enzymes).
Eg.2. Above water versus submerged leaves on some plants are markedly different.
Eg.3. Identical twins have identical genes but exercise, diet and a number of other factors
may cause them to have different phenotypes.
VII. Cytoplasmic inheritance

Recall that plastids and mitochondria have their own DNA. Therefore some characteristics
may be under the control of genes in the cytoplasm.
Eg.1. In plants cytoplasm ic inheritance from plastids produces the variegated leaves of
some leaves, e.g. Coleus.
Eg.2. Male sterility in some cultivated plants is due to a mitochondrial gene. This is
useful for producing artificial hybrids because the stamens do not have to be removed to prevent
self-pollination.
VIII. Sex chromosomes

In many organisms, particularly animals, the males and females may have one pair of
chromosomes that are different and they determine the sex of the individual. These are called
sex chromosomes.
A. Humans have 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. In humans the
male, Y chromosome, carries a master gene called SRY (Sex determining Region of the Y
chromosome) which causes the development of male hormones and reproductive organs.
ALLELES AND THEIR INTERACTIONS
• Differences in alleles of genes are slight differences in the DNA sequence at the same
locus, which result in slightly different protein products. Some alleles are not simply
dominant or recessive. There may be many alleles for a single character or a single
allele may have multiple phenotypic effects.
New alleles arise by mutation

• Different alleles exist because any gene is subject to mutation, or change, to a stable,
heritable new form. Alleles can randomly mutate to become a different allele depending
on DNA sequence changes. Wild type is a term used for the most common allele in
the population. Other alleles, often called mutant alleles, may produce a phenotype
different from that of the wild-type allele. A genetic locus is called polymorphic if the
wild-type allele has a frequency less than 99% in a population (that is, if more than
1% of the alleles at that locus are mutant alleles).
Many genes have multiple alleles

• A population might have more than two alleles for a given gene. The ABO blood types
are an example of multiple alleles. In rabbits, coat color is determined by one gene
with four different alleles. Five different colors result from the combinations of these
alleles. Even if more than two alleles exist in a population, any given individual can
have no more than two of them: one from the mother and one from the father.
Incomplete Dominance-Dominance is usually not complete

• Heterozygotes may show an intermediate phenotype. For example, red-flowered
snapdragons (Mirabalis jalapa; 4 O” Clock plant) when crossed with white will generate
pink-flowered plants. This phenotype might seem to support the blending theory
(The blending theory predicts pink F 1 progeny). The F 2 progeny, however, demonstrate
Mendelian genetics. When the F1 pink individuals self-fertilize, the F 2 progeny have
a phenotypic ratio of 1 red: 2 pink: 1 white (The blending theory predicts all pink F2
progeny). This mode of inheritance is called incomplete dominance.
• The phenotypic outcomes for snapdragon flower color and incomplete dominance in
general can be explained biochemically. One allele of the gene codes for an enzyme
that functions in the production of the red color. The enzyme coded by the other
allele is not functional in pigment production. The red-flowered plants have two
functional copies of the gene and produce enough enzyme to make red flowers. The
pink-flowered plants have one functional allele, just enough to create a pink color.
Neither allele in white-flowered plants is capable of making the functional enzyme,
so the resulting flowers are white.
In co-dominance, both alleles are expressed

• In codominance, two different alleles for a gene produce two different phenotypes in
the heterozygotes. The AB of the human ABO blood group system is an example. The
alleles for blood type are IA, IB and IO. They all occupy one locus. These alleles
determine which antigens (proteins) are present on the surface of red blood cells.
• These antigens react with proteins called antibodies in the serum of certain individuals.
The result is red blood cell agglutination, or clumping, which may be fatal for those
individuals.
• Individuals with two IA, or with IA and IO, are type A. Individuals with two IB, or with
IB and IO, are type B.
• Individuals with IA and IB are type AB.
• Individuals with IO and IO are type O.
• Both IA and IB are expressed when present, and both produce an antigen.
• This is why they are called codominant.
• IO is a recessive trait and is the absence of either the A or B antigen.
Pleiotropy–Some alleles have multiple phenotypic effects

• Pleiotropy is the effect of a single gene on more than one characteristic (phenotype).
An example is the “frizzle-trait” in chickens. The primary result of this gene is the
production of defective feathers. Secondary results are both good and bad; good include
increased adaptation to warm temperatures, bad include increased metabolic rate,
decreased egg-laying, changes in heart, kidney and spleen. Cats that are white with
blue eyes are often deaf, white cats with a blue and an yellow-orange eye are deaf on
the side with the blue eye. Sickle-cell anemia is a human disease originating in warm
Genetics 197
low land tropical areas where malaria is common. Sickle-celled individuals suffer
from a number of problems, all of which are pleiotropic effects of the sickle-cell allele.
Another example is the coloration pattern and crossed eyes of Siamese cats, which
are both caused by the same allele. These unrelated characters are caused by the
same protein produced by the same allele.
GENE INTERACTIONS
Some genes (Epistatic) alter the effects of other (Hypostatic) genes

• Epistasis occurs when the alleles of one gene cover up or alter the expression of
alleles of another gene.
• Recessive Epistasis (An example is coat color in mice.) Ratio 9:3:4.
• The B allele determines a banded pattern, called agouti. The recessive b allele results
in unbanded hairs. The genotypes BB or Bb are agouti. The genotype bb is solid
colored (black). Another locus determines if any coloration occurs. The genotypes AA
and Aa have color and aa are albino. The aa genotype blocks all pigment production.
The mice heterozygous for both genes are agouti. The F 2 phenotypic ratio is 9 agouti:3
black:4 white. The corresponding genotypes are 9 agouti (1 BBAA + 2 BbAA + 4
BbAa):3 black (1 bbAA + 2 bbAa):4 albino (1 BBaa + 2 Bbaa + 1 bbaa).
• Complementation (9:7): As another example of epistasis, imagine that when a true-
breeding white-flowered plant is crossed to a true-breeding purple-flowered plant,
the F1 are all purple. When the purple F1 plants are self-crossed, 9 purple for every
7 white are observed in the F2 progeny. This ratio is different from what would be
expected if purple were simply dominant to white. The ratio provides a clue to the
relationship of two different genes (A and B) necessary to create the purple pigment
in this plant. Suppose the gene at locus A has two alleles: A, which is dominant and
codes for enzyme A, and a, which is recessive and codes for a nonfunctional enzyme.
Suppose also that the gene at locus B has two alleles that follow the same pattern: B
is dominant and codes for enzyme B, and b is recessive and codes for a nonfunctional
enzyme. The following biochemical pathway for production of purple pigment could
explain the ratio in the dihybrid cross:
colorless enzyme A colorless enzyme B purple

precursor → intermediate → pigment
• Dominant alleles are necessary at both the A and B loci to produce purple pigment.
Both enzyme reactions, A and B, must take place. Such genes are called complementary
genes. A Punnett square for the dihybrid cross, with Xs drawn through the boxes of
offspring that cannot produce pigment, shows clearly the 9 purple:7 white ratio.
Some other ratios of Gene Interactions

• Supplementary gene and Recessive epitasis: 9:3:4
• Dominant epitasis: 12:3:1
• Duplicate Gene: 15:1
• Inhibitory gene: 13:3
• Collaborator gene: 9:3:3:1
Hybrid vigor results from new gene combinations and interactions

• For centuries, it has been known that when two homozygous strains of plants or
animals are crossed, the offspring are phenotypically stronger, larger, and more
vigorous than either parent. In the early twentieth century, G. H. Shull crossed two
varieties of corn, and the yield went from 20 to 80 bushels per acre. This is called
either hybrid vigor or heterosis. Hybridization is now a common agricultural
practice to increase production in plants. A hypothesis called overdominance proposes
that the heterozygous condition in certain important genes is superior to either
homozygote.
POLYGENIC INHERITANCE
• Polygenic inheritance is a pattern responsible for many features that seem simple on
the surface. Many traits such as height, shape, weight, color, and metabolic rate are
governed by the cumulative effects of many genes. Polygenic traits are not expressed
as absolute or discrete characters, as was the case with Mendel’s pea plant traits.
Instead, polygenic traits are recognizable by their expression as a gradation of small
differences (a continuous variation). The results form a bell shaped curve, with a
mean value and extremes in either direction.
• Height in humans is a polygenic trait, as is color in wheat kernels. Height in humans

is not discontinuous. If you line up the entire class a continuum of variation is evident,
with an average height and extremes in variation (very short [vertically challenged?]
and very tall [vertically enhanced]). Traits showing continuous variation are usually
controlled by the additive effects of two or more separate gene pairs. This is an
example of polygenic inheritance. The inheritance of each gene follows Mendelian
rules.
• Usually polygenic traits are distinguished by
1. Traits are usually quantified by measurement rather than counting.
2. Two or more gene pairs contribute to the phenotype.
3. Phenotypic expression of polygenic traits varies over a wide range.
• Human polygenic traits include: Height, Weight, Eye Color, Intelligence, Skin Color,
Many forms of behaviour.
Genetics 199
• Individual heritable characters are often found to be controlled by groups of several

genes, called polygenes. Each allele intensifies or diminishes the phenotype. Variation
is continuous or quantitative (“adding up”). Examples of continuous characters are
height, skin color, and possibly intelligence.
THE ENVIRONMENT AFFECTS GENE ACTION
• Genotype and environment interact to determine the phenotype of an organism.

Variables such as light, temperature, and nutrition can affect the translation of
genotype into phenotype. For example, the darkness of the fur on extremities of a
Siamese cat is affected by the temperature of that region. Darkened extremities
normally have a lower temperature than the rest of the body. The coloration can be
manipulated experimentally. The proportion of individuals in a group with a given
genotype that express the corresponding phenotype can sometimes be measured,
and the measure is called penetrance.
• The expressivity of the genotype is the degree to which it is expressed in an individual.
• An example is hereditary hemochromatosis. This disease causes abnormally high levels
of iron to accumulate in the liver and other organs of affected people. Some people
with the disease accumulate toxic levels of iron, and others accumulate levels just
above normal.
• The influence of environment on genotype or phenotype can be studied with identical
twins, especially when they are separated from birth and reared apart in substantially
different environments.
GENES AND CHROMOSOMES
• How do we determine the order and distance between the genes that are located on
the same chromosome? A system was first developed in Thomas Hunt Morgan’s fly
lab in 1909. The biological model used was the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster,
which is still used today in chromosomal studies.
Linked genes are on the same chromosome

• Mendel’s second law, independent assortment, failed to be universal. One early
exception was found in Drosophila when crossing flies that were hybrids for two
particular alleles (body color and wing size) with flies that were recessive for both
alleles (a test cross). The results were not the expected 1:1:1:1, but instead, two of
the genotypes occurred at a frequency higher than the other two. These results
make sense if the two loci are on the same chromosome, and thus their inheritance
is linked. All the loci on a given chromosome make up a linkage group. Absolute or
total linkage of all loci is however, extremely rare.
• Drosophila have just 3 pairs of autosomal chromosomes and one pair of sex
chromosomes. The normal fly is diploid and has 8 chromosomes. The fruit fly has
thousands of genes on just 4 pairs of chromosomes. Therefore, many exist together
on the same chromosome.
Genes can be exchanged between chromatids

• When two homologous chromosomes physically exchange corresponding segments
during prophase I of meiosis, geneticists call it crossing over.
• Recombinations occur at chiasmata during pachytene of meiosis-I. If just a few
exchanges occur, genes that are closer together tend to stay together. The farther
apart on the same chromosome genes are, the more likely they will separate during
recombination. The two extremes are independent assortment and complete or
absolute linkage.
• The progeny resulting from crossing over appear in repeatable proportions, called
the recombinant frequency. Greater recombination frequencies are observed for
genes that are farther apart on the chromosomes because a chiasma is more likely to
cut between genes that are far apart than genes that are closer together.
Geneticists make maps of eukaryotic chromosomes

• Alfred Sturtevant, an undergraduate student working in Morgan’s fly room, resolved
the puzzling question of the deviation of results from the expected ratios by suggesting
that as the distance between two genes on a chromosome increases, so does the
likelihood that they will separate and recombine. The closer loci are on a chromosome,
the less likely they will separate and recombine in meiosis.
• A map unit is a recombination frequency of 0.01 (or a 1% recombination). It is referred
to as a centimorgan (cM).
EUKARYOTIC CHROMOSOMES
• Apart from gametes, most human cells contain two full sets of genetic information,
one from the mother and the other from the father. Eukaryotes have more than one
chromosome, and the number varies from organism to organism; for example, humans
have 46 and horses have 64. Each eukaryotic chromosome consists of a single, double-
stranded molecule of DNA; the molecule is extremely long relative to the size of the
cell. Many proteins associate with the DNA molecule. After the DNA of a chromosome
replicates during S phase, each chromosome consists of two joined chromatids. The
two chromatids are joined at a region called the centromere.
Chromatin consists of DNA and proteins

• The complex of the DNA and proteins is called chromatin. The DNA carries the
genetic information. The proteins organize the DNA physically and regulate the
activities of the DNA. By mass, chromatin consists of about equal parts DNA and
protein. Chromatin condenses, becoming highly coiled and compacted during mitosis
or meiosis. This makes it possible to get copies of the DNA into separate cells. Without
condensation of the chromatin, the strands, which are much longer than the cell,
would fail to properly partition into the two sister cells.
Chromatin proteins organize the DNA in chromosomes

• DNA of a human cell has a total length of 2 meters. The nucleus is just 5 mm in
diameter. During interphase, the DNA is decondensed or “unwound,” although proteins
Genetics 201
still package it. Interphase chromosomes are wrapped around proteins called histones.
These wraps of DNA and histone proteins are called nucleosomes (11nm diameter)
and resemble beads on a string.
• There are five classes of histones. The core of a nucleosome contains eight histone
molecules, two each from four of the histone classes. There are 146 base pairs of
DNA wrapped around the core, or 1.65 turns of DNA. One molecule from the remaining
histone class, histone H1, clamps the DNA to the core, and helps form the next level
of packaging.
• During mitosis and meiosis, the chromatin becomes even more coiled and condensed.
Telomerase, Aging and Cancer

• The ends of chromosomes are called telomeres. When DNA is replicated the telomeres
are often not duplicated properly and the chromosome becomes a little shorter after
each replication.
• Some scientists believe that the gradual shortening of the chromosomes causes cell
aging and eventual death (most cells in the body can duplicate only 50-100 times
before they die). Cells which divide often (germ cells, stem cells and cancer cells)
have high levels of an enzyme called telomerase which allows the telomeres to be
duplicated properly.
• Telomerase may make the cells potentially immortal. Inhibitors of telomerase may
someday be useful in cancer therapy.
• Methotrexate, aminopterin and aminopthrin are anticancerous drug which are
nucleotide analog and inhibit the activity of enyme involved in salvage pathway of
nucleotide biosynthesis.
GENE EXPRESSION
• Two steps are used to express a gene:

• Transcription makes a single-stranded RNA copy of a segment of the DNA.
• Translation uses information encoded in a portion of the RNA to make a polypeptide.
• In eukaryotes, these two steps are physically separated in time and space.
RNA differs from DNA

• RNA is single-stranded. The sugar in RNA is ribose, not deoxyribose since 2’OH in
ribose was acting as nucleophile and was involved in Auto-catalytic activity to make
genetic material stable 2’ Oxygen was removed to yield deoxyribose. Wherever thymine
is found in DNA, it is replaced by uracil in RNA. During evolution uracil of RNA was
changed into Thymine of DNA so as to help repair machinery to recognize deaminated
cytosine. RNA can fold over and base-pair with itself.
Information flows in one direction when genes are expressed

• Francis Crick’s central dogma stated that DNA codes for RNA, and RNA codes for
protein; that is, once information passes into protein, it cannot get out again. Messenger
RNA (mRNA) moves from the nucleus of eukaryotic cells into the cytoplasm where it
serves as a template for protein synthesis. Transfer RNA (tRNA) is the link between
the code of the mRNA and the amino acids of the polypeptide. The tRNA molecules
specify the correct amino acid.
RNA viruses modify the central dogma

• RNA viruses are viruses that use RNA as their information molecule during
transmission. Examples are the influenza virus and poliovirus. HIV and certain
tumor viruses (Reteroviruses) have RNA as their infectious information molecule,
but convert it to a DNA copy inside the host cell, then use it to make more RNA with
the help of reverse transcriptase (RNA dependent DNA polymerase) by process
known as reverse transcription.
Transcription: DNA-Directed RNA Synthesis

• RNA polymerase is the enzyme that uses DNA as a template to make RNA in direction
5’®3’. Just one of the strands of a gene’s DNA is used to make the RNA. This strand
is called the template strand (3’®5’) and is used for transcription. The other
untranscribed strand is called the complementary strand (sense strand/non-coding
strand). For different genes in the same DNA molecule, however, the roles of these
strands may be reversed.
• The continuous double helix of DNA has many regions that are read by RNA
polymerase. The DNA double helix partly unwinds to serve as template. As the RNA
transcript forms, it peels away, allowing the already transcribed DNA to be rewound
into the double helix.
Initiation of transcription requires a promoter and an RNA polymerase

• Transcription of a gene begins at a promoter, which is a certain sequence of DNA.
There is at least one promoter for each gene to be transcribed into mRNA. The RNA
polymerase binds to the promoter region when conditions allow. The promoter
sequence directs the RNA polymerase as to which of the double strands is the template
and in what direction the RNA polymerase should move. In effect, the promoters
serve as punctuation marks for the transcription process. RNA is synthesized in the
5'-to-3' direction, moving along the template DNA in the 3'-to-5' direction.
• In prokaryotes promoters are centered at –10 (TATAAT pribnow box) and –35
(TTGACA). In eukaryotes 80% of genes have a TATA box centered at –25. Further
upstream, within 100-200 are boxes or elements—The CAAT box, GC box and eight
base pair octamer box. Not all promoters are identical.
• Some bind RNA polymerase more effectively; this causes them to be transcribed
more frequently, when other conditions allow. For correct initiation (s) factor is
required which is released after initiation. Prokaryotes have one type of RNA
polymerase that transcribes mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
• In E. Coli the RNA core enzyme has four subunit a2 (160 KD each) b(150 KD) b’(155KD)
and s (70 KD)factor attach for initiation to form holoenzyme. b -subunit is involved in
phosphodiester bond formation (catalytic site), both b and b’ subunits participate in
DNA binding and a subunit have several activities including recognition of UP elements
in promoter.
Genetics 203
• Antibiotic rifamycin inhibits prokaryotic RNA polymerase by acting at the catalytic

site(b subunit). Another antibiotic known as streptolydigin, blocks the RNA chain
elongation.
• Eukaryotes have three different RNA polymerases which can be separated by ion
exchange chromatography: RNA polymerase I (found in nucleolus, transcribes
rRNA), II (mRNA), and III (t-RNA; both II and III present in nucleoplasm).
• RNA polymerase II makes all mRNA in eukaryotes and is highly sensitive to
a-amanitin obtained from mushrooms of genus Amanita. RNA polymerase I is
insensitive while RNA pol III shows sensitivity at high dose.
• rRNA synthesis can be inhibited by actinomycin D as it selectively inserts
(intercalcates) in between GC-rich region of DNA and since rRNA genes are rich in
GC sequences.
RNA polymerase elongates the transcript

• After binding, RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA about 20 base pairs at a time and
reads the template in the 3'-to-5' direction. The RNA transcript is antiparallel to the
DNA template strand. Energy for synthesis comes from the removal and breakdown
of the pyrophosphate group from each nucleoside added. Transcription errors for
RNA polymerases are high relative to DNA polymerases; a mistake occurs for every
104 to 105 bases incorporated. These are errors in the copies, however, not the original
DNA master, so they are less likely to be harmful.
• Transcription factors are required for RNA polymerase to recognize promoters. TFIID
is the basal transcription factor in eukaryotes which interact directly with TATA box
with help of Tata Binding Protein (TBP) and eight or more other TAFs (TBP associated
factors).
• The most common motif for proteins interacting promoters in prokaryotes is Helix
turn helix while in eukaryotes are leucine Zipper and Zinc finger (eg. TFII D,
TFIIIA) proteins. Homeodomains proteins coded by Homeotic genes are highly
conserved being similar in structures in insect Drosophila and in vertebrates, including
humans.
Transcription terminates at particular base sequences

• Particular base sequences in the DNA specify termination (Generally GC rich, forms
hair pin loop in mRNA followed by A rich sequence). Gene mechanisms for termination
vary. For some genes, the newly formed transcript simply falls away from the DNA
template and the RNA polymerase. For other genes, a helper protein (Rho factor)
pulls the transcript away by its unwinding (helicase) activity.
• In prokaryotes, translation of the mRNA often begins before transcription is complete.
• In eukaryotes, the process is more complicated and involves a spatial separation as
well as further processing.
THE GENETIC CODE

• DNA codes for RNA by the transcription process. mRNA is read in three-base contiguous segments
called codons.
• The number of different codons possible is 64, because each position in the codon can be occupied by one
of four different bases. Four possibilities for the first base, times four for the second, times four for the third
yields 64 possibilities. The 64 possible codons code for only 20 amino acids and the start and stop signals
found in all mRNA molecules. AUG, which codes for methionine, is called thestart codon. The start codon
initiates translation. Three of the possible codons are stop codons (UAA, UAG, and UGA). Stop codons
direct the ribosome to stop reading the mRNA since there is no t-RNA for them; that is, they end translation.
The genetic code is redundant but not ambiguous

• After subtracting start (codes for methionine) and stop codons, the remaining 60
codons code for 19 different amino acids. This means that many amino acids have
more than one codon. Thus the code is redundant. But the code is not ambiguous.
Each codon is assigned only one amino acid, not two or three possible amino acids.
• The tRNA molecules that have the correct amino acids attached determine the
assignment of amino acids to the mRNA codons. The genetic code is nearly universal,
applying to all species on our planet. Minor variations are found within mitochondria
and chloroplasts; other exceptions are few and slight. This common genetic code has
great implications in genetic engineering.
• In mitochondria of Drosophila, yeast, higher plants UGA is codon for tryptophan
rather then stop. In mammalian mitochondria including human, AGG and AGA, they
are stop codon instead of arginine.
Biologists broke the genetic code by using artificial messengers

• Decoding breakthroughs started in 1961. Early on, the likelihood of a three-letter
codon was postulated. Nirenberg prepared an artificial mRNA in which all bases were
uracil. Incubated with required additional components, the poly U mRNA led to
synthesis of a polypeptide chain consisting only of phenylalanine amino acids. UUU
appeared to be the codon for phenylalanine. Other codons were deciphered from this
starting point.
• An additional technique finished the deciphering. Simple synthetic mRNA’s, three
nucleotides long, could bind to ribosomes. This complex then caused the tRNA-amino
acid to bind according to the three-letter codon. Using this technique, the code was
fully deciphered.
• Radioactive labeling was also used to decipher the code.
Preparation for Translation: Linking RNA’s, Amino Acids, and Ribosomes

• Translation occurs at ribosomes, which are molecular protein synthesizing machines
that hold mRNA and tRNA in place. In prokaryotes, ribosomes bind to mRNA as it is
being synthesized. In eukaryotes, mRNA is made in the nucleus, and translation
occurs at the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
• To assure protein specificity: The tRNA’s must read mRNA correctly & it must carry
the correct amino acids.
Transfer RNA’s carry specific amino acids and bind to specific codons
• Specific tRNA molecules function as adapters. Each carries an amino acid, associates
with mRNA molecules, and interacts with ribosomes. A tRNA molecule has 75 to 80
Genetics 205
nucleotides. It has a three-dimensional shape maintained by complementary base

pairing and hydrogen bonding. At the 3' end of every tRNA molecule is a site to which
its specific amino acid binds covalently. Midpoint in the sequence are three bases
called the anticodon.
• The anticodon is the contact point between the tRNA and the mRNA. The anticodon
is complementary (and antiparallel) to the mRNA codon. The codon and anticodon
unite by complementary base pairing.There are fewer anticodon codes than mRNA
codons. This is possible because some codon-anticodon interactions tolerate a
mismatch at the 3' base of the mRNA. This is called wobble, but does not allow the
genetic code to be ambiguous.
• The three-dimensional shape of the tRNA’s allows them to combine with the binding
sites of the ribosome.
Activating enzymes link the right tRNA’s and amino acids

• The correct amino acids are attached to the correct tRNA’s by a family of activating
enzymes called aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. Each activating enzyme is specific for
one amino acid and its tRNA. The enzyme has a three-part active site that binds a
specific amino acid, ATP, and a specific tRNA, which is charged with a high-energy
bond. This bond provides the energy for making the peptide band that will join adjacent
amino acids.
• The reactions have two steps: Enzyme + ATP + AA ® enzyme—AMP—AA + PPi
Enzyme—AMP—AA + tRNA → enzyme + AMP + tRNA—AA
The ribosome is the staging area for translation

• Each ribosome has two subunits, a larger one and a smaller one. The large one in
eukaryotes has three different associated rRNA molecules and 45 different proteins.
The smaller subunit has one rRNA and 33 different protein molecules. When they
are not translating, the two subunits are separate. Ribosomes of prokaryotes are
somewhat smaller, and their ribosomal proteins and rRNA’s are different. The
different proteins and rRNA’s are held together by ionic bonds and hydrophobic forces,
not covalent bonds. The structure can self-assemble if disassembled by detergents.
• Ribosomes are simply molecular factories and are nonspecific. They combine with
any mRNA and all tRNA’s. The large subunit has four sites where tRNA molecules
bind. The T site is where the tRNA first lands. It is brought to the site by a special
protein, the T, or transfer factor. The A site is where the tRNA anticodon binds to
the mRNA codon. The P site is where the tRNA adds its amino acid to the growing
polypeptide chain. The E (exit) site is where the tRNA, less its amino acid, goes
before leaving the ribosome.
TRANSLATION: RNA-Directed Polypeptide Synthesis

Translation begins with an initiation complex
• At the beginning of translation, m-RNA attaches itself to small subunit of ribosome
(by shine dalgarno sequence complementary to 16 S rRNA of ribosome in
prokaryotes or at 5' cap in eukaryotes) to form an initiation complex. The initiation
complex includes the first tRNA and its amino acid, a small subunit of the ribosome,
and an mRNA molecule. This complex is bound to a region upstream (toward the 5'
end) of where the actual reading of the mRNA begins. The start codon (AUG) for
methionine (formyl methionine in prokaryotes) designates the first amino acid in all
proteins. (However, some proteins are trimmed after synthesis, and the methionine
is thereby removed). In eukaryotes initiator codon AUG lies within consensus
sequence known as Kozak sequence. The large subunit then joins the complex. The
process is directed by proteins called initiation factors, which use GTP as an energy
source.
The polypeptide elongates from the N terminus

• Ribosomes move in the 5'-to-3' direction on the mRNA. They synthesize the peptide in
the N terminus-to-C terminus direction. The large subunit catalyzes two reactions:
Breakage of the bond between the tRNA in the P site and its amino acid (on the
polypeptide) and Peptide bond formation between this (tRNA-attached) amino acid
and the tRNA in the A site. This is called peptidyl transferase activity (by 23 S
rRNA in prokaryotes). One of the rRNA’s in the large subunits appears to participate
in the catalysis of this reaction. Here we see rRNA acting as the catalyst, orribozyme.
Elongation continues and the polypeptide grows

• The first tRNA releases methionine, dissociates from the ribosome, and returns to
the cytosol. The second tRNA then moves to the P site. The next charged tRNA
enters the open A site. The peptide chain is then transferred to the P site. These
steps are assisted by proteins called elongation factors.
A release factor terminates translation

• When a stop codon—UAA, UAG, or UGA—enters the A site, a release factor and a
water molecule enter the A site, instead of an amino acid. The newly completed
protein then separates from the ribosome.
REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION

• Histone acetylation occurs both in cytoplasm and nucleus. Cytoplasmic acetylation
is carried out by HAT-B (Histone acetyl transferase) and prepares histone for
incorporation into nucleosomes. The acetyl groups are later removed in nucleus.
Nuclear acetylation of is catalyzed by HAT-A and correlates with transcription
activation. A variety of co-activators have HAT-A activity, which may allow then to
loosen the association of nucleosides with a genes control region, thereby enhancing
transcription.
• The transcript of approximately 1 in 20 genes are subject to alternate splicing. This
can have profound effect on the protein product of gene. For eg., it can make difference
between secreted and membrane bound protein.
• 5' Cap of m-RNA are made in steps: First a phosphohydrolase removes the terminal
phosphate; next a guanyl transferase adds the capping GMP (from GTP). Next, two
methyl transferase methylates N7 of guanosine and 2'-O-methyl group of the
penultimate nucleotide. These events occur early in transcription process, before the
chain length reaches 30 nt. The cap provides protection of the mRNA from degradation,
Genetics 207
enhancement of the mRNA’s stability; transport of mRNA to nucleus and proper

splicing of m-RNA.
• Polyadenylation: Most eukaryotic mRNA and their precursors have a chan of AMP
residues about 250 nt long at their 3' ends. This poly(A) is added post-transcriptionally
by poly(A) Polymerase. Poly(A) enhances both life time and translation ability of
mRNA; by helping to recruit mRNA to polysomes. An efficient mammalian
polyadenylation signal consist of AAUAAA motif about 20 nt upstream of
polyadenylation site in pre-mRNA.
• Group I introns such as Tetrahymena 23 S rRNA precursor, can be removed without
proteins (Ribozyme).
• Group II (GU-AG) introns of eukaryotes self splice using an A-branched lariat and
spliceosome.
Some antibiotics work by inhibiting translation

• Antibiotics are defense molecules. They are produced by some fungi and bacteria.
They have been used to combat human bacterial infectious disease. Antibiotics must
specifically destroy microbial invaders, but not harm the human host. Some antibiotics
work by blocking the synthesis of the bacterial cell walls, others by inhibiting protein
synthesis.
• In prokaryotes, streptomycin affects initiation, kirromycin prevents EF-Tu release,
and erythromycin and chloramphenicol inhibits translocase and peptidyl
transferase respectively (This is true for mitochondrial ribosomes too). Fusidic acid
inhibits translocation by blocking EF-G-GDP release. Because of differences between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes, the human ribosomes are unaffected.
• Puromycin resembles an amino acyl t-RNA and so bind to A site, couple with the
peptide in the P site, and cause premature termination of protein synthesis by
releasing peptidyl puromycin.
• Diptheria toxin inhibits EF2 the eukaryote translocase (Equals EF-G in bacteria).
Ricin, the toxin of castor bean, is an N-glycosidase that removes a single adenine base
from one of the eukaryote ribosomal RNA and inactivates large subunit. One molecule
of ricin can destroy a cell containing tens of thousands of ribosomes.
Polysome formation increases the rate of protein synthesis

• Polysomes are mRNA molecules with more than one ribosome attached (generally
around 5). These make protein more rapidly, producing multiple copies of protein
simultaneously. They are more common in prokaryotes.
Posttranslational Events
• Some proteins require additional modification after synthesis before they become
functional. New chemical groups might be added to the protein, it might be folded
(with the assistance of other proteins), or it might get trimmed. Most of such mechanism
occurs in golgi complex and to some extent in lumen of ER.
Chemical signals in proteins direct them to their cellular destinations

• As the polypeptide chain forms, it spontaneously folds into its three-dimensional shape.
The amino acid sequence also contains an “address label” indicating where in the cell
the polypeptide belongs. All protein synthesis begins on free ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
In eukaryotes, as the peptide chain is made, information on the nascent portion gives
one of two sets of instructions: 1. Finish translation and be released to the cytoplasm
and 2. Stall translation, go to the endoplasmic reticulum, and finish synthesis at the
ER surface.
• Those destined to finish synthesis in the cytoplasm may contain information in their
amino acid sequence that specifies where they belong: the nucleus, mitochondria, or
peroxisomes. Some of the proteins that are transported to a destination require
chaperonin proteins and docking proteins at the membrane that the protein must
cross to its organelle destination.
• Those destined for the ER generate an approximately 25-amino-acid-long hydrophobic
leader sequence that signals to a signal recognition particle, which is composed of
protein and RNA. The association of the signal to the signal receptor particle stalls
any additional translation. This stall continues until the ribosome attaches to a specific
receptor protein on the surface of the ER. Translation continues with the protein
moving through a pore in the ER membrane. Some proteins have signals that direct
the embedding of the protein into the ER membrane. This is when membrane proteins
of the ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and plasma membrane get positioned. Other
signals direct the protein to the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, or to the outside of the
cell. Proteins with no signals from the ER go through the Golgi apparatus and are
secreted from the cell.
Many proteins are modified after translation

• It is the exception, not the rule, that the finished protein is identical to the translation
from the mRNA code. Modifications are often essential to the final functioning of the
protein.
• Proteolysis is the cleavage of the protein to make a shortened finished protein. Insulin
is an example of a protein that gets trimmed. The signal to go to the ER is often
cleaved after the protein gets there. The virus HIV needs a protease to cleave a
protein. One treatment for HIV inhibits this enzyme.
• Glycosylation involves the addition of sugars to the protein. Signals in the amino acid
sequence of the protein direct the addition of the sugars (N-linked) in the ER by
resident enzymes. Additional modifications occur in both the Golgi apparatus (O-
linked) and the ER.
• Phosphorylation is the addition of phosphate groups to certain proteins. These additions
may be temporary and affect the activity of the protein by changing the three-
dimensional shape.
Degradation of proteins
• Selective destruction of proteins involves ubiquitin, a small protein found universally
in eukaryotes (but not in prokaryotes). By an ATP dependent reaction its –COOH
terminal group becomes linked e-NH2 of the side chain of lysine residues of its target
Genetics 209
protein and once attached, that protein is marked for destruction. Proteasome present
in cytosol degrades the ubiquitin tagged protein. Chaperons also appears to play a
role in targeting protein in destruction.
• Lysosomes may participate in the destruction of longer lived structural protein.
They are also responsible for the autolytic destruction of cell during the development.
The disappearance of tadpole’s tail is example of this.
SEX DETERMINATION AND SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE

• Sometimes parental origin of a chromosome does matter. Reciprocal crosses give
identical results when organisms are diploid. Many organisms have homologous pairs
of all chromosomes except for those that determine sex. The homologous pairs are
called autosomes; the unpaired X and Y chromosomes are called sex chromosomes.
Dosage Compensation by X-inactivation in female mammals

How does an organism compensate for the fact that some individuals have a double dosage of
sex-linked genes while others have only one? In female mammals, most diploid cells have only
one fully functional X chromosome.
• The explanation for this process is known as the Lyon hypothesis, proposed by the
British geneticist Mary F. Lyon. In females, each of the embryonic cells inactivates
one of the two X chromosomes. The inactive X chromosome contracts into a dense
object called a Barr body.
Barr body
Located inside the nuclear envelope, it is a densely staining object that is an inactivated X
chromosome in female mammalian cells. Most Barr body genes are not expressed. They are
reactivated in gonadal cells that undergo meiosis to form gametes. Female mammals are a
mosaic of two types of cells, those with an active maternal X and those with an active paternal
X. Which of the two Xs will be inactivated is determined randomly in embryonic cells. After an
X is inactivated, all mitotic descendants will have the same inactive X. As a consequence, if a
female is heterozygous for a sex-linked trait, about half of her cells will express one allele and
the other cells well express the alternate allele. Examples of this type of mosaicism are coloration
in calico cats and normal sweat gland development in humans. A woman who is heterozygous
for this trait has patches of normal skin and patches of skin lacking sweat glands.
• X chromosome inactivation is associated with DNA methylation. Methyl groups
(-CH3) attach to cytosine, one of DNA’s nitrogenous bases. Barr bodies are highly
methylated compared to actively transcribed DNA. What determines which of the
two X chromosomes will be methylated? A recently discovered gene, XIST is active
only on the Barr body. The product of the XIST gene, X-inactive specific transcript, is
an RNA; multiple copies of XIST attach to the X chromosome inactivating it.
Sex is determined in different ways in different species

• In corn, every diploid adult has both male and female reproductive structures. The
same is true for peas. This type of organism is called monoecious (“one house”).
Other plants and animals, which have individuals that are one or the other sex, are
called dioecious (“two houses”).
• In most dioecious organisms, sex is determined by differences in the chromosomes.

In honeybees, eggs either are fertilized with a sperm and become diploid females, or
they are not fertilized and become haploid males, called drones.
• Female grasshoppers have two X chromosomes, and males have just one. The sperm
determines the sex of the zygote. If a sperm without an X fertilizes an egg, the zygote
becomes a male grasshopper.
• Humans have different sex chromosomes, X and Y. Males have X and Y; females
have X and X.
• Sex of the offspring is determined by the sperm.
• Females do not have a Y chromosome, so all normal female gametes (eggs) have one
X chromosome. Males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome, so half of the
male gametes (sperm) have an X chromosome and the other half have a Y chromosome.
If a sperm with an X chromosome reaches the egg, the resulting offspring will be
female (XX). If a sperm with a Y chromosome reaches the egg, the resulting offspring
will be male (XY).
• In humans, maleness is determined by the presence of the Y chromosome.
The X and Y chromosomes have different functions

• The gene that determines maleness was identified by studying people with
chromosomal abnormalities.
• Some XY females were found. Some XX males were found. The XY females had a
piece missing from the Y, and the XX males had a piece of a Y on one X. The fragment
missing from the Y chromosome in XY females or present on the X chromosome in
XX males contained the maleness-determining gene. The gene was named SRY (for
sex-determining region on the Y chromosome). The SRY gene codes for a functional
protein involved in primary sex determination. If this protein is present, testes develop;
if not, ovaries develop. A gene on the X chromosome called DAX1 produces an anti-
testis factor. The SRY gene product in a male inhibits the gene DAX1, and no maleness
inhibitor is made.
• Secondary sex traits like breast development, body hair, and voice are influenced by
hormones such as testosterone and estrogen.
• Drosophila chromosomes follow the same pattern as humans, but the mechanism is
different. The males are XY, and females XX. The ratio of X chromosomes to the
autosomal sets determines sex. Two X chromosomes for each diploid set yield
females. One X for each diploid set yields males. (XO is sterile; XY is fertile).
• Birds, moths, and butterflies have XX males and XY females. These are called ZZ
males and ZW females to help prevent confusion. In these organisms, the egg rather
than the sperm determines the sex of the offspring.
Genes on sex chromosomes are inherited in special ways

• The Y carries very few genes (about 20 are known), but the X carries a great variety
of characters. Females with XX are diploid for X-linked genes; males with XY are
haploid. This partial haploid condition of sex chromosomes for males is called
hemizygous. This generates a special type of inheritance called sex-linked inheritance.
Genetics 211
Human beings display many sex-linked characters

• The human X chromosome carries thousands of genes. The probability for a male of
having an X-linked genetic disease caused by a mutant recessive allele is much higher
than it is for a female. Barring inbreeding, the probability of a woman having a recessive
X-linked genetic disease is the square of frequency of the disease-causing allele. (That
is the probability that she would inherit the gene from her mother times the probability
that she would inherit it from her father.) Because men have only one X chromosome,
and they express what they get whether it is dominant or recessive, the probability for
a man of having an X-linked recessive genetic disease is simply the frequency of the
allele for the disease in the population. The number of lethal or severely detrimental
genes on the X is kept low by the hemizygous state of the males.
• Pedigree analysis of X-linked recessive phenotypes reveal certain patterns: The
phenotype appears much more often in males than in females. A male with the
mutation can pass it on only to his daughters, through an X-bearing sperm; his sons
get his Y chromosome, which does not carry the trait. Daughters who receive one
mutant X are heterozygous carriers. They pass the allele to approximately half of
their sons and daughters. The mutant phenotype can skip a generation if the mutation
is passed from a male to his daughter and then to her son. The most common forms
of muscular dystrophy and hemophilia, as well as red-green color blindness,
are a few X-linked human phenotypes.
• Contrary to popular opinion, male pattern baldness is not X-linked. This is a sex-
influenced trait that is probably subject to hormonal influence. Males require only
one gene for baldness to appear; female baldness requires the presence of two genes.
Cytoplasmic Inheritance: Extra chromosomal Inheritance

• Mendelian genetics is the genetics of the nucleus, yet other cytoplasmic organelles
carry genetic material. Mitochondria, chloroplasts, and other plastids possess a small
amount of DNA. Humans have about 600,000 genes in the nucleus and 37 genes in
mitochondria.
• Plastid genomes are five times larger than those of mitochondria. The genome is the
total configuration of genetic material. Mitochondria and plastids are passed on by
the mother only, as the egg contains abundant cytoplasm and organelles. The
mitochondria in sperm do not take part in gamete union. Some chloroplasts are
white, not green, because of a mutation in their DNA. Mitochondrial mutations may
also be linked to human genetic diseases.
• Mitochodria is responsible for cytoplasmic Male sterlity in Maize
One Gene, One Polypeptide

• There are many steps between genotype and phenotype; genes cannot by themselves
directly produce a phenotype. A gene is defined as a DNA sequence.
• In the 1940s, Beadle and Tatum showed that an altered gene resulted in an altered
phenotype that showed up as an altered enzyme.
• They used the bread mold Neurospora crassa. This is an organism with a haploid
vegetative life cycle, so recessive mutations are easy to detect. Neurospora were
grown on minimal medium consisting of just sucrose, minerals, and a few vitamins.
Wild-type Neurospora were treated with a mutagen, an agent that causes changes in
the DNA. After treatment, they were grown in a complete medium. When testing
some of the treated strains, some were found that could no longer grow on minimal
medium, but instead needed certain supplements. These nutrient-requiring auxotrophs
were assumed to have mutated. For each auxotrophic strain, Beadle and Tatum were
able to find a single compound that could support its growth. One group of mutants
needed arginine to grow. Mapping studies established that some of these arg mutations
are at different loci, and therefore are in different genes. Beadle and Tatum
demonstrated that these different mutants had defective genes for the same
biochemical pathway, the pathway leading to arginine synthesis.
• If the gene defect affected earlier enzyme steps in the pathway, several different
substances could substitute for arginine. If the defect was for the enzyme step just
before arginine synthesis, only arginine could substitute. Beadle and Tatum thus
postulated the one gene, one enzyme hypothesis.
• Later it was learned that some enzymes are composed of different subunits coded for
by separate genes. The one gene, one enzyme hypothesis was later changed to the one-
gene, one-polypeptide hypothesis. Even this hypothesis requires modification because
some genes code for RNA molecules that are never translated into polypeptides.
MUTATIONS: Heritable Changes in Genes

• Mutations are heritable changes in DNA—changes that are passed on to daughter
cells. In single-celled organisms, any mutations that occur are passed to the daughter
cells at the time of cell division.
• Multicellular organisms have two types of mutations:
• Somatic mutations are passed on during mitosis, but the affected cells never become
gametes and so do not pass to subsequent generations and
• Germ-line mutations are mutations that occur in cells that might give rise to gametes.
• Some mutations cause visible phenotypic change. Others cause metabolic changes
that might not yet be detectable.
• Some mutations exert their effect only under certain restrictive conditions. These
are called conditional mutants. They are unaffected under permissive conditions,
but express the mutant phenotype at the restrictive condition. Temperature-sensitive
mutants are an example.
• All mutations are alterations of the DNA nucleotide sequence and are of two types:
Point mutations are mutations of single genes and Chromosomal mutations are
changes in the arrangements of chromosomal DNA segments.
Point mutations are changes in single bases

• Point mutations result from the addition or subtraction of a nucleotide base or the
substitution of one base for another. Point mutations can occur as a result of mistakes
during DNA replication, or by environmental mutagens, such as chemicals and
radiation. Because of redundancy in the genetic code, some point mutations result in
no change in the amino acids in the protein. These are called silent mutations.
• Some mutations cause an amino acid substitution. These are called missense
mutations. An example in humans is sickle-cell anemia, a defect in the b-globin
Genetics 213
subunits of hemoglobin. The red blood cells collapse when oxygen levels are low.
Missense mutations might reduce the functioning of a protein or disable it completely.
• Nonsense mutations are base substitutions that cause a change from a codon that
instructs the incorporation of an amino acid to a codon that terminates translation.
• A frame-shift mutation is when a single base is inserted or deleted in a gene. This
causes the most disruption when the event occurs at or near the beginning of the
template. This type of mutation shifts the code, changing many of the codons to
different codons. These shifts almost always lead to the production of nonfunctional
proteins.
Chromosomal mutations are extensive changes in the genetic material
• DNA molecules can break and re-form. This can cause four different types of mutations:
deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. Deletions are a loss of a
chromosomal segment. Duplications are a repeat of a segment. Breaking and rejoining
leads to inversions if segments get reattached in the opposite orientation.
Translocations result when a portion of one chromosome attaches to another.
Translocations can be reciprocal or nonreciprocal. Translocations can make synapses
in meiosis difficult and can lead to aneuploidy (too many or too few chromosomes).
Human Disorders due to Chromosome Alterations
• Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome): Affects on average one out of 700 children born in
USA. individuals are short in stature, suffer varying degrees of mental retardation
and are susceptible to a variety of diseases (leukemia, Alzheimer’s) Higher incidence
of Down’s children born to mothers over 35 years old.
• Trisomy 18 (Edward Syndrome)
• Trisomy 13 (Patau Syndrome)
• Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY): occurs one in every 2000 births. male sex organs,
but individuals are sterile and have feminine body characteristics
• Turner Syndrome (XO): females are monosomic for X chromosome, normal
intelligence but do not fully develop secondary sex characteristics are puberty., short
in stature
Structural Alterations
• “Cri du Chat” is result of deletion of a region of chromosome 5: Individuals are
mentally retarded and have a cry that sounds like a cat.
• Chromosomal Translocations: associated with some diseases e.g.. Translocation
of a part of chromosome 22 with a part of chromosome 9 results in chronic
myelogenous leukemia (Philadelphia 22).
Mutations can be spontaneous or induced

• Spontaneous mutations are permanent changes that occur without outside influence.
Spontaneous mutations may be caused by any of several mechanisms. Nucleotides
occasionally change their structure (called a tautomeric shift). A base may
temporarily change to its unusual tautomer at the same time that replication is
occurring. The tautomer may pair with the alternate purine if it is a purine, or the
alternate pyrimidine if it is a pyrimidine.
• DNA polymerase sometimes makes errors in replication. These errors are often
repaired by the proofreading function of the replication complex, but some errors
escape and become permanent.
• Meiosis is imperfect. Nondisjunction can occur. Random chromosome breaks
rejoin incorrectly, leading to translocations.
• Induced mutations are permanent changes caused by some outside agent.
• Some chemicals alter covalent bonds in nucleotides. Nitrous acid deaminates
cytosine, converting it to uracil. DNA polymerase mistakes uracil for thymine
and puts an A in during replication instead of the G that would have been
incorporated otherwise.
• Benzoapyrene, a product of incomplete combustion, which is found in all smoke,
adds a large chemical group to guanine, making it unavailable for base pairing.
Any base might be inserted to fill the gap.
• Radiation damages DNA. Ionizing radiation (X rays) produces highly reactive
compounds and atoms called free radicals. Gamma rays also produce free radicals.
Free radicals can alter bases or break the sugar–phosphate backbone, causing
chromosomal abnormalities. Ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by pyrimidines in
the DNA, and when two thymines or two cytosines are next to each other on the
same strand of a double-stranded DNA molecule, a covalent bond can form.
Their interstrand covalent bonds make the DNA unreplicable.
• The long-term benefit of mutations is that they provide a genetic diversity for
evolution and account for all the differences between and within organisms,
excluding the effect of different environments. The detriment of mutation is the
outright death or poor fit of an organism to its environment.
Mutations are the raw material of evolution

• Mutations are rare events and most of them are point mutations involving one
nucleotide. Frequency of mutations is much lower than one mutation per 104 genes
per DNA duplication. Sometimes they are as rare as one per 109 genes per duplication.
Different organisms vary in mutation frequency.
• Mutations can be detrimental, neutral, or occasionally beneficial. Humans have 1,000
times the DNA of a prokaryote. This is at least partially due to duplication of DNA
sequences, and then to divergence of the sequences over time. Random accumulation
of mutations in the extra copies of genes can lead to the production of new useful
proteins.
Mutation and Variation

• Genetic variation refers to differences in genotype among organisms. Genotypes can
be classified according to inheritance patterns
• nuclear genes: inherited through both male or female gamete
• maternally inherited: mitochondria in animals and chloroplast in angiosperms.
• paternally inherited: chloroplasts in conifers.
• Environmental variation: differences in the environment due to phenotypic plasticity.
Genetics 215
• Maternal effects: characteristics of a mothers offspring due to nongenetic-influences,

e.g., via deposition of yolk in eggs. Differences among offspring are a reflection of
genotypic/environmental variation in the mother.
Since only genetic variation is heritable, one needs to have means to distinguish between
genetic and other sources of variation.
• For traits influenced by few genes crosses to produce F1, F2, and backcrosses may
yield Mendelian ratios, and thus indicate genetic variation.
• For polygenic traits, correlations between (i) parents and offpring, (ii) among siblings,
indicate genetic variation. To exclude the possibility of maternal effects, one can,
e.g., determine the correlation between fathers and the offspring. To exclude the
possibility that the observed correlations are due to a shared environment, one can
either (i) randomize the offsprings’ environment (e.g., distribute bird’s eggs among
different foster parents) or (ii) rear the organisms for several generations in the
same environment, and observe parent offspring correlations (c ommon-garden
experiments).
Sources of genetic variation

Here, sources of variation less likely to be discussed in other courses are emphasized.
• Point mutations Transitions (C <-> T, A <->G) Transversions ( A <-> C, A <-> T,
G<-> C, G<-> T)
In coding regions point mutations can be synonymous or non-synonymous, be missense
or nonsense mutations. Mutation rates are of the order of 10-9 per base pair per
generation.
Insertions/Deletions
May lead to frame shift mutations and gene duplications.
• replication slippage: short indels
• unequal crossing over: longer indels
Recombination
homologous recombination in meiosis
• reciprocal recombination
• gene conversion (in fungi)
• non-homologous recombination (unequal crossing over)
Chromosome rearrangements
polyploidization
• duplications/deletions
• inversions -pericentric (including the centromere) & paracentric
• fissions/fusions (are a special case of translocastions involving one
minichromosome
• (reciprocal) translocations
All these are important because of position effects. Prominent causes of chromosome
rearrangements are unequal cross-over and transposable element activity (see below). The
rate of any given class of rearrangements is high, 10–3 – 10–4 per gamete per generation.
TRANSPOSITION
Three main kinds of transposition are non-replicative transposition, replicative
transposition, and retroposition. In all three, a duplication (direct repeat) in donor DNA is
generated that is a few base pairs long.
Classes of transposable elements

• Insertion sequences (Selfish DNA): (ISs) are the simplest transposable elements
and are abundant in bacteria, bacteriophages, plasmids, maize (the mobile elements
characterized by B. McClintock). They carry only the transposase function, e.g., IS1 :
insA and insB encode for transposase, flanked by inverted repeats.
• Transposons (Jumping genes): similar to IS, but they carry additional genes which
frequently confer: antibiotic resistance, heavy metal resistance, heat resistance
Examples, cat is chloramphenicol resistance, bla is streptomycin resistance). Some
transposons, such as Tn 9 are compound transposons consisting of more than one IS
sequence (Here, the entire element can transpose or only the IS sequences).
Transposons are very widespread, e.g., Drosophila contains 50 – 100 kinds. The
bacteriophage Mu is a transposon that also contains genes for phage packaging.
• The prototype Drosophila transposons are called copia, because it is present in copious
quantity. Similar transposable elements in yeast are called Ty for ‘Transposon yeast’,
other type petite also occur. They are named as AC-Ds (Activator-Dissociator) elements
in maize.
• The evolutionary relevance of transposons is underscored by the phenomenon of
hybrid dysgenesis associated with P-elements in Drosophila. P-elements in D.
melanogaster are <40 yrs old, and have probably been transferred via horizontal
transfer from another species. In hybrid dysgenesis, P elements become activated
only in the germline, and only in particular types of crosses. They generate many
mutations that cause failure of the germline to develop. In somatic cells, a repressor
is produced by alternative splicing that eliminates the mobility of P-elements. P-
elements may provide mechanisms for reproductive isolation in fruit flies.
Retroelements
All elements that carry reverse transcriptase, whether transposable or not. They fall into
several categories.
• Retroviruses
Their minimal gene content consists of the gag gene encoding the viral capsid, the
pol gene encoding replication functions including reverse transcriptase, and the env
gene encoding the envelope.
• Retrotransposons
They do not have an env gene, thus they cannot undergo proper packaging. Examples
are copia, gypsy, and Ty1
• Retroposons
Like retrotransposons, but they lack LTRs. Examples include LINEs (long interspersed
nucleotide elements) in mammals.
Genetics 217
• Retrons
They have no LTRs, and encode only the reverse transcription function. They occur
in bacteria and in the mitochondrial genome of plants, do not excise, and thus form
part of the genome.
• (Processed) retrosequences
Are genomic DNA sequences that are similar to other, intron-carrying genes, but are
characterized by lack of introns, boundaries corresponding to transcribed regions of a
gene, stretches of poly-A at 3'-end , short direct repeats at both ends, indicating past
transpotsition and no linkage with the original gene. The process of generating
processed retrosequences involves reverse transcriptase.
• They are often nonfunctional, because reverse transcriptase has a high error rate, no
regulatory signals are transposed & their 5' end is truncatd. Such non-functional
retrosequences are called retropseudogenes. Examples include SINE (short
interspersed nucleotide elements), LINE, and Alu elements (Alu is a retrosequence
derived from the 7SL RNA gene which is a part of the signal recognition particle.
• Some of these elements have acquired additional sequences, e.g., LINE elements
may have a reverse transcriptase. Functional retrosequences also exist. They are
called retrogenes. Examples are human phosphoglycerate kinase and muscle-specific
calmodulin gene in chicken.
Evolutionary effects of transposable elements

They ccnfer various resistances, cause an increase in host genome size, cause alteration of
host gene expression, either by inserting into control regions, or into coding regions. Example:
The humen theta1 globin gene has a truncated Alu sequence as part of its promoter. Elevate
the mutation rate of host genes, cause chromosome rearrangements: deletions/duplications,
inversions, and translocations. These are sometimes mediated by transposition itself (two
transposable elements with intervening DNA transposing as a unit) & unequal cross-over
between repeated copies of transposable elements, which may duplicate genes in the region.
Unequal cross-over may cause changes in the domain structure of genes via unequal cross-
over. For example, a mutation of the low-density-lipoprotein gene in humans causing high
cholesterol levels is thought to have originated by unequal crossing-over involving Alu sequences.
DNA: The Genetic Material —The physical carrier of inheritance

• Friedrich Meischer in 1869 isolated DNA from fish sperm and the pus of open
wounds. Since it came from nuclei, Meischer named this new chemical, nuclein.
Subsequently the name was changed to nucleic acid and lastly to deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA). Robert Feulgen, in 1914, discovered that fuchsin dye stained DNA. DNA
was then found in the nucleus of all eukaryotic cells.
• During the 1920s, biochemist P.A. Levene analyzed the components of the DNA
molecule. He found it contained four nitrogenous bases: cytosine, thymine, adenine,
and guanine; deoxyribose sugar; and a phosphate group. He concluded that the basic
unit (nucleotide) was composed of a base attached to a sugar and that the phosphate
also attached to the sugar. He (unfortunately) also erroneously concluded that the
proportions of bases were equal and that there was a tetranucleotide that was the
repeating structure of the molecule. The nucleotide, however, remains as the
fundamental unit (monomer) of the nucleic acid polymer. There are four nucleotides:
those with cytosine (C), those with guanine (G), those with adenine (A), and those
with thymine (T).
• Molecular structure of three nirogenous bases. In this diagram, there are three
phosphates instead of the single phosphate found in the normal nucleotide.
DNA as Genetic Material

• During the early 1900s, the study of genetics began in earnest: the link between
Mendel’s work and that of cell biologists resulted in the chromosomal theory of
inheritance; Garrod proposed the link between genes and “inborn errors of
metabolism”; and the question was formed: what is a gene? The answer came from
the study of a deadly infectious disease: pneumonia.
• During the 1920s Frederick Griffith studied the difference between a disease-causing
strain of the pneumonia causing bacteria (Streptococcus peumoniae) and a strain that
did not cause pneumonia. The pneumonia-causing strain (the S strain) was surrounded
by a capsule. The other strain (the R strain) did not have a capsule and also did not
cause pneumonia. Frederick Griffith (1928) was able to induce a nonpathogenic strain
of the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae to become pathogenic. Griffith referred
to a transforming factor that caused the non-pathogenic bacteria to become pathogenic.
Griffith injected the different strains of bacteria into mice. The S strain killed the
mice; the R strain did not. He further noted that if heat killed S strain was injected
into a mouse, it did not cause pneumonia. When he combined heat-killed S with Live
R and injected the mixture into a mouse (remember neither alone will kill the mouse)
Genetics 219
that the mouse developed pneumonia and died. Bacteria recovered from the mouse
had a capsule and killed other mice when injected into them.
Hypotheses
1. The dead S strain had been reanimated/resurrected.
2. The Live R had been transformed into Live S by some “transforming factor”.
Further experiments led Griffith to conclude that number 2 was correct.
• In 1944, Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty revisited Griffith’s
experiment and concluded the transforming factor was DNA. Their evidence was
strong but not totally conclusive. The then-current favorite for the hereditary material
was protein; DNA was not considered by many scientists to be a strong candidate.
• The breakthrough in the quest to determine the hereditary material came from the
work of Max Delbruck and Salvador Luria in the 1940s. Bacteriophage are a type
of virus that attacks bacteria, the viruses that Delbruck and Luria worked with were
those attacking Escherichia coli, a bacterium found in human intestines.
Bacteriophages consist of protein coats covering DNA. Bacteriophages infect a cell by
injecting DNA into the host cell. This viral DNA then “disappears” while taking over
the bacterial machinery and beginning to make new virus instead of new bacteria.
After 25 minutes the host cell bursts, releasing hundreds of new bacteriophage. Phages
have DNA and protein, making them ideal to resolve the nature of the hereditary
material.
• In 1952, Alfred D. Hershey and Martha Chase conducted a series of experiments
to determine whether protein or DNA was the hereditary material. By labeling the
DNA and protein with different (and mutually exclusive) radioisotopes, they would be
able to determine which chemical (DNA or protein) was getting into the bacteria.
Such material must be the hereditary material (Griffith’s transforming agent). Since
DNA contains Phosphorous (P) but no Sulfur (S), they tagged the DNA with radioactive
Phosphorous-32. Conversely, protein lacks P but does have S, thus it could be tagged
with radioactive Sulfur-35. Hershey and Chase found that the radioactive S remained
outside the cell while the radioactive P was found inside the cell, indicating that DNA
was the physical carrier of heredity.
Diagrams illlustrating the Hershey and Chase experiment that supported DNA as
the hereditary material while it also showed protein was not the hereditary material.
GENETIC DISORDERS
Human Allelic Disorders (Recessive)
• The first Mendelian trait in humans was described in 1905 (brachydactly) by Dr.
Farabee (no relation to your author). Now more than 3500 human genetic traits are
known.
• Albinism, the lack of pigmentation in skin, hair, and eyes, is also a Mendelian
human trait. Homozygous recessive (aa) individuals make no pigments, and so have
face, hair, and eyes that are white to yellow. For heterozygous parents with normal
pigmentation (Aa), two different types of gametes may be produced: A or a. From
such a cross 1/4 of the children could be albinos. The brown pigment melanin cannot
be made by albinos. Several mutations may cause albinism: 1) the lack of one or
another enzyme along the melanin-producing pathway; or 2) the inability of the enzyme
to enter the pigment cells and convert the amino acid tyrosine into melanin.
• Phenylketonuria (PKU) is recessively inherited disorder whose sufferers lack the
ability to synthesize an enzyme to convert the amino acid phenylalanine into tyrosine.
Individuals homozygous recessive for this allele have a buildup of phenylalanine and
abnormal breakdown products in the urine and blood. The breakdown products can
be harmful to developing nervous systems and lead to mental retardation. 1 in 15,000
infants suffers from this problem. PKU homozygotes are now routinely tested for in
most states. If you look closely at a product containing Nutra-sweet artificial
sweetener, you will see a warning to PKU sufferers since phenylalanine is one of the
amino acids in the sweetener. PKU sufferers are placed on a diet low in phenylalanine,
enough for metabolic needs but not enough to cause the buildup of harmful
intermediates.
• Tay-Sachs Disease is an autosomal recessive resulting in degeneration of the nervous
system. Symptoms manifest after birth. Children homozygous recessive for this allele
rarely survive past five years of age. Sufferers lack the ability to make the enzyme N-
acetyl-hexosaminidase, which breaks down the GM2 ganglioside lipid. This lipid
accumulates in lysosomes in brain cells, eventually killing the brain cells. Although
Genetics 221
rare in the general population (1 in 300,000 births), it was (until recently) higher (1 in
3600 births) among Jews of eastern central European descent. One in 28 American
Jews is thought to be a carrier, since 90% of the American Jewish population emigrated
from those areas in Europe. Most Tay-Sachs babies born in the US are born to non-
Jewish parents, who did not undergo testing programs that most US Jewish
prospective parents had.
• Sickle-cell anemia is an autosomal recessive we have discussed in other sections.
Nine-percent of US blacks are heterozygous, while 0.2% are homozygous recessive.
The recessive allele causes a single amino acid substitution in the beta chains of
hemoglobin. When oxygen concentration is low, sickling of cells occurs. Heterozygotes
make enough “good beta-chain hemoglobin” that they do not suffer as long as oxygen
concentrations remain high, such as at sea-level.
• Cystic fibrosis is common in whites of European descent (1 in 2500 affected), one
out of 25 whites is a carrier (4%), gene codes for chloride channel (defective gene due
to addition or delertion of extra TTT sequence results in mucous buildup in lungs)
• Patients with Alcaptonuria excreted copious amount of homogenitisic acid, which
has startling effect of coloring their urine black.
Human Allelic Disorders (Dominant)
• Autosomal dominants are rare, although they are (by definition) more commonly
expressed.
• Achondroplastic dwarfism occurs, even though sufferers have reduced fertility.
• Huntington’s disease (also referred to as Woody Guthrie’s disease, after the folk
singer who died in the 1960s) is an autosomal dominant resulting in progressive
destruction of brain cells. If a parent has the disease, 50% of the children will have it
(unless that parent was homozygous dominant, in which case all children would have
the disease). The disease usually does not manifest until after age 30, although some
instances of early onset phenomenon are reported among individuals in their twenties.
-Incurable; brain deterioration leads to death. Gene is present on chromosome no 4
and there is addition of extra CAG sequences (normally 25 repeats are present)
at end of huntigtin gene.
• Neurofibromatosis: It is one of the most common autosomal dominant genetic
diseases in human. It is of two types namely NF1 and NF2. Individuals with this
disease develop sm all-pigm e n ted skin lesions calledcafé-au-lait spots and small soft
fleshy growth called neurofibromata, which are benign tumors. These appear during
adolescence and tend to increase with the age. The defective gene is NF1 located on
chromosome 17 abd codes a protein neurofibromin which acts as a tumor suppressor
protein while NF2 gene is located on chromosome 22 and encodes a protein called
merlin which like NF1 gene product act as tumor suppressor gene.
• Polydactly is the presence of a sixth digit. In modern times the extra finger has
been cut off at birth and individuals do not know they carry this trait. One of the
wives of Henry VIII had an extra finger. In certain southern families the trait is also
more common. The extra digit is rarely functional and definitely causes problems
buying gloves, let alone fitting them on during a murder trial.
Sex-linked Traits
• Color blindness afflicts 8% of males and 0.04 % of human females. Color perception
depends on three genes, each producing chemicals sensitive to different parts of the
visible light spectrum. Red and green detecting genes are on the X-chromosome,
while the blue detection is on an autosome.
• Hemophilia is a group of diseases in which blood does not clot normally. Factors in
blood are involved in clotting. Hemophiliacs lacking the normal Factor VIII are said
to have Hemophilia A, the most common form. Normal Factor VIII can be supplied at
a high dollar and health risk cost, although the development of biotechnologically
engineered Factor VIII produced by bacteria lessens the health risk. England’s Queen
Victoria was a carrier for this disease. The allele was passed to two of her daughters
and one son. Since royal families in Europe commonly intermarried, the allele spread,
and may have contributed to the downfall of the Russian monarchy (Czar Nicholas’
son Alexei suffered from hemophilia A inherited from his mother who carried Victoria’s
genetic secret).
• Muscular dystrophy is a term encompassing a variety of muscle wasting diseases.
The most common type, Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD), affects cardiac
and skeletal muscle, as well as some mental functions. DMD is an X-linked recessive
occurring in 1 in 3500 newborns. Most sufferers die before their 20th birthday. In
1987, Louis Kunkel claimed to have isolated a protein, dystrophin, present in normal
individuals (about 0.002 % of their muscle protein) but absent in two individuals with
DMD. The lack of dystrophin is accompanied with a condition of muscle hardening
known as fibrosis, which restricts blood supply to the muscle which then die.
• Other diseases X-Linked disease include Lesch-Nyann syndrome (Mutated
HGPTR gene) and Fragile X syndrome (Due to fragile site on X chromosome at site
Xq27)
Sex limited traits: The genes of these traits are autosomal and found in both sexes but
express in one sex only e.g., milk glands in female, beard in man, deep male voice, antlers in
male deers, brilliant plumage in peacock, female or male musculature etc. The expression of
these genes is affected by sex hormones.
Sex influenced traits: In contrast to sex limited genes where the expression of a trait is
limited to one sex only, sex influenced genes are those autosomal genes which are influenced
by the sex of a bearer e.g., pattern of baldness, short index finger in male. These traits appear
more frequently in one sex than in the other. The baldness is affected by male hormone
(testosterone).
• Some diseases are multifactorial which means they are due to both genetic and
environmental components. Examples: heart disease, diabetes, cancer.
III. Technology for Genetic Testing

1. If two parents are carriers (heterozygous) for a disease then there is a 1/4 chance that
their child will be affected (homozygous recessive).
• Carriers can be identified by molecular genetic tests.
• Fetal testing can be performed by amniocentesis (14 to 16 weeks gestation) or
chorionic villus sampling (10 weeks gestation).
• karyotyping, biochemical, or molecular tests can be performed.
• Newborn screening: Phenylketonuria (PKU) test is routinely performed on
newborns (affects 1 out of 10,000 births). Affected individuals cannot breakdown
phenylalanine and buildup toxic levels of its byproduct phenylpyruvate.
PRACTICE TEST PAPER-I
1. Which of the following chromosomal alterations would you expect to have the most
drastic consequences?
(a) inversion (b) duplication
(c) translocation (d) deletion
2. The most common lethal genetic disease in the United States is

(a) sickle-cell an emia (b) cystic fibrosis
(c) Huntington’s disease (d) hemophilia.
3. There are various procedures that can be used to detect genetic disorders before
birth. Among the tests discussed in this chapter, ____ is the least invasive, while
____ carries the highest risk.
(a) chorionic villi sampling . . . amniocentesis
(b) ultrasound imaging . . . fetoscopy
(c) fetoscopy . . . chorionic villi sampling
(d) fetoscopy . . . amniocentesis
4. Tay-Sachs disease runs in Seema’s family. On a family pedigree, she saw a half-
darkened circle. This represented
(a) a male with Tay-Sachs (b) a female with Tay-Sachs
(c) a carrier male (d) a carrier female.
5. On a pedigree tracing the inheritance of PKU, a horizontal line joins a black square
and a half-black circle. What fraction of this couple’s children would you expect to
suffer from PKU?
(a) none (b) 1/4
(c) 1/2 (d) 3/4
6. Ram and Nidhi are apparently normal, but their daughter was born with alkaptonuria,
an inherited metabolic disorder. If alkaptonuria is like most human hereditary
disorders, the probability of their next child being born with alkaptonuria is
(a) 0 (b) 1/4
(c) 1/2 (d) 2/3
7. Several inherited disorders are much more common in close-knit religious

communities, such as the Amish(Jews), than in the general population. This is at
least partly due to the fact that
(a) people in such communities are more likely to marry relatives
(b) shared environmental conditions such as diet can increase mutation rate
(c) modern medical care is not widely available in such communities
(d) community members care for each other and disorders are possed on.
8. A heritable feature is a ______ and may have two or more variants called______ .
(a) trait/characteristics (b) character/traits
(c) character/factors (d) trait/factors
9. In a cross between two heterozygotes (Aa), the F2 generation will be

(a) in the ratio 1:3 heterozygous to homozygous
(b) all heterozygous
(c) in the ratio 1:1 homozygous to heterozygous
(d) in the ratio 1:3 homozygous to heterozygous
10. You set up an experiment in which you breed two populations of true-breeding pea
plants. The first true-breeding population has yellow round seeds and the second has
green wrinkled seeds. All of the F1 plants yield yellow round seeds. When you self
fertilize the F1 the F2 generation yields a mixture of yellow round, yellow wrinkled,
green round and green wrinkled seeds. What does this tell you about the alleles for
seed color and shape?
(a) the recessive alleles are always expressed
(b) the alleles are on different chromosomes
(c) the two alleles for each character segregate during gamete production
(d) both genes are on the same chromosome
11. You cross a true-breeding red-flowered snapdragon with a true-breeding white-flowered
one. All of the F1 are pink. What does this say about the parent traits?
(a) red and white are codominant
(b) red is dominant
(c) both red and white are recessive
(d) red and white show incomplete dominance
12. While on a field trip in the jungle you find a new species of mouse. You catch a pair
and take them back to the lab. In mice, black coat color, B, is dominant to brown b,
yet the female mouse gives rise to a large litter in which 9 of the offspring were
black, 3 were brown and 4 were white. You conclude that
(a) a new mutation has occurred in the mice
(b) this is an example of polygenic inheritance
(c) there must be an epistatic interaction influencing coat color
(d) the coat color alleles are codominant
13. A new breed of domestic cat, the Indian Curl Cat, has unusual curled-back ears.
When the owners of Shulamith, the foundation cat from which the breed arose, crossed
her with a normal straight-eared domestic cat in each of her litters roughly half of
the kittens had curled ears. When both parents are curl cats, all the kittens have
curled ears. What does this tell you about the curled-ear trait?
(a) curled ears and straight ears are codominant traits
(b) curled ears and straight ears are show incomplete dominance
(c) curled ears are dominant
(d) curled ears are recessive
Practice Test Paper–Genetics 225
14. John and Jesica are planning a family, but since each has a brother who has sickle
cell anemia, they are concerned that their children may develop sickle-cell disease.
Neither John, Jane nor their respective parents have the disease. They consult a
genetic counselor who tells them
(a) there is very little chance that any of their children will have sickle-cell disease
(b) that all of their children will have sickle-cell disease
(c) that one out of four of their children could be expected to have sickle cell-disease
(d) that its possible that none of their children will have the disease but blood tests
on them both will be required to make sure
15. Why is sickle cell disease so called?

(a) because it makes people sick
(b) its named after a special type of white blood cell
(c) pH changes in the blood cells make them collapse into a sickle shape
(d) because its caused by an infectious microorganism that has sickle shaped cells
16. In people with sickle cell disease the red blood cells breakdown, clump, and clog the
blood vessels. The broken cells accumulate in the spleen. Among other things this
leads to physical weakness, heart failure, pain, brain damage and spleen damage.
Affected individuals become paralyzed and can develop rheumatism, pneumonia and
other diseases and kidney failure. This is an example of
(a) the polygenic nature of sickle cell disease
(b) the pleiotropic effects of the sickle cell allele
(c) an epistatic interaction between the sickle cell allele and a proteolytic enzyme
gene
(d) infectious organisms acting on the sickle cell allele
17. Heart disease, diabetes, cancer, alcoholism and many mental illnesses can best be
described as:
(a) symptoms of a bad life-style
(b) infectious diseases caused by microorganisms
(c) multifactorial disorders with a possible polygenic component
(d) all symptoms of Huntingdon’s disease
18. The genetic disease cystic fibrosis is caused by a defective allele that
(a) produces a dysfunctional enzyme that fails to break down brain lipids.
(b) causes hemoglobin molecules to collapse.
(c) produces a defective chlorine-channel membrane transport protein.
(d) produces a neurotoxin
19. Huntington’s disease is an example of a genetic disorder caused by
(a) a late-acting lethal dominant allele
(b) a non-lethal dominant allele
(c) a late acting recessive allele
(d) homozygous recessive alleles
20. Which of the following is a form of sexual reproduction?

(a) budding (b) fission
(c) hermaphroditism (d) regeneration
21. The most common phenotype in a natural population is referred to as the

(a) genotype (b) wild type
(c) autosome (d) mutant phenotype
22. Human males are much more likely to be have hemophilia (a failure of blood to clot
properly) than human females. This is the case because
(a) hemophilia is a contagious disease to which males are more susceptible
(b) the gene for hemophilia is carried on the Y chromosome
(c) hemophilia is carried on the autosomes
(d) the gene for hemophilia is sex-linked
23. In a particular species of mammal black hair (B) is dominant to green hair (b) and red
eyes (R) are dominant to white eyes (r). If a BbRr individual is mated with a bbrr
individual the expected phenotypic ratio of the offspring is 1 black-red : 1 black-white:
1 green-red : 1 green-white. However, when you mate these individuals you find that
the phenotypic ratio of the offspring is 6 black-red : 1 black-white : 1 green-red : 6
green-white. What could account for this difference?
(a) The genes for hair color and the genes for eye color are carried on different
chromosomes
(b) The expected results did not take genetic recombination into account
(c) The genes for hair color and eye color are linked
(d) The genes for hair color and eye color show dependent assortment
24. In the problem no. 23 the observed F 2 generation distribution of offspring was: black-
red 1,070; black-white 177; green-red 180; green-white1072. Based on this data, what
is the recombination frequency ?
(a) 30 percent (b) 7 percent
(c) 17 percent (d) 14 percent
25. How many map units is a recombination frequency of 5 percent equal to?
(a) 2.5 centimorgans (b) 10 centimorgans
(c) 5 centisturtevants (d) 5 centimorgans
26. A linkage map
(a) orders genes on a chromosome based on recombination frequencies
(b) can only be constructed for sex chromosomes
(c) orders genes on a chromosome based on their location with respect to a stained
band
(d) shows the actual ordering and spacing of genes on a chromosome
27. A male bee is
(a) X Y (b) diploid
(c) hapliod (d) Z W
28. What is the probability that a male will inherit an X-linked recessive gene from his
father?
(a) 0 (b) 25 percent
(c) 50 percent (d) 75 percent
29. Duchenne muscular dystrophy is caused by a sex-linked recessive allele. Its victims
are almost invariably boys, who usually die before the age of 20. Why is this disorder
almost never seen in girls?
(a) Sex-linked traits are never seen in girls
(b) The allele is carried on the Y chromosome
(c) Nondisjunction occurs in males but not in females
(d) In order to express an X-linked recessive, a female must have two copies of the
gene
30. Which of the following human genetic disorders is sex linked?
(a) hemophilia (b) PKU
(c) cystic fibrosis (d) achondroplasia
31. A genetic defect in humans results in the absence of sweat glands in the skin. Some
men have this defect all over their bodies, but in women it is usually expressed in a
peculiar way. A woman with this defect typically has small patches of skin with sweat
glands and other patches where sweat glands are lacking. This pattern suggests the
phenotypic effect of
(a) a mutation
(b) chromosome inactivation
(c) RNA splicing
(d) an operon
32. Which of the following is correct with regard to aneuploidy?
(a) inversion
(b) 2n + 1
(c) All aneuploid individuals die before birth
(d) 4n
33. If a fragment of a chromosome breaks off and then reattaches to the original
chromosome but in the reverse direction, the resulting chromosomal abnormality is
called
(a) a deletion (b) an inversion
(c) a translocation (d) a nondisjunction
34. Why are individuals with an extra chromosome 21, which causes Down syndrome,
more numerous than individuals with an extra chromosome 3 or chromosome 16?
(a) There are probably more genes on chromosome 21 than on the others
(b) Chromosome 21 is a sex chromosome and 3 and 16 are not
(c) Down syndrome is not more common, just more serious
(d) Extra copies of the other chromosomes are probably fatal
35. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, while our closest relatives, chimpanzees,
have 24. Chromosome studies indicate that at some point early in human evolution,
two chromosomes simultaneously broke into a large portion and a small portion. The
large parts combined to form a large chromosome, and the small parts combined to
form a much smaller chromosome (which was subsequently lost). This important
chromosomal change could best be described as
(a) nondisjunction followed by deletion
(b) translocation followed by deletion
(c) duplication followed by deletion
(d) translocation followed by inversion
36. Each cell in an individual with Down syndrome contains ____ chromosomes.
(a) 47 (b) 22
(c) 24 (d) 45
37. Disorders involving unusual numbers of sex chromosomes show that maleness is
caused by the
(a) presence of an X chromosome
(b) presence of a Y chromosome
(c) absence of an X chromosome
(d) absence of a Y chromosome
38. A particular allele can have different effects if it was inherited from a male rather
than a female. This phenomenon is known as
(a) extranuclear inheritance
(b) genome imprinting
(c) sex-linkage
(d) Prader-Willi syndrome
39. Human mitochondria

(a) are inherited as an X-linked trait
(b) are all inherited from the father
(c) have linear DNA
(d) are all inherited from the mother
40. Both chloroplasts and mitochondria

(a) are found within the nucleus
(b) have linear DNA
(c) carry extranuclear genes
(d) display a Mendelian pattern of inheritance
41. Who demonstrated that genes are located on chromosomes?

(a) Morgan (b) Meselson and Stahl
(c) Chargaff (d) Franklin
42. In Griffith’s experiments, a harmless variant of S. pneumoniae became pathogenic

when mixed with a heat-killed pathogenic variant as a result of
(a) conjugation (b) transduction
(c) mutation (d) transformation
43. In an important experiment, bacteriophages were allowed to infect bacteria. In the

first trial, the phages used contained radioactive DNA, and radioactivity was detected
in the bacteria. Next, other phages containing radioactive protein were allowed to
infect bacteria, and no radioactivity was detected in the bacteria. When the
experimenters compared the results of these two trials, they concluded that
(a) genes are made of DNA
(b) bacteriophages can infect bacteria
(c) DNA is made of nucleotides
(d) genes carry information for making proteins
44. A geneticist raised a crop of T2 bacteriophages in a medium containing radioactive

phosphorus, so that the DNA of the bacteriophages was labeled with radioactivity.
The labeled phages were then allowed to infect nonradioactive bacteria. In a few
hours, these bacteria burst open, releasing many bacteriophages. Some of these phages
contained labeled
(a) DNA
(b) RNA
(c) protein
(d) DNA and protein only
45. Scientists have discovered how to put together a bacteriophage with the protein coat
of phage T2 and the DNA of phage T4. If this composite phage were allowed to infect
a bacterium, the phages produced in the host cell would have
(a) the protein of T2 and the DNA of T4
(b) the protein of T4 and the DNA of T2
(c) the protein and DNA of T2
(d) the protein and DNA of T4
46. Chargaff found that for DNA

(a) the ratio of A to C is close to 1:1 and the ratio of G to T is close to 1:1
(b) the ratio of A to T is close to 1:1 and the ratio of G to C is close to 1:1
(c) the ratio of A to G is close to 1:1 and the ratio of T to C is close to 1:1
(d) A + T = G + C
47. The X-ray diffraction studies conducted by ______ were key to the discovery of the
structure of DNA.
(a) McClintock (b) Franklin
(c) Meselson and Stahl (d) Chargaff
48. Which of the following is not true of DNA?

(a) A pairs with T and G pairs with C
(b) Nitrogen bases are 0.34 nm apart on a DNA strand
(c) The double helix is 2.0 nm wide
(d) The double helix is 3.4 nm wide
49. Which of the following is correct?

(a) A forms 2 hydrogen bonds with G; T forms 3 hydrogen bonds with C
(b) A forms 3 hydrogen bonds with T; G forms 2 hydrogen bonds with C
(c) A forms 2 covalent bonds with T; G forms 3 covalent bonds with C
(d) A forms 2 hydrogen bonds with T; G forms 3 hydrogen bonds with C
50. Which of the following is not needed for DNA replication?

(a) ribosomes (b) DNA
(c) nucleotides (d) enzymes
51. If reciprocal cross to not yield equal result it suggest that characters are-
(a) X-linked (b) Autosomal
(c) Extra-chromosomal (d) None
52. The difference which distinguish prokaryotic cell from eukaryotic is-
(a) ER
(b) Mesosome
(c) Nuclear Membrane
(d) Plasma membrane
53. During crossing over, exchange of genetic material takes place between
(a) Two chromatids
(b) Two chromosomes
(c) the non-sister chromatids of the paired chromosomes
(d) Two sister chromatids of each homologue
54. The segregation of Mendelian factors takes place during-

(a) Meiosis I (b) Meiosis II
(c) Mitosis (d) Inter phase
55. During Mitosis suddenly the chromosomes starts moving toward the opposite poles
during-
(a) Prophase (b) Metaphase
(c) Anaphase (d) Telophase
56. Extra nuclear genetic material is found in-

(a) Ribosome (b) ER
(c) Chloroplast (d) Centriole
57. Dosage Compensation in case of human is achieved by-

(a) Hyper activation of X Chromosome
(b) Hyper activation of Y chromosome
(c) Heterochromatization of X chromosome
(d) Heterochromatization of Y chromosome
58. Extra nuclear inheritance is due to which organelle-

(a) Ribosome (b) Centriole
(c) Plastid (d) Nucleus
59. The introduced cells in a tissue culture are made to divide and form a mass of
undifferentiated tissue cells called callus by
(a) adjusting the ratio of auxin-cytokinin
(b) transferring the plantlets to pots in natural environment
(c) keeping the inoculated vessels at a desired constant temperature in an incubator
(d) solidifying the enriched mineral medium with agar
60. The first step in the technique of protoplasmic fusion is the

(a) hybridization
(b) collection of somatic cells
(c) isolation of protoplasts
(d) selection and isolation of somatic cells
61. The acrosome of the sperm is formed from the

(a) mitochondria (b) centrosome
(c) lysomome (d) golgi bodies
62. A technician wanted to make antibody specific for mouse IgM. Accordingly he injected
a rabit with purified mouse IgM and obtained an an antiserum that reacted strongly
with mouse IgG. Unfortunately, however antiserum was also found to react with
other mouse Ig classes. Such result would be obtained if antiserum contained antibodies
directed against-
(a) The variable region of heavy chain
(b) The constant region of heavy chain
(c) The Fc portion of Ig molecule
(d) The light chain of Ig molecule
63. The average length of gene is –

(a) 500 bp (b) 1000bp
(c) 2000bp (d) 5000bp
64. Aleurone layer is outermost layer of endosperm in cereals. It helps in-

(a) Protection of endosperm
(b) Growth of endosperm
(c) Mobilization of reserve food in endosperm
(d) Accumulation of reserve food in endosperm
65. Genetically engineered male sterile crops plants have been produced by inserting-
(a) Viral coat protein gene (b) Chitinase gene
(c) Barnase gene (d) Opaque Z-gene
66. How many mitotic division are required to produce 12 pollen grains in cyperaceae
family-
(a) 2 (b) 6
(c) 3 (d) 12
67. Which plant is used as model system to study developmental genetics of zygotic
embryogenesis-
(a) Dacus carota
(b) Arabidposis thaliana
(c) Zea mays
(d) Nicotiana tobacum
68. Your friend has just returned from the exam hall looking very nervous. He was
asked to choose a method for separating 3 amino acids differing in their polar side
chains. This method he choose was paper electrophoresis-
(a) You tell him he choose the right technique since this is a method of choice for
separating amino acids with different polarities
(b) You tell him he chooses wrong technique relies on net charge
(c) You tell him he is wrong because this technique also depends on how strongly
the amino acids bind to paper
(d) You tell him he is safe as long as he chooses a separation technique used for
amino acids
69. Protein folding is mainly driven by all of the following except-

(a) Hydrophobic interactions (b) Hydrogen bonds
(c) Covalent bonds (d) Electrostatic attractions
70. How many Barr bodies would be present in the WBC of an individual with 49 XXXYY
paratype-
(a) 1 (b) 3
(c) 2 (d) 5
71. An open reading frame is one that has-

(a) No start and stop codon (b) A start & stop codon
(c) No start but stop codon (d) A start but no stop codon
72. When the human genome draft sequence was released, which was least expected-
(a) The large amount of repetitive DNA
(b) The size of total genome
(c) The size of individual chromosomes
(d) The small number of protein coding genes
73. In Sanger’s Method of DNA sequencing, the growing DNA chains are terminated
because-
(a) DNA polymerase is not very processive
(b) A radioactive nucleotide is incorporated
(c) The substrates become limitation
(d) A phosphodiester bond can not be made
74. A recessive mutation is that-

(a) Not expressed
(b) Expressed only when heterozygous
(c) Expressed only when homozygous or hemizygous
(d) Eliminated by natural selection
75. Catalytic antibodies function as enzymes on the principle of-

(a) Enzymatic conversion of antibodies
(b) Stabilizing transition state analogue of substrates
(c) Antigen antibody affinity
(d) Monoclonal antibodies with chemical
76. In a Sephadex gel filteration column, a mixture of albumin, lysozyme and thymidine
was loaded. In what sequence these will be eluted from the column-
(a) Albumin > Lysozyme > Thymidine
(b) Lysozyme > thymidine > Albumin
(c) Thymidine > albumin > Lysozyme
(d) Thymidine > Lysozyme > Albumin
77. Animal viruses cannot be seen under phase contrast microscope because-
(a) They do not have a defined morphology
(b) They are too small to be seen under microscope
(c) They do not have any envelop that make them transparent under microscope
(d) Since they have no color, they are not visible
78. You have homogenized plant tissue and would like to separate chloroplast from nuclei.
Which of the following methods would be most suitable-
(a) PAGE
(b) Equilibrium density gradient centrifugation on CsCl gradients.
(c) Differential centrifugation using sucrose gradients.
(d) Gel filtration.
79. Which is not antibacterial antibiotic-

(a) Tetracycline (b) Streptomycin
(c) Nystanin (d) Nalidixic acid
80. Degradation of RNA by RNaseA is an example of-

(a) covalent catalysis
(b) Acid- base catalysis
(c) Electrostatic catalysis
(d) Nucleic acid catalysis
81. Dehydrogenase enzymes of hexose mono phosphate shunt pathway are-

(a) NAD specific (b) NADP specific
(c) FAD specific (d) TPP specific
82. Which of the following biochemical Rx is most commonly utilized by living cells to
propagate intracellular signals?
(a) Acylation (b) Phosphorylation
(c) Methylation (d) Decarboxylation
83. Suppression mutation results in restoration of wild type phenotype. The suppression
of mutant phenotype is usually brought about-
(a) By misreading of mutant codon and incorporation of a correct amino acid
(b) By insertion of anather copy of gene
(c) By revertion of mutation to wild type
(d) Any deletion of mutant gene
84 A mouse in which one particular gene has been replaced by its inactivated form
generated in vitro is called-
(a) Transgenic mouse (b) Nude mouse
(c) Knock out mouse (d) Mutant mouse
85. Which is not a signal transducting molecule-

(a) G protein coupled receptor (b) MAP kinase
(c) Protein kinase C (d) Insulin
86. Fibronectin is a protein found in –

(a) RER (b) Extracellular matrix
(c) SER (d) Nuclear membrane
87. After translation proteins are modified in-

(a) Golgi apparatus (b) Lysosome
(c) Centrosome (d) Ribosome
88. In AIDS the primary problem is-

(a) B cells are not functional
(b) Natural killer cells kill autulogous cells
(c) Macrophages are not functional
(d) T helper are not functional
89. Which one of the following group of proteins will be most conserved among different
organisms-
(a) Metabolism (b) Transcription
(c) Translation (d) Cell signaling
90. The following are samples of repetitive elements that are found in a typical eukaryotic
genome-
(a) r-RNA (b) t-RNA
(c) SINES and LINES (d) Microsatellite
The ascending order in terms of number of repeats

(a) ABCD (b) DCBA
(c) CBAD (d) ADBC
91. Which sequence are best to evaluate the phylogeny of closely related mammals-
(a) Coding sequences
(b) Ribosomal proteins
(c) SINES and LINES
(d) Centromeric and telomeric sequences
92. Leber hereditary optic neuropathy is an inherited condition what causes a loss of
central vision resulting from a mutation in mitochondrial DNA. What is the probability
of the children of a man with mutations in two genes and a woman with normal
mitochondrial DNA inheriting this disorder as carriers?
(a) 0 % (b) 100 %
(c) 50 % (d) 66.67 %
93. A contig from the genome sequence of Plasmodium falciparum, with a single start
codon when translated, was found to have high similarity with the enzyme
dihydrofolate reductase and thymidylate synthase. Which of following statement is
correct-
(a) It contains domains present in both proteins, but neither in two enzymes
(b) It is single bi-functional protein
(c) Both the protein share a common domain
(d) The protein is unrelated to both the enzymes. There is a problem with the
similarity search program used for the study
94. The consensus sequence of 5' and 3' splice junctions in eukaryotic m-RNA contains-
(a) GU-GA (b) GU-AG
(c) AG-GU (d) CG-AG
95. Small cytoplasmic RNA (Sc-RNA) in eukaryotic cell-

(a) Splice primary transcript
(b) Direct primary transcript
(c) Direct protein Traffic
(d) Transport amino acids
96. In an experiment involving polymerase chain reaction (PCR) you have started with
100 ng of primers and 1 ng of genomic DNA. After a number of cycles, the same
amount of amplified product was observed. Indicate which of the following is the
reason for observation-
(a) Enzymes gets inactivated
(b) Limitations of primers
(c) Degradation of template
(d) Substrate inhibition of enzyme
97. A genetic cross between two F1 -hybrid pea plants for spherical seeds will yield what
percent spherical-seeded plants in the F2 generation? (spherical is dominant over
dented)
(a) 100% (b) 75%
(c) 50% (d) 25%
98. A genetic cross between two F 1 -hybrid pea plants having yellow seeds will yield what
percent green-seeded plants in the F2 generation? Yellow seeds are dominant to
green.
(a) 100% (b) 25%
(c) 50% (d) 75%
99. When true-breeding tall stem pea plants are crossed with true-breeding short stem
pea plants, all of the _________ plants, and 3/4 of the __________ plants had tall
stems. Therefore, tall stems are dominant.
(a) F1 , F2 (b) G1 , G2
(c) parental, F2 (d) F2 , parental
100. To identify the genotype of yellow-seeded pea plants as either homozygous dominant
(YY) or heterozygous (Yy), you could do a test cross with plants of genotype _______.
(a) y (b) Y
(c) yy (d) YY
1. mRNA can be isolated by passing cell lysate through a column of oligo (dT)-Cellulose.
The method is example of-
(a) Partition chromatography
(b) Ion-exchange chromatography
(c) Affinity chromatography
(d) Adsorption chromatography
2. Which of the following is most commonly involved in globular shape of protein in
aqueous solutions-
(a) Hydrogen bonds (b) Disulphide bonds
(c) Salt bridges (d) Hydrophobic interactions
3. How many different gametes can be formed by an organism with genotype

AaBbCCddEe ?
(a) 8 (b) 16
(c) 32 (d) 64
4. In many situations it has been found that the nucleotide sequences of two highly
homologous proteins are different. It may be due to use of-
(a) different amino acids
(b) non-overlapping genes
(c) different strands of DNA for encoding gene
(d) synonymous codons due to degeneracy
5. DNA binding protein that prevents transcription are-

(c) Repressors (d) Silencers
6. The pollen tube discharges its content in-

(a) The egg (b) One of synergid
(c) The central cell (d) Antipodal Cell
7. The spindle fibres in a mitotic cell are composed of-

(a) Chromatin (b) Actin
(c) Nucleoprotein (d) Tubulin
8. In heterozygous cell the gene of recessive allele

(a) Is always turned off
(b) May be expressed but product is quickly degraded
(c) May be expressed without measurable effect
(d) Is deleted
9. The first step in the initiation of protein synthesis requires
(a) The 30 S ribosomal subunit (b) ATP
(c) The ribosomal A site (d) Translational factor Tu
10. House keeping genes are-

(a) inducible genes
(b) expressed only in tumour cells
(c) expressed in all cells
(d) do not express at all
11. Reduction of chromosome number occurs in-

(a) Mitotic anaphase
(b) Anaphase –I of meiosis
(c) Anaphase-II of meiosis
(d) Mitotic as well as meiotic anaphases
12. When a plant of chromosomal type aa pollinates a plant of type AA, what chromosome
constitution of embryo and endosperm is expected in the resulting seeds-
(a) Diploid zygote of type Aa and Triploid endosperm of type AAa
(b) Diploid zygote of type aa and Triploid endosperm of type Aaa
(c) Diploid zygote of type AA and Triploid endosperm of type AAa
(d) Diploid zygote of type Aa and Triploid endosperm of type aaa
13. A culture of tetracycline sensitive bacteria was infected by a phage that is delivered
from the lysis of a tetracycline resistant bacterial strain. This results in development
of tetracycline resistant in the original culture. What phenomenon has occurred-
(a) Conjugation (b) Recombination
(c) Transformation (d) Transduction
14. If the molecular mass of amino acid is 150 dalton, the molecular weight of its tripeptide
will be-
(a) 450 (b) 486
(c) 504 (d) 414
15. If the number of heterozygous pairs involved in a particular cross is three, the
phenotype ratio obtained in their F2 generation will be-
(a) 9:3:3:1 (b) 27:9:9:9:6:6:3:3:1
(c) 27:9:9:9:3:3:3:1 (d) 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1
16. Rheumatoid arthritis is a/an-

(a) immunodeficiency disease
(b) sexually transmitted disease
(c) insect born disease
(d) autoimmune disease
17. A linkage group corresponds to a-
(a) chromosome
(b) set of independently assorting genes
(c) set of independently segregating alleles
(d) set of non complementing alleles
18. Which of the following restriction enzymes produces blunt end DNA fragments-
(a) EcoR I (b) EcoR II
(c) EcoR V (d) Bam H1
19. Who discovered that DNA is the genetic material-

(a) Arthur Kornberg (b) James Watson
(c) Ostawald avery (d) Severo Ochoa
20. Which of the common bases (A,C,G,T) if DNA has no oxygen in its structure-
(a) Thymine (b) Adenine
(c) Cytosine (d) Guanine
21. What is main damaging effect of UV radiations on DNA-

(a) Depurination
(b) Formation of thymine dimmers
(c) Single strand break
(d) Double strand break
22. In a cross between a pure tall pea plant with green pods and pure dwarf pea plant
with yellow pods, how many plants in F2 generation will be dwarf out of 16 plants-
(a) 1 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 9
23. If parents have AB and O blood group, their offspring could be of-
(a) O grp only (b) A & B grp
(c) A, B, O grp (d) A, B, O and AB
24. Similar set of regulatory genes control development in Arabidopsis, Drosophila and
mice. These genes are called-
(a) Homologous genes (b) Heterologous
(c) Homeotic (d) Orthologous
25. TATA box and Pribnow box are components of-

26. Lampbrush chromosomes occur through-
(a) diplotene of meiosis (b) Prophase of mitosis
(c) Interphase (d) Metaphase of meiosis
27. Which of the following is not associated with cell cycle-

(a) Cyclins (b) Myosins
(c) CDK (d) DNA polymerases
28. Segregation of alleles takes place during the following stage of meiotic division-
(a) Metaphase I (b) Anaphase I
(c) Diplotene (d) Anaphase II
29. A single crossing over between two homologous chromosomes involves-

(a) Two chromatids
(b) Three chromatids
(c) Four chromatids
(d) The centromere of the chromosomes
30. Haploids are considered better genetic stock because they-

(a) Are healthier then diploids
(b) Require only half of the nutrients
(c) Easy to culture
(d) Form homozygous individual on doubling
31. A yellow round seeded pea plant is crossed with green and wrinkled pea plant and the
F1 of this are back crossed to the homozygous recessive parents. The progeny will
appear-
(a) 9:3:3:1 (b) 12:3:3:1
(c) 3:3:3:1 (d) 1:1:1:1
32. Which of the following is the approximately size of human genome-

(a) 4 × 10 6 bp (b) 1 × 1010 bp
(c) 3 × 10 9 bp (d) 5 × 10 5 bp
33. Which of the following type of DNA is the most conserved amongst organisms-
(a) Mitochondrial DNA (b) Chloroplast DNA
(c) rDNA (d) DNA that codes for t-DNA
34. Which of the following is incorrect regarding chargaff’s rule-

(a) [A] = [T] (b) [G] =[C]
(c) [A] + [T] = [G] + [C] (d) [A ]+ [G] = [T] + [C]
35. If total concentration of A=T is 56 %. What will be concentration of cytosine in genome:
(a) 56 (b) 23
(c) 44 (d) 22
36. In the B form of DNA, the paired bases are planar , parallel to one another and they
are-
(a) Parallel to long axis of double helix
(b) Perpendicular to long axis of double helix
(c) Inclined to long axis
(d) Inverted in respect to long axis
37. Among the Following staggered cut is obtained by-

(a) Alu I (b) Rsa I
(c) Pst I (d) Pvu (II)
38. Which one is the essential feature of restriction sites cut by restriction endonucleases
II-
(a) Palindromic (b) Within recognisation site
(c) Always methylated (d) All the above
39. The genomic size of E. coli is 4.6 X 10 6 bp, if a 6 base pair cutter is utilized to obtain
restriction fragments, then what will be total number of fragments obtained-
(a) 1.12 × 10 3 (b) 7.66 × 10 5
(c) 25 × 10 4 (d) 3.83 × 10 3
40. Tm (Melting temperature) would be maximum for-

(a) Saricina lutea (b) E. Coli
(c) Drosophila (d) Human
41. Natural absorption of UV by DNA is due to nucleotide base pairs which increase on
denaturation. They absorb maximum amount of UV wavelength of-
(a) 200 nm (b) 260 nm
(c) 280 nm (d) 355 nm
42. For Nucleic acid hybridization which condition is not essential –

(a) The salt conc. must be high (>25 M)
(b) Primers
(c) High temperature, under control
(d) Complementary strands
43. Genetic variations, in form of multiple alleles of many genes, exist in most of natural
population. Such genetic differences between individuals are called DNA
polymorphism. Such a DNA polymorphism is used as-
(a) DNA markers (b) DNA probes
(c) c-DNA (d) Heteroduplex DNA
44. The best DNA markers utilized to differentiate different human individuals (to
establish paternity & divergence) are-
(a) Single Nucleotide Polymorphism
(b) Rest Fragment Length Polymorphism
(c) Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA
(d) Simple tandem repeats polymorphism
45. Which chemical group are present at the extreme 3’ ends of single polynucleotide
strand-
(a) Phosphate group (b) Hydroxyl group
(c) Oxo group (d) CH 2 OH
46. The template DNA strand utilized for DNA replication is-
(a) 5'-3' direction (b) 3'-5 direction
(c) Random (d) In both direction
47. The enzyme coded by allele IA transferase which adds N-acetyl glucasmine and blood
group is designated as A, similarly IB encodes transferase which adds galactose to
precursor sugar, similarly IO encodes transferase which adds-
(a) No sugar
(b) N-acetyl glucasamine
(c) Galactose
(d) Both galactose and N acetyl glucasmine
48. If two recessive mutations are alleles of different genes, then F1 progeny are wild
type, this is due to-
(a) Incomplete dominance (b) Complementation
(c) Supplementation (d) Co-dominance
49. Sexual differentiation in Drosophila is controlled by gene called sex lethal (sxl). The
genes sensing the number of x chromosomes are called as-
(a) Supernumery genes (b) Denominator genes
(c) Numerator genes (d) Sex sensing genes
50. What would be sex of Drosophila with chromosome complement 3A + XXYY-

(a) Male (b) Female
(c) Inetersex (d) Metamale
51. Eukaryotic gene regulation occurs at the level of:

(a) posttranslational control (b) transcriptional control
(c) genomic control (d) all of the above
52. Ubiquitin binds to _____ residues, therefore targeting proteins for degradation by
_____.
(a) lysine, proteasomes (b) arginine, lysosomes
(c) arginine, proteasomes (d) lysine, lysosomes
53. Protein phosphoryation, dephosphorylation and proteolytic cleavage are examples of:
(a) posttranslational control
(b) transcriptional control
(c) translational control
(d) control of RNA processing
54. Steroid hormone receptors are involved in:
(a) control of RNA processing
(b) posttranslational control
(c) transcriptional control
(d) genomic control
55. Which of the following is NOT an example of genomic control of gene regulation?
(a) alternative RNA splicing
(b) DNA rearrangement
(c) gene deletion
(d) gene amplification
56. Which of the following is true of homeotic genes?

(a) the homeodomain functions in binding to DNA
(b) they serve as an example of transcriptional gene control
(c) all homeotic genes contain a 180-bp segment called a homeobox
(d) all of the above are correct
57. ______ is an allosteric protein that is inactive until it binds to_____ , thus activating
transcription.
(a) RNA polymerase, cAMP (b) CRP, ATP
(c) CRP, cAMP (d) RNA polymerase, ATP
58. The trp leader sequence contains a control region that is sensitive to tryptophan
levels such that it determines whether transcription will continue to completion. The
effect of this control element in the trp operon in E. coli is known as:
(a) gene amplification (b) RNA splicing
(c) attenuation (d) repression
59. Histone structure can be altered by:

(a) DNA rearrangement (b) acetylation
(c) sigma factors (d) methylation
60. Which of the following is true of heat-shock genes?

(a) they are only found in prokaryotes
(b) they encode for proteins such as progesterone and estrogen
(c) they are only found in eukaryotes
(d) they are known to respond to stressful conditions
61. A gene is
(a) the same thing as a chromosome.
(b) the information for making a polypeptide.
(c) made of RNA.
(d) made by a ribosome.
62. In Eukaryotes, DNA packing affects gene expression by

(a) controlling access to DNA.
(b) positioning related structural genes near each other.
(c) protecting DNA from mutations.
(d) enhancing recombination of genes.
63. Dioxin, produced as a by-product of various industrial chemical processes, is suspected

of causing cancer and birth defects in animals and humans. It apparently acts by
entering cells and binding to proteins, altering the pattern of gene expression. The
proteins affected by dioxin are probably
(a) water-soluble proteins. (b) DNA polymerase.
(c) transcription factors. (d) enhancers.
64. In humans, the hormone testosterone enters cells and binds to specific proteins,
which in turn bind to specific sites on the cells DNA. These proteins probably act to
(a) help RNA polymerase transcribe certain genes.
(b) alter the pattern of DNA splicing.
(c) inhibit transcription.
(d) unwind the DNA for gene transcription.
65. It is possible for a cell to make proteins that last for months; hemoglobin in red blood
cells is a good example. However, many proteins are not this long-lasting. They may
be degraded in days or even hours. Why do cells make proteins with such short
lifetimes if it is possible to make them last longer?
(a) Most proteins are used only once
(b) Most cells in the body live only a few days
(c) Cells lack the raw materials to make most of the proteins they need
(d) Only cancer cells, which can keep dividing, contain long-lasting proteins.
66. The genes that malfunction in cancer normally

(a) control RNA transcription
(b) are responsible for sex determination
(c) code for enzymes that repair damaged DNA
(d) are not present in most body cells
67. Which of the following are arranged in the correct order by size, from largest to
smallest?
(a) chromosome-gene-codon-nucleotide
(b) nucleotide-chromosome-gene-codon
(c) codon-chromosome-gene-nucleotide
(d) gene-chromosome-codon-nucleotide
68. Imagine an error occurring during DNA replication in a cell, so that where there is
supposed to be a T in one of the genes there is instead a G. What effect will this
probably have on the cell?
(a) Each of its kinds of protein will contain an incorrect amino acid
(b) An amino acid will be missing from each of its kinds of protein
(c) One of its kinds of protein might contain an incorrect amino acid
(d) The amino acid sequence of one of its kinds of protein will be completely changed
69. How does RNA polymerase know where to start transcribing a gene into mRNA?
(a) Transfer RNA acts to translate the message to RNA polymerase
(b) It starts at a certain nucleotide sequence called a promoter
(c) The ribosome directs it to the correct portion of the DNA molecule
(d) It looks for the AUG start codon
70. All your cells contain proto-oncogenes, which can change into cancer-causing genes.
Why do cells possess such potential time bombs?
(a) Viruses infect cells with proto-oncogenes
(b) Proto-oncogenes are genetic junk and have no known function
(c) Proto-oncogenes are unavoidable environmental carcinogens
(d) Cells produce proto-oncogenes as a by-product of mitosis
71. In Eukaryotes, which of the following mechanisms of gene regulation operates after
mRNA transcription but before translation of mRNA into protein?
(a) mRNA splicing and editing (b) DNA packing
(c) repressors and activators (d) protein degradation
72. A cell biologist found that two different proteins with largely different structures
were translated from two different mRNAs. These mRNAs, however, were transcribed
from the same gene in the cell nucleus. Which mechanism below could best account
for this?
(a) Different systems of DNA unpacking could result in two different mRNAs
(b) A mutation might have altered the gene
(c) Exons from the same gene could be spliced in different ways to make different
mRNAs
(d) The two mRNAs could be transcribed from different operons
73. A particular ____ carry the information for making a particular polypeptide, but ____
can be used to make any polypeptide.
(a) gene and ribosome . . . a tRNA and an mRNA
(b) gene and mRNA . . . a ribosome and a tRNA
(c) ribosome and mRNA . . . a gene and a tRNA
(d) gene and tRNA . . . a ribosome and an mRNA
74 Which of the following processes occurs in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell?
(a) DNA replication
(b) translation
(c) transcription
(d) DNA replication and translation
75. The nucleotide sequence of a DNA codon is GTA. A messenger RNA molecule with a
complementary codon is transcribed from the DNA. In the process of protein synthesis,
a transfer RNA pairs with the mRNA codon. What is the nucleotide sequence of the
tRNA anticodon?
(a) CAT (b) GUA
(c) CAU (d) GTA
76. The nucleotide sequence of a DNA codon is ACT. A messenger RNA molecule with a
complementary codon is transcribed from the DNA. In the process of protein synthesis,
a transfer RNA pairs with the mRNA codon. What is the nucleotide sequence of the
tRNA anticodon?
(a) TGA (b) UGA
(c) TGU (d) ACU
77. During the process of translation (polypeptide synthesis), ____ matches an mRNA
codon with the proper amino acid.
(a) a ribosome (b) DNA polymerase
(c) ATP (d) transfer RNA
78. A sequence of pictures of polypeptide synthesis shows a ribosome holding two transfer
RNAs. One tRNA has a polypeptide chain attached to it; the other tRNA has a single
amino acid attached to it. What does the next picture show?
(a) The polypeptide chain moves over and bonds to the single amino acid
(b) The amino acid moves over and bonds to the polypeptide chain
(c) The tRNA with the polypeptide chain leaves the ribosome
(d) A third tRNA with an amino acid joins the pair on the ribosome
79. A geneticist found that a particular mutation had no effect on the polypeptide coded
by a gene. This mutation probably involved
(a) deletion of one nucleotide
(b) alteration of the start codon
(c) insertion of one nucleotide
(d) substitution of one nucleotide
80. A mutagen is
(a) a gene that has been altered by a mutation
(b) something that causes a mutation
(c) an organism that has been changed by a mutation
(d) the portion of a chromosome altered by a mutation
81. There are thought to be about ____ genes in a human cell.
(a) 30 – 100 (b) 300 – 1,000
(c) 3,000 – 10,000 (d) 30,000 – 50,000
82. Histones are

(a) master genes that affect development
(b) groups of genes that respond to environment
(c) proteins around which DNA is coiled
(d) portions of genes that are transcribed
83. During Interphase, _____ can be seen with a light microscope.

(a) nucleosomes (b) introns
(c) heterochromatin (d) euchromatin
84. There is about 1,000 times as much DNA in a human cell as in an E. coli cell, but only
about 50 times as many genes. Why?
(a) A human cell has much more noncoding DNA
(b) The DNA packing is much more complex in a prokaryotic cell
(c) Most of the genes in a human cell are turned off
(d) E. coli are less able to respond to their environment than humans. Moreover,
this response confuses cause and effect
85. The difference between tandemly repetitive and interspersed repetitive DNA is that
(a) interspersed DNA is also referred to as satellite DNA
(b) interspersed repetitive DNA is found throughout the genome.
(c) most tandemly repetitive DNA are transposons
(d) most interspersed repetitive DNA is at the telomeres
86. Multigene families arise as a result of
(a) transformation
(b) errors during DNA replication and recombination
(c) RNA splicing
(d) protein degradation
87. Retrotransposons differ from other transposons in that

(a) retrotransposons have lost the ability to move about a genome
(b) retrotransposons are likely to be the remains of a viral infection
(c) retrotransposons have retained the ability to move about a genome, an ability
that has been lost by other transposons
(d) retrotransposons move via an RNA transcript, whereas other transposons do
not
88. Your muscle and bone cells are different because

(a) they contain different sets of genes
(b) they are differentiated
(c) they contain different operons
(d) different genes are switched on and off in each type of cell
89. Gene expression in animals seems to be regulated largely by
(a) controlling gene packing and unpacking
(b) controlling the transcription of genes into mRNA
(c) controlling the translation of mRNA into protein
(d) selectively eliminating certain genes from the genome
90. The control of gene expression is more complex in multicellular eukaryotes than in
prokaryotes because
(a) eukaryotic cells are much smaller
(b) in a multicellular eukaryote, different cells are specialized for different functions
(c) prokaryotes are restricted to stable environments
(d) eukaryotes have fewer nucleotide, so each nucleotide sequence must do several
jobs
91. Which of the following would be most likely to lead to cancer?

(a) multiplication of a proto-oncogene and inactivation of a tumor-suppressor gene
(b) hyperactivity of a proto-oncogene and activation of a tumor-suppressor gene
(c) failure of a proto-oncogene to produce a protein and multiplication of a tumor-
suppressor gene
(d) the failure of both a proto-oncogene and a tumor-suppressor gene to produce
proteins
92. Your bone cells, muscle cells, and skin cells look different because
(a) different kinds of genes are present in each kind of cell
(b) they are present in different organs
(c) different genes are active in each kind of cell
(d) they contain different numbers of genes
93. Linkage groups are equivalent to haploid set of chromosomes, if male butterfly has
12 linkage groups, then female will have-
(a) 12 (b) 11
(c) 13 (d) 6
94. Maximum possible recombination frequency is:

(a) 25 % (b) 50 %
(c) 75 % (d) 100 %
95. The linkage of genes in chromosomes can be represented in form of-

(a) genetic maps (b) Linkage maps
(c) Chromosome map (d) All
96. Physically 1 map unit on linkage maps can be defined as length of chromosome in
which, average crossover formed during 50 cells undergoing meiosis is-
(a) 1 (b) 25
(c) 50 (d) 100
97. Assuming equal sex ratio, what is probability that a sib ship of four children consists
entirely of boys-
(a) 25 % (b) 12. 5 %
(c) 6.25 % (d) 3.125 %
98. The spindle fibres attach to each chromosome in the region technically known as-
(a) Centromere (b) Centriole
(c) Kinetochoere (d) Astrals
99. Which among the following do not have DNA-

(a) Kinetoplast (b) Centriole
(c) Dictyosomes (d) Chindriosomes
100. During meiosis the centromeric division takes place during-
(a) Prophase I (b) Anaphase I
(c) Prophase II (d) Anaphase II
5
Evolutionary Biology
EARLY EARTH AND THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
ORIGIN OF EARTH AND PRE-BIOTIC ENVIRONMENT
• Our planet and our solar system has a history of about 4.55 to 4.60 Ga (Ga = billion
years). Our solar system originated LONG after the origin of the universe in the Big
Bang about 10 to 15 billion years ago. Big Bang is a theoretical explosion of thick
concentrated cosmic matter that occurred 10,000-20,000 million years ago to form
our universe and 100,000 galaxies. It was suggested by Abbe Lemaitre (1931).
• All matter formed during the Big Bang consisted of the element hydrogen. The
hydrogen atoms had to undergo nuclear reactions in stars, and the stars had to explode
as supernovas, before heavier elements than hydrogen (such as carbon, the main
building block of life on Earth) came into existence. Our Sun did thus not originate
straight at the origin of the universe.
• Sun, earth and other stars are formed from Nebula (cosmic dusts and clouds of gases).
Nebular hypothesis of Kant is for origin of solar system. The origin of our universe
is 10-20 billion years (10,000-20,000 million years or 104 to 204 million years) old. The
universe has 1 lakh million (100000 million) galaxies and 10000 million stars in the
milky way.
• The Sun was not as hot as it is today. The amount of solar radiation reaching the
Earth was only 70-80% of that of today, because nuclear reactions in the Sun were in
an earlier stage – we know that from observations on other stars.
• At first there was no Moon. The chemical composition of Moon rocks and the way in
which the Moon moves together with the Earth around the Sun indicate that the
Moon was formed by the collision of a Mars-size asteroid with early Earth, probably
at some time during the big meteor bombardment that ended about 4 billion years
ago (4 Ga). The material from the core of the big asteroid was added to Earth, its
mantle moved on and formed the Moon. The Moon was closer to Earth after it
originated, so the tides were much more pronounced than today’s tides.
• The Earth’s rotation rate was faster because tidal friction resulting from the presence
of the Moon had not yet slowed it down. Days may have been between 8 and 14 hours
long. Growth rings in Paleozoic corals shows that even as recently as 450 million
years ago there were more than 400 days in a year (a year is the time that it takes
the Earth to circle the Sun). Earth in the beginning was a hot spinning ball with a
temperature of 5273-6273 Kelvin (5000-6000 °C). The continents were probably smaller
than today’s, with more ocean surface, especially more than 3 billion years ago.
• The atmosphere had a very different composition. Our atmosphere at the moment
consists for about 80% of dinitrogen gas (N 2 ) and 20% oxygen gas (O2 ), with traces of
other gases. CO2 (carbon dioxide) at the moment makes up about 360 parts per million
of the atmosphere (much less than 1%, which is one part per hundred). Before the
industrial revolution atmospheric CO2 levels were about 280 ppm.
• The early Earth’s atmosphere was different: there was no free oxygen gas. The primary
atmosphere of the Earth, inherited from the swirling cloud of gas from our solar
system formed, would have been dominated by hydrogen gas, H2 , with ammonia,
NH3 , and methane, CH 4 . Atmosphere was reducing and called atmosphere I. Present
atmosphere is oxidizing and is called atmosphere II and has about 21% oxygen.
• Hydrogen gas is too light for a planet with the size of Earth to hold by its gravity, and
the primary atmosphere would have been blown away by the violent radiation of the
Sun in its so-called T-tauri stage. A secondary atmosphere would then be supplied by
outgassing from the Earth’s interior; either rapidly (big - theory) or more gradual.
This secondary atmosphere consisted of dominantly CO2 (carbon dioxide), with some
N 2 (dinitrogen gas), H2 O (water vapor), minor CO (carbon monoxide), SO2 (sulfur
dioxide), and H2 S (hydrogen sulfide).
• Biopoiesis is the study of origin of life on earth. Cosmology is the study of universe
(cosmos).
MAJOR EPISODES IN THE HISTORY OF LIFE: A PREVIEW
• Life originated in Archaeozoic era but first evidence of life is from Precambrian period
of Proterozole era in ocean about 3.6-4.2 billion years ago. Scientists have found
isotopes of carbon in 3.8 billion year old rocks in Greenland.
• Oldest record of fossils is 3200-3500 (3.2 to 3.5 billion) million years old. The oldest
recorded fossil is from the banded domes of calcareous sediments (Stromatolites) in
Zimbawe (Rhodesia). It is 2.9 billion years old. Age of fossils is determined either by
14 C dating technique or by amount of lead in a rock.
• Fossil evidence suggests that prokaryotes appeared at least 2 billion years before the
oldest eukaryotes
• Two distinct groups of prokaryotes, Bacteria and Archaea, diverged early, between 2
to 3 billion years ago. Photosynthetic bacteria started the production of oxygen about
2.5 billion years ago, setting the stage for aerobic life.
• Eukaryotes emerged some 2 billion years ago. Strong evidence supports the hypothesis
that eukaryotic cells evolved from a symbiotic community of prokaryotes.
Evolutionary Biology 251
• Plants, fungi, and animals arose from distinct groups of unicellular eukaryotes during
he Precambrian. Plants evolved from green algae. Fungi and animals arose from
different groups of heterotrophic unicells. Based on molecular evidence, fungi are
more closely related to animals than they are to plants.
• The oldest fossils of animals are those of soft-bodied invertebrates from about 700
million years ago. The basic body plans of most of the modern animal phyla probably
arose in the late Precambrian.
• The transition from the aquatic environment to land was a pivotal point in the history
of life. The first terrestrial colonization was by plants and fungi some 475 million
years ago (Paleozoic); the move may have depended upon a beneficial association
between the two groups. The transformation of the landscape by plants created new
opportunities for all forms of life.
• Origin of life and evolution of life are independent processes. Origin of life is a chemical
process and evolution of life is a biological process.
PREBIOTIC CHEMICAL EVOLUTION AND THE ORIGINS OF LIFE
• The first life was anaerobic chemoheterotrophic marine prokaryotic. First

photoautotrophs were anoxygenic and anaerobic chemoautotrophos. Ribonucleotides
appeared prior to deoxyribonucleotides.
• Appearance of nucleoproteins gave the first sign of life. Thus, in origin of life, trend
was: anaerobic, marine prokaryotic chemoheterotrophic life ®anaerobic,
chemoautrotrophs ® aerobic oxygenic photoautotrophs (cyanobacteria) ® eukaryotes
® plants ® animals.
• Nucleic acids having power of self duplication were the first biochemical compounds
appeared in chemical evolution. It markets the beginning of life. Later on nucleoprotein
and then large lipoprotein colloidal particles called coacervates were evolved in
broth (hot dilute soup) of ocean. A coacervate is a hypothetical term used by Oparin
& Haldane consisting of nucleoproteins, lipids and polysaccharides which grew by
absorbing molecules from outside and like bacteria can divide by budding.
• Coacervation: Due to zwitterionic nature, protein molecules formed colloidal
hydrophilic complex which got surrounded by water molecules. These bodies may
separate from the body of the liquid in which these are suspended (aqueous phase)
and form a type of emulsion. Coalescence of such structure produces a separation of
colloids from their aqueous phase (concervation). These colloid rich coacervates must
been able to exchange substance with their environment and selectively concentrate
compounds within them.
• Fox (1957) synthesized in vitro the proteinoids (microspheres) by prolonged heating
of 18-20 types of amino acids.
• Theory of special creation states that life was created by supernatural power in
that form which has not undergone any change. It was given by Father Saurez. God
has created life in six days from media prima and man was created by him on the
sixth day.
• Theory of catastrophism (cataclysm) was given by Cuvier, according to which
after a gap of certain period (called age), the world undergoes a catastrophe (sudden
calamity) to kill almost all the living organisms and then God created new generation
or new life from inorganic matter.
• Theory of spontaneous generation (abiogenesis or autogenesis) states that living
beings are formed from rain, mud, air, dung and other decaying organic matter. Van
Helmont claimed to produce mice from human sweat.
• Theory of biogenesis (i.e. life from life, omnis vivum ex. vivo) was proved by Redi,
Spallanzani and Pasteur independently. They disproved (refuted) theory of
spontaneous generation (abiogenesis). Francesco Redi (1668) proved that flies could
not arise from putrefying meat without their eggs. Spallanzani (1767) demonstrated
that putrefaction of meat is due to microbes in the air and it can be prevented by
boiling and sealing the meat in air tight containers. Pasteur gave a definite proof of
life arising from pre-existing life using microbes and sterilization methods.
A. Naturalistic theory or chemosynthetic origin (Oparin-Haldane)

Life originated from inorganic substance through chemical processes, i.e., chemical evolution
preceeds biological evolution. In the 1920’s, A.I. Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane independently
postulated that the reducing atmosphere and greater UV radiation on primitive Earth favored
reactions that built complex organic molecules from simple monomers as building blocks.
According to this theory the first living organisms are products of a chemical evolution that
occurred in four stages:
1. Abiotic synthesis and accumulation of monomers, or small organic molecules, that

are the building blocks for more complex molecules
2. Joining of monomers into polymers (e.g., proteins and nucleic acids)
3. Formation of protobionts, named coacervates, a colloidal suspension (droplets) which
formed from aggregates of abiotically produced molecules and later on differed
chemically from their surroundings due to enclosure of membrane like structure and
named microspheres by Sydney fox.
4. Origin of heredity during or before protobiont appearance.
The origin of life was possible in Earth’s ancient environment:

• There was little atmospheric oxygen.
• Lightning, volcanic activity, meteorite bombardment, and ultraviolet radiation
were more intense.
This is not possible today because

1. Oxygen in Earth’s oxidizing environment attacks chemical bonds, removing electrons.
An important characteristic of the early atmosphere must have been the rarity of
oxygen.
2. The modern atmosphere has a layer of ozone that screens UV radiation, so the energy
required to abiotically synthesize organic molecules is not available. On primitive
Earth, energy was available from frequent lightning and intense UV radiation that
penetrated the atmosphere.
Stanley Miller and Harold Urey tested the Oparin/Haldane hypothesis by Experiment
Stanley Miller, a graduate student in biochemistry, built the apparatus shown here. He filled it
w ith water (H 2 O) methane (CH 4 ) ammonia (NH3 ) and hydrogen (H2 ) but no oxygen. He
hypothesized that this mixture resembled the atmosphere of the early earth. (Some are not so
sure). The mixture was kept circulating by continuously boiling and then condensing the water.
The gases passed through a chamber containing two electrodes with a spark passing between
them. At the end of a week, Miller used paper chromatography to show that the flask now
contained several amino acids as well as some other organic molecules. In the years since
Miller’s work, many variants of his procedure have been tried. Virtually all the small molecules
that are associated with life have been formed: 17 of the 20 amino acids used in protein synthesis,
and all the purines and pyrimidines used in nucleic acid synthesis. But abiotic synthesis of
ribose — and thus of nucleosides — has been much more difficult.
One difficulty with the primeval soup theory is how polymers — the basis of life itself —
could be assembled. In solution, hydrolysis of a growing polymer would soon limit the size it
could reach. Abiotic synthesis produces a mixture of L and D enantiomers. Each inhibits the
polymerization of the other. So, for example, the presence of D amino acids inhibits the
polymerization of L amino acids (the ones that make up proteins here on earth). This has led to
a theory that early polymers were assembled on solid, mineral surfaces that protected them
from degradation, and in the laboratory polynucleotides and polypeptides containing about ~50
units have been synthesized on mineral (e.g., clay) surfaces.
Controversy over Classical Oparin-Haldane Theory
The classical theory held that life originated as a result of such actions as lightning strikes,
putting energy into a strongly reducing atmosphere, which would result in the formation of
many of the ‘building blocks of life’ – as shown by the laboratory tests done by Miller. This
theory in its simplest form has run into major problems, and has been practically abandoned by
scientists mainly because of three lines of evidence.
1. The atmosphere was probably not by far as reducing as had been thought (no
free H2 , NH3 , CH 4 ), but more neutral. The reactions to organic material, fired by electric
discharge, will still take place in such an atmosphere, but at a much slower rate than in a more
reducing atmosphere. At such slow rates it is very difficult to build up a rather large reservoir
of organic building blocks, thus chances of getting enough bits and pieces to react to big molecules
are very small: in a very dilute soup – type ocean the molecules never meet in large numbers.
2. The time available for the development of the first living cells has been getting
shorter and shorter, much less than the billions of years envisaged. The big meteorite
bombardment that also hit the moon stopped only by about 4.0 Ga. Life developed earlier would
prbably have been obliterated by the impacts. Organic material that carries the carbon isotope
signature of having originated by photosynthesis has been dated at 3.85 Ga. The remains of not
only cell-like organisms, but of stromatolites, are dated at 3.5 Ga. Stromatolites are limestones
secreted by the actions of photosynthesizing bacteria: not just very simple semi-life forms were
around, but fairly complex bacteria that could perform the difficult reaction of photosynthesis,
i.e., Eubacteria. The secretion of limestone (CaCO3 ) was probably mediated by the chemistry
coupling of reactions 1 and 2
H2 O + CO2 ® CH 2 O + O2 (Reaction 1)
2 HCO3 – + Ca2+ ® CaCO3 + CO2 + H2 O (Reaction 2)
If organisms use up CO2 in photosynthesis (reaction 1), they drive at the same time
reaction 2 towards the right, thus causing precipitation of calcite.
3. RNA was probably the first genetic material: An RNA Beginning?
Much more is known about how incredibly chemically complex even simple organisms
(bacteria) are, and about the complexity of inheritance. All organisms alive today store and
transmit hereditary information in two kinds of molecules called DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid,
a double spiral shape) and RNA (Ribonucleic Acid, a single spiral shape). Both DNA and RNA
are made up of four kinds of subunits called nucleotides. Sequences of nucleotides make up the
genes, and direct the formation of proteins, on which all life depends. Proteins consist of 20
different subunits called aminoacids, and the sequence of the nucleotides on DNA and RNA
determines the sequence of the amino-acids in proteins. There are large parts of DNA, however,
that do not code for proteins and appears to have no function (‘junk DNA’). Such junk DNA
occurs in Archaebacteria and Eukaryotes, not in Eubacteria. The formation of the proteins is
helped along by enzymes, which function as catalysts (catalysts help a reaction along without
participating in it). We call the nucleotides and aminoacids the building blocks of life; both have
been found in meteorites. We have a chicken and egg problem: DNA and RNA “tell” the organism
how to make proteins, but these same proteins are needed to make DNA and RNA, by acting as
catalysts to form these big, complex molecules. DNA and RNA are very complex molecules and
it appears to be very difficult to let these originate from simple amino acids. But there is no way
in which we can get proteins to duplicate themselves.
More and more evidence has become available that helps in solving the chicken and egg
problem. It is now known that some molecules made of RNA, called ribozymes, can act as
catalysts in modern cells. That means, that such RNA molecules could have used bits and
pieces of themselves to help them to replicate, without any use of proteins. There may thus
have been a ‘RNA-world’ in which RNA could have performed the functions of both nucleic
acids (DNA, RNA) and proteins. The theory that the first proto-living things were RNA-only
organisms is becoming widely accepted (and is called the theory of the RNA-world).
Several other bits of evidence support this notion of an original “RNA world”: Many of the
cofactors that play so many roles in life are based on ribose; for example: ATP NAD FAD
coenzyme A cyclic AMP GTP. In the cell, all deoxyribonucleotides are synthesized from
ribonucleotide precursors. Many bacteria control the transcription and/or translation of certain
genes with RNA molecules (Link to “riboswitches”), not protein molecules.
Even so, we keep the problems of a not reducing (neutral, also not oxidizing) atmosphere,
and very little time to get to the first photosynthesizing bacteria. There are two main schools
of thought (with many variants), often combined in one way or another.
1. The original source-material for life was not really carbon-based “life”, but some form
of self-replicating crystal. We are looking at: different and innovative ways in which
we could have used different commonly occurring, natural compounds as some kind
of template, or even as a real part of earlier organisms. The most commonly cited
possible inorganic compounds are pyrite, FeS2 (positively charged surface); and clay
minerals ( negatively charged surface). The floating bits and pieces of ‘building blocks
of life’ could have become organized in patterns using the crystals as a template, and
they could have stuck first to the charged surface (the building blocks commonly
have a positively and a negatively charged end). Note that crystals (regularly shaped
structures) have the possibilities of carrying “information” in their irregularities
(similar to the supermarket bar codes).
2. We looked in the wrong place (warm, shallow pond). Reducing circumstances may
not have been average in the atmosphere, but may have occurred locally, around
volcanic hot springs, and the first forms of life may have been similar to chemosynthetic
bacteria. Nice extra: if life originated in rather deep water (no sunlight needed): no
problems with high rate of UV-irradiation in the absence of an ozone shield (no O2 ).
Additionally, many metals that are required in very small amounts because they play
a role in complex organic molecules (such as chlorophyll) are present in waters
streaming out of hydrothermal vents – e.g., iron, nickel, manganese, magnesium,
molybdenum, selenium, copper.
(B). Cosmozoic theory (Theory of panspermia) given by Richter (1865), Helmholtz

(1884), Arrhenius (1908)
They suggested that life reached the earth from some heavenly body through meteorites.
Panspermia (primitive form of life, as suggested by Arrhenius (1908) consisted of spores and
microbes existed throughout universe and produced different forms of life.
The Murchison Meteorite

This meteorite, that fell near Murchison, Australia on 28 September 1969, turned out to contain
a variety of organic molecules including: purines, pyrimidines & polyols — compounds with
hydroxyl groups on a backbone of 3 to 6 carbons such as glycerol and glyceric acid. Sugars are
polyols. The amino acids obtained were glycine, alanine, aspartic acid, valine and were quite
similar to the products formed in Miller’s experiments.
The question is: were these molecules simply terrestrial contaminants that got into the
meteorite after it fell to earth. Probably not: Some of the samples were collected on the same
day it fell and subsequently handled with great care to avoid contamination. The polyols contained
the isotopes carbon-13 and hydrogen-2 (deuterium) in greater amounts than found here on
earth. The samples lacked certain amino acids that are found in all earthly proteins. Only L
amino acids occur in earthly proteins, but the amino acids in the meteorite contain both D and
L forms (although L forms were slightly more prevalent).
OXYGENATION OF EARTH
Photosynthesis (which generates free oxygen) originated in Prokaryotes (Bacteria and Archaea)
very early in Earth history: we have evidence from stromatolites that photosynthesis occurred
about 3.5 Ga ago. The photosynthesizing organisms were probably similar to the modern
cyanobacteria (formerly called blue-green algae), which are Eubacteria.
When photosynthesizing organisms first became common, the free oxygen gas that they
generated did not immediately start to accumulate in the atmosphere: there were many chemical
compounds around in the oceans and on land that were not stable in the presence of free
oxygen gas, and that became oxidized.The most common of ‘things’ to be oxidized were iron
(Fe) on land, and sulfur (S) in the oceans. Presently, iron occurs in Fe2 O3 (rust), sulfur occurs
in sulfate (SO4 2-) in the oceans. The free oxygen gas was thus used up in oxidation reactions for
a considerable time, and during this considerable time we think that the oxygen concentrations
in the atmosphere did not become higher than 1 or a few percent of the present atmospheric
level (PAL). Most evidence thus suggests that the Earth’s atmosphere (thought not necessarily
its oceans) had a level of oxygen equal to about 10-15% of its present levels around 2 Ga.
THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE AND EVOLUTIONARY RECORD (dates in millions of

years.)
A remarkable feature of the table below is how often evolutionary changes coincided with
geologic changes on the earth. But consider that changes in geology (e.g., mountain formation
or lowering of the sea level) cause changes in climate, and together these alter the habitats
available for life. Two types of geologic change seem to have had especially dramatic effects on
life: continental drift and the impact of asteroids.
Important Points
• Azoic Era –Era of invisible life.
• Archaeozoic Era-Era of former life or era of early life.
• Proterozoic Era-Era of former life or Era of early life.
• Palaeozic Era-Era of old life or Era of ancient life.
• Mesozoic Era-Era of middle (life also called “age of reptiles”).
• Coenozoic Era-Era of recent life (also called “age of mammals, birds, insects and
angiosperms”).
• Ordovician Period: “age of invertebrates”-and origin of amphibians.
• Devonians Period: “age of fishes” and of origin of amphibians.
• Carboniferous Periods: “age of amphibians”-and origin of reptiles. Earliest reptiles
evolved in carboniferous period.
• First mammals appeared in Triassic periods.
• Jurassic Period: “age of Reptiles”.
• Holocene Epoch: “age of Man”.
Continental Drift
A body of evidence, both geological and biological, supports the conclusion that 200 million
years ago, at the start of the Mesozoic era, all the continents were attached to one another in
a single land mass, which has been named Pangaea.
This drawing of Pangaea (adapted from data of R. S. Dietz and J. C. Holden) is based on a
computer-generated fit of the continents as they would look if the sea level were lowered by
6000 feet.
The Geological Time Scale With Dates in Millions of year in bracket
Eras Periods Epochs Aquatic Life Terrestrial Life

Recent (0.1) Humans in the new
Quaternary world
Cenozoic (1.8) Pleistocene (1.8) Periodic glaciation First humans
(65) Continental drift
The Age continues
of
Mammals Pliocene Hominids and pongids
Tertiary Miocene Monkeys and anc estors
(65) All modern groups of apes
present
Oligocene Adaptive radiation of
birds
Eocene Adaptive radiation of
Paleocene mammals
Still attached: Modern bony fishes, Extinction of dinosaurs ,
Cretaceous N. America & N. Extinction of pterosaurs Rise o f woody
(146) Europe; Australia ammonites, angiosperms, snakes;
& Antarctica plesiosaurs, first placental mammals
Mesozoic ichthyosaurs (Eutheria)
(251) Plesiosaurs, Dinosaurs dominant;
The Jurassic Africa & S. ichthyosaurs first angiosperms First
Age (200) America begin to abundant; first mammals;
Of drift apart diatoms Ammonites Archaeopteryx; first
Reptiles again abundant lizards Adaptive
Skates, rays, and radiation of dinosaurs;
bony fishes insects abund ant
abundant
At the end First plesiosaurs, Adaptive radiation of
Triassic Pangaea splits ichthyosaurs reptiles:
(251) into Laurasia and Ammonites thecodonts, therapsids,
Gondwana abundant at first turtles,
Rise of bony fishes crocodiles, first
dinosaurs
Appalachian Mts.
Permian (299) formed; periodic Extinction of Reptiles abundant:
Paleozoic glaciation and trilobites, cotylosaurs, pelycosaurs.
(542) arid climate placoderms Cycads, conifers, ginkgos
Pennsylvanian Ammonites, bony First reptiles
Carboniferous (320) fishes Coal swamps
Mississippian Adaptive radiation of Forests of lycopsids,
Periodic (359) sharks sphenopsids, and seed
aridity ferns
Amphibians abundant
Land snails
Placoderms, Ferns, lycopsids, and

Devonian cartilaginous and sphenopsids
(416) Extensive inland bony fishes. First gymnosperms
The "Age of seas Ammonites,
Fishes" nautiloids First amphibians
Adaptive radiation of Arachnids (scorpions)
ostracoderms,
erypterids
Mild climate; Nautiloids, Pilina, First insects
Silurian (444) inland seas other mollusks
Mild climate, Trilobites abundant First fungi
Ordovician inland seas First jawless First plants (liverworts?)
(488) vertebrates First millipedes?
Cambrian Trilobites dominant. No fossils of eukaryotes,
(542) Eurypterids, but phylogenetic trees
crustaceans suggest that lichens,
Periodic mollusks, mosses, perhaps even
glaciation echinoderms vascular plants were
sponges, cnidarians, present.
annelids, and
tunicates present
Proterozoic Ediacaran No fossils of
(2500) (620) Fossils rare but eukaryotes, but
evidence of several phylogenetic trees
types of suggest that lichens,
invertebrates mosses, perhaps even
vascular plants were
present towards the
end.
During the Triassic, Pangaea began to break up, first into two major land masses: Laurasia
in the Northern Hemisphere and Gondwana in the Southern Hemisphere. The present
continents separated at intervals throughout the remainder of the Mesozoic and through the
Cenozoic, eventually reaching the positions they have today. Let us examine some of the
evidence.
Shape of the Continents

The east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa and are strikingly complementary.
This is even more dramatic when one tries to fit the continents together using the boundaries
of the continental slopes (e.g., 6000 feet down) rather than the shorelines.
Geology
In both mineral content and age, the rocks in a region on the east coast of Brazil match
precisely those found in Ghana on the west coast of Africa. The low mountain ranges and rock
types in New England and eastern Canada appear to be continued in parts of Great Britain,
France, and Scandinavia. India and the southern part of Africa both show evidence of periodic
glaciation during Paleozoic times (even though both are now close to the equator). The pattern
of glacial deposits in the two regions not only match each other but also glacial deposits found
in South America, Australia, and Antarctica.
Fossils
Fossil reptiles found in South Africa are also found in Brazil and Argentina. Fossil amphibians
and reptiles found in Antarctica are also found in South Africa, India, and China. Most of the
marsupial alive today are confined to South America and Australia. But if these two continents
were connected by Antarctica in the Mesozoic, one might expect to find fossil marsupials there.
In March 1982, this prediction was fulfilled with the discovery in Antarctica of the remains of
Polydolops, a 9-ft marsupial.
Rules to Remember
• Williston’s Rule: During evolution of lineage, serially homologue parts tend to reduce
in number but get more and more differentiated e.g. prawn’s leg.
• Cope’s Law: it states that warm blooded animals to increase in size during the long
course of evolution.
• Bergman’s law: it states that warm blooded animals become larger in the northern
and colder parts of their range.
• Allen’s law: It states that extremities (like pinnae, nose) of animals living in the
northern and colder parts of their range have reduced.
• Gause’s law: (Gause, 1934) or the Competitive Exclusion Principle (Hardin,
1960).it states that two species having same ecological requirements cannot to occupy
indefinitely the same habitat.
• Gloger’s rule: it state that among warm blooded animals those living in warm and
moist climate develop more melanin pigment (are darker than animals in cold, dry
climates) whereas forms in dry, hot climates have more yellow and red pigment.
• Jordan’s rules: temperature also influences the morphology of certain fishes and is
found to have some relation with the number of vertebrae. Fishes inhabiting water of
low temperature tend to have more vertebrae than those of warmer water.
THE HISTORY OF EVOLUTIONARY THEORY

The history of evolutionary theory is written in the life works of many persons. It continues
today. A short list of early contribuitors follows.
Anaximander (611-547 BC) proposed the theory of spontaneous generation
(Abiogenesis). It was supported by Plato, Aristotle, and Van Helmont.
Father Suarez (1548-1617) was the greatest supporter of the theory of special creation.
Francesco Redi (1626-1698) proposed the theory of bio genesis. It was supposed by
Spallanzani, Louis Pasteur.
George Louis Leclerc (1707-1778) – The French naturalist, also known as the Conte de
Buffon, who wrote a 44 volume Natural History of all known plants and animals. He suggested
evolution but offered no proof.
Carl Linneus (1707-1778) – A Swedish botantist known as the “Father of Taxonomy”. He
developed the system of binomial nomenclature used to name and classify organisms today. He
believed in seperate creation and the fixity of species. Although he did not belive in evolution
his systematic methods for classifing are used to develop phylogenetic trees.
George Cuvier (1769-1832) – A vertebrate zoologist. He used comparative anatomy to
classify animals. Proposed the Theory of Catastrophism which stated that after each worldwide
castastrophe the world was repopulated by the surviving species which gave the appearance of
chance over time.
Erasmus Darwin (1769-1802) – The grandfather of Charles Darwin, he was also a
physician and naturalist. He suggested the possibility of evolution based on his studies of animal
development, artifical breeding and vestigal organs.
James Hutton (1726- 1797) – Proposed the Uniformation Theory of Geology. According
to Hutton, the earth is not static but subject to continueous cycles of erosion and uplifting.
Weathered materials were deposited in layers which became sedimentary rock. This rock often
contained fossils and would eventually be lifed from the sea beds to form land. It was called the
uniformation theory because the forces at work were though to always act at a uniform rate.
We known that is not the case today.
Charles Lyell (1796-1875) – Wrote the Principals of Geology which provided support for
Hutton’s theory.
Alfred Wegener 1880-1930) – The German earth scientist who proposed the Theory of
Continental Drift in 1915. Controversial at the time, he propose the continents had undergone
large movements over the past 300 million years. Today the science of Plate Tectonics studies
the movement of the earth’s crust.
Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) – Malthus was an English sociologist who wrote an Essay
of Population in 1798. In his essay, he proposed that death and famine were inevitable because
the human population tended to increase faster than the supply of food. This essay influenced
Darwin greatly and was used in his formulation of the Theory of Natural Selection.
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
1. Fossil Evidence
Fossils: Any body, body parts (traces) of animals and vegetables buried and preserved by natural
causes. Fossils are remains, traces or other direct evidence of past life forms. Most fossils form
from burial of plants and animals in sediment; soft parts are more often consumed or decomposed
but may leave imprints if buried rapidly. Most fossils are embedded in sedimentary rock,
weathered particles that provide strata from lower older layers to upper newer layers.
Paleontologists study the fossil record based on boundaries between strata, where one mix of
fossils gives way to another. Transitional links are intermediate between major groups. The
fossil record allows us to trace the history of the modern-day horse Equus. The earliest fossils
in this lineage is Hyracotherium , which was the size of a dog, with cusped low-crowned molars,
four toes on each front foot, three on each hind foot—all adaptations for forest living. When
forests were replaced by grasslands, the intermediates were selected for durable grinding teeth,
speed, etc.with an increase in size and decrease in toes.
Types of fossils
(i) Body fossils: hard part of organism such as shell, tooth, bone etc.e.g. bones of
dinosaurs.
(ii) Subfossils: Remains of animals and plants preserved in rocks less than 10,000 years
e.g. vision in frozen ice. Sub fossils were formed after the last ice age during Holocene
epoch.
(iii) Microfossils: microscopic remains less than 0.5 mm or 1/50th inch.
(iv) Macrofossils: Larger than 1 cm in size.
(v) Unusual fossils: Sudden preservation of entire organism e.g. Solenhofen Limestone
of Southern Germany – containing fossils Archaeopteryx.
(vi) Coprolities: fossils of droppings of animal faecal matter. Large coprolities of
crocodiles, Dinosaurs etc.
(vii) Bioclast: Fossils of fragments of fossils enclosed in sediments. The term is usually
applied to thin sections of fossils under microscope.
(viii) Gastroliths: These are found in abundance in the body cavities of certain reptiles.
(ix) Pseudofossils: Many objects of inorganic origin closely resemble the forms of organic
origin and are found in sedimentary rock.
Examples
• Preservation in ice: Woolly mammoths from Siberia. The flesh is so well preserved
that it can be fed to dogs several thousand years. Discovered from Lena Delta in 1790
and Siberia in 1901.
• Fossils in petroleum springs and asphalts: Rancho La Brea now in Los Angeles.
• Fossils in resins and ambers: e.g. Fossil fly in amber from Baltic forests of Europe
during Oligocene period.
• Pterification of hard parts: Fossils are found in sedimentary rocks. Soft parts
disintegrate leaving the fossil porous. Water seeps into fossil and replaces the hard
part particle by silica or iron pyrite. The process of so gradual and slow that even the
outlines of cellular structure are preserved.
• This process of fossilization to preserve the finer details is known as histometabasis.
• Moulds and casts: The material surrounding the fossil hardens and preserves the
outer details. The actual bodies disintegrate and are removed by slippage of the ground
leaving the harden cavities called moulds. When moulds are filled with natural deposits.
They are called as casts e.g. fossils of Pompeii city buried in volcanic ash of mount
Vesuvious in A.D.79.
• Impressions: Impressions of leaves of plants, feathers of extinct birds, wing
membranes of flying reptiles, skin of dinosaur.
• Tracks and trails: The footprints or tracks left in the soft moist mud gets hardened
up e.g. tracks of amphibians discovered near Pittsburg, Germany from Pennsylvanian
period.
• Mummies: Bodies of dead animals or plants become dehydrated in the deserts and
are preserved as mummies.
Law of Superposition: the lower strata of a geological formation were first to be
deposited and is the oldest.
Connecting links are those living organisms which exhibit the characters of two different
groups of organisms. For examples, protopterus between osteichthyes (bony fish) and amphibian;
Ornithor-hynchus between reptilian and mammalian; Peripatus between annelida and
arthropoda: Fritschiella between aquatic and land plants.
Pseudofossils – are the fossils like impressions formed on some rocks due to mineral
deposition.
Missing links are those extinct organisms which possessed the characters of two different
groups of organisms. For ex. Archaeopteryx (lizard -bird) is a missing links between the reptiles
and the aves.
Synapsid reptiles were mammals like that gave rise to mammals. They had a single
temporal fossa on the lateral side of skull and heterodon teeth. They are extinct.
2. Geological Time Scale

Geological time scale is the tabulate presentation of sequence and duration of different eras
and periods with their dominant form or life. It had 5 principle eras: Proterozoic, Archoeozoic,
Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Geological history of earth is divided into eras, periods,
and epochs. Fossil record provides relative dating of rock layers; top layers of rock are younger
than lower layers. Absolute dating method uses radioactive isotopes. Isotopes each have
particular half-life or time it takes for half of isotope to decay and become non-radioactive.
Carbon-14 (14C) used to date organic matter; half decays to 14N each 5,730 years; limited to
about last 50,000 years. Half of potassium-40 (40K) decays to argon-40 (40Ar) each 1.3 million
years; estimates age of younger rocks. Uranium-238 decays to lead-207; estimates age of older
rocks.
3. Mass Extinctions
Extinction is death of all members of species in wild; mass extinctions are extinctions of many
species in short time. Five mass extinctions in fossil record define end of:
(i) Ordovician
(ii) Devonian
(iii) Permian
(iv) Triassic
(v) Cretaceous
Following extinctions, remaining groups expand to fill habitats vacated by extinct species.
Extinction of dinosaurs at end of Cretaceous: Proposed in 1977 that Cretaceous extinction
was caused by asteroid impact. Cretaceous-Tertiary border has high level of iridium, rare in
earth’s crust but common in meteorites. Calculations of effects of nuclear bomb explosions
(“nuclear winter”) compare with worldwide climate cooling expected from large asteroid impact.
Worldwide layer of soot also defines iridium layer. Huge meteorite crater of correct age found
in Caribbean Ocean and Yucatan peninsula; suspected site of impact of meteor that resulted in
dinosaur extinction, Marine animal fossil record indicates mass extinctions occur every 26
million years; corresponds to movement of solar system within Milky Way galaxy.
The Alvarez Theory
Louis Alvarez, his son Walter, and their colleagues proposed that a giant asteroid or
comet striking the earth some 65 million years ago caused the massive die-off at the end of the
Cretaceous. Presumably, the impact generated so much dust and gases that skies were darkened
all over the earth, photosynthesis declined, and worldwide temperatures dropped. The outcome
was that as many as 75% of all species — including all dinosaurs — became extinct.
The key piece of evidence for the Alvarez hypothesis was the finding of thin deposits of
clay containing the element iridium at the interface between the rocks of the Cretaceous and
those of the Tertiary period (called the K-T boundary after the German word for Cretaceous).
Iridium is a rare element on earth (although often discharged from volcanoes), but occurs in
certain meteorites at concentrations thousands of times greater than in the earth’s crust.
After languishing for many years, the Alvarez theory gained strong support from the
discovery in the 90s of the remains of a huge (180 km in diameter) crater in the Yucatan
Peninsula that dated to 65 million years ago. The abundance of sulfate-containing rock in the
region suggests that the im pact generated enorm ous am ounts of sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), which
later returned to earth as a bath of acid rain. A smaller crater in Iowa, formed at the same
time, many have contributed to the devastation. Perhaps during this period the earth passed
through a swarm of asteroids or a comet and the repeated impacts made the earth uninhabitable
for so many creatures of the Mesozoic.
4. Biogeographical Evidence
Biogeography is study of distribution of plants and animals throughout the world.Current
distribution of organisms reflects evolutionary history; organisms evolve in one location and
spread out into other regions; for example, no rabbits are found in South America—they
originated elsewhere and did not each South America. Physical factors, including location of
continents, limit population range.
Continental drift states that continents have slowly moved over time. Explains close puzzle-
piece fit of east coast of South America with west coast of Africa, and other continent edges,
distribution of seed ferns throughout southern continents. Explains distribution of early reptiles
across many continents from time when land was conjoined and divided distribution of mammals
that evolved after continents parted.
5. Anatomical Evidence
Many organisms share a unity of plan; for example, vertebrate forelimbs contain same sets of
bones used for different functions in bat wings, whale fins, etc. Simplest explanation is having
a common ancestor whose basic forelimb plan was modified in succeeding groups as each
continued along its own evolutionary pathway.
Homologous organs are those which are similar in origin and basic structure but are
adapted different to perform different functions e.g. fore limbs of vertebrates having pentadactyl
limb origin and similar resemblance in arrangement of bones, muscles etc. Other examples of
homologous organs include legs in different insects’ teeth of man, thorn of Bougainvillea and
tendril of Passiflora.
Analogous organ are those organs which do perform similar function but are different
in basic structure and origin. For example, wing of insect and wing of bird leaf of plant and
cladode of Rucus etc.
Vestigial structures are reduced and functionless anatomical features that are fully
developed and functional in other ancestral groups. Vestigial structures are evidence of an
organism’s evolutionary history. eg. , Flightless birds have vestigial wings, Snakes have remnants
of a pelvic girdle, Humans have a tail bone but no tail, Whale – femur (large bone). Related
species share embryological development.
(a) All vertebrates exhibit notochord during development.
(b) All vertebrates, including humans, exhibit paired pharyngeal pouches.
(i) In fishes and amphibians, these become functioning gills.
(ii) In humans, they become the eustachian tubes, middle ear cavity, tonsils, and
thyroid and parathyroid glands.
(c) Simplest explanation is that fish notochord and pharyngeal pouches are primitive
fish features and fish are ancestral to other vertebrates.
Development of all triploblastic animals starts from zygote undergoes similar changes
to form gastrula having 3 primary germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm) which
have same fate in organogenesis. Earlier embryos of different vertebrates resembles in possessing
similar structures like gills slits, notochord, tail etc. Not this only in the course of development
at different stages an embryo looks like the embryo of different phyla form which the given
organism has evolved. It is the recapitulation theory (modified into Biogenetic law by Haeckel)
which states that “ontogeny repeats phylogeny”.
6. Biochemical Evidence
Almost all living organisms use the same basic biochemicals: DNA, ATP, many identical enzymes,
DNA triplet code, 20 amino acids, introns, and hypervariable regions. (Prokaryotes i.e. true
bacteria (Domain Eukarya), do not have introns. This points to a long period of time since all
living things shared common acestory. Similarity of biochemistry is explained by descent from
common ancestor.
DNA base sequences differences in DNA between a number of organisms shows less
difference the more closely related they are; for example, 2.5% difference between humans and
chimpanzees but 42% difference between humans and lemurs. Amino acid sequences of
cytochrome c show similarity between human and monkey, distance from human to duck and
greater distance to Candida yeast. Data are understandable assuming humans and chimpanzees
share a more recent common ancestor than do humans and lemurs, ducks, or yeast. Biochemical
evidence is generally consistent with anatomical similarity of organisms.
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
1. Lamark’s theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics

Jean Batiste de Lamarck (1809) proposed the theory of “inheritance of acquired characters”
in his book “PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGIQUE”. He believed that changes in the environmental
factors or migration result in new disuse of certain other organs. This extra use and disuse of
organs induce the development and degeneration respectively of certain characters. These
change characters called acquired characters are inherited by next generation and gradually
accumulate over many generations leading to the origin of new species. Lamarck supported
his theory by giving the examples of evolution of long forelimbed and long-necked giraffe from
the deer-like ancestors. But Lamarckism was also objected to by a number of scientists. Strong
evidence against Lamarckism was Theory of Continuity of Germplasm proposed by August
Weismann in 1892 A.D.
2. Evolution by Natural Selection

The idea (given voice by Lamarck) that species could change over time was not immediately
acceptable to many: the lack of a mechanism hampered the acceptance of the idea as did its
implications regarding the biblical views of creation. Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace both
worked independently of each other, traveled extensively, and eventually developed similar
ideas about the change in life over time as well as a mechanism for that change: natural
selection. Charles Darwin secured an unpaid position as ship’s naturalist on the H.M.S. Beagle.
The voyage would provide Darwin a unique opportunity to study adaptation and gather a great
deal of proof he would later incorporate into the theory of evolution. Darwin spent much time
ashore collecting plant, animal and fossil specimens, as well as making extensive geological
observations. On his return to England in 1836, Darwin began to catalog his collections and
ponder the seeming “fit” of organisms to their mode of existence. He eventually settled on four
main points of the theory.
Fig: Five year voyage of H.M.S. Beagle (1831-1836)
1. Adaptation: all organisms adapt to their environments.

2. Variation: all organisms are variable in their traits.
3. Over-reproduction: all organisms tend to reproduce beyond their environment’s
capacity to support them (this is based on the work of Thomas Malthus, who studied
how populations of organisms tended to grow geometrically until they encountered a

limit on their population size).
4. Since not all organisms are equally well adapted to their environment, some will
survive and reproduce better than others — this is known as natural selection.
Sometimes this is also referred to as “survival of the fittest”. In reality this merely
deals with the reproductive success of the organisms, not solely their relative strength
or speed.
The Wallace-Darwin Theory

• Individuals in a population have variable levels of agility, size, ability to obtain food,
and different successes in reproduction.
• Left unchecked, populations tend to expand exponentially, leading to a scarcity of
resources.
• In the struggle for existence, some individuals are more successful than others,
allowing them to survive and reproduce.
• Those organisms best able to survive and reproduce will leave more offspring than
those unsuccessful individuals.
• Over time there will be heritable changes in phenotype (and genotype) of a species,
resulting in a transformation of the original species into a new species similar to, but
distinct from, its parent species.
Support to Natural Selection

1. Industrial melanism: before industrial revolution the dull grey forms of peppered
moth– Biston betularia-were dominant the carbonaria form (black) was rare because
it was susceptible to predation by birds. The reason was that it was conspicuously
visible while resting on tree trunks.
The industrial revolution resulted in large scale smoke which got deposited on tree
trunks turning them black. Now grey varieties became susceptible the black forms
flourished. Replacement of coal by oil and electricity, reduced shoot production – the
frequency of grey moths increased again.
2. Sickle cell anemia and malaria: Individuals homozygous for sickle cell anaemia
die at an early age. In heterozygous individuals, the cell containing abnormal
hemoglobin become sickle shaped, it kills malarial parasites effectively so that these
individuals are able to come with malaria infection much better than normal person.
3. J. Lederberg and E. Lederberg provided experimental evidence for ‘selection’ in
bacteria. By using replica plating techniques they demonstrated the process of
‘selection’ of antibiotic resistance strains of bacteria.
Natural Selection and Genetics (Neo-Darwinism)

Neither Darwin nor Wallace could explain how evolution occurred: how were these inheritable
traits (variations) passed on to the next generation? (Recall that Gregor Mendel had yet to
publish his ideas about genetics). During the 20th century, genetics provided that answer, and
was linked to evolution in neoDarwinism, also known as the Modern Synthesis.
Populations: Without variation (which arises from mutations of DNA molecules to produce
new alleles) natural selection would have nothing on which to act. A population is a group of
individuals living in the same geographical area and sharing a common gene pool. The gene
pool is the sum of all genetic information carried by the members of a population.
All genetic variation in a population is generated by mutation. Mutation is any
heritable change in DNA. Mutations can be changes of a single nucleotide base or may involve
changes in chromosome number. Whether a mutation is good, neutral, or harmful depends on
how it affects survival and reproductive success.
Mutation Rate: Gene mutations result in new alleles, and are the source of variation
within populations. Gene mutations are ultimately behind the other mechanisms that provide
variation. Due to DNA replication and DNA repair mechanisms, mutation rates of individual
genes are low, but since each organism has many genes, and a population has many individuals,
new mutations arise in populations all the time. Thus, mutations are relatively common, and
the mutation rate is an adequate source of new alleles. High levels of molecular variation are
common in natural populations, although many mutations (usually recessive) are hidden. The
mutation rate varies greatly among species and even among genes of an individual. Mutations
are caused by errors in DNA replication, chemicals, or radiation. Large scale effects of mutation
result only when mutation is combined with other factors that reshuffle the gene pool. Selection
acts on individuals, not their individual genes. Sexual reproduction increases variation by
reshuffling the genetic information from parents into new combinations in their offspring.
Mutations produce new alleles.
Additional Sources of Variation
1. Genetic Drift
Gene flow moves alleles among populations through interbreeding as well as by migration of
breeding individuals. Gene flow increases variation within a population by introducing new
alleles produced in another population. Continued gene flow tends to decrease the diversity
among populations, causing gene pools to become similar. Reduction or restriction of gene flow
between populations is essential for the development of new species. The frequency of alleles
can change from generation to generation as a result of chance alone in a small gene pool. This
phenomenon is known as genetic drift.
Random mating involves individuals pairing by chance, not according to their genotypes
or phenotypes. Nonrandom mating involves individuals inbreeding and assortative mating.
Inbreeding is mating between relatives to a greater extent than by chance; inbreeding can
occur if dispersal is so low that mates are likely to be related and does not change allele
frequencies, but it does decrease the proportion of heterozygotes and increase the proportions
of both homozygotes at all gene loci. Assortative mating occurs when individuals tend to mate
with those that have the same phenotype. Assortative mating divides a population into two
phenotypic classes with reduced gene exchange. Genetic drift is changes in allele frequencies of
a gene pool due to chance or random events. This can occur in large or small populations.
Genetic drift causes gene pools of two isolated populations to become dissimilar as some alleles
are lost and other are fixed. Genetic drift occurs when founders (or colonizers) establish a new
population, or after a genetic bottleneck and resultant interbreeding. The founder effect is a
case of genetic drift in which rare alleles, or combinations of alleles, occur in higher frequency
in a population isolated from the general population. Founding individuals contain a fraction of
the total genetic diversity of original gene pool. The allele carried by founders is determined by
chance alone. Consider the Pilgrim colonists in New England. By no means did they represent
all the genetic variation of the human species or even genetic variations among Europeans.
2. A bottleneck effect
Drastic short-term reductions of population size caused by natural disasters, disease, or predators
may result in (by chance) the survivors representing only a small portion of the original gene
pool. Even when the population increases to its original size, a portion of its original genetic
diversity remains lost. This feature, termed a bottleneck, is a problem with many endangered
species. A bottleneck effect is genetic drift in which a severe reduction in population size results
from natural disaster, predation, or habitat reduction. This results in a severe reduction of the
total genetic diversity of the original gene pool. The cheetah bottleneck causes relative infertility
because of the intense inbreeding. Similarly, the Hawaiian silversword has passed recently
through its own bottleneck. Recent studies on humans suggest that there may have been one
or more instances of severe genetic bottlenecks in our own prehistory. The bottleneck effect
prevents most genotypes from participating in production of next generation.
3. Migration (Gene Flow)

Into or out of a population can breakdown genetic differences between populations. Mutations
developing in one population may be spread to other populations by migration. This serves,
like mutation, to introduce new alleles into populations.
4. Natural Selection
Not all members of a population necessarily have an equal chance of surviving and reproducing
(due to competition for resources and mates). By virtue of small phenotypic variations, some
individuals are better adapted to their environment than are others. The better adapted
individuals are more “fit” and tend to survive and reproduce, passing on their adaptations to
the next generation in greater frequency than those adaptations of the less “fit” members of
the population. Fitness is a measure of an individuals ability to survive and reproduce. Those
with the highest fitness are more likely to survive and reproduce. Thus, they make a greater
contribution to the gene pool, of the next generation than do those less “fit”. Natural selection
is the process of differential survival and reproduction that inevitably leads to changes in allele
frequencies over time as those individuals who are the most “fit” survive and leave more
offspring. There are three patterns, or types, of natural selection.
Numb er o f individual s
Large Peak shifts

Number of ind ividu als
with ph enotyp e
Medium- Peak gets individuals in one

with p heno type
sized favored direction

higher and
individuals narrower
favored
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Selection Selection
Numb er o f individual s
Large and small Two peaks
with ph enotyp e
individuals favored
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Selection
1. Stabilizing Selection
Stabilizing selection favors the intermediate phenotype out of a range of phenotypes. The
extremes in variation are selected against. Selection works against both extremes.
2. Directional Selection
Directional selection tends to favor phenotypes at one extreme of the range of variation.
Insecticide resistance is an example. DDT was a widely used insecticide. After a few years of
extensive use, DDT lost its effectiveness on insects. Resistance to DDT is a genetic trait that
the presence of DDT in the environment made into a favored trait. Only those insects resistant
to DDT survived, leading over time to populations largely resistant to DDT. Another example
is Industrial melanism in the peppered moth (Biston betularia)). Before the Industrial
Revolution in the 18th and early 19th centuries, only light-colored moths were collected in
light-colored woodlands in England.There was a rare, dark form. With the pollution caused by
the buring of coal, the light-colored tree trunks became darker due to soot. The once rare dark-
colored moths became more prevalent, while the once-common light-colored moths became
increasingly rare. Reason: predation by birds. The color that had the greatest contrast with the
background (tree trunk) was at a disadvantage. Cleanup of the forest during the 1950s caused
the allele frequencies of light and dark moths to reverse to pre-Industrial Revolution levels,
dark moths are now rare, light moths are now common. The resistance of many bacterial
species to antibiotics ia another example of directional selection. Over 200 species show some
degree of antibiotic resistance, necessitating the development and more prudent use of a new
generation of antibiotic medicines.
3. Disruptive Selection
In some circumstances, individuals at both extremes of a range of phenotypes are favored
over those in the middle. This is called disruptive selection. An example: The residues (“tailings”)
of mines often contain such high concentrations of toxic metals (e.g., copper, lead) that most
plants are unable to grow on them. However, some hardy species (e.g. certain grasses) are able
to spread from the surrounding uncontaminated soil onto such waste heaps. These plants
develop resistance to the toxic metals while their ability to grow on uncontaminated soil
decreases. Because grasses are wind pollinated, breeding between the resistant and nonresistant
populations goes on. But evidently, disruptive selection is at work. Higher death rates of both
less resistant plants growing on contaminated soil and more resistant plants growing on
uncontaminated soil leads to increasing divergence of the populations into two subpopulations
with the extreme manifestations of this trait. The evolutionary significance of disruptive selection
lies in the possibility that the gene pool may become split into two distinct gene pools. This may
be a way in which new species are formed.
Mortality Selection: Certain genotypes are less successful than others in surviving
through to the end of their reproductive period.The evolutionary impact of mortality selection
can be felt anytime from the formation of a new zygote to the end (if there is one) of the
organism’s period of fertility. Mortality selection is simply another way of describing Darwin’s
criteria of fitness: survival.
Fecundity Selection: Certain phenotypes (thus genotypes) may make a disproportionate
contribution to the gene pool of the next generation by producing a disproportionate number of
young. Such fecundity selection is another way of describing another criterion of fitness described
by Darwin: family size. In each of these examples of natural selection certain phenotypes are
better able than others to contribute their genes to the next generation. Thus, by Darwin’s
standards, they are more fit. The outcome is a gradual change in the gene frequencies in that
population.
Microevolution: Accumulation of small changes in gene pool over a relatively short
period of two or more generations. In classic observations and experiments, dark colored moths
went from being 10% of population to 80% when soot colored trees and switched success of
predators.
Place and Sequence of Human Evolution

There is evidence that almost all of Hominid evolution occurred in Africa and Asia and that the
evolution of the human species took place in Africa. Several species belonging to the genus
Homo can be recognized from the fossil record. For example, Homo habilis lived in Africa about
two million years ago and was characterized by having a larger brain that Australopithecus,
using tools and being bipedal. Another species, Homo erectus appeared about 1.7 million years
ago, used fire and is believed to have migrated to Asia and Europe. Fossils of the so-called ‘Java
man’ and ‘Peking man’ belong to Homo erectus. Homo erectus was replaced by Homo sapiens.
A primitive form of Homo sapiens, called Neanderthal man (Homo sapiens
neanderthalensis), was common in Europe and Asia. The Neanderthal men resembled us, though
they were relatively short and stocky and more powerfully built. The Neanderthals made tools
and used animal hides as clothing. They built hut-like structures for dwelling and buried their
dead. There is evidence that an abrupt transition occurred all over Europe whereby the
Neanderthal man was wiped out and gave way to the more efficient cousin, the Cro-Magnon,
about 34000 years ago. The Cro-Magnon people left behind very elaborate cave paintings showing
the attainment of a form of culture not unlike our own. After the last glacial period (about
10,000 years ago), modern Home sapiens began to spread all over the globe, cultivated plants,
domesticated animals and reached enormous population sizes.
Homo sapiens appeared in Africa about 500,000 years and probably replaced Homo erectus
there. But in Asia Homo erectus appears to have survived for another 250,000 years when it
was finally replaced by Homo sapiens migrating from Africa.
POPULATION GENETICS
A population is a group of potentially interbreeding organisms of the same species occupying a
certain area. Members of a population vary from one another. This variation is the raw material
on which natural selection operates. There are several types of mutations, both at the gene-
level and the chromosome-level. Gene mutations provide new alleles, making these mutations
the ultimate source of variation. A gene mutation is an alteration in the DNA nucleotide
sequence, producing an alternate sequence, termed an allele.
Mutations occur at random, and can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful. Some chromosomal
mutations are changes in the number of chromosomes inherited, while others are alterations
in arrangement of alleles on chromosomes due to inversions and translocations.
In sexually reproducing organisms, genetic recombination is the reallocation of alleles
and chromosomes. Recombination results from crossing-over during meiosis, the random
segregation of chromosomes to gametes during meiotic division, and the random combination
of gametes during fertilization.
The entire genotype is subject to natural selection since new combinations of alleles may
have improve the reproductive success of the organism. For polygenic traits, the most favorable
combination may occur when the right alleles group by recombination. Not only are variations
created, they are also preserved and passed on from one generation to the next. The gene pool
is the total of all the alleles in a population, in the context of gene frequencies. Neither dominance
nor sexual reproduction will change allele frequencies.
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is a constancy of gene pool frequencies that remains across
generations, and might best be found among stable populations with no natural selection or
where selection is stabilizing. Microevolution is the accumulation of small changes in a gene
pool over a relatively short period.
The Hardy-weinberg Equilibrium

The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is the central theoretical model in population genetics. The
concept of equilibrium in the Hardy-Weinberg model is subject to the following hypotheses/
conditions:
1. The population is panmictic [couples form randomly (panmixia), and their gametes
encounter each other randomly (pangamy)].
2. The population is “infinite” (very large: to minimize differences due to sampling).
3. There must be no selection, mutation, migration (no allele loss /gain).
4. Successive generations are discrete (no crosses between different generations).
Under these circumstances, the genetic diversity of the population is maintained and
must tend towards a stable equilibrium of the distribution of the genotype.
The Hardy-Weinberg law can be used under some circumstances to calculate genotype
frequencies from allele frequencies. Let A1 and A2 be two alleles at the same locus,
p is the frequency of allele A1 0=<p=<1
q is the frequency of allele A2 0 = < q = < 1 and p + q = 1
where the distribution of allele frequencies is the same in men and women, then
p × p = p2 p × q = pq q × p = pq q × q= q2
they procreate : (p + q)2 = p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
where
p2 = frequency of the A1 A1 genotype ¬ HOMOZYGOTE
2pq = frequency of the A1 A2 genotype ¬ HETEROZYGOTE
q2 = frequency of the A2 A2 genotype ¬ HOMOZYGOTE
these frequencies remain constant in successive generations.
Example: autosomal recessive inheritance with alleles A and a, and allele frequencies p
and q:
® frequency of the genotypes: : AA = p2 and the phenotypes [ ]: [A] = p2 + 2pq
Aa = 2pq [a] = q2
aa = q2
Example: phenylketonuria (recessive autosomal), of which the deleterious gene has a
frequency of 1/100:
® q = 1/100
therefore, the frequency of this disease is q2 = 1/10 000,
and the frequency of heterozygotes is 2pq = 2 × 99/100 × 1/100 = 2/100;
Note that there are a lot of heterozygotes: 1/50, two hundred times more than there are
individuals suffering from the condition. .
For a rare disease, p is very little different from 1, and the frequency of the heterozygotes
= 2q.
We use these equations implicitly, in formal genetics and in the genetics of pooled
populations, usually without considering whether, and under what conditions, they are applicable.
Species Concept and Mechanisms of Speciation

Evolutionary theory must explain macroevolution, the origin of new taxonomic groups
(e.g., new species, new genera, new families). Speciation, or the origin of new species, is a
central process of macroevolution because any genus, family, or higher taxon originates with a
new species novel enough to be the first member of the higher taxon. The fossil record provides
evidence for two patterns of speciation: anagenesis and cladogenesis.
1. Anagenesis (phyletic evolution) = The transformation of an unbranched lineage
of organisms, sometimes to a state different enough from the ancestral population to
justify renaming it as a new species.
2. Cladogenesis (branching evolution) = The budding of one or more new species
from a parent species that continues to exist; is more important than anagenesis in
life’s history, because it is more common and can promote biological diversity.
Species are often considered the bridge between micro- and macroevolution. Traditionally,
taxonomists (e.g., Carl Linnaeus) used a typological species concept. Individual members of a
species are characterized by a particular (morphological) type. However, the problem arises
here that there is almost always phenotypic variation within populations, which can be extreme.
Examples of significant variation caused by single-locus polymorphisms that can thus occur
within one litter snow goose and king snake color patterns, variation in duration of circadian
cycle in Drosophila through variation at the per locus. The widespread existence of variation
together with Darwin’s view that species specific characteristic traits can evolve lead to an
abandonment of the typological species concept.
The most widespread species concept currently in use is the Biological Species Concept
(BSC), as defined by Ernst Mayr: Species are groups of actually or potentially
interbreeding populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
The criterion here is that interbreeding or gene exchange among organisms must occur,
either actually or potentially. Viable offspring alone is not enough. The term potentially refers
to a situation where, for instance, there are populations that are geographically isolated but
that could interbreed if brought in contact. Such populations represent one species under the
BSC.
Merits of the BSC: The definition defines species as units of evolution, by virtue of their
interbreeding, which makes it a “natural” species concept from an evolutionary standpoint.
Problems with the BSC: It does not apply to asexual populations, thus raises the question
how, for example, many bacterial species are to be defined.In practice, the species concept used
for prokaryotes is still a typological species concept.
Interbreeding vs. reproductive isolation is not an all-or-none distinction

Examples: Hybrid zones of the hooded crow and carrion crow where their ranges get
into contact. These crow populations are neither fully interbreeding nor fully isolated, hence
the name semispecies.
Sympatric hybridization: sometimes species whose ranges have come into contact
after allopatric speciation hybridize to a limited extent.
Ring species: For instance, a californian salamander, Ensatina eschscholtzii, occurs on
both sides of the central valley in California, but not in the valley. There is a chain of 7 subspecies
that form a ring around the valley. Mitochondrial data suggest that the origination of this
range was the north, from which the populations migrated southward at both sides of the
valley. All adjacent populations interbreed, except for the two southernmost ones.
Practical limitations: For allopatric populations, one would have to assess whether the
members actually interbred, which is often not feasible (they might not breed in captivity).
However, even if possible to show that they can interbreed in captivity, one can not be sure
that they would actually interbreed in nature when brought into contact.
There are many other species concepts with more restricted usage. One example is the
phylogenetic species concept which emphasizes common evolutionary history. It is defined
as a irreducible basal cluster of organisms diagnosably different from other such clusters, and
within which there is a parental pattern of ancestry and descent. Any character that distinguishes
a population would define it as a species, regardless of whether it interbreeds with others or
not. This species concept will lead to a classification of organisms that can sometimes be different
from BSC. It also applies to asexual organisms.
Examples for barriers to gene flow
1. Prezygotic barriers
(a) Temporal isolation: Two species of field crickets reach reproductive age in the fall
and in the spring in the N East of U.S.
(b) Habitat isolation: Two sympatric species of herbivorous ladybird beetles feed on thistles
and blue cohosh, respectively. They mate on their respective host plants, which are
their microhabitats.
(c) Ethological isolation: Frequent in animals, the courting individual sends out signals
only to conspecific individuals, or, if not, the courted individual does not respond.
Female crickes tend to react only to the conspecific male’s courtship song. Male
moths are often only attracted by conspecific’s sex pheromones.
(d) Mechanical isolation: Two swedish orchids (genus Platanthera) use different moths
as pollinators. Their morphologies are such that the pollen masses (pollinia) attach
to different parts of the moths, i.e.,the proboscis and the eye. Plants with intermediate
flower morphology have lower pollination success.
(e) Gametic incompatibility: Especially important among external fertilizers, e.g., marine
invertebrates. In a species of large marine snails, the sperm contains an enzyme that
can dissolve the vitelline membrane only of a conspecific egg. In flowering-incompatible
plants, when pollen is placed on the stigma, the growth of the pollen tube through
the style may be arrested, a phenomenon not well understood physiologically.
2. Postzygotic barriers
When prezygotic barriers are crossed and a hybrid zygote forms, one of several postzygotic
barriers may prevent development of a viable, fertile hybrid.
(a) Reduced hybrid viability: Genetic incompatibility between the two species may abort
development of the hybrid at some embryonic stage. For example, several species of
frogs in the genus Rana live in the same regions and habitats. They occasionally
hybridize but the hybrids generally do not complete development, and those that do
are frail and soon die.
(b) Reduced hybrid fertility: If two species mate and produce hybrid offspring that are
viable, reproductive isolation is intact if the hybrids are sterile because genes cannot
flow from one species’ gene pool to the other. One cause of this barrier is that if
chromosomes of the two parent species differ in number or structure, meiosis cannot
produce normal gametes in the hybrid. The most familiar case is the mule which is
produced by crossing a donkey and a horse; very rarely are mules able to backbreed
with either parent species.
(c) Hybrid breakdown: When some species cross-mate, the first generation hybrids are
viable and fertile, but when these hybrids mate with one another or with either
parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile. For example,
different cotton species can produce fertile hybrids, breakdown occurs in the next
generation when progeny of the hybrids die in their seeds or grow into weak defective
plants.
Modes of speciation
Reproductive barriers form boundaries around species, and the evolution of these barriers is
the key biological event in the origin of new species. An essential episode in the origin of a
species occurs when the gene pool of a population is separated from other populations of the
parent species. This genetically isolated splinter group can then follow its own evolutionary
course, as changes in allele frequencies caused by selection, genetic drift, and mutations occur
undiluted by gene flow from other populations.
The main modes here are allopatric, sympatric, parapatric, and peripatric speciation.
1. Allopatric Speciation
Speciation that occurs when the initial block to gene flow is a geographical barrier that physically
isolates the population. Such occurrences include emergence of mountain ranges, movement
of glaciers, formation of land bridges, subsidence of large lakes. Geographical populations often
differ genetically, which includes genetic markers associated with reproductive isolation.
Adaptive radiation = The evolution of many diversely adapted species from a common
ancestor. Examples of adaptive radiation are the endemic species (= species confined to a specific
small geographical region) of the Galapagos Islands which descended from small populations
which floated, flew, or were blown from South America to the islands. Darwin’s finches can be
used to illustrate a model for such adaptive radiation on island chains. A single dispersal event
may have seeded one island with a peripheral isolate of the ancestral finch which diverged as it
underwent allopatric speciation. A few individuals of this new species may have reached
neighboring islands, forming new peipheral isolates which also speciated.
Vicariant Speciation: Two populations of comparable size ecome separated by a barrier.
2. Peripatric Speciation (Founder Effect Speciation, Speciation via “Shifting

Balance”)
Small founder populations colonize an area outside the main population range. Populations
adapted to an environment can be thought of as occupying peaks in an adaptive landscape.
These peaks represent alternative optimal genotypic organizations. The proposed mechanism
relies on a combination of genetic drift (which will be strong in small founder populations), and
natural selection. Consider a small karyotypic anomaliy in the parental population. If drift can
drive this karyotype to a population frequency > 0.5, it may become the dominant, and thus
favored karyotype. Selection will then drive it to the nearest adaptive peak. Founder effect
speciation is thought to cause a rapid reorganizations of the genetic constitution of populations,
which is associated with reproductive isolation. Notice the fundamental difference between the
genetic model for allopatric speciation in general, and for peripatric speciation: in peripatric
speciation, no environmental differences in the two habitats are required.
Evidence for peripatric speciation: Many examples are available from natural
populations, geographic variation of sexual dimorphism (plumage color of male-female) in the
robin Petroica multicolor. On mainland Australia, the dimorphism is uniform, whereas on
peripheral islands, there is a wide variation in dimorphism.
Experimental populations: Reproductive isolation evolves sometimes in populations
of Drosophila and mice that are subjected to repeated population bottlenecks.
3. Sympatric Speciation
Sympatric speciation = Formation of new species within the range of parent populations.
Reproductive isolation evolves without geographical isolation. This can occur quickly (in one
generation) if a genetic change results in a reproductive barrier between the mutants and the
parent population. Many plant species have originated from improper cell division that results
in extra sets of chromosomes-a mutant condition called polyploidy. Depending on the origin of
the extra set of chromosomes, polyploids are classified in two forms: autopolyploids and
allopolyploids.
Autopolyploid = An organism that has more than two chromosome sets, all derived from
a single species. For example, Nondisjunction in the germ cell line (in either mitosis or meiosis)
results in diploid gametes. Self-fertilization would double the chromosome number to the
tetraploid state. Tetraploids can self-pollinate or mate with other tetraploids. The mutants
cannot interbreed with diploids of the parent population because hybrids would be triploid (3n)
and sterile due to impaired meiosis from unpaired chromosomes. An instantaneous special
genetic event would thus produce a postzygotic barrier which isolates the gene pool of the
mutant in just one generation.
Allopolyploid = A polyploid hybrid resulting from contributions by two different species.

More common than autopolyploidy. Potential evolution of an allopolyploid begins when two
different species interbreed and a hybrid is produced. Such interspecific hybrids are usually
sterile, because the haploid set of chromosomes from one species cannot pair during meiosis
with the haploid set of chromosomes from the second species. These sterile hybrids may actually
be more vigorous than the parent species and propagate asexually. They would be more vigorous
because they have the best qualities of both species. At least two mechanisms can transform
sterile allopolyploid hybrids into fertile polyploids. We will discuss just one of these:
During the history of the hybrid clone, mitotic nondisjunction in the reproductive tissue
may double the chromosome number. The hybrid clone will then be able to produce gametes
since each chromosome will have a homologue to synapse with during meiosis. Gametes from
this fertile tetraploid could unite and produce a new species of interbreeding individuals,
reproductively isolated from both parent species. Speciation of polyploids (especially allopolyploids)
has been very important in plant evolution. Some allopolyploids are very vigorous because
they contain the best qualities of both parent species. The accidents required to produce these
new plant species (interspecific hybridization coupled with nondisjunction) have occurred often
enough that between 25% and 50% of all plant species are polyploids. Sympatric speciation may
also occur in animal evolution through different mechanisms.
A group of animals may become isolated within the range of a parent population if genetic
factors cause them to become fixed on resources not used by the parent population as a whole.
For example, A particular species of wasp pollinates each species of figs. The wasps mate and
lay their eggs in the figs. A genetic change causing wasps to select a different fig species would
segregate mating individuals of the new phenotype from the parental population. Divergence
could then occur after such an isolation.
4. Parapatric Speciation
Evolution of reproductive isolation within one continuous population in adjacent regions. It
may require very strong divergent selection within the population and or selection for
reproductive isolation itself, which is controversial.
FACTORS FACILITATING SPECIATION
1. Ecological factors
For example, the low dispersal rates of Drosophila and ample opportunities for geographical
isolation may have enabled rapid speciation in the Hawaiian islands.
2. Factors internal to the organism

These are in general poorly understood, but one instructive example exists. Primitive frogs
have a short inner ear that restricts them to a small range of frequencies (and thus to a limited
potential to distinguish mating calls). “Advanced” frogs have a much longer inner ear and
frequency range. Speciation rates seem to have increased in frog evolution, which may be
facilitated by increased opportunities for sexual selection, sexual isolation, and speciation.
3. Adaptive divergence
Two populations which adapt to different environments accumulate differences in the frequencies
of alleles and genotypes. During this gradual adaptive divergence of the two gene pools,
reproductive barriers may evolve between the two populations. Evolution of reproductive barriers
would differentiate these populations into two species. A key point in evolution by divergence is
that reproductive barriers can arise without being favored directly by natural selection.
Divergence of two populations is due to their adaptation to separate environments, with
reproductive isolation being a secondary development. Gradual genetic divergence of two
populations may also result in the evolution of pre-zygotic barriers. For instance, an ecological
barrier to inbreeding may secondarily result from the adaptation of an insect population to a
new host plant different from the original population’s host.
4. Hybrid zones and the cohesion concept of species

Three possible outcomes are possible when two closely related populations that have been
allopatric for some time come back into contact: The two populations may interbreed freely.
The gene pools would become incorporated into a single pool indicating that speciation had not
occurred during their time of geographical isolation. The two populations may not interbreed
due to reproductive barriers. The gene pools would remain separate due to the evolutionary
divergence which occurred during the time of geographical isolation. Speciation has taken
place. A hybrid zone may be established.
Hybrid zone = A region where two related populations that diverged after becoming
geographically isolated make secondary contact and interbreed where their geographical ranges
overlap For example, the red-shafted flicker of western North America and the yellowshafted
flicker of central North America are two phenotypically distinct populations of woodpeckers
that interbreed in a hybrid zone stretching from southern Alaska to the Texas panhandle. The
two populations came into renewed contact a few centuries ago after being separated during
the ice ages. The hybrid zone is relatively stable and not expanding.
HOW MUCH GENETIC CHANGE IS REQUIRED FOR SPECIATION?

No generalizations can be made about genetic distance between closely related species.
Reproductive isolation may result from changes in many loci or only in a few.
The punctuated equilibrium model has stimulated research on the tempo of speciation.
Traditional evolutionary trees diagram the descent of species from ancestral forms as branches
that gradually diverge with each new species evolving continuously over long spans of time.
Big changes thus occur due to the accumulation of many small changes.
Paleontologists rarely find gradual transitions of fossil forms but often observe species
appearing as new forms suddenly in the rock layers. These species persist virtually unchanged
and then disappear as suddenly as they appeared. Even Darwin, who believed species from a
common ancestral stock evolve differences gradually, was perplexed by the lack of transitional
forms in the fossil record. Advocates of punctuated equilibrium have redrawn the evolutionary
tree to represent fossil evidence for evolution occurring in spurts of relatively rapid change
instead of gradual divergence.
This theory was proposed by Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould in 1972. It depicts
species undergoing most of their morphological modification as they first separate from the
parent species then showing little change as they produce additional species. In this theory
gradual change is replaced with long periods of stasis punctuated with episodes of speciation.
The origin of new polyploid plants through genome changes is one mechanism of sudden
speciation. For a population facing new environmental conditions, genetic drift and natural
selection can cause significant change in only a few hundred or thousand generations. A few
thousand generations is considered rapid in reference to the geologic time scale.
The fossil record indicates that successful species survive for a few million years on average.
If a species survives for five million years and most of its morphological changes occur in the
first 50,000 years; then the speciation episode occurred in just 1% of the species’ lifetime. With
this time scale, a species will appear suddenly in rocks of a certain age, linger relatively
unchanged for millions of years, then become extinct.
An evolutionary spurt preceding a longer period of morphological stasis would explain
why paleontologists find so few transitions in the fossils record of a species. Because “sudden”
can refer to thousands of years on the geological time scale, differing opinions of punctuationalists
and gradualists about the rate of speciation may be more a function of time perspective than
conceptual difference.
There is clear disagreement, however, over how much a species changes after its origin.
Hybrid sterility has a continuous range, from none to complete, and may be caused by two
main factors generation of aneuploid gametes due to structural chromosomal differences between
the genes of the parents, which may interact “disharmoniously”, as opposed to the “co-adapted”
gene complexes within the species.
Arguments against this hypothesis are morphology can change within lineages, stable
lineages in the fossil record do fluctuate, the low resolution of the fossil record (<100000yr). If
its resolution was higher, the argument goes, one would observe that the apparently sudden
transitions are actually gradual transitions.
Punctuated gradualism: Character evolution is episodic, but not necessarily associated
with speciation. The most contentious issue here is between hypothesis one and two. To
distinguish between the two, one has to assess whether morphological change is usually associated
with speciation.
Missing links: They are frequent in the fossil record (e.g., body plan types), and there
are two alternative possibilities for why they occur. First, if most major phenotypic changes
were brought about by macromutations (saltatory evolution then no links would exist.
Goldschmidts macromutations were proposed as a complete “repatterning” of the chromosomal
material, not single gene mutations. There is no evidence for such large scale repatterning
leading to viable organisms. Single gene “macromutations” occur (e.g., homeotic mutations),
but they usually are highly deleterious. If most phenotypic evolution occurs according to the
punctuated equilibrium hypothesis via founder effect speciation, the frequent absence of missing
links would be explicable by the small transitional population sizes involved.Thus, the phenotypic
changes may be continuous, but poorly preserved.
POLYMORPHISM
A polymorphism is a genetic variant that appears in at least 1% of a population. Examples: the
human ABO blood groups, the human Rh factor the human major histocompatibility complex
(MHC). By setting the cutoff at 1%, it excludes spontaneous mutations that may have occurred
in — and spread through the descendants of — a single family.
Protein Polymorphisms: All the examples above are of the protein products of alleles.
These can be identified by: serology; that is, using antibodies to detect the different versions of
the protein and electrophoresis; if amino acid changes in the protein alter its net electrical
charge, it will migrate more or less rapidly in an electrical field.
Enzymes are frequently polymorphic: A population may contain two or more variants
of an enzyme encoded by a single locus. The variants differ slightly in their amino acid sequence
and often this causes them to migrate differently under electrophoresis. By treating the gel
with the substrate for the enzyme, its presence can be visualized. Electrophoretic variants of
an enzyme occurring in a population are called allozymes.
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs): Proteins are gene products
and so polymorphic versions are simply reflections of allelic differences in the gene; that is,
allelic differences in DNA. Often these changes create new — or abolish old — sites for restriction
enzymes to cut the DNA. Digestion with the enzyme then produces DNA fragments of a different
length. These can be detected by electrophoresis.
Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs): Developments in DNA sequencing now
make it easy to look for allelic versions of a gene by sequencing samples of the gene taken from
different members of a population (or from a heterozygous individual). Alleles whose sequence
reveals only a single changed nucleotide are called single nucleotide polymorphisms or SNPs.
SNPs can occur in noncoding parts of the gene so they would not be seen in the protein product.
might not alter the cutting site for any known restriction enzymes so they would not be seen by
RFLP analysis.
Copy Number Polymorphisms (CNPs): Genetic analysis (using DNA chips and FISH)
has revealed another class of human polymorphisms. These copy number polymorphisms are
large (thousands of base pairs) duplications or deletions that are found in some people but not
in others. On average, one person differs from another by 11 of these. One or more have been
found on most chromosomes, and the list is probably incomplete. While most of this DNA is
non-coding, functional genes are embedded in some of it. How, or if, the person adapts to the
resulting change in gene number is unknown.
How are polymorphisms useful?

Polymorphism analysis is used: in tissue typing; 1. in order to find the best match between the
donor, e.g., of a kidney, and the recipient. 2. finding disease genes. Example: the gene for
Huntington’s disease was located when the presence of the disease was found to be linked to a
RFLP whose location on the chromosome was known. 3. in population studies, for example,
assessing the degree of genetic diversity in a population. 4. Determining whether two populations
represent separate species or races of the same species. This is often critical to applying laws
protecting endangered species. 5. Tracking migration patterns of a species (e.g., whales).
How do polymorphisms arise and persist?

1. By mutation. But what keeps them in the population? Several factors may maintain
polymorphism in a population.
(a) Founder Effect: If a population began with a few individuals — one or more of
whom carried a particular allele — that allele may come to be represented in
many of the descendants. In the 1680s, Ariaantje and Gerrit Jansz emigrated
from Holland to South Africa, one of them bringing along an allele for the mild
metabolic disease porphyria. Today more than 30000 South Africans carry this
allele and, in every case examined, can trace it back to this couple — a remarkable
example of the founder effect.
(b) Genetic Drift: An allele may increase — or decrease — in frequency simply
through chance. Not every member of the population will become a parent and
not every set of parents will produce the same number of offspring. The effect,
called random genetic drift, is particularly strong in small populations (e.g., 100
breeding pairs or fewer); when the gene is neutral; that is, is neither helpful nor
deleterious. Eventually the entire population may become homozygous for the
allele or — equally likely — the allele may disappear. Before either of these
fates occurs, the allele represents a polymorphism.
Two examples of reduced polymorphism because of genetic drift

By 1900 hunting of the northern elephant seal off the Pacific coast had reduced its population to
only 20 survivors. Since hunting ended, the population has rebounded from this population
bottleneck to some 100,000 animals today. However, these animals are homozygous at every
one of the gene loci that have been examined. Cheetahs, the fastest of the land animals, seem
to have passed through a similar period of small population size with its accompanying genetic
drift. Examination of 52 different loci has failed to reveal any polymorphisms; that is, these
animals are homozygous at all 52 loci. The lack of genetic variability is so profound that cheetahs
will accept skin grafts from each other just as identical twins (and inbred mouse strains) do.
Whether a population with such little genetic diversity can continue to adapt to a changing
environment remains to be seen.
Balanced Polymorphism
In regions of the world (e.g., parts of Africa) where malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum
is common, the allele for sickle-cell hemoglobin is also common. This is because children who
inherit one gene for the “normal” beta chain of hemoglobin and one sickle gene are more likely
to survive that either homozygote. Children homozygous for the sickle allele die young from
sickle-cell disease but children homozygous for the “normal” beta chain are far more susceptible
to illness and death from falciparum malaria than are heterozygotes. Hence the relatively high
frequency of the allele in malarial regions. When natural selection favors heterozygotes over
both homozygotes, the result is balanced polymorphism. It accounts for the persistence of
an allele even though it is deleterious when homozygous.
Another example: prion proteins: All human populations are polymorphic for the
prion protein PrPC. It is encoded by the prion protein gene (PRNP). Two of the alleles have
different codons at position 129: one encoding methionine; the other valine. Homozygosity for
either allele increases the susceptibility to prion diseases. People who are heterozygous are
more resistant. A study of elderly women who had survived the kuru epidemic of the first half
of the 20th century (eating the tissues of the deceased was banned in 1950) showed that 76.7%
of them were heterozygotes.
MOLECULAR EVOLUTION
Until recently, evolution has been considered an organismal process in as much as whole
organisms were the units of natural selection and change was evident in populations only
insofar as organisms in the population changed. Now it is readily apparent that evolution can
take place at the molecular level, especially within DNA and RNA molecules, and that this
evolution arises by processes other than selection. For this reason, it is sometimes considered
non-Darwinian evolution.
Evolutionary change detectable at the molecular level: evolution has traditionally

been studied by comparing morphological features of organisms and their fossil ancestors. In
the 1960’s and 1970’s, it became possible to look at genetic change directly at first, gene products
(enzymes, nonenzyme proteins, etc.) were analyzed using electrophoresis or immunological
assay techniques later, DNA and RNA sequences were analyzed directly similarities and
differences indicate evolutionary relationships.
Rates of Molecular Evolution: Early studies of genetic variation at the molecular level
produced surprising results. First, the genome of most organisms is remarkably diverse, with
only a fraction of the genome of eukaryotes consisting of single-copy genes that code for proteins.
Also, genomes are not functionally integrated; there are parasitic sequences and repetitive
selfish sequences that add nothing to the fitness of the organism within which they reside.
Also, there are different sequences in different organelles of the cell.
Additional study of molecular variation indicated that evolutionary change occurs at this
level just as it does at the phenotypic level. However, the rates of change at the two levels are
frequently different, with the rate being much higher in certain sites within genes than is seen
in organisms. How do we account for this? Are there different processes operating at each
level? One of the most basic theories in evolution to have appeared since Darwin, called the
neutral theory of molecular evolution, was developed to account for evolution at the molecular
level. It is also controversial, although not nearly as controversial as Darwin’s theory was in
1859.
Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution

If there is a theory that seems to be diametrically opposed to Darwinian evolution, it is the
neutral theory of molecular evolution. First proposed by Kimura (1968) and elaborated further
by King and Jutes (1969) and Kimura and Ohta (1971), this theory suggests that evolutionary
change measurable at the molecular level can be accounted for in many cases not by selection,
but by mutation and random establishment of allele frequencies in populations. It does not
oppose the neo-Darwinian argument that natural selection is responsible for change at the
phenotypic level; therefore, morphological, physiological and behavioral features of organisms
are still assumed to arise by selection that operates on individuals. However, most of the
variation we observe at the molecular level is assumed to have little effect on individuals.
The neutral theory suggests that this arises more or less constantly by mutation and
becomes established in populations because of random rates of loss and fixation. Since evolution
at this level is more or less constant, sequence differences between species can serve as a
molecular clock which can provide information about the timing of divergence of species in a
lineage.
Initial tests of the theory made use of allozyme data. Briefly, this technique shows the
presence/absence of various allozymes (alternative electrophoretic forms of an enzyme coded
for by alternative alleles) in polymorphic populations. Although little is known about what
variation in the enzymes means in terms of function, they allow one to measure allele frequencies
in populations.
More recent data from DNA sequencing indicate that the accumulation of large amounts
of variability in noncoding DNA takes place in many organisms (apparently randomly). Even in
coding regions (which are far less variable than noncoding regions), many molecular changes
are apparent at sites less important in determining function. This information supports the
neutral theory. However, it is apparent that molecular constraints (minimizing changes in
important functional regions, for example) are influenced strongly by selection. These constraints
are different for different proteins and help to explain the rapid rates of change of some molecules
and slow rates of others. Therefore, it is not correct to consider the Neutral Theory and Natural
Selection to be alternative and opposing views in evolution. Clearly, they are both involved and
evidence for both is available, no matter which point of view (molecular or phenotypic) is taken.
The theory makes three basic predictions concerning molecular evolution:
1. rates of change of genes (and the proteins they code for) will be constant over time;
2. the highest rates of change will be observed for those portions of the genome that are
least subject to functional constraints, changes in which would lead to elimination by
selection; and
3. the maximum rate of molecular evolution is equal to the neutral mutation rate since
most mutations are neutral and any advantageous mutations are so rare they can
have little influence on the overall rate of molecular change.
The first prediction (constant rates of molecular change) is supported by molecular
data (for example, rates of change of various proteins like hemoglobin and cytochrome c, which
are discussed in many texts (e.g., Avers, 1989) that has been collected since Kimura first began
publishing on the Neutral Theory. The uniformity of protein change with time (different rates
for different proteins) suggests selection is not a particularly important factor because if it
were, rates of change would vary as the selection pressure changed with environmental change
(low in constant environments and high in variable environments, for example). This also
indicates that the amount of structural change to proteins produced by various taxa can be
used as an indicator of the amount of time since the taxa diverged (molecular clocks). However,
the rate of evolution depends on the DNA sequence examined, and even when the same sequence
is examined in numerous lineages, there are measurable differences in rates. For example,
mitochondrial DNA sequences have evolved more slowly in turtles than in other vertebrates
The second prediction (rates of molecular evolution will be highest in DNA positions
that have the least effect on function) is supported by most of the evidence we have from
molecular genetics, for example:
1. introns (noncoding regions of the genome) vary far more than exons (coding regions)
in lineages.
2. pseudogenes (nonfunctional regions of the genome corresponding to functional regions)
vary considerably more than functional genes.
3. the third position of codons varies more than the first two; substitutions at this third
position are called synonymous since they do not change the amino acid coded for by
the codon.
The third prediction (the neutral mutation rate sets the upper limit to change; positive
selection for favorable mutations is negligible) is supported by the observations given above.
Rates of sequence change in nonfunctional regions of a genome are much faster than those at
functionally constrained regions. However, the idea that positive selection for favorable changes
cannot influence molecular evolution is an extension of the theory that is not warranted in all
cases. A recent test of this idea by McDonald & Kreitman (1991) compared sequence data from
the alcohol dehydrogenase gene of three Drosophila species, individuals of which were sampled
from different geographic regions. They considered differences observed between species as
fixed and differences among individuals of the same species to be polymorphisms. The neutral
theory predicts that the ratio of silent substitutions (which do not alter the function of a gene
product) to replacement substitutions (which alter the amino acid sequence of a protein) should
be the same at all sites even if changes at some sites are functionally constrained; therefore,
the ratio of silent to replacement substitutions will be the same for both polymorphisms (within-
species differences) and fixed substitutions (between-species differences). What they found was
a much higher ratio (29%) of replacement to silent substitutions at fixed sites that distinguish
species when compared with polymorphic sites (5%) which do not distinguish species. This
suggests that some amino acid-replacing substitutions are adaptive and fixed not by drift but by
selection operating on individuals carrying these altered genes. This causes the frequency of
these altered genes to increase more rapidly than by drift alone, and spend less time in a
polymorphic state than selectively neutral silent changes. This contradicts one of the basic
assumptions of the neutral theory.
The neutral theory has engendered much controversy among population geneticists, but
has been of immeasurable importance for several reasons. First, it accounts for much of the
variation observed within and between species at the molecular level. Second, it furnishes a
null model for how molecular evolution will operate in the absence of selection
Molecular Clocks
If macromolecules change constantly over time, then we should expect that the structure of
these molecules obtained from different organisms will be different and that the amount of
differences will be an indication of the length of time since these organisms diverged from a
common ancestor. It is as if a “molecular clock” were keeping time in organisms. This idea has
been used to estimate the timing of divergence of various groups of organisms. However, it
depends heavily on the neutral theory.
One must assume that the molecules in question (or sequences within DNA molecules)
are changing randomly and constantly (and therefore not in response to selection, which would
vary the rate). One also needs to be able to calibrate molecular clocks using some reliable
secondary source of information (just as we use the news services as a source of “real” time to
set our watches). This could be fossil evidence indicating the actual time two groups shared a
common ancestor. However, this is not always available.
These assumptions are not always met. A basic problem with molecular clocks is that
they do not keep perfect time. Every gene (or gene product) appears to change at a rate
independent of others. For example, cytochrome c and globin genes are known to evolve at
different rates. Also, different organisms exhibit different rates (molecular evolution in humans
is slower than other anthropoid apes, for example); and organisms in the same clade may
exhibit different rates at different times.
Also, DNA from different genomes evolves at different rates (mitochondrial DNA evolves
at a 10-fold higher rate than nuclear DNA; chloroplast DNA is known to change very slowly;
rDNA has coding regions that are highly conserved and noncoding regions that are variable).
Rates are determined directly by calibration using fossil evidence or indirectly by comparing
with an out-group.
There have been many controversies about rates, however, and this is one area in which
phylogenies based on different techniques can differ widely. For example, consider the concept
of “mitochondrial Eve”, a paleolithic female who lived 200,000 years go in Africa and from
whom all present-day humans descended. This is based on a analysis of mitochondrial DNA,
which is inherited exclusively through the female and modified only by mutation; it also uses a
standard estimate of mutation rate of 2-4% per million years. However, the chronology and
origin are disputed by paleontologists, who use fossil and cultural evidence to track human
origins and consider the origin to be further back in time and to have included multiple sites in
Asia, Africa and Europe.
MOLECULAR ANALYSIS
DNA and DNA products (proteins) can be obtained from living plant and animal cells fairly
easily, and then analyzed to determine evolutionary relationships among individuals representing
various taxonomic groups. DNA can even be removed from dried plant specimens and frozen or
mummified plant and animal tissues, although there is usually significant degradation and
therefore loss of systematic value.
Protein electrophoresis: Because proteins vary in size and have numerous charges,
both positive and negative, on their surfaces, different proteins will migrate differently in a
starch or acrylamide gel to which an electric field is applied. Even proteins that differ by one
amino acid substitution will exhibit different positions on a gel. These are visualized using
substrates specific to the enzymes of interest and stains to which the enzymatic reaction binds.
Electrophoresis is used to determine the genotype of individuals in polymorphic populations.
Allozyme electophoresis identifies allozymes, forms of an enzyme coded for by different alleles
at a locus. Isozyme electrophoresis is similar but isozymes are products of different loci in a
single genome. This technique was more widely used before DNA isolation techniques were
developed, but it is still used.
DNA-DNA hybridization: This method basically involves melting double-stranded DNA
of two samples at high temperatures (representatives of two sibling species, for example) and
then lowering temperatures to reanneal the single strands from each sample (if they come
from the same organisms, they are called homoduplexes and if they come from different
organisms, heteroduplexes). Reannealed homoduplexes are fairly tightly bound, and relatively
high temperatures are required to melt them; however, the more unrelated the two were
originally, melting of the reannealed heteroduplexes requires lower temperatures (if they
annealed at all originally). This technique has been used in many animal studies (including
human and other hominoid groups). However, it doesn’t seem to work very well with plants
because little reannealing takes place.
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP): Basically, this method takes
a molecule of nuclear (or organelle) DNA and cuts it at known points using various restriction
enzymes that are specific for short (usually four or six) sequences of base pairs. The fragments
produced by this cutting are then separated electrophoretically to produce genetic markers
that can be used to compare individuals from various populations. Visualization of the fragments
can be accomplished by either radioactively labeling them or staining. Direct sequencing of the
fragments can also be done if they prove of systematic value.
Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD): This technique essentially uses
short synthetic oligonucleotide primers to scan a genome for small inverted repeats and then
amplifies the sequence in between using PCR (polymerase chain reaction) to make many copies.
Since the segment of DNA being amplified is randomly located and of random length (its sequence
is usually not known), the sizes (lengths) of these pieces resolved on gels frequently vary from
genotype to genotype. This variation can be assessed in the same way as allozyme or RFLP
data. RAPD has become especially useful in population genetics because it can generate genetic
markers that are polymorphic among individuals in the same population, so “genetic individuals”
can be recognized in clonal species like fungi (for example, a recent RAPD study showed that
the world’s largest organism was a fungus that reproduced clonally and covered many hectares
of land). It has also been used to produce “genetic fingerprints” to resolve legal disputes. RAPD
is being chosen frequently over other molecular techniques now because it produces results
quickly and reliably at relatively low cost.
Direct Sequencing of Genomes: This involves precisely determining the nucleotide
sequence of a portion of a genome. Although this is more laborious, it provides relatively
reliable data with which to establish phylogenetic position of related taxa. Choices of genome
(or portion thereof) can affect the results obtained, but on the whole sequencing is used (generally
in a cladistic analysis) to establish monophyly or polyphyly of groups, ancestral vs derived
groups, etc.) when phylogenetic analysis is the object of the study.
As a general rule, choices of DNA sequences to be obtained are based on the amount of
evolutionary time involved in producing the variations in the group under study (highly
conserved portions of the genome are used when large amounts of time are involved and
rapidly-changing portions are used when not much time has passed).
In animals the mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) is frequently sequenced for comparisons
of taxa from within the same order; this is because mtDNA is maternally inherited, is not
subject to recombination and has numerous known orthogolous genes (that is, homologies of
the same gene in different taxa; as opposed to paralogous genes, which are different versions of
a gene in the same organism).
In plants, the chloroplast genome (cpDNA) is frequently chosen for the same reasons.
Few generalizations are:
1. Molecular techniques can be applied to a number of distinct genomes (nuclear,
mitochondrial, chloroplast) using a number of different nucleic acids (rDNA, cpDNA,
various RNAs, etc.)
2. Molecular clocks do not keep perfect time. Every gene (or gene product) appears to
change at a rate independent of others. For example, cytochrome c and globin genes
evolve at different rates. Also, different organisms exhibit different rates for the
same genes (molecular evolution in humans is slower than other anthropoid apes, for
example); and organisms in the same clade may exhibit different rates at different
times.
Also, DNA from different genomes evolves at different rates (mitochondrial DNA evolves
at a 10-fold higher rate than nuclear DNA; chloroplast DNA is known to change very slowly;
rDNA has coding regions that are highly conserved and noncoding regions that are variable).
Rates are determined directly by calibration using fossil evidence or indirectly by comparing
with an outgroup.
There have been many controversies about rates, however, and this is one area in which
phylogenies based on different techniques can differ widely. For example, consider the concept
of “mitochondrial Eve”, a paleolithic female who lived 200,000 years ago in Africa and from
whom all present-day humans descended. This is based on a analysis of mitochondrial DNA,
which is inherited exclusively through the female and modified only by mutation; it also uses a
standard estimate of mutation rate of 2-4% per million years. However, the chronology and
origin are disputed by paleontologists, who use fossil and cultural evidence to track human
origins and consider the origin to be further back in time and to have included multiple sites in
Asia, Africa and Europe.
Assumptions
Rate of molecular change is constant: Clock can be calibrated using a reliable secondary
source of information (fossils, for example). Assumptions not always met (cytochrome c appears
to change at different rates at different times
DNA analysis: In addition to proteins, DNA is frequently analyzed directly as a source of
information about similarities among organisms
Molecular Systematics
Use of molecular data as characters to assess phylogenetic position of taxa for classification.
Generally uses sequence data from specific genes (rDNA, mtDNA, cpDNA, etc.). Comparison of
sequence across taxa reveals patterns of divergence in the past, molecular clocks are inferred
to establish timing of divergence when possible. Choice of genes depends on objective.
Some DNA changes relatively rapidly (mtDNA) and can be used for species within genera
or genera within families. Chloroplast DNA of plants changes very slowly and can be used to
establish phylogenies at the phylum level as origin of Angiosperms, relationships among
gymnosperms and origin of land plants
Ribosomal DNA has both highly conserved regions and spacers that exhibit rapid change,
so the choice of region depends on the scale of the phylogeny to be resolved.
Cladistic analysis is normally used to analyze data (which is very complex); outgroups
used to root trees
Potential problems
1. molecular clocks variable
2. same genes must be used for comparison
1. The oldest microfossil so far of age 3.5 billion year ago was-
(a) Coacervates (b) Eobionts
(c) Microspheres (d) Cyanobacteria
2. In his book, “The origin of life (1938)” oparin submitted abiogenesis first bur biogenesis
ever since, this theory is named as-
(a) Spontaneous generation (b) Chemical origin
(c) Primary abiogenesis (d) Biogenesis
3. Experimental evidence for molecular evolution of life was provided by-

(a) Oparin (b) Haldane
(c) Urey and Miller (d) Syndey fox
4. During pre-biotic origin of life which chemical played important role in formation of
nucleotide specially guanosine-
(a) CH 4 (b) CO2
(c) NH3 (d) HCN
5. Among the following which molecule till now not synthesized by mimicking the
environment of pre-biotic environment-
(a) Ribose (b) Pyrimidines
(c) Purine (d) L-aminoacids
6. Among the following the evidence of evolution from biogeography is-
(a) Embryo development (b) Plate tectonics
(c) Darwin finches (d) Darwin turtles
7. Thorns of Bougenwalia plant and tendril of cucurbits are-

(a) Homologous organs (b) Paralogous organ
(c) Analogous organ (d) Orthologous organ
8. Placental mammals such as mouse, wolf, Australian marsupials such as marsupial
mouse, Tasmanian wolf shows-
(a) Parallel evolution (b) Convergent evolution
(c) Divergent evolution (d) Phyletic evolution
9. Which of the following is not an vestigial organ in humans-

(a) Ear muscles (b) Tail vertebra
(c) Premolar (d) Appendix
10. Which of the following was earliest form with lipid bilayer and can reproduce by
budding-
(a) Coacervates (b) Micro spheres
(c) protobionts (d) Monospheres
11. Biogenetic law of Von Baer & Earnst haekel is

(a) Phylogeny repeats ontogeny
(b) Ontogeny repeats phylogeny
(c) Ontogene repeats phytogene
(d) Ontogeny and phylogeny are cyclic
12. Evidence from fossils records are obtained by calculating age of fossil found in–
(a) Metamorphic rock (b) Sedimentary rocks
(c) Igneous rocks (d) Earth crust
13. Mammals originated during the period-
(a) Triassic (b) Jurassic
(c) Cretaceous (d) Permian
14. First plant having seed habit (Heterosporous Pterodophyte) originated during-
(a) Silurian (b) Devonian
(c) Carboniferous (d) Permian
15. First human appeared during-
(a) Oligocene (b) Miocene
(c) Pliocene (d) Pleistocene
16. Era of reptiles and gymnosperm is-

(a) Precambrian (b) Paleozoic
(c) Mesozoic (d) Cenozoic
17. The correct order of evolution of horse is-
(a) Mesohippus, Hyracotherium, Meryhippus, pliohippus, equus.
(b) Mesohippus, Meryhippus, Hyracotherium, pliohippus, equus.
(c) Mesohippus, Meryhippus, pliohippus, Hyracotherium, equus.
(d) Hyracotherium, Mesohippus, Meryhippus, pliohippus, equus.
18. Darwin’s theory of pangenesis was refuted by-

(a) Recapitulation theory (b) theory of Germplasm
(c) Chromosome theory (d) theory of biogenesis
19. Mutation theory of Hugo de vries was put forward while working on-
(a) Drosophila (b) Ancon sheep
(c) Oenothera amarckiana (d) Antirrhinum
20. Evolution at genetic level is termed as-

(a) Microevolution (b) Macroevolution
(c) Gene Evolution (d) Point mutation
21. Which of them do not cause variation at genetic level-

(a) Mutation and recombination
(b) Gene migration and drift
(c) Natural selection and artificial selection
(d) Panmictic population
Practice Test Paper–Evolutionary Biology 289
22. The raw material for evolution is variability of gene or allele at/in-
(a) individual level (b) population
(c) gene pool (d) community
23. Founder effect is concerned with-

(a) Gene migration (b) Genetic drift
(c) Natural selection (d) Mutation
24. If the individual ar one extreme of the size distribution (eg., larger one ) contribute
more offspring to next generation then such selection is called as-
(a) Directional
(b) Disruptive
(c) Cyclic
(d) Stabilizing
25. Examples of polymorphism in human is-

(a) ABO blood group (b) Sickle cell anaemia
(c) height and Intelligence (d) All of the above
26. When the preservation of genetic variability is through heterozygote superiority it is
termed as-
(a) Heteropolymorphism (b) Balanced polymorphism
(c) Stabilizing polymorphism (d) Directional polymorphism
27. Type of speciation due to polyploidy is-

(a) Allopathic (b) Parapatric
(c) Peripatric (d) Sympatric
28. When the two species are morphologically almost identical but reproductively isolated,
are termed as-
(a) Taxonomic species (b) Ecotypes
(c) Sibling species (d) Morphospecies
29. Methanogens are found in-

(a) Marshy areas (b) Flora of cattle rumen
(c) Biogas fermentor (d) All such places
30. Each of us is part of the ongoing evolution of the human species. Which of the following
occurrences would have the greatest impact on the future biological evolution of the
human population?
(a) You work out every day so that you stay physically fit and healthy.
(b) A mutation occurs in one of your skin cells.
(c) You move to Hawaii, the state with the longest life expectancy.
(d) A mutation occurs in one of your sperm or egg cells.
31. The processes of ____ and ____ generate variation, and____ produces adaptation to
the environment.
(a) sexual recombination . . . natural selection . . . mutation
(b) mutation . . . sexual recombination . . . genetic drift
(c) genetic drift . . . mutation . . . sexual recombination

(d) mutation . . . sexual recombination . . . natural selection
32. Birds with average-sized wings survived a severe storm more successfully than other
birds in the same population with longer or shorter wings. This illustrates
(a) the founder effect (b) stabilizing selection
(c) artificial selection (d) gene flow
33. Which of the following scenarios would most likely result in microevolution of a
population of humans?
(a) Only random mating took place in all people that reproduced in North America
(b) A colony of humans on the moon was isolated from earth
(c) The incidence of skin cancer in adults over age 40 rose significantly
(d) Both a and c
34. Which of the following is the best example of gene flow.

(a) A polyploid plant develops
(b) Genes are shuffled by crossing over of chromosomes during meiosis
(c) An earthquake results in the formation of a canyon splitting a population of
toads apart
(d) Wind blows pollen from one population of plants to another and cross fertilization
occurs
35. Stabilizing selection
(a) favors intermediate variants in a population
(b) prevents mutations from occurring
(c) occurs when some individuals migrate to an area with different environmental
conditions
(d) can only take place in species exhibiting sexual dimorphism
36. According to the Hardy-Weinberg theorem, the frequencies of alleles in a population

would remain constant if ______________ is the only process that affects the gene
pool.
(a) mutation (b) genetic drift
(c) sexual reproduction (d) microevolution
37. In the Hardy-Weinberg theorem p2 represents

(a) the total alleles in the gene pool
(b) the heterozygous dominants in the gene pool
(c) the homozygous recessives in the gene pool
(d) the homozygous dominants in the gene pool
38. In the Hardy-Weinberg theorem, 1 represents
(a) The total alleles in the gene pool
(b) the heterozygous dominants in the gene pool
(c) the homozygous recessives in the gene pool
(d) all the possible phenotypes in the gene pool
39. Two animals are considered of different species if they

(a) look different (b) cannot interbreed
(c) live in different h (d) are geographically isolated
40. Which of the following is the first step in allopatric speciation?

(a) genetic drift (b) geographical isolation
(c) polyploidy (d) hybridization
41. Most of the time, species are identified by their appearance. Why?
(a) If two organisms look alike, they must be the same species
(b) This is the criterion used to define a biological species
(c) If two organisms look different, they must be different species
(d) This is the most convenient way of identifying species
42. A new species can arise in a single generation

(a) through geographical isolation
(b) in a very large population that is spread over a large area
(c) if a change in chromosome number creates a reproductive barrier
(d) if allopatric speciation occurs
43. The evolution of numerous species, such as Darwin’s finches, from a single ancestor
is called
(a) adaptive radiation (b) sympatric speciation
(c) gradualism (d) nondisjunction
44. According to the _________ model, evolution occurs in spurts; species evolve relatively
rapidly, then remain unchanged for long periods.
(a) nondisjunction (b) gradualist
(c) adaptive radiation (d) punctuated equilibrium
45. Sympatric speciation is
(a) the appearance of a new species in the same area as the parent population.
(b) initiated by the appearance of a geographical barrier
(c) the emergence of many species from a single ancestor
(d) especially important in the evolution of island species
46. In some animals eg. Axolatal larvae of Ambystoma, the larvae fails to undergo
metamorphosis (iodine deficiency). It develops gonads, attains sexual maturity and
start reproduction. This is called-
(a) Parthenogenesis (b) Neoteny or paedogenesis
(c) Retrogress metamorph (d) Stagnant metamorphosis
47. Darwin finches from various islands of Galapagos island differed in size and shape of
bill due to-
(a) Mutation (b) Adaptive radiation
(c) Competition (d) Gene migration
48. The enzyme which is occurs in all eukaryotes and show great homology is-
(a) Cytochrome oxidase (b) Cytochrome c
(c) Cytochrome b (d) Cytochrome a
49. The hormone which is almost identical and occurs in all vertebrates is-
(a) Insulin (b) Thyroxine
(c) Glucagon (d) ACTH
50. The phylogenictically closed relative of humans are-

(a) Langurs (b) Apes
(c) Mokeys (d) Shrews
51. Which of the following is not darwin’s postulate-

(a) Struggle for existence
(b) survival of fittest
(c) origin of new species
(d) Inheritence of Acquired character
52. Which is main cause of genetic variation at individual level-
(a) Gene mutation (b) Crossing over
(c) Fertilization & meiosis (d) All if the above
53. Total gene content of individual population is termed as-

(a) Genome (b) Gene pool
(c) Gene bank (d) Genotype
54. A mutation arising in small population is either fixed or lost just by chance irrespective
of its adaptive value is termed as-
(a) Silent theory (b) Genetic drift
(c) Artificial selection (d) Directional selection
55. The main reason for evolution of new species is-

(a) Geographical isolation (b) Natural selection
(c) Reproductive barrier (d) Mutation
56. Biological method for clean up of contaminated soil and ground water is termed as-
(a) Biorestoration (b) Biomagnification
(c) Bioremediation (d) Biosorption
57. Archaebacteria grows at temperature-

(a) 0-20oC (b) 30-40oC
(c) 50-120oC (d) All such temperatures
58. Agar-agar used as solidifying agent in bacteriological media is obtained from-
(a) Spirulina (b) Gelidium
(c) Fucus (d) Porphyra
59. Which of the following organism can carry out the reaction-
NO2 + oxygen ® NO3 + energy
(a) Nitrosomanas (b) Pseudomonas rubrum
(c) Micrococcus denitrificans (d) Nitrobacter
60. Evolution of modern wheat Triticum aestivum is a result of-

(a) Mutation (b) Autopolyploidy
(c) Allopolyploidy (d) Segmental polyploidy
61. Protoporphyrin, the ancient solar energy trapping molecules are made from-
(a) Succinic acid & glycine (b) Alanine & glutamic acid
(c) Lysine & praline (d) Acetyl coA & oxaloacetate
62. Among the following which do not bring variation at Individual level-
(a) Gene mutation
(b) Fertilization
(c) Meiosis and Crossing over
(d) Chromosome aberration and Hybridizations
63. Natural selection will operate under condition-
(a) Mutational equilibrium
(b) Random matting
(c) Differential reproduction
(d) Equal chances for all genotypes to live and reproduce
64. Natural selection will not operate if-
(a) Population is isolated and small
(b) Mutating population
(c) Random matting population
(d) Large population
65. Distinct and stable phenotypes within species are termed-

(a) Polymorphic variation (b) Cryptic variation
(c) Geographical variation (d) Local variation
66. The main cause of blastogenic and somatogenic variation-
(a) Endocrine glands (b) Mutation
(c) Natural selection (d) Panmictic repd.
67. Crossing of hybrid to its parents is called-

(a) Parental hybridization (b) Interogressive hybrd.
(c) Back hybridization (d) Stabilizing hybrd.
68. Both Transition and Transversion type of mutation is induced by-
(a) Methyl methane sulfate (b) Nitrous acid
(c) Base analogues (d) Acradines
69. Which is best experimental demonstration to prove natural selection-

(a) Lederberg’s replica replicating
(b) Kettelwell’s Industrial melanism
(c) Pastuer’s Swann nech exp
(d) Urey millers exp
70. Among the following which is not prerequisite for natural selection-
(a) Unit capable of reproduction
(b) Occurrence of heritable variations or differences among units
(c) Presence of more then one such unit in same environment
(d) Environmental homeostasis
71. Which is false about stabilizing selection-
(a) Constant or unchanging environment
(b) Introduces heterozygosity
(c) Favours average
(d) It tends to arrest variance & environmental changes
72. Industrial melanism is example of-

(a) Directional selection (b) Stabilizing Selection
(c) Cyclic selection (d) Disruptive Selection
73. Appearance of abnormal characters which were normal in other supposedly ancestral
races for example appearance of cervical fistula in man which actually corresponds to
gill slits are-
(a) Race atavism (b) Family atavism
(c) Atavism of teratology (d) Ontogenic atavism
74. The ascidian larva on metamorphosis changes into degenerate adult. This is example
of-
(a) Progressive metamorphosis (b) Directional
(c) Retrogressive (d) Cyclic
75. C14 is used to determine age of fossils up to-

(a) 10000 years old (b) 25000
(c) 45000 (d) 1 lakh year
76. The clock of rock is usely determined by-
(a) U 238 (b) K40
(c) Both a & c (d) C14
77. The transitional fossil form which shows characteristics of two different groups of
living organisms is called as-
(a) Missing link (b) Connecting link
(c) Living fossil (d) Link species
78. Monotremes (egg laying mammals) and marsupials (pouched mammals) are restricted
to distribution in-
(a) Asia (b) Australia
(c) Africa (d) N. America
79. Among the following hormones, which are present in all animals-
(a) Pepsin, trypsin (b) Trypsin, Amylase
(c) Pepsin, amylase (d) Trypsin, secretin
80. Among the following which is most conserved in all eukaryotes and act as respiratory
pigment and accepts electron form H+-
(a) Ferrodoxin (b) Cytchrome-c
(c) Cyctochrome c oxidase (d) NAD dehydrogenase
81. Which hormone is identical and interchangeable and present in all animals is-
(a) Thyroid (b) Adrenalin
(c) Somatotropin (d) Insulin
82. Artificial selection tends to-
(a) Change gene frequency (b) Decrease biodiversity
(c) Increase vigor (d) All of the above
83. Prokaryotes called ____ are similar in many ways to eukaryotic organisms.
(a) archae (b) protozoa
(c) Cyanobacteria (d) dinoflagellates
84. Among the following which hormone is almost similar in beef, sheep, pig, whale,
horse, rabit and differs only in one to three amino acid position-
(a) Glucagon (b) Insulin
(c) Somatotropin (d) Somatostanin
85. The order of following organisms as phylogenetic closeness to human-

(a) Chimpanzee > languor > lemur > tree shrews
(b) Languor > chimpanzee > tree shrews > lemur
(c) Chimpanzee > languor > tree shrews > Lemur
(d) Languor > lemur > chimpanzee > tree shrews
86. The gradual mode of speciation in single lineage in which species diverge in spurts of
relatively rapid change which result in increase in species is termed as-
(a) Punctuated equilibrium (b) Adaptive radiation
(c) Anagenesis (d) Cladogenesis
87. Among the following which statement is false about r-selected species-
(a) Long generation time (b) Large number of offspring
(c) Short life cycle (d) Tendency to disperse
88. When an radioactive phosphorus is incorporated into DNA strand, the phospho diester
bond generally break after a short while because-
(a) The bond number of phosphorus decreases
(b) Phosphorus on radioactive decay converts into sulphur, which has valency of
two
(c) It attacks glycosidic bond
(d) It breaks hydrogen bond
89. Among the following which is generally not utilized for establishing phylogenetic
relationship between two species-
(a) % similarity (b) Geographical distance
(c) Marcoli distance (d) Amino acid sequence
90. Mangroves are highly productive ecosystem but they are poor in bird diversity because-
(a) Lack of structural diversity
(b) Lack of food diversity
(c) More number of predators that feed on birds
(d) Lack of breeding place
91. Among the following which would lead into new species formation-
(a) Increased resources
(b) Niche overlapping tolerance
(c) Niche specialization
(d) Lack of competition
92. Origin of life is not possible under present environmental conditions because-
(a) Hydrogen is absent
(b) Presence of oxygen
(c) Lack of source of energy
(d) Lack of raw material for origin of life
93. Disaster such as earthquake or fire may reduce the size of population drastically and
the genetic make up of the small surviving population is unlikely to be representative
of make up of original population the situation is termed as-
(a) Bottle neck effect (b) Adaptive radiation
(c) Founder effect (d) Gene migration
94. A certain organism developed an adaptation as to adapt existing environment but if

this adaptation prove useful for some other function as well, it is termed as-
(a) Co-adaptation (b) Adaptive radiation
(c) Exadaptation (d) Co-evolution
95. In a population frequency of a homozygous recessive disease is 16% then the frequency
of dominant allele would be-
(a) 0.84 (b) 0.6
(c) 0.16 (d) 0.4
96. In a population individuals having heterozygous phenotype are more favored then
homozygous dominant which are more favored then homozygous recessive genotypes,
under such condition-
(a) Recessive alleles would be lost from population
(b) Dominant alleles would be lost
(c) Both alleles would remain in population
(d) Alleles would be lost randomly
97. A group of species which are phylogenitically closer but they are lacking common
ancestor. Such an group is regarded as-
(a) Monophyletic (b) Polyphyletic
(c) Paraphyletic (d) Sympatric
98. After implication of Green Air Act in England which species become virtually absent-
(a) Biston betularia carbonifera (b) Biston betularia typica
(c) Drosophila (d) Apes Americana
99. If an allele is linked to the second allele at other locus which is favorably selected are
inherited together. Such an movement of an allele without any evolutionary benefit
to next generation is termed as-
(a) Selective drive (b) Evolutionary drive
(c) Hitch hiking (d) Linkage
100. The morphological modification is transferred to next generation without any present
application which may prove beneficial in changed environment is termed as –
(a) Exadaptation (b) Pre-adaptation
(c) Analogous (d) Paralogous
1. In the first order chemical reaction, if the time taken for half the reaction to be
consumed is t, the time taken for three-fourth to be consumed is-
(a) 1.5 t (b) ½ t
(c) 2 t (d) 1.33 t
2. Which of the following organism is most suitable to serve as a bio-fertilizer?
(a) Chlorella (b) Agrobacteria
(c) Azolla (d) Frankia
3. A radioactive compound Cs137 was collected on 1st February, 2002, and kept in a
sealed tube. On the 1st of July, 2002, it was found that only 3.125 % radioactivity was
left. This means that the half-life period of the isotope is
(a) 37.5 days (b) 30 days
(c) 25 days (d) 50 days
4. The two component of lichen is-
(a) Fungus and bacteria (b) Fungus and bryophyte
(c) Fungus and algae (d) Algae and Bacteria
5. Carbon-14 undergoes b-decay upon which it is converted into a new element having-
(a) Increased atomic number (b) Decreased atomic number
(c) Increased atomic mass (d) Decreased atomic mass
6. The first organisms that originated on earth were-
(a) Chemolithotrophs (b) Bacteriophages
(c) Photoautotrophic bacteria (d) Uninucleate eukaryotes
7. Entamoeba histolytica is spread by-

(a) Bite of sand fly
(b) Bite of anopheles mosquito
(c) Consuming contaminated food & water
(d) Blood transfusion
8. If the pH of the solution is 9, then
(a) The solution is said to be acidic
(b) The hydroxyl ion concentration is 10–9 M
(c) The solution has three times more H+ ion than the solution of pH 12
(d) The Hydrogen ion concentration is 10–9 M
9. Half life of radioactive I131 is 8 days. If you have 100 micromoles of this isotope at one
instant, how many micromoles will remain at the end of sixteen days?
(a) Zero (b) 25
(c) 33.33 (d) 50
10. Which of the following will not ionize the gas?

(a) X-rays (b) a-rays
(c) Electrons (d) g-rays
11. Which of the following is the fossil form?

(a) Archeopteryx (b) Amphioxus
(c) Ornithorhynchus (d) Peripatus
12. Mammals originated from-

(a) Fishes (b) Amphibians
(c) Reptiles (d) Birds
13. “Recapitulation theory” in evolution was proposed by-

(a) Haeckel (b) Darwin
(c) Lamarck (d) Cuvier
14. The half life of the first order reaction is
(a) Constant & dependent on the initial concentration of the reactant
(b) Constant & independent on the initial concentration of the reactant
(c) Not constant & independent on the initial concentration of the reactant
(d) Dependent on the temperature and pressure
15. One of the following is the characteristics features of the Aves-

(a) Four chambered heart (b) Absence of nucleus in RBC
(c) Pneumatic bones (d) Ability to fly
16. In the life cycle of malarial parasite (Plasmodium vivax), the pre-erythrocytic cycle
occurs in-
(a) Liver (b) Bone marrow
(c) Blood plasma (d) Kidney
17. Where would you place sponges among following-

(a) Parazoa (b) Metazoa
(c) Protozoa (d) Heliozoa
18. Evolution:
(a) is a reversible process
(b) occurs through variations arising from changes in genetic material
(c) is a fast process
(d) cannot take place any more because of oxidizing environment
19. Crop rotation for restoring soil fertility refers to growing one of the following crops
between cereal crops-
(a) Pulse crops (b) Grass
(c) Composite (d) Trees
20. Kala-azar is caused by:

(a) Leishmania donovani (b) Trypanosoma gambiense
(c) Entamoeba histolytica (d) Plasmodium falciparum
21. The oldest microfossils discovered so far of age 3.3 to 3.5 billions year ago was-
(a) Coacervates (b) Eobionts
(c) Microshperes (d) Cyanobacteria
22. In his book, “ The origin of life (1938)” oparin submitted abiogenesis first but biogenesis
ever since”, this theory is names as-
(a) Spontaneous generation (b) Chemical origin
(c) Primary abiogenesis (d) Biogenenesis
23. Experimental evidence for molecular evolution of life was provided by-
(a) Oparin (b) Haldane
(c) Urey & Miller (d) Sydney fox
24. During pre-biotic earth of life which chemical played important role in formation of
nucleotides-
(a) Methane (b) Ammonia
(c) Hydrogen (d) HCN
25. Which of the following have lipid bilayer and can reproduce by budding-
(a) Coacervates (b) Microsperes
(c) Nanospheres (d) Protobionts
26. Which of them is evidence of evolution from biogeography as narrated by Darwin-
(a) Embryo devp. (b) Plate tectonics
(c) Darwin finches (d) Darwin turtles
27. Placental mammals such as mouse wolf and Australian marsupials such as marsupial
mouse, Tasmanian wolf shows-
(a) Parallel evolution (b) Convergent
(c) Divergent (d) Phylletic
28. Thorn of Bouganwalia and tendrils of cucurbits are-
(a) Homologous organ (b) Paralogous
(c) Analogous (d) Orthologous
29. Which of them is not vestigial organ in human-

(a) Ear muscles (b) Tail vertebra
(c) Premolar (d) Appendix
30. The probable energy carrier molecule during initial stage of origin of life was-
(a) Amino acids (b) Nucleosides
(I) Nucleotides (d) Sugars
31. Oparin and Sydney fox held that the large organic molecule synthesized abiotically
on primitive earth formed large colloidal aggregates due to intermolecular interactions.
The colloidal particles were called-
(a) Micorospheres (b) Eobionts
(c) Archaebacteria (d) Coacervates
32. Probable the first living form was nutritionally-

(a) Chemoautotrophs (b) Chemoheterotrophs
(c) Anoxygenic autotrophs (d) Oxygenic autotrophs
33. Which is most essential requirement for origin of life on any planet-
(a) Water (b) Reducing environment
(c) Methane (d) Nucleic acids
34. Seal flippers, bird and bat wings, horse fore limbs and human arms are –
(a) Homologous organ (b) Analogaous organ
(c) Vestigeal organ (d) Orthologous organ
35. In bat the wing is formed of fold of a integument termed as-
(a) Pterodactyl (b) Patagium
(c) Phalanges (d) Carpels
36. Evolution of new forms in several direction from a common ancestor type is termed
as –
(a) Phylogenic evolution (b) Anagenesis
(c) Cladogenesis (d) Adaptive radiation
37. The similar body shape between animals of differently related groups represents-
(a) Convergent evolution (b) Co-evolution
(c) Parallel evolution (d) All of the above
38. Probable cause of appearance of cervical fistula, tail, hair on face in humans is-
(a) Mutation in homeotic gene (b) retrogressive evolution
(c) Atavism (d) Genetic drift
39. Adult frog and other amphibian excretes-
(a) Ammonia (b) Urea
(c) Uric acid (d) All
40. Retrogressive metamorphosis is seen in-

(a) Amphibian tadpole (b) Ascidian larvae
(c) Fishes (d) Reptiles
41. Galapagos island, the biologist paradise, are situated on equator about 960 Km west
of Ecuador in continent-
(a) South America (b) North America
(c) Africa (d) Australia
42. The Flora and fauna of south Africa and west south America resembles to-
(a) Europe (b) North America
(c) Australia (d) Asia
43. About 375 million years ago, all present continents formed a single giant land mass
called pangea which splits in two islands masses Laurasia and Gondwana around-
(a) 280 million year ago (b) 175 million year ago
(c) 120 million year ago (d) 80 million year ago
44. Among the following which is an avian character-

(a) Homodent dentition
(b) Matacarpel separate & carpometacarpus absent
(c) V-shaped fercula
(d) Eyes have sclerotic ossicles
45. Radioactive isotope of carbon-14 can be used to determine age of fossil up to-
(a) 10,000 year old (b) 40,000 year old
(c) 1 Lakh year old (d) 10 lakh year old
46. When the preservation of genetic variability is through heterozygous superiority, it
is called-
(a) Heteropolymorphism (b) Balanced polymorphism
(c) Stabilizing polymorphism (d) Directional polymorphism
47. Type of speciation due to ploidy level is-

(a) Peripatric (b) Parapatric
(c) Sympatric (d) Allopatic
48. When the two species are morphologically almost identical but do not normally
interbreed, such species are called-
(a) Taxonomic species (b) Sibling species
(c) Ecospecies (d) Ecospecies
49. Methanogens are found in-

(a) Hot springs (b) Bioreactors
(c) Flora of cattle rumen (d) All such places
50. Archaebacterial cell wall is made up of-
(a) Lipo- polysaccharide (b) Polysaccharide and Proteins
(c) Polysaccharides only (d) Murien
51. Which of them can change their body shape-

(a) Viruses (b) Bacteria
(c) Mycoplasma (d) Eubacteria
52. African sleeping sickness is caused by-
(a) Leishmania (b) Trypanosoma
(c) Dictostelluim (d) Physarium
53. The gametophyte and sporophyte of bryophytes are-

(a) Dependent on each other
(b) Independent to each other
(c) Gametophyte dependent on sporophyte
(d) Sporophyte dependent on gametophyte
54. The chemical present in flit is-

(a) Malathion (b) DDT
(c) BHC (d) Aldicarb
55. Example of green manure is-
(a) Rice (b) Sorghum
(c) Maize (d) Sesbania
56. p and q in Hardy-Weinberg law represents-

(a) Allele frequency (b) genotype frequency
(c) Heterozygous frequency (d) Total alleles in population
57. Hybrid breakdown occurs in-
(a) Donkey (b) Mule
(c) Liger (d) Horse
58. The pre-biotic environment was-

(a) Oxidizing (b) Reducing
(c) No environment (d) Humid
59. Which chemical played important role in origin of life-
(a) Methane (b) Ammonia
(c) HCN (d) Hydrogen
60. Artificial selection tends to-

(a) Change gene frequency (b) Decrease biodiversity
(c) Increase vigour (d) All the above
61. Uniform peeling away of soil surface by the action of flowing water is termed as-
(a) Slip erosion (b) Rill erosion
(c) Gully erosion (d) Sheet erosion
62. Bacillus thuringenesis is used to control-

(a) Bacterial pathogens (b) Fungal pathogens
(c) Nematode (d) Insect pests
63. In the grassland ecosystem, trees donot replace the grasses as part of ecological
succession because-
(a) Insect and fungi
(b) Limited sunlight & nutrients
(c) Water limit & regular fire or overgrazing
(d) Cool temperature
64. Nitrogen fixation occurs in-

(a) Some bacteria, cyanobacteria & legumes
(b) Legumes and some bacteria
(c) Some herbaceous plants & legumes
(d) All green plants
65. The evolution of numerous species in a short period of time from a single ancestral
population, such as Darwin’s finches, is called
(a) adaptive radiation (b) sympatric speciation
(c) gradualism (d) nondisjunction
66. Mass extinctions that occurred in the past
(a) cut the number of species to the few survivors left today
(b) resulted only from the merging of the continents
(c) were followed by diversification of the survivors
(d) wiped out land animals, but had little effect on marine life
67. What evidence most strongly suggests that an impact by an asteroid or meteorite
may have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs?
(a) Fossils show that dinosaurs suffered from cold and starvation
(b) Sedimentary rocks contain a layer of iridium, a mineral that is uncommon on
Earth
(c) There have been several near misses in recent years
(d) The dinosaurs disappeared rather abruptly, virtually overnight
68. Which of the following would cast doubt on the asteroid-impact hypothesis for the
extinction of the dinosaurs?
(a) finding a crater 200 million years old
(b) finding fossil dinosaur bones beneath a layer of iridium
(c) determining that birds are closely related to dinosaurs
(d) finding fossil dinosaur bones above a layer of iridium
69. Animals that possess homologous structures probably
(a) are headed for extinction
(b) evolved from the same ancestor
(c) have increased genetic diversity
(d) are not related
70. The wings of birds and insects have the same function, but they do not have the same
evolutionary origin. Bird and insect wings are
(a) homologous (b) phylogenetic
(c) analogous (d) binomial
71. Which of the following would be least useful in determining the relationships among
various species of organisms?
(a) DNA base sequences (b) homologous structures
(c) fossils (d) amino acid sequences of proteins
72. A phylogenetic tree of bird families constructed by cladistic analysis would most clearly
show which of the following?
(a) characteristics shared by all bird families
(b) evolutionary relationships among families
(c) families that look most alike
(d) analogous structures shared by various species
73. Using cladistic analysis, a taxonomist wishes to construct a phylogenetic tree showing
the relationships among various species of mammals. Data about which of the following
would be least useful for this purpose?
(a) descriptions of various types of limbs (wings, legs, flippers, etc.)
(b) data about skull bones
(c) the fact that teeth vary among different types of mammals
(d) DNA base sequences
74. Which of the following was probably not present in large amounts in the atmosphere
at the time life is thought to have originated?
(a) water (H2 O) (b) methane (CH 4 )
(c) ammonia (NH3 ) (d) oxygen (O2 )
75. Biologists are interested in the role of clay in the origin of life. They think clay might
have
(a) supplied the raw materials for organic compounds
(b) catalyzed the formation of organic polymers such as proteins and RNA
(c) formed primitive cell membranes that could grow and divide
(d) catalyzed the formation of monomers such as amino acids and sugars
76. Which of the following is thought to have been the first step in the origin of life?
(a) formation of polypeptide spheres (b) formation of organic monomers
(c) replication of primitive genes (d) formation of organic polymers
77. Most bacteria

(a) obtain energy from sunlight and carbon from organic compounds
(b) obtain both energy and carbon from inorganic compounds
(c) obtain energy from inorganic compounds and carbon from CO2
(d) obtain both energy and carbon from organic compounds
78. Energy metabolism may have evolved when early prokaryotes

(a) used up the oxygen in their environment
(b) began producing poisonous waste products
(c) used up the ATP in their environment
(d) began producing significant amounts of oxygen
79. Until about 500 million years ago, all living things were
(a) asexual (b) autotrophic
(c) aquatic (d) prokaryotic
80. You set your time machine for 3 billion years ago and push the start button. When
the dust clears, you look out the window. Which of the following describes what you
would probably see?
(a) plants and animals very different from those alive today
(b) a cloud of gas and dust in space
(c) green scum in the water
(d) land and water sterile and devoid of life
81. Selection of African tribes is more of heterozygous gene for RBC is due to-
(a) Severe malaria
(b) Environment instability
(c) More cases of Sickle cell anaemia
(d) both a & c
82. Molecular clock of evolution could be traced on basis of-
(a) Comparison of Short arm of 16-S RNA
(b) Substitution in amoniacids of polypeptide due to mutation
(c) DNA fingerprinting
(d) Fossil study
83. Among the following the progenitors of mammals were-

(a) Aves (b) Pisces
(c) Amphibians (d) Reptiles
84. Abrupt change in gene frequency in isolated population is termed as-

(a) Adaptive radiation (b) Allopatric speciation
(c) Random drift (d) Mutation
85. Main cause of loss of Biodiversity is-

(a) Pollution (b) Population explosion
(c) Habitat destruction (d) Over exploitation
86. Which radioisotope is used for estimating age of rocks-

(a) U 238 & K40 (b) U 235 & C14
(c) U 238 &H 3 (d) C14 & H3
87. What is main cause of evolution of new species-
(a) Natural selection (b) Competition
(c) Mutation (d) Hybridization
88. Phylogenetic relationship can be more precisely established by comparing-

(a) Amino acid sequence (b) DNA
(c) r-RNA (d) m-RNA
89. In a sample from an African population, the frequency of LM and LN alleles were
0.78 and 0.22 resp. What are expected frequency of MN phenotypes-
(a) 0.8 (b) 0.02
(c) 0.34 (d) 0.016
90. Phylogenetic relationship in plants can be best established by-

(a) Allozymes (b) Alkaloids
(c) Isoenzymes (d) Morphology
91. The Cuvier’s theory, which states that there had been several creations, each preceded
by another due to some geographical disturbances. Such theory is termed as-
(a) Theory of catastrophism (b) Special creation
(c) Pangenesis (d) Eternity of life
92. Whih is correct matched among following connecting links-

(a) Euglena- Reptiles and mammals
(b) Proterospongia- Cartilaginous and bony fishes
(c) Peripatus- Annelida & Mollusca
(d) Neoplina- Annelida & Arthopoda
(e) Balaonglossus- Chordate and Non-chordate
(f) Chimera- Fishes and Amphibians
(g) Lung fishes- Protozoa & porifera
(h) Prototheria- Plants and animals
93. Ancient cyanobacteria, found in fossil stromatolites, were very important in the history
of life because they
(a) were probably the first living things to exist on Earth
(b) produced the oxygen in the atmosphere
(c) are the oldest known archae
(d) were the first multicellular organisms
94. In terms of nutrition, autotrophs are to heterotrophs as

(a) algae are to slime molds
(b) archae are to bacteria
(c) slime molds are to algae
(d) kelp are to diatoms
95. The bacteria that cause tetanus can be killed only by prolonged heating at temperatures
considerably above boiling. This suggests that tetanus bacteria
(a) have cell walls containing peptidoglycan
(b) protect themselves by secreting antibiotics
(c) secrete endotoxins
(d) produce endospores
96. Bacteria such as Streptococcus pneumoniae can cause disease in humans when
(a) the hosts immune system is compromised
(b) the bacterium develops resistance to all antibiotics
(c) a co-host such as Staphylococcus is present on the host
(d) that protozoan has pathogenic factors such as pili or capsules
97. Gram-negative bacteria have ________ peptidoglycan than Gram-positive cells and
their cell walls are _________ complex structurally.
(a) more . . . more
(b) more . . . less
(c) less . . . less
(d) less . . . more
98. Genes for the resistance of antibiotics are usually located

(a) on the main chromosome
(b) in mitochondria
(c) in the cell wall
(d) on plasmids
99. Bacteria that can convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia are called
(a) nitrogen reducers
(b) nitrogen fixers
(c) nitrogen oxidizers
(d) nitrogen heterotrophs
100. Humans are phlyogenetically more close to-

(a) Monkeys
(b) Tree shrews
(c) Lemurs
(d) Sinipsids
6
Environmental Biology
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF ECOLOGY
1. Ecology
(a) “The scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environments
is called ecology.”
(b) “Ecology concerns itself with the interrelationships of living organisms, plant or animal,
and their environments; these are studied with a view to discovering the principles
which govern the relationships.
2. Environment
(a) An organism’s environment may be distinguished into an abiotic component and a
biotic component.
(b) “Organisms are affected by their environment but, by their very presence and activities,
they also change it—often dramatically.”
3. Abiotic component
(a) The abiotic component of an environment are all of the non-living components of an
organism’s environment.
(b) These include such things as Temperature; Light; Water; Wind; Nutrients; Substrate
(e.g., rock and soil); Periodic disturbances.
(c) Generally, a given organism is capable of surviving over only a limited range of
abiotic variables, and the environments in which one (or more) abiotic component
ranges outside of an organism’s range of tolerance will not be able to support stable
populations of that organism.
4. Biotic component
(a) The biotic component of an environment are all of the other organisms found in an
environment with which an organism makes contact, directly or indirectly. These
organisms may be competing, preying upon, being preyed upon, providing shelter, or
in some other way impact on the environment.
5. Evolution in real time

(a) The complexity associated with ecology explains in part why the study of evolution is
so intensely difficult: Evolution happens within a context of ecology, i.e., in real
ecosystems, one organism at a time.
(b) Part of the complexity associated with ecology, however, is a consequence of the
impact of evolution on ecosystems: Ecosystems are not only the products of evolution,
they also contain populations that are actively evolving, all of the time.
(c) In other words, ecology is essentially evolution running in real time, while evolution
is essentially the product of enormous numbers of ecological interactions between
organisms and their biotic and abiotic environments.
6. Principle of allocation
(a) One way to understand ecology is in terms of flows of energy; organisms take in
energy and then use that energy to survive and to reproduce. All adaptations are
compromises, no organism is perfectly adapted to everything, and everything costs
energy. An organism must balance out its allocation of energy to survival and its
need to allocate energy to reproduction.
(b) Genotypes that strike a good balance between allocation to survival and to reproduction,
such that net reproduction is large compared with other genotypes, are said to have
higher relative fitnesses. These ideas form the basis of the principle of allocation.
(c) “Each organism has a limited amount of energy that can be allocated for obtaining
nutrients, escaping from predators, coping with environmental fluctuations, growth
and reproduction.”
(d) Energy allocated to survival is not available for reproduction.
(e) “Complex life like animals and plants needs a lot of energy.” Relatively simple
organisms have lower energy needs, but tend also to be more limited in where they
live or how much energy they can obtain per unit time.
7. Adaptation
(a) Organisms can respond to variations in the environment with variety of adaptations.
(i) Behavioural adaptations are almost instantaneous in their effects and easily
reversed, whereas Physiological adaptations may be implemented and changed
over time scales ranging from seconds to weeks.
(ii) Morphological adaptations may develop over the lifetimes of individual organisms
or between generations.
(iii) Adaptive genetic changes in populations are slower still, usually evolving over
several generations.
Environmental Biology 311
(b) The appropriate response to environmental change depends on the duration of that
change.”
(c) “The distinction between short-term adjustments on the scale of ecological time and
adaptation on the scale of evolutionary time begins to blur when we consider that the
range of responses of an individual to changes in the environment is itself the product
of evolutionary history.” That is, “phenotypic plasticity” is itself a product of
evolution
(d) “In general, plants are more morphologically plastic than animals; this response helps
them compensate for their inability to move from one environmental patch to another.”
MAJOR AREAS OF ECOLOGICAL STUDY
8. Hierarchical study of ecology

(a) The study of ecology is often achieved by concentrating on a certain level of a hierarchy
of ecological study, just as more reductionist forms of biology focus on certain levels
of organisms ranging from the molecular, through the cellular, through the organismal
(b) “Ecology ultimately deals with the highest levels in the hierarchy of biological
organization. The web of interactions at the heart of ecological phenomena is what
makes this branch of biology so engaging.”
(c) The hierarchies in ecological study include
(i) Organismal ecology
(ii) Population ecology
(iii) Community ecology
(iv) Ecosystem ecology
9. Organismal ecology
(a) Organismal ecology is an attempt to understand how the characteristics of individual
organisms impact on the ability of those organisms to interact with their environment.
(b) Thus, for example, inferring that giraffes use their long necks to reach leaves found
high in trees is an example of organismal ecology (though often inferences are just a
bit more subtle and difficult than this example).
10. Behavioral ecology

(a) Essentially a subset of organismal ecology, behavioural ecology studies the non-
physiological, non-mophological/anatomical adaptations organisms possess, and the
impact those adaptations have on the survival and reproduction of organisms.
(b) Behaviour, in other words, is how organisms act, and different behaviors can have
different impacts on the Darwinian fitness of organisms.
11. Population ecology

(a) Population ecology is the study of the size and composition of populations of organisms.
(b) An example of population ecology would be the study of the factors which influence
the carrying capacity of a given environment, i.e., the number of individuals an
environment can stably sustain.
Exponential vs Logistic
100
80
Carrying Capacity (K)
Pop. 60
size Environmental
40 Resistance
20
50 100 150 200 250

Time
12. Community ecology

(a) A community is the assemblage of different species of organisms within a given
environment. Community ecology is the study of the interactions between these
organisms, e.g., predation, parasitism, competition, etc.
13. Ecosystem ecology

(a) An ecosystem is the assemblage of the biotic and abiotic components of a given
environment. Often ecosystems are reasonably unambiguously defined (a lake, a
forest, etc). Understanding even an approximation of what goes on within an
ecosystem, any ecosystem, can be an overwhelming challenge.
(b) The everglades ecosystem as a function of altitude and other factors.
14. Landscape ecology

(a) “Looking beyond the four basic levels of ecology, we come to landscape ecology, which
deals with arrays of ecosytems and how they are arranged in a geographic region. A
landscape or seascape consists of several different ecosystems linked by exhanges of
energy, materials, and organisms. The landscape level of research focuses on the
ways in which interactions among populations, communities, and ecosystems are
affected by the juxtaposition of different ecosystems, such as streams, lakes, old-
growth forests, and the forest patches that have had their trees removed by clear-cut
logging.”
15. Maintaining homeostasis

(a) Part of the energy expended on survival goes toward maintaining the internal
environment of an organism. The active maintenance of the internal environment of

an organism (by the organism) is termed homeostasis.
(b) Some organisms spend considerably more energy on maintaining their internal
environment within relatively narrow constraints (regulators).
(c) Other spend less energy on maintaining their internal environment because they do
not constrain it narrowly (conformers).
(d) Any energy not spent on homeostasis is potentially available for other needs such as
reproduction (principle of allocation).
(e) Note that this principle forms the basis of the conflicting strategies of specialization
(e.g., conformers) versus generalization (e.g., regulators).
(f) Specialists potentially have more energy available to reproduce because they very
efficiently obtain energy necessary for maintaining homeostasis, though this advantage
is maintained only so long as the environment remains amenable to the specialist’s
needs (note: try to avoid equating the concept of specialization with the concept of
specialization with respect to foraging; the latter, specialization with regard to diet,
is essentially a subset of the former).
16. Conformers
(a) For organisms within relatively stable environments, energy can be made available
for other uses if internal environments are allowed to vary as external environments
vary. Such organisms may be termed conformers.
(b) Note that a conformer may be very successful within its relatively stable environment,
but less able to survive outside of this environment.
(c) “Conformers that live in very stable environments . . . might be able to channel
more energy into growth and reproduction. However, the intolerance of such
specialists to environmental change severely restricts their geographical
distribution.”
17. Regulators
(a) At the opposite end of the spectrum are the regulators (i.e., versus conformers).
These organisms expend a great deal of energy to keep their internal environment
constant regardless of the nature of their abiotic environment.
(b) Such organisms may be more adaptable, but at the cost of great expenditures of
energy that could otherwise be put toward such things as reproduction.
(c) “Regulators that allocate a larger fraction of their energy to coping with
environmental changes may grow and propagate less efficiently, but such
organisms are able to survive and reproduce over a wider range of variable
environments.”
18. Graininess
(a) Environmental grain refers to the patchiness of an environment, and the patchiness
of an environment is perceived differently by different organisms. A coarsely grained
environment has patches which are large enough that they may be distinguished. A
finely grained environment has patches which are so small that they may not be
readily distinguished, and an “organism may not even behave as though patches
exist,” but what is fine-grained to one (typically larger) organism may by coarse-
grained to another (typically smaller) organism.
19. Population ecology

(a) Population ecology studies organisms from the point of view of the size and structure
of their populations.
(b) A population ecologist studies the interaction of organisms with their environments
by measuring properties of populations rather than the behavior of individual
organisms.
(c) Properties of populations include
• Population size (size)
• Population density (density)
• Patterns of dispersion (dispersion)
• Demographics (demographics)
• Population growth (growth)
• Limits on population growth (limits)
(d) Note that all of these properties are not those of individual organisms but instead are
properties which exist only if one considers more than one organism at any given
time, or over a period of time (i.e., they are emergent properties)
(e) “The characteristics of a population are shaped by the interactions between individuals
and their environments on both ecological and evolutionary time scales, and natural
selection can modify these characteristics in a population.”
(f) Thus, population ecology also goes beyond consideration of just population parameters
and additionally considers how the characteristics of individual organisms impact on
population parameters.
POPULATION PROPERTIES
1. Population
(a) A population in an ecological sense is a group of organisms, of the same species,
which roughly occupy the same geographical area at the same time.
(b) Individual members of the same population can either interact directly, or may interact
with the dispersing progeny of other members of the same population (e.g., pollen).
Population members interact with a similar environment and experience similar
environmental limitations.
2. Population size
(a) A population’s size depends on how the population is defined. If a population is defined
in terms of some degree of reproductive isolation, then that population’s size is the
size of its gene pool.
(b) If a population is defined in terms of some geographical range, then that population’s
size is the number of individuals living in the defined area.
(c) Ecologists typically are more concerned with the latter means of defining a population
since this is both easier to do and is a more practical measure if one is interested in
determining the impact of a given population on a given ecosystem, or vice versa.
3. Population density
(a) Given that a population is defined in terms of some natural or arbitrarily defined
geographical range, then population density may be defined as simply the number of
individual organisms per unit area.
(b) Different species, of course, exist at different densities in their environments, and
the same species may be able to achieve one density in one environment and another
in a different environment. Population densities may additionally be determined in
terms of some measure other than population size per unit area such as population
mass per unit area.
4. Patterns of dispersion
(a) Individual members of populations may be distributed over a geographical area in a
number of different ways including
• Clumped distribution (attraction)
• Uniform distribution (repulsion)
• Random distribution (minimal interaction/influence)
(b) Clumping may result either from individual organisms being attracted to each other,
or individual organisms being attracted more to some patches within a range than
they are to other patches; the net effect is that some parts of the range will have a
large number of individuals whereas others will contain few or none.
(c) A uniform distribution means that approximately the same distance may be found
between individual organisms; uniform distributions result from individual organisms
actively repelling each other.
(d) A random distribution means that where individual organisms are found is only
minimally influenced by interactions with other members of the same population,
and random distributions are uncommon; “Random spacing occurs in the absence of
strong attractions or repulsions among individuals of a population.”
(e) Note that both clumping and uniform distributions suggest that individual organisms
are either interacting with one another (actively seeking each other out or actively
avoiding each other), or are all competing with one another for the same limited
resources, regardless of the overall population density (as in the case of clumping
which results from geographical patchiness).
DEMOGRAPHICS
5. Demographics
(a) A population’s demographics are its vital statistics, particularly those statistics which
can impact on present and future population size.
(b) Two statistics that are of particular import are a population’s age structure and a
population’s sex ratio.
(c) Additional considerations (in human populations and for example) are considered to
the right ®
Work
background
Education Age Income

Sexual/
Affectual
Orientation Race
Parental Physical Marital

status Abilities/ Ethnicity
Qualities status
Gender
Geographic
Location
Religious
belefs
6. Age structure
(a) Age structure refers to the size of cohorts within a population.
(b) Parameters related to age structure include
(i) Fecundity (birth rate)
(ii) Generation time
(iii) Death rate
7. Cohort
(a) A cohort is a group of individuals all of whom have the same age.
(b) In a typical population, the size of cohorts will vary with age. For example, in a
typical population, younger cohorts will be larger (i.e., more individuals per cohort)
than older cohorts, all else being equal.
8. Fecundity [birth rate]

(a) Fecundity refers to the average birth rate associated with a population.
(b) The greater a population’s fecundity, all else held constant, the faster a population
will increase in size. Note that fecundity typically varies with the age of individuals.
9. Generation time
(a) Generation time is simply the average span between the birth of individuals and the
birth of their offspring.
(b) “Other factors being equal, a shorter generation time will result in faster population
growth.”
(c) Note that species which are capable of reproducing more than once will display an
overlapping of generations which basically means that parental cohorts and progeny
cohorts can be alive (and potentially competing with one another) at the same time.
(d) Note that another way of saying this is that when life expectancies exceed the
minimum time between generations, generations will overlap.
10. Death rate

(a) Death rate is the rate at which individuals of a certain age die.
(b) Note that death rates often vary with age with either the very young or the very old
displaying the greatest death rates.
(c) Note additionally that population growth occurs when overall birth rates exceed
overall death rates.
11. Sex ratio

(a) More often than not the rate at which a population may grow is dependent on the sex
ratio in the population; the fewer females, the slower the rate of population growth.
(b) This, of course, is because uteruses are limiting and males often can inseminate
more than one female.
(d) This generalization falls apart, however, when males are limited in their ability to
inseminate more than one female, or when males contribute significantly to the
raising of offspring.
(e) Figure shows sex ratios (New South Wales) as they vary with age (units on y axis are
in living males per 100 females):
Actual sex ratio

120 Even sex ratio
100
80
60
40
0-4 10-14 20-24 30-34 40-44 50-54 60-64 70-74 80-84
Age Groups
SURVIVORSHIP CURVES
12. Survivorship curves

(a) Observing age structure graphically can provide insights into a species’ (or a
population’s) ecology. Survivorship curves graph cohort size against relative age.
(b) See Figure, Idealized survivorship curves.
(c) The typical survivorship curve shows cohort size declining with age.
(d) There exist three general types of survivorship curves
• Type I, II and III
(e) Note in the following survivorship curves that the y axis is logarithmic!!!
Type I (Man)
1.0
Fr actio n of O rgani sms Survi vin g

0.1
Type II
(Hydra, Songbirds)
0.01
Type III
(Oysters)
0.001
Age of Organism
Birth (scaled to maximum life spon Maximum
for each species) Life Span
Type I survivorship curves

(a) Because individuals tend to die exponentially due to accidents or predation, it often is
a good strategy to reproduce relatively early in a life span rather than relatively late
(i) That way individuals achieve reproduction while they still have a reasonable
likelihood of being alive.
(ii) This is assuming, of course, that the goal is a Darwinian one, i.e., maximizing
one’s reproductive output.
(iii) Note that how such a strategy works is complicated if individual fecundity increases
with age.
(b) Very often for a given species there will be some age at which individuals are maximally
fecund. Species that combine maximum fecundity with early ages typically do so at
the expense of their ability to survive long periods (i.e., this is an example of the
principle of allocation).
(c) A survivorship curve of such individuals may display a relatively shallow slope while
individuals are younger (i.e., maximally robust and maximally reproductive) but then
show an abrupt increase in death rate at ages that are coincident to declines in
fecundity.
(d) Humans, of course, have a type I survivorship curve; evolution makes us get married
young and have lots of babies before a saber toothed tiger comes along and picks us
off, i.e., ®
Type II survivorship curves

(a) The simplest type of decline is exponential, i.e., the death rate for every cohort is the
same.
(b) These survivorship curves graph as a straight line on semi-logarithmic graph paper
(i.e., as presented in a typical survivorship curve).
(c) The individuals in populations that display a type II curve are those that both do not
age and are born as fully fit as adults, e.g., hydra Individuals are lost in these
populations mostly to accidents and predation.
Type III survivorship curves

(a) The other side of the survivorship coin is the degree of investment in individual
progeny. Some organisms invest a great deal in each offspring and those organisms
are (ideally at least) rewarded with relatively high survivorship at early ages.
(b) Other organisms invest little in individual offspring, and display very low early-age
survivorship (which they make up for by producing buckets of offspring).
(c) Organisms that produce large numbers of cheap progeny and which display minimal
declines in fecundity with age, if they survive their youth, display type III survivorship
curves. Examples include sea turtles and trees.
(d) That is, type III survivorship species have a very large rate of mortality when young,
but should they survive their youth, they put significant energy into continued survival
since the longer they survive, the more progeny they will produce.
LIFE HISTORIES
13. Life history

(a) “The traits that affect an organism’s schedule of reproduction and survival (from
birth through reproduction to death) make up its life history.” The study of life history
characteristics is the detailed study of those ecological and evolutionary parameters
that impact on survivorship curves.
(b) “In many cases there are trade-offs between survival and traits such as clutch size
(number of offspring per reproductive episode), frequency of reproduction, and
investment in parental care. The traits that affect an organism’s schedule of
reproduction and death make up its life history. Of course, a particular life history
pattern, like most characteristics of an organism, is the result of natural selection
operating over evolutionary time.”
(c) In other words, the Darwinian goal is to maximize life time reproductive
output, and this can be achieved by having babies more rapidly or living longer, or
some combination of the two, as well as by varying many additional details having to
do with survival and reproduction.
14. Allocation of limited resources

(a) “Darwinian fitness is measured not by how many offspring are produced but by how
many survive to produce their own offspring: Heritable characteristics of life history
that result in the most reproductively successful descendants will become more common
within the population. If we were to construct a hypothetical life history that would
yield the greatest lifetime reproductive output, we might imagine a population of
individuals that begin reproducing at an early age, have large clutch sizes, and
reproduce many times in a lifetime. However, natural selection cannot maximize all
these variables simultaneously, because organisms have a finite energy budget that
mandates trade-offs. For example, the production of many offspring with little chance
of survival may result in fewer offspring that can compete vigorously for limited
resources in an already dense population.”
(b) “The life history we observe in organisms represent a resolution of several conflicting
demands. An important part of the study of life histories has been understanding the
relationship between limited resources and competing functions: Time, energy, and
nutrients that are used for one thing cannot be used for something else.”
(c) “These issues can be phrased in terms of three basic questions:
(i) How often should an organism breed?
(ii) When should it begin to reproduce?
(iii) How many offspring should it produce during each reproductive episode?
(d) The way each population resolves these questions results in the integrated life history
patterns we see in nature.” (all one quote starting with (c) but broken up for clarity)
(e) “Many life history issues involve balancing the profit of immediate investment in
offspring against the cost to future prospects of survival and reproduction. These
issues can be summarized by three basic “decisions”: when to begin reproducing, how
often to breed, and how many offspring to produce during each reproductive episode.
The various “choices” are integrated into the life history patterns we see in nature.”
15. Semelparity (big bang)

(a) Organisms that produce one clutch of offspring (progeny) per life time are said to be
semelparous (i.e., to display semelparity). The advantage of semelparity is that at the
point of reproduction few if any resources need be devoted to survival past reproduction.
16. Iteroparity (repeated reproduction)

(a) Organisms that produce more than one clutch of offspring (progeny) per life time are
said to be iteroparous (i.e., to display iteroparity). The advantage of iteroparity is that
it allows organisms to display more than one statistical “shot” at producing a successful
litter.
(b) “The critical factor in the evolutionary dilemma of big-bang versus repeated
reproduction is the survival rate of the offspring. If their chance of survival is poor or
inconsistent, repeated reproduction will be favored.”
POPULATION GROWTH
17 Population growth
(a) The simplest case of population growth is that which occurs when there exist no
limitations on growth within the environment. In such situations two things occur
(i) The population displays its intrinsic rate of increase
(ii) The population experiences exponential growth
18. Intrinsic rate of population increase (rmax)

(a) The intrinsic rate of population increase is the rate of growth of a population when
that population is growing under ideal conditions and without limits, i.e., as fast as it
possibly can. This rate of growth implies that the difference between the birth rate
and death rate experienced by a population is maximized.
(b) Note that the intrinsic rate of population increase is a characteristic of a population
and not of its environment. Indeed, in most environments a population is not able to
achieve this maximum rate of growth. However, a population that is not growing
maximally can still experience exponential growth.
(c) “A population with a higher intrinsic rate of increase will grow faster than one with a
lower rate of increase. The value of rmax for a population is influenced by life history
features, such as age at the beginning of reproduction, the number of young produced,
and how well the young survive.”
19. Exponential growth

(a) Exponential growth simply means that a population’s size at a given time is equal to
the population’s size at an earlier time, times some greater-than-one number.
(b) For example, if a population increased in size per unit time in the following manner:
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, etc. (or, e.g., 1, 3, 9, 27…, or 1, 5, 25, 125, …, etc. then the
population is displaying exponential growth, each unit time the population is increasing
by a factor of 2 (or 3 or 5 in the other examples; note that exponential growth is
occurring so long as the rate of increase per unit time is greater than a factor of 1,
e.g., 2 or 4 or 10 or 1.2, etc.
(c) When population size is graphed against time (e.g., generations) a population growing
exponentially displays a J-shaped curve.
(d) Note differences in intrinsic rates of growth, in this J-shaped curves, that result in
differences in rates of exponential growth (declining intrinsic growth rates are seen
going from left to right in this graph):
(e) [In a rich culture medium bacteria, grown under aerobic conditions, achieve a final
concentration of 2-5 × 109 cells per ml in about 12-18 hours. Although plotted on a
different time scale the human growth curve looks the same; the human population
at similar points on the growth curve are shown.
(f) When population size is graphed against time (e.g., generations) a population growing
exponentially displays a straight line curve when graphed on semi-logarithmic graph
paper (for example, below is a graph of the exponential increase in the computer
processing power available per dollar—note that on log-linear graph paper this curve
is approximately a straight line):
(g) “The J-shaped curve of exponential growth is characteristic of populations that are
introduced into a new or unfilled environment, or whose numbers have been drastically
reduced by a catastrophic event and are rebounding.”
(h) In other words, a population that is in an environment lacking limits will grow
exponentially (indeed, a population that is capable of growing will tend to grow
exponentially), and the rate at which growth will occur will be a function of rmax and
the degree to which the environment matches the ideal environment in which an
organism is capable of achieving rmax.
number of individuals
100
80
60
40
20
time (generations)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Number of Bacterial Cells
Billions of Humans
6 Billion-1999
3 Billion-1960
Time
20. Limits on population growth

(a) Exponential growth cannot go on forever; sooner or later any population will run into
limits in their environment
21. Carrying capacity (K)

(a) “Populations subsist on a finite amount of available resources, and as the population
becomes more crowded, each individual has access to an increasingly smaller share.
Ultimately, there is a limit to the number of individuals that can occupy a habitat.
Ecologists define carrying capacity as the maximum stable population size that a
particular environment can support over a relatively long period of time. Carrying
capacity, sym bolized as K, is a property of the environment, and it varies over space
and time with the abundance of limiting resources.”
(b) In other words, for any given organism, there will be a maximum number of individuals
that the environment can support without the environment being consequently
degraded to the point where it can no longer support that number of individuals.
(c) Generally, as population size approaches carrying capacity, the amount of some key
resource declines per capita to the point where individuals experience either a higher
death rate or a lower fecundity; thus, as population size approaches carrying capacity,
the rate of population growth declines towards zero.
22. Logistic growth

(a) Logistic growth is a mathematical description of population growth that employs two
parameters, rmax and K, and two variables, N and t.
(b) The logistic growth curve is S-shaped.
(c) See Figure: Population growth predicted by the logistic model.
100
80
60
40
20
0 20 40 60 80 100
time
(d) That is, the population grows exponentially at a rate which is determined by rmax and
the suitability of a given environment to an organism’s needs until population size is
sufficient that the limitations associated with the carrying capacity of the environment
are approached.
(e) This slows the rate of population growth in a way such that the larger the population
becomes, the slower its rate of growth; this slowing of the growth transforms the
curve from a J-shaped one to an S-shaped one. Ultimately the rate of growth of the
population reaches zero at the carrying capacity.
(f) “Because the rate at which a population grows changes with the density of organisms
that are currently in the population, the logistic model is said to be density dependent.”
That is, population growth grows as population density approaches that dictated by
an environment’s carry capacity for that population.
(g) Note that populations do not typically display the idealized logistic growth seen with
the model. One deviation from idealized logistic growth is delayed feedback; this can
cause population size overshooting and, in fact, what is typically observed in real
populations is not just effects of random events but also populations sizes which vary
up and down around the carrying capacity rather than remaining invariant exactly at
the carrying capacity.
23. K-selected populations (equilibrial populations)

(a) Idealized populations may be distinguished in terms of the logistic growth equation.
(b) For example, a species may bias its life history toward maximizing either rmax or K
(c) That is, some organisms are good at increasing their population size rapidly in
environments which lack limits (e.g., weeds) while other species (e.g., gorillas) are
good at maintaining population sizes at carrying capacity in environments that have
limits.
(d) A species that is better at maintaining a population at carrying.
(e) capacity in a stable environment is said to be more K-selected.
(f) A typical K-selected species is shown to the right ®
24. r-selected populations (opportunistic populations)

(a) A species that is good at growing rapidly in, for example, disturbed environments,
but is significantly less capable of maintaining its population at carrying capacity in
undisturbed (i.e., stable) environments is termed r-selected.
25. r and K selection compared

(a) Few species are purely r- or K-selected; e.g., there certainly exist populations that
are able to increase rapidly but may also thrive in mature ecosystems. “It has been
difficult to demonstrate a direct relationship between population growth rate and
specific life history characteristics. Increasingly, ecologists are recognizing that most
populations show a mix of the traditional r-selected and K-selected characteristics;
life history evolves in the context of a complex interplay of factors.”
100
80
K-selected-population
size is near carying capacity
60 due to density dependent factors
40
r-selected environmental instability
20 reduces population size before it
approaches carying capacity
time (generations)
0 20 40 60 80 100
(b) “Plants and animals whose young are subject to high mortality rates often produce
large numbers of offspring. Thus, plants that colonize disturbed environments usually
produce many small seeds, most of which will not reach a suitable environment.
Small size might actually benefit such seeds if it enables them to be carried long
distances… In other organisms, extra investment on the part of the parent greatly
increases the offspring’s change of survival.”
r K
Unstable environment, Stable environment, density
density independent dependent interactions
Organism size Small Large

Energy used to make Low High
each individual
# Offspring produced Many Few
Timing of maturation Early Late
(with much parental care)
Life expectancy Short Long
Lifetime reproductive events One More than one
Survivorship curve Type III Type I or II
POPULATION-LIMITING FACTORS
26. Density-dependent factors

(a) Density-dependent limits on population growth are ones that stem from intraspecific
competition. Typically, the organisms best suited to compete with another organism
are those from the same species. Thus, the actions of conspecifics can very precisely
serve to limit the environment (e.g., eat preferred food, obtain preferred shelter,
etc).
(b) Actions of that serve to limit the environment for conspecifics—e.g., eating, excreting
wastes, using up non-food resources, taking up space, defending territories—are those
that determine carrying capacity. They are referred to as density dependent because
the greater the density of the population, the greater their effects. Density-dependent
factors may exert their effect by reducing birth rates, increasing death rates, extending
generation times, or by forcing the migration of conspecifics to new regions.
(c) “The impact of disease on a population can be density dependent if the transmission
rate of the disease depends on a certain level of crowding in the population.” “A death
rate that rises as population density rises is said to be density dependent, as is a birth
rate that falls with rising density. Density-dependent rates are an example of negative
feedback. In contrast, a birth rate or death rate that does not change with population
density is said to be density independent… Negative feedback prevents unlimited
population growth.”
(d) Predation can also be density dependent since predators often can switch prey
preferences to match whatever prey organisms are most plentiful in a given
environment. “Many predators, for example, exhibit switching behaviour: They begin
to concentrate on a particularly common species of prey when it becomes energetically
efficient to do so.
27. Density-independent factors

(a) Density-independent effects on population sizes (or structures) occur to the same
extent regardless of population size. These can be things like sudden changes in the
weather
(b) “Over the long term, many populations remain fairly stable in size and are presumably
close to a carrying capacity that is determined by density-dependent factors.
Superimposed on this general stability, however, are short-term fluctuations due to
density-independent factors.”
28. Community
(a) A community consists of all of the organisms living within a certain geographical
area. These organisms include conspecifics as well as members of other species.
These organisms interact with each other both directly and indirectly.
(b) Numerous (pessimists might say “endless”) parameters affect what species are present
and in what abundance
(c) “Simple generalizations can rarely explain why certain species commonly occur
together in communities.”
(d) “The distributions of most populations in communities are probably affected to some
extent by both abiotic gradients and interactions [with other species].”
29. Co-evolution
(a) Not only do the abiotic and biotic components of an ecosystem impact on what species
are present and in what abundance, but species also are modified by their interactions
with other species
(b) Co-evolution represents the evolutionary modification of organisms in response to
other organisms, particularly when two organisms are mutually modified in response
to modifications displayed by the other, e.g.,
(i) a flower population better attracts certain insects which in turn evolve to better
exploit the flower population.
(ii) faster rabbits select for faster coyotes which in turn select for faster rabbits.
COMMUNITY
COMMUNITY INTERACTIONS
1. Interspecific interactions
(a) Coevolution is one consequence of a more general category of ecology called interspecific
interactions (between-species interactions). Previously, we considered intraspecific
interactions, i.e., those between very similar organisms, conspecifics.
(b) Interspecific interactions range from those between fairly similar organisms to those
between very dissimilar organisms.
(c) A key distinction between intraspecific and interspecific interactions is that the former
but not the latter share a gene pool;
(i) intraspecific interactions do not generally lead to the extinction of a species.
(ii) In interspecific interactions, losers can go extinct.
(d) Interspecific interactions include symbioses and can be categorized as
(i) Predation/parasitism (+/-)
(ii) Competition (-/-)
(iii) Commensalism (+/0)
(iv) Mutualism (+/+)
2. Commensalism
(a) Commensalism is a relatively unexploited interspecific interaction. The reason for
this has as much to do with its definition as anything, i.e., commensalism is a
relationship in which one member gains but the other member neither gains nor
loses; this places commensalism on a knife’s edge between predation and mutualism.
(b) If the “unaffected” individual is indeed affected, even just a little, then the relationship
can no longer, technically, be termed commensalisms. In the real world, it is
essentially impossible to determine whether the “unaffected” member really is
unaffected, so the concept is difficult to apply. Nevertheless, in absence of evidence
for mutualism or predation then an assumption of commensalisms is a reasonable
one.
3. Mutualism
(a) Mutualisms, while not necessarily as common as predation or interspecific competition,
are still enormously common. This makes some sense since a mutualistic relationship
is one in which both members gain. However, it is likely that most mutualistic
relationships started out, in evolutionary time, as exploitative (+/-) relationships which
somehow were co-opted into less exploitative relationships. Examples include
everything from lichens, to bees and flowers, to mitochondria and the already lectured
on eucaryotic cell.
PREDATION
4. Predation
(a) +/– interactions include
(i) Predation
(ii) Parasitism
(iii) Parasitoidism
(iv) Herbivory
(b) These interactions all involve
(i) one individual killing and then eating the other fully (predation)
(ii) not killing and then eating the other partially (parasitism and herbivory), or
(iii) letting one’s offspring do the eating (parasitoidism).
(c) Note that an additional kind of + – interaction does not involve eating but instead is
the stealing of some non-food a resource from one individual by the other: vines on
trees, for example, or a cow bird’s brood parasitism.
5. Defense against predation

(a) Prey organisms display numerous defenses against predation.
(b) That is, there exists a number of defenses against + / – – (as well as + / –) interactions:
(i) Secondary compounds (plants)
(ii) Nutritional deficiencies (plants)
(iii) Mechanical defenses (plants)
(iv) Production of poisons (animals)
(v) Mechanical defenses (animals)
(vi) Running away & hiding (animals)
(vii) Fighting back (mostly animals)
(viii) Cryptic coloration (mostly animals)
(ix) Batesian mimicry (animals)
(x) Müllerian mimicry (animals)
(xi) Immune systems (animals)
(c) [in order for a predator to obtain benefit from prey they have to encounter prey (i.e.,
be in close proximity), then detect prey (i.e., notice that they currently are in close
proximity), then capture prey, then successfully consume the prey, and then
successfully derive nutrient benefit from the prey, and minimally more benefit must
be derived than the costs of capturing and consuming the prey – hence, it is to the
potential prey’s benefit, as an individual or as a population, to minimize their numbers
so as to be rare and therefore rarely found by predators, to be cryptic in both coloration
and behavior, to be capable of escaping if noticed, to be difficult to consume or to
digest, and to not supply necessary nutrients or to be toxin to the predator in some
manner].
6. Plant defenses against predation

(a) Of course, plant predators are called herbivores.
(b) Typically a plant (and other stationary organisms) will not manage to achieve complete
avoidance of predation, but instead will limit their own predation to those organisms
that possess appropriate morphological or biochemical adaptations.
(c) It is important to keep in mind that herbivores can be big (cows) as well as small
(insects, fungi, bacteria) so more than one defense is typically necessary to defeat all
possible predators.
(d) Of course, plants also tend to be eaten in pieces rather than as a whole organism, so
anything a plant can do to spare part of the plant from being eaten can also be
advantageous (this rule apparently is also true in terms of defenses against lawn
mowers).
(e) Plant defenses against predation include
(i) Secondary compounds
(ii) Nutritional deficiencies
(iii) Mechanical defenses
7 Secondary compounds
(a) Secondary compounds are chemicals that plants produce that are distinct from the
primary metabolism to some extent common to all plants. One role of secondary
compounds are as defenses against predation, e.g., toxins.
(b) What is toxic to one herbivore may be useful to another; particularly humans take
great advantage of plant secondary chemicals using them as drugs (both recreational
and medicinal), spices, etc. Some animals (e.g., monarch butterflies) can actually
incorporate these toxins into themselves to make themselves unpalatable to some of
their own predators.
8 Nutritional deficiencies
(a) Plants additionally tend to lack certain nutrients (e.g., essential amino acids).
(b) Such nutritional deficiencies force predators to diversify what plants they consume,
thus preventing herbivores from getting too good (specialized) at exploiting a particular
plant species.
9. Mechanical defenses
(a) Anything a plant can do to keep a herbivore from reaching, biting, or deriving benefit
from once a piece that has been removed can serve to protect the plant from being
consumed.
(b) Thorns prevent larger things from comfortably eating a plant, while hairs and other
small appendages can keep small things from reaching the plant.
(c) Plants also interfere with chewing by, essentially, being less than succulent, e.g.,.
the shell of a nut or silica deposited in the leaves of grass.
(d) (between nutritional deficiencies, mechanical defenses, and secondary compounds
one speaks of low forage quality and it is plants that represent low-quality forage that
tend to accumulate when herbivore pressures are high, i.e., high animal to plant
ratios).
10. Animal defenses against predation

(a) Animals are a little bit more versatile behaviorally when it comes to defending
themselves against predation.
(b) For example, animals can
(i) Run and hide (particularly the latter aided by cryptic coloration)
(ii) Produce poisons that make them unpalatable
(iii) Employ morphological adaptations that interfere with consumption
(iv) Fight back using both morphological and chemical defenses (some plants, too,
can fight back using, for example, actively sprayed chemical defenses)
(v) Not looking like prey (cryptic coloration)
11. Cryptic coloration

(a) Cryptic coloration is camouflage, the art of looking like something else, i.e., not
hiding behind something but instead not being visible against appropriate backgrounds.
(b) [“Camouflage, called cryptic coloration, is the quintessential passive defense, making
potential prey difficult to spot against its background. A camouflaged animal need
only remain still on an appropriate substrate to avoid detection”].
12. Aposematic coloration

(a) A different approach is to taste bad (or be unpalatable for various other reasons) and
to advertise this
(b) Aposematic coloration is how organisms advertise unpalatableness, at least visually
(humans, or course, display a distinct bias in terms of sensory input hence we tend to
notice the visual displays by animals much more so than, for example, the olfactic
displays – notice that since birds display the same bias we often interpret these visual
displays in terms strategies that interfere with predation by birds).
(c) For example, the black and yellow stripes on bees represent aposematic coloration,
and it works!
(d) Aposematic coloration is so successful, in fact, that it gives rise to mimicry
(i) Batesian mimicry
(ii) Müllerian mimicry
13. Batesian mimicry

(a) Batesian mimicry is the tendency of palatable and otherwise succulent prey species
to pretend to be unpalatable by looking like unpalatable species. This works to a
point, but limits the size of the mimic’s population since once mimics are sufficiently
prevalent, predators will catch on to the mimicry.
(b) However, when their numbers are sufficiently few, the mimic gains from protection
from predation while simultaneously not putting out the resources needed to achieve
lack of palatability, etc.
14. Müllerian mimicry

(a) Mimicry works in everybody’s favor when unpalatable species mimic each other (e.g.,
both wasps and bees sharing black and yellow aposematic coloration). Such mimicry
increases the representation of lack of palatableness among potential prey associated
with a given form of aposematic coloration.
(b) Note that both Batesian and Müllerian mimicry can occur simultaneously with the
same aposematic coloration within the same communities (i.e., a group a similarly
marked organisms, some of which are harmless and others which are not).
15. Predation and species diversity (keystone species)

(a) Another way that two directly competing species can achieve coexistence results
from predation. A predator typically feeds on more than one species. By doing so,
they serve to keep the populations of both species below the sizes one or both could
attain in the absence of predation (i.e., below carrying capacity). This can allow both
competing species (i.e., the prey) to coexist, especially if the weaker competing species
happens to be better at escaping predation.
(b) Additionally, optimal foraging can result in prey caught and consumed as a function
of their population densities such that predation maintains prey diversity by frequency-
dependent effects in the same manner that frequency-dependent selection can maintain
a balanced polymorphism.
(c) One can describe a predator whose presence has a profound impact on the species
diversity of a given community as a keystone species.
COMPETITION BETWEEN SPECIES
16. Interspecific competition

(a) Interspecific competition represents a lose-lose interaction (–/–), that is, both species
are less able to convert resources into progeny because the other species is laying
claim to the same resources.
(b) Note that this is an unstable situation that will tend to select for either better means
of acquiring the contested resources, or a switching to a different resource.
(c) Additionally, note that while a competing species may be more effective in exploiting
any given resource, conspecifics will always be competing with any given individual
for a larger variety of resources than will interspecifics.
(d) Thus, growth of a given species may be limited by both conspecifics (intraspecific
competition/density-dependent factors) and interspecific competition (a density-
independent factor).
(e) “Expression” of the costs of interspecfic competition include:

(i) Competitive exclusion
(ii) Resource partitioning
(iii) Character displacement
(iv) Fundamental vs. Realized Ecological Niche
17. Interference competition

Interspecific competition that involves actual interspecific fighting is termed interference
competition.
18. Exploitative competition

Interspecific competition which involves no fighting but instead a co-usage of one or more
resources is termed exploitative competition.
19. Competitive exclusion

(a) “Two species with similar requirements cannot coexist in the same community; one
species would inevitably harvest resources and reproduce more efficiently, driving
the other to local extinction. Even a slight reproductive advantage would eventually
lead to the elimination of the inferior competitor and an increase in the density of the
superior one”. This is the competitive exclusion principle.
(b) Two populations with very similar needs, living sympatrically, will be in too great a
competition with each other to coexist, unless both populations are the same species
(in which case, of course, they wouldn’t be two separate populations). Similarly, two
populations can coexist if their needs sufficiently differ.
20. Resource partitioning

(a) Extinction of one of two populations living sympatrically and competing over too
many resources is not the only possible outcome of interspecific competition. An
alternative outcome is the evolution of a divergence of resource needs. Such a
divergence is called resource partitioning, and is simply the ecological version of the
idea that it is often easier to switch than it is to fight.
21. Character displacement

(a) Character displacement is presumably a consequence resource partitioning. “The
tendency for characters to be more divergent in sympatric populations of two species
than allopatric population of the same two species is called character displacement.”
(b) That is, characters diverge presumably in response to interspecific competition, but
do not diverge in populations not subject to the same interspecific competition.
(c) Thus, the character differs between the population undergoing interspecific
competition and the population not undergoing interspecific competition.
22. Ecological niche

(a) What is being fought over in interspecific competition is various aspects of the ecological
niche. A niche is the sum total of what an organism does in its environment, including
all of the resources consumed.
23. Fundamental niche

(a) All of the resources a population could exploit under ideal conditions, where there
exists no interspecific competition, is termed the fundamental niche of an organism.
The fundamental niche basically represents as good as things can get for an organism.
A population able to exploit its fundamental niche would be able to achieve its maximal
population size.
24. Realized niche

(a) Nothing, of course, is perfect, and the fundamental niche represents perfection to
the exploiting population. In the real world, populations do not have access to all of
the resources they could possibly exploit. Such a limitation on resource acquisition is
termed a realized niche, i.e., what resources a population can exploit in a real
environment, particularly one in which interspecific competition occurs.
TROPHIC STRUCTURE
25. Trophic structure

Trophic structures are the feeding relationships within communities and therefore within
ecosystems, that is, who’s eating whom.
26. Trophic level

Trophic levels refer to how far removed from the original source of energy an organism is
within a trophic structure.
27. Primary producer

The first trophic level is made up of the primary producers, the organisms that obtain from
inorganic sources the energy that powers ecosystems. Primary producers typically are
photosynthetic organisms. More generally, primary producers are autotrophs (i.e., they fix
CO2 ).
28. Consumers
Consumers are the heterotrophs, i.e., organisms that obtain their carbon from other organisms.
The typical consumer is a chemoheterotroph that consumes other organisms or parts of other
organisms to obtain their carbon and energy. In addition to the types of consumers listed below
we can also speak of omnivores, i.e., consumers that eat at different trophic levels including
consuming producers and detrivores, which are consumers that consume detritus which is the
broken up remains of organisms].
29. Primary consumer (herbivore)

A primary consumer is a consumer that eats primary producers. Primary consumers are called
herbivores.
30. Secondary consumers (carnivore)

Secondary consumers eat primary consumers.
31. Tertiary consumers

Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers.
32. Decomposers
(a) Decomposers consume the waste given off by living organisms or the remains of dead
organisms which they did not kill.
(b) “The organic material that composes the living organisms in an ecosystem is
eventually recycled, broken down and returned to the abiotic environment in forms
that can be used by plants. Decomposers, which feed on nonliving organic material,
are key to this recycling process. The most important decomposers are bacteria and
fungi, which first secrete enzymes that digest organic material and then absorb the
breakdown products; some can even digest cellulose.”
(c) “In fact, all heterotrophs, including humans, are decomposers in the sense that they
break down organic material and release inorganic products, such as carbon dioxide
and ammonia, to the environment.”
33. Food chain

A simplification of the trophic structure of an ecosystem is the food chain. Food chains refer to
the passage of nutrients and energy from a primary producer to a primary consumer to a
secondary consumer, and soon.
34. Food web

(a) Far more realistic is the concept of food webs. Food webs are like food chains but
more realistic, i.e., allowing for species to consume more than one other kind of
species. In addition, food webs allow individual species to consume at more than one
trophic level.
(b) For example, humans consume primary producers (e.g., soya beans), primary
consumers (e.g., cows), and secondary (or higher) consumers (e.g., salmon).
(c) [grazing food chains have producers at base which the herbivores then graze on.
While grazing food chains are important, in nature they are outnumbered by detritus-
based food chains. In detritus-based food chains, decomposers are at the base of the
food chain, and sustain the carnivores which feed on them. In terms of the weight (or
biomass) of animals in many ecosystems, more of their body mass can be traced back
to detritus than to living producers.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
35. Ecological succession

(a) One thing that limits the carrying capacity for many organisms is that the presence
of these organisms essentially spoils the environment for their continued presence.
Such organisms typically are r-selected, and essentially are good at finding
environments they can exploit, exploiting those environments, then giving way to
organisms which are better at hanging on in those environments.
(b) The exploitation of an environment by one population, followed by the exploitation by

a second (third, etc.) population is termed ecological succession.
(c) “Many of the changes in community structure during succession may be induced by
the organisms themselves. Direct biotic interactions may be involved, including
inhibition of some species by others through exploitative competition, interference
competition, or both. The presence of organisms also affects the abiotic environment
by modifying local conditions. This may result in facilitation, in which the group of
organisms representing one stage ‘paves the way’ for species typical of the next stage
. . . Sometimes the changes that facilitate the development of a later stage actually
make the environments unsuitable for the very species responsible for the changes.”
(d) Ecological succession continues in a habitat until species, typicallyK-selected, that
are good at nurturing their young within the same environment (as well as good at
excluding other species) comes to dominate the environment, or until catastrophic
change essentially wipes the slate clean, making an environment once again exploitable
to the r-selected populations.
36. Primary succession

(a) Ecological succession typically occurs in fairly well-defined waves of succeeding
organisms. When the environment being exploited is essentially lifeless—lacking in
both living organisms and in their remains—then the first round of exploitation is
termed primary succession.
(b) Primary succession occurs, for example, following volcanic or glacial destruction of
an environment. The first organisms that exploit an otherwise lifeless terrain are
termed primary successors. This is a fairly rare occurrence especially relative to the
much-more familiar secondary succession that we observe in disturbed habitats all
around us.
37. Secondary succession

(a) Secondary succession is succession that follows primary succession, i.e., of an
environment that already contains life (or, at least, soil).
(b) “Because resource availability changes over the course of succession, different species
compete better at different stages. Early stages are typically characterized by r-selected
species that are good colonizers because of their high fecundity and excellent dispersal
mechanisms. Many of these may be described as ‘fugitive’ or ‘weedy’ species that do
not compete well in established communities, but maintain themselves by constantly
colonizing newly disturbed areas before better competitors can become established in
the same places.”
38. Climax community

(a) The community within an ecosystem that exists following ecological succession is
termed the climax community. A climax community is made up of organisms that are
good at reproducing in the face of interspecific competition
(b) “At the climax stage, environmental conditions are such that the same species can
continue to maintain themselves. For example, the [maple-beech] forest that is the
climax stage of old-field succession [in much of Ohio] maintains the moist, shaded
environment that allows offspring of these species to grow, while inhibiting most of
the species typical of earlier stages of succession.”
(c) Climax communities will remain in place until either the climate changes, a better
competitor arrives, or the community is catastrophically disrupted, e.g., by fire or,
more recently, by extensive logging;
ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY
1. Island biogeography
(a) In order for an ecosystem to go through succession, the organisms in each wave of
succession must be available in the local environment. The farther an ecosystem is
from a source of these organisms, the less likely these organisms will be present and
therefore that succession will occur. The smaller an island is, the less likely that
species will find their way to the island and the more likely that species present on
the island will go extinct (due to smaller size and due to resultantly smaller populations,
respectively).
(b) This can be seen most obviously on islands: the farther an island is from a source of
organisms, the less likely the given organisms will find their way to the island. The
flip side is that as a consequence of, if nothing else, random extinction, the smaller
an ecosystem is, the less able it is to hold on to the species that it has. Thus, the
farther an island or ecosystem is from other islands or ecosystems, and the smaller
the island or ecosystem, the more impoverished of species either is likely to be.
(c) Application of these ideas to our environment is somewhat profound because they
tell us that we can’t go on destroying ecosystems forever without risking their very
existence. In other words, eventually if we convert every last forest into farmland,
housing tract, or parking lot, the remnants of ecosystems will be so small that they
will be unable to sustain what species they start with, and ecosystems will be so far
apart that they will be unable to reacquire species from similar ecosystems
(d) This essentially, ultimately represents a genetic bottlenecking of the entire world,
and if the goal of humans is to survive past this environmental disaster of our own
making, then the big losers will most definitely be ourselves.
FLOW OF ENERGY THROUGH ECOSYSTEMS
1. Ecosystem
(a) “An ecosystem consists of all the organisms living in a community as well as all the
abiotic factors with which they interact.”
(b) Note that the boundaries of ecosystems are typically not arbitrarily defined, but instead
are defined in some meaningful way: A pond, a field, a forest, etc.
(c) Ecosystems are typically understood in terms of
(i) Energy flow through ecosystems
(ii) Chemical cycling within (and through) ecosystems
(d) Note that both involve the movement of “stuff” through both biotic and abiotic
components of the ecosystem.
(e) “Ecosystems ecologists view ecosystems as energy machines and matter processors.
By grouping the species in a community into trophic levels of feeding relationships,
we can follow the transformation of energy in the whole ecosystem and map the
movements of chemical elements as they are used by the biotic community.”
Sun Longwave Space

Solar
Radiation Radiation
Ecosystem Environment
Heat
Plants Dispersal Plants Consumers
Dispersal Plants
Migration Decomposers
Animals Migration
Animals
Erosion Erosion
and and
Soil Deposition Leaching Soil
Organic Organic
Matter Matter
2. Energy flow
(a) Energy does not cycle through ecosystems but instead enters ecosystems and is used
up within ecosystems. Ultimately, energy is lost from ecosystems primarily as waste
heat, the most thermodynamically unavailable form of energy.
(b) “Energy enters most ecosystems in the form of sunlight. It is then converted to
chemical energy by autotrophic organisms, passed to heterotrophs in the organic
compounds of food, and dissipated in the form of heat . . . The movements of energy
and matter through ecosystems are related because both occur by the transfer of
substances through feeding relationships. However, because energy, unlike matter,
cannot be recycled, an ecosystem must be powered by a continuous influx of new
energy from an external source (the sun). Thus, energy flows through ecosystems,
while matter cycles within them.”
“Pyramid of Life”
Carnivores
Herbivores
Photosynthesizing
Organisms
Photons from Sun

(c) Note that energy flows through ecosystems mostly as bonds between carbon atoms
and bonds between carbon and hydrogen atoms, e.g., as one finds in carbohydrates
and lipids; consequently, within and between organisms the carbon cycle and the flow
of energy are quite similar, at least until the two are decoupled in the course of
cellular respiration (i.e., the separation of carbon atoms from their energy).
PRODUCTIVITY
3. Primary productivity
Only a small fraction of the sunlight striking the earth is converted to chemical energy by
primary producers. That sunlight energy that is converted to chemical energy, over a given
period, is termed primary productivity.
4. Gross primary productivity

Gross primary productivity is all of the light energy that is converted to chemical energy by
producers.
5. Net primary productivity

Net primary productivity is all of the light energy that is converted to chemical energy and that
is subsequently stored by the primary producer (i.e., the gross primary productivity minus that
employed to run the primary producer’s metabolism). The ratio of net primary productivity to
gross primary productivity gives an indication of the cost of keeping the organism going, with
large ratios indicative of relatively few costs (e.g., algae, ~50%) and smaller ratios associated
with many costs (e.g., complex plants such as trees, ~10%).
6. Biomass
Net primary productivity is stored as biomass (dry mass of organisms).
7. Standing crop biomass

Standing crop biomass is another way of saying accumulated net primary productivity.
8. Limiting nutrient
(a) The productivity of an ecosystem is dependent on the primary productivity of the
primary producers within that ecosystem. Other than sunlight, primary productivity
is limited by nutrient availability.
(b) A limiting nutrient is that nutrient which is found in the lowest, relative concentrations
such that an increase in this nutrient will increase primary productivity while a
decrease in this nutrient will decrease primary productivity.
(c) Typically, either phosphorus or nitrogen serves as a limiting nutrient within a given
ecosystem, though water availability can (and often does) also serve to limit the
primary productivity of an ecosystem.
9. Secondary productivity
(a) “The rate at which an ecosystem’s consumers convert the chemical energy of the
food they eat into their own new biomass is called the secondary productivity.” Note
that secondary productivity is dependent, in part, on the efficiency of transfer of

chemical energy between trophic levels. The transfer between trophic levels, however,
is typically not highly efficient because of inefficiencies involved in energy transfers
in general, and the fact that the consumer must use acquired energy to respire (i.e.,
keep their metabolism going, reproduce, repair themselves, etc).
(b) The more energy required to keep the consumer going (e.g., endotherms = “warm
blooded” = more versus ectotherms = “cold blooded” = less), the less efficiently primary
productivity will be converted to secondary productivity.
(c) “Of course, the energy contained in the feces is not lost from the ecosystem; it can
still be consumed by decomposers. However, the energy used for respiration is lost
from the ecosystem; thus, while solar radiation is the ultimate source of energy for
most ecosystems, respiratory heat loss is the ultimate sink. This is why energy is
said to flow through, not cycle within, ecosystems.”
10. Trophic efficiency

(a) Trophic efficiency refers to the transfer of energy up trophic levels, e.g., the ratio of
secondary productivity to primary productivity consumed.
(b) Trophic efficiencies generally range from 5% to 20%; that is, only 5% to 20% of primary
producer biomass consumed is converted into new consumer biomass.
(c) Note that trophic inefficiencies arise note just due to the second law of thermodynamics
but because of inefficiencies in digestion (i.e., not everything is assimilated but instead
is pooped out); in addition, it is always important when looking at food pyramids to
keep in mind that not everything at the lower trophic levels is eaten, i.e., there is a
reason that much of the terrestrial world is green, animals do not consume all of the
plant material; on the other hand, there is a reason that many aquatic environments
are not quite as green, animals do consume most of the planktonic photosynthesizers
within aquatic systems.
11. Pyramid of productivity

(a) A common way of illustrating ecological efficiency is via pyramids of productivity. In
these, productivity consumed is compared to productivity acquired, going up trophic
levels, e.g., each level represents a drop of net productivity of approximately 90%
(95% to 80%).
(b) Note that this is the reason that eating “lower on the food chain” is more consistent
with being a good world citizen than eating higher on the food chain, i.e., vegetarians
make a substantially smaller per capita impact on our planet than do meat eaters.
(c) [A generalization exists among ecologists that on average, about 10% of the energy
available in one trophic level will be passed on to the next; this is primarily due to the
3 reasons given above. Therefore, it is also reasonable to assume that in terms of
biomass, each trophic level will weigh only about 10% of the level below it, and 10x as
much as the level above it. It also seems, however, that every time I go to measure,
test, or model this assumption I run into an inconsistency, so take this generalization
with a big grain of salt. Still, it comes in useful in terms of human diet and feeding
the world’s population, consider this. If we all ate corn, there would be enough food
for 10x as many of us as compared to a world where we all eat beef (or chicken, fish,
pork, etc). Another way of looking at it is this. Every time you eat meat, you are
taking food out of the mouths of 9 other people, who could be fed with the plant
material that was fed to the animal you are eating.
12. Biomass pyramid

(a) Similar to the pyramid of productivity, pyramids can be constructed using
biomass. Again, the variable associated with the primary producer is placed on
the bottom with blocks associated with trophic levels stacked one upon the other.
Just as with pyramids of productivity, biomass pyramids can show dramatically
decreasing biomass with increasing trophic levels. However, this is not always
the case and the reason for exceptions has to do with biomass pyramids being
constructed from standing-crop biomass rather than from consumed-biomass
data.
(b) Consequently, aquatic biomass pyramids can seemingly be upside down if net
primary productivity does not accumulate in the ecosystem within primary
producers (i.e., primary producers are eaten as fast as they grow/reproduce).
13. Pyramid of numbers

(a) Just as with productivity, total numbers of individual organisms tend to decline as
one goes up trophic levels. All else held constant, this decline is a consequence of
ecological efficiencies being less than 100%.
(b) A consequence of the pyramid of numbers is that top predator numbers tend to be
small, thus making top predators both slow to evolve (also because they tend to be
long lived and have long generation times) and relatively easy to drive to extinction.
CHEMICAL CYCLES
14. Biogeochemical cycles

(a) “Because nutrient cycles involve both biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems,
they are also called biogeochemical cycles.”
(b) [The inorganic nutrients cycle through more than the organisms… they also enter
into the atmosphere, the oceans, and even rocks. Since these chemicals cycle through
both the biological and the geological world, we call the overall cycles biogeochemical
cycles. Each chemical has its own unique cycle, but all of the cycles do have some
things in common. Reservoirs are those parts of the cycle where the chemical is held
in large quantities for long periods of time. In exchange pools, on the other hand, the
chemical is held for only a short time. The length of time a chemical is held in an
exchange pool or a reservoir is termed its residence time. The oceans are a reservoir
for water, while a cloud is an exchange pool. Water may reside in an ocean for thousands
of years, but in a cloud for a few days at best. The biotic community includes all living
organisms. This community may serve as an exchange pool (although for some
chemicals like carbon, bound in a sequoia for a thousand years, it may seem more
like a reservoir), and also serve to move chemicals from one stage of the cycle to
another. For instance, the trees of the tropical rain forest bring water up from the
forest floor to be evaporated into the atmosphere… The energy for most of the
transportation of chemicals from one place to another is provided either by the sun
or by the heat released from the mantle and core of the Earth.
15. The Carbon cycle

(a) The carbon cycle is an example of biogeochemical cycle in which the element (carbon)
has a gaseous form, i.e., CO2 , carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is converted to organic
forms of carbon in the Calvin cycle of primary producers. Organic carbon is converted
back to carbon dioxide during respiration.
(b) Not all fixed carbon is converted back to CO2 over medium-term time scales since
some ultimately is buried as oil, coal, or limestone (the latter is calcium carbonate).
16. The Nitrogen cycle [ammonification, nitrogen assimilation, denitrification,

nitrification, nitrogen fixing]
(a) The nitrogen cycle, like the carbon cycle, involves a gaseous form, i.e., N 2 or nitrogen
gas.
(b) Nitrogen gas may be removed from the atmosphere, particularly by bacteria, in a
process called nitrogen fixing [which is relatively expensive since nitrogen gas is
quite stable].
(c) Nitrogen gas may be returned to the atmosphere, again particularly by bacteria, in a
process called denitrification (a form of anaerobic respiration);
(d) More typically, bioavailable nitrogen is found as ammonium ion (NH4 +), nitrate ion
(NO3 2-), and various organic, nitrogen-containing compounds (e.g., amino acids and
nucleic acids).
(e) Nitrate and ammonium ion are converted back and forth between each other (and
nitrite, NO2 2-), also by various bacteria via processes termed nitrification and
ammonification.
(f) The nitrogen cycle thus involves
(i) Nitrogen fixing, the fixing of nitrogen from the atmosphere [typically by free-
living or plant-associated nitrogen-fixing bacteria]
(ii) Assimilation, the uptake of ammonium ion and nitrate ion from soil by plants
and the uptake of organic nitrogen by animals from plants (amino acids, nucleic
acids).
(iii) Ammonification, the conversion of organic nitrogen back to ammonium ion
by decom posers (nitrogenous waste) (4NH4 +); “The decomposition of organic
nitrogen back to ammonium, a process called ammonification, is carried out
mainly by bacterial and fungal decomposers.”
(iv) Nitrification, the various conversions of nitrogen within the soil from ammonium
ion (NH4 + 4NO2 2– 4NO3 2– ; note that this represents an oxidation of nitrogen);
“Although plants can use ammonium directly, most of the ammonium in soil is
used by certain aerobic bacteria as an energy source; their activity oxidizes
ammonium to nitrite (NO2 2– ) and then to nitrate (NO3 2– ).”
(v) Denitrification, also by soil bacteria (4N 2 ; note that this process involves the
reduction of nitrogen); “Some bacteria can obtain the oxygen they need for
metabolism from nitrate (NO3 2– ) rather than from O2 under anaerobic conditions.”
(g) [A portion of the nitrogen cycle as it occurs within fish tanks (here nitrification is a
good thing and ammonification, the production and subsequent build up of ammonium
ion, is a bad thing): The nitrogen cycle has some important practical considerations,
as anyone who has ever set up a saltwater fish tank has found out. It takes several
weeks to set up such a tank, because you must have sufficient numbers of nitrite and
nitrate bacteria present to detoxify the ammonia produced by the fish and decomposers
in the tank. Otherwise, the ammonia levels in the tank will build up and kill the fish.
This is usually not a problem in freshwater tanks for two reasons. One, the pH in a
freshwater tank is at a different level than in a saltwater tank. At the pH of a freshwater
tank, ammonia is not as toxic. Second, there are more multicellular plant forms that
can grow in freshwater, and these plants remove the ammonia from the water very
efficiently. It is hard to get enough plants growing in a saltwater tank to detoxify the
water in the same way.
17. The Phosphorus cycle

(a) Unlike the nitrogen and carbon cycles, the phosphorus cycle does not involve a gaseous
phase. As a consequence, phosphorus tends to cycle more locally rather than entering
into the world-wide cycling seen with nitrogen and carbon.
(b) The ultimate source of phosphorous is phosphate minerals that make up rocks.
(c) The form in which phosphorus is available is as the phosphate ion (PO4 3– )
(d) Phosphorous is lost from ecosystems by erosion; e.g., The Grand Canyon, an impressive
example of erosion in action. Phosphorous can be gained by ecosystems, sometimes
significantly, particularly via the movement of animals.
(e) “After producers incorporate phosphorus into biological molecules, it is transferred
back to the soil by the excretion of phosphate by animals and by the action of
decomposers on detritus.”
(f) Note that phosphorus is transferred to (and between) terrestrial environments also
by processes other than just bird pooping (i.e., guano) including the migration of
various others animals such as salmon, which carry phosphorous from the sea back
to their mother streams and on the way are eaten by such things as bears which, yes,
do go on to poop in the woods:
(g) [Heterotrophs (animals) obtain their phosphorous from the plants they eat, although
one type of heterotroph, the fungi, excel at taking up phosphorous and may form
mutualistic symbiotic relationships with plant roots. These relationships are called
mycorrhizae; the plant gets phosphate from the fungus and gives the fungus sugars
in return.
BEHAVIOURAL ECOLOGY
(a) Animals typically display particular behaviors at different times of the day or times of
the year. The mechanisms underlying these rhythmic behaviors may be categorized
as endogenous or exogenous (coming from within the animal and coming from the
animal’s environment, respectively). Typically the exogenous signal is light (i.e., the
stuff that comes from the sun).
(b) For example, a typical animal will be able to almost-display rhythmic behaviours at
the appropriate times without exogenous signals (e.g., if deprived or light or changes
in light) but will only not be able to display behaviors at appropriate times with high
accuracy if deprived of the exogenous signals.
(c) Note that this endogenous-exogenous system allows animals to innately display
appropriate behaviours at nearly appropriate times independently of fallible exogenous
signals, but still adapt to changes in exogenous signals, e.g., as day lengths change
with the seasons.
1. Kinesis
(a) Kinesis is a movement behavior such that movement randomly occurs given the
presence of a stimulus; in practice, an organism will tend to settle down in a region
that is preferred by tending to move particularly when not present in the preferred
location. Kinesis is a mechanism of movement that involves activity only so long as a
stimulus is present (or, alternatively, only when a signal is absent).
(b) For example, an animal might move only when the environment is in some way
unfavorable; this movement does not occur in a specific direction but instead is
randomly directed, with attainment and maintenance of the animal within a more
favorable environment occurring simply because less movement occurs when the
movement-associated stimulus is not present.
2. Taxis
Taxis, by contrast with kinesis, is directed movement either toward or away from a stimulus.
3. Migration
Migration is the regular (annual) movement of animals over long distances. Migrating animals
find their way via one of three mechanisms
(i) Piloting (“map”)
(ii) Orientation (“compass”)
(iii) Navigation (“map” and “compass”)
4. Piloting
Piloting is the movement from one landmark to another such that terrain remains familiar
throughout the migration. Because of the requirement that an animal have essentially
memorized the directions for the entire trip (an internal map), piloting is typically employed
only for relatively short trips (or trips made over well land-marked land, e.g., over a well-worn
path).
5. Orientation
(a) Orientation involves straight-line travel in a direction that is globally oriented (e.g.,
flying by compass). Compasses are not necessarily artifacts (i.e., man-made devices)
but may also be small, sensory magnets found within an animal’s head.
(b) Alternatively, many animals appear to orient using the position of the sun (or stars)
and innate knowledge of the time of the day.
6. Navigation
(a) Navigation involves possessing both a map and a compass.
(b) Maps are not necessarily paper things, i.e., one can possess a “map” within one’s
head.
FINDING FOOD
7. Foraging (generalists, specialists)

(a) Foraging is the behaviour(s) an animal employs to feed. “Food habits are a fundamental
part of an animal’s niche and may be shaped in part by competition with other species.”
(b) Animals may be categorized in terms of their foraging behaviours into generalists
and specialists. Specialist tend to be better at acquiring specific kinds of food,
employing morphological adaptations as well as behavioral adaptations and culture
to maximize their yield of specific foods.
(c) Generalists are not as good at acquiring any particular kind of food, but generalists
potentially have available to them many more kinds of food; “Generalists cannot be
as efficient at securing any one type of food, but they have the advantage of having
other options if a preferred food becomes unavailable.”
8. Search image
(a) Generalists, too, can specialize in the acquisition of specific food stuffs, particularly
by temporarily specializing. When specializing the generalist employs a specific search
image which is a behavioral algorithm for catching/obtaining a certain kind of food.
This search image will be employed, and even improved upon, until a decline in the
abundance of that food stuff leads to literally diminishing returns; then, rather than
suffering without adequate food supplies, the generalist can simply switch to a new
food type and new search image.
9. Optimal foraging
(a) What makes one food type and search image preferable to another?
(b) Basically, ideally, an organism chooses to consume the food that is easiest to acquire
on a per-unit-nutrient basis and in optimal foraging the benefits of a given forage
essentially are optimized relative to costs. Thus, for example, slow, tasty, and abundant
things are consumed preferentially to fast, rare, obnoxious things.
(c) Organisms that perform such a cost-benefit analysis are said to be optimizing their
foraging.
(d) “Optimal foraging theory predicts that natural selection will favor animals that choose
foraging strategies that maximize the differential between benefits and costs. Benefits
are usually considered in terms of energy (calories) gained. However, other
optimization criteria, such as specific nutrients, are sometimes more important than
energy. Costs or tradeoffs associated with foraging consist of the energy needed to
locate, catch, and eat food; the risk of being caught by a predator during feeding; and
time taken away from other vital activities, such as searching for a mate.”
(e) As a consequence of the complexity of the cost-benefit analysis of optimal foraging
behavior, an organism does not necessarily do all necessary calculations in its head
prior to subduing food, but instead has certain rule-of-thumb behavioral tendencies
representing evolutionary algorithms defining what to eat under what circumstances;
it is typically these rule-of-thumb behavioral tendencies that are optimized in optimal
foraging behaviour.
10. Social behaviour

Social behaviour is interactions between two or more organisms, typically animals, usually
conspecifics. Some animals are more social than others, with the minimal social behavior
necessary between sexually reproducing animals being that associated with mating. “The
complexity of behavior increases dramatically when interactions among individuals are
considered. Aggression, courtship, cooperation, and even deception are part of the behavioural
landscape of social behaviour. Social behaviour has both costs and benefits to members of those
species that interact extensively.”
FIGHTING
11. Agonistic behaviour

(a) Aggressive behaviour between conspecifics usually involves fighting over a limiting
resource such as food, water, space, or mates. Depending on the importance of the
resource as well as its scarcity, agonistic behavior can range from all-out fighting to
the death to much safer ritualistic behavior.
(b) Animals typically lack action-at-a-distance weapons such as those possessed by humans
(e.g., guns) so risk injury or even death whenever they engage in aggressive behaviour.
(c) Consequently, animals often avoid fighting unless there is a sure indication that they
will win without incurring injury and if the resource is worth fighting over.
(d) Animals often possess sophisticated rituals in which they attempt to bluff their
opponent into backing down, and animals also often have a good sense of when to
retreat as losers from an otherwise hopeless, potentially injurious cause.
(e) Agonistic displays by a human female and a mandrill male:
12. Dominance hierarchies

(a) One way in which agonistic behavior is avoided is by knowing one’s place in the
scheme of things and then avoiding any behaviors that might be interpreted as
threatening to those possessing a higher rank.
(b) Animals that are higher on dominance hierarchies risk injury to attain that status
(and often must commit large amounts of energy to maintaining that status), but
benefit by gaining preferred access to food or mates for themselves and also potentially
for their offspring.
(c) Thus, a dominance hierarchy represents an institutionalized (though not necessarily
completely static) snapshot of the results of previous agonistic behaviour, and are
advantageously maintained by everyone to the extent that previous fighting need not
be repeated.
13. Territoriality (home range)

(a) Another way that all-out fighting is avoided is by institutionalizing conflicts into
territories (dominance hierarchies might also be considered to be territories, ones
where social position is defended rather than space).
(b) A territorial individual will typically defend a specific area particularly against intrusion
by conspecifics
(i) Conspecifics are individuals that an individual is most directly in competition
with, against which an individual possesses a reasonable chance of winning a
fight, and with which one’s mate might fool around.
(ii) Territories that are not defended are instead called home ranges.
(c) Territories may be permanent or temporary, may be defended by one individual or
many, and may be established to guard space, food, mates, etc.
(d) Territory owners are more likely to win fights against would-be trespassers; this is
probably because the owner
(i) Has more to lose and therefore is willing to risk more to win a fight (since the
owner but not the trespasser has learned the territory)
(ii) May be an older, more experienced fighter (since younger, less experienced
fighters presumably are less likely to have acquired a territory)
(e) Note that territoriality represents an uneven partitioning of resources that can have
the effect of minimizing the excursion of populations beyond an ecosystem’s carrying
capacity for that organism.
FINDING SEX
14. Courtship
(a) "In many animals, potential partners must go through a complex courtship interaction,
unique to the species, before mating. This complex behaviour often consists of a
series of fixed action patterns, each triggered by some action of the other partner and
initiating, in turn, the other partner’s next required behaviour. This sequence of
events assures each animal not only that the other is not a threat, but also that the
other animal’s species, sex, and physiological condition [e.g., receptivity to mating]
are all correct.”
(b) Part of courtship behaviour can additionally involve some degree of assessment by
one individual of the other individual.
(c) In addition to assuring that matings are successful in the sense that they produce
viable offspring, an animal additionally is motivated to increase the likelihood of the
success of offspring by finding, via courtship, mates that have the best genes or
behaviors, i.e., animals, given a choice, like to “marry up”.
15. Parental investment

(a) An animal that is destined to invest a lot of time and energy in the parenting of
offspring would prefer to mate with individuals who bring more to the mating rather
than less.
(b) Typically, especially given internal fertilization, the gender that invests the most in
offspring is the female.
(c) This investment can come in the form of large gametes, internal development of the
young, or raising the young following birth or hatching
(i) Most females contribute to a least one of these parental investments.
(ii) Many males do not (though, to be fair, there are many males out there that
contribute to the sheltering and nourishment of females, the sheltering or
internal development of young, and the raising of young).
(d) Sexual selection is the means by which a gender (typically males) either compete
directly over a female or compete for a female’s favorable attention; these battles in
turn select for secondary sexual characteristics that aid in the fighting of battles over
females or the attracting of females.
(e) In some species, e.g., humans, both parents often invest mightily in the raising of
offspring and sexual selection consequently impacts directly on both genders.
16. Mating systems [promiscuous, monogamous, polygamous, polygyny,

polyandry]
(a) An animal’s mating system refers to how animals pair up for mating.
(b) Promiscuous mating systems exist particularly where one parent (e.g., the guy) does
not participate at all in the raising of offspring whereas monogamous relationships
occur particularly when two parents share the raising of children.
(c) Various mating-system types include:
(i) Promiscuous = low likelihood of subsequent mating with same individual
(ii) Monogamous = high likelihood of subsequent mating with one individual
(iii) Polygamous = high likelihood of subsequent mating with more than one
individual
(iv) Polygyny = one male mates with several females
(v) Polyandry = one female mates with several males
(d) It is important to keep in mind that a mating system usually exists to serve some
ultimate cause, i.e., enhancement of both male and female fitness.
COOPERATION
17. Altruism
Altruism is cooperative behavior in which the actor’s Darwinian fitness is reduced by the
behaviour. Particularly, this is when the actor’s individual (as opposed to inclusive) fitness is
reduced by the behavior
18. Cooperative behaviour

(a) Cooperative behaviours are acts that increase the Darwinian fitness of others. These
same acts may or may not increase the Darwinian fitness of the actor, or may even
decrease the fitness of the actor.
(b) Since natural selection favours individuals who increase their own fitness (i.e., not
necessarily that of other’s), it is not always obvious nor easy to understand either
why cooperative behavior occurs or how it might have evolved. The evolution of
cooperative behavior is typically considered to result as a consequence of either
(i) Kin selection
(ii) Reciprocal altruism
(iii) Group selection
19. Kin selection

(a) Kin selection is another way of saying that it pays to help those to whom we are most
closely related
(b) Why?
(i) Individuals with which an individual is closely related share genes including
genes that code for cooperative behaviour.
(ii) Increasing the Darwinian fitness of relatives therefore can serve to increase the
Darwinian fitness associated with cooperative behavior.
(c) Note that key to kin selection is the ability to distinguish non-relatives from relatives,
either by recognition of some kind or via correlates such as when relatively non-
mobile individuals tend to be more closely related to individuals who are near to
them than they are to individuals who are a greater distance from them.
(d) Kin selection essentially is cooperative behavior among kin (relatives) resulting in
greater Darwinian fitness for these relatives in comparison to groups that do not
mutually cooperate; the basis of kin selection is that relatives share genes and therefore
that enhancing the fitness of a relative to some degree is equivalent to enhancing
ones own Darwinian fitness (and, in particular, it enhances the inclusive fitness
associated with ones genes/alleles).
(e) The most obvious form of kin selection is the caring of offspring by parents, i.e., it
pays for parents to care for their offspring because their offspring share genes with
them (that is, any allele that coded for not caring for otherwise helpless offspring
would quickly go extinct).
20. Inclusive fitness

(a) Inclusive fitness is the idea that the fitness associated with an individual’s genes is a
function not just of the Darwinian fitness of the individual, but additionally the
Darwinian fitness associated with the same alleles found in relatives.
(b) Thus, as far as your genes are concerned, your survival (and consequent reproduction)
is no more important than the survival of two full siblings (i.e., brother or sister; with
each you share half of your genes) or eight first cousins (with each you share 1/8 of
your genes); note that we are implicitly assuming that all considered individuals
have identical reproductive potentials, e.g., are of the same age and health, etc.
21. Coefficient of relatedness

(a) The coefficient of relatedness is the means by which these fractional-sharing-of-genes
ideas are formalized.
(b) The coefficient of relatedness is the proportion of alleles in two individuals that are
identical by decent (the calculation of which can get messy if inbreeding has occurred)
(i) For example, half of your genes came from your mom and, on average, each of
your siblings shares half of these genes (since the same is true for your father,
one-half * one-half + one-half * one-half = one-half, i.e., you share half of your
genes with each full sibling).
22. Reciprocal altruism

(a) Reciprocal altruism is a means by which cooperative behaviour can evolve even
between non-relatives. In reciprocal altruism, one individual performs a cooperative
act in the (evolutionary) hope that individual who is the recipient of the act will
cooperate in return.
(b) Reciprocal altruism likely requires a means by which individuals can distinguish
reciprocators from those who refuse to cooperate in return.
23. Group selection

(a) Group selection is a means by which cooperative behaviour might evolve, though
chances are that in the real world it makes little contribution except, perhaps, in the
evolution of culturally learned behaviour that is cooperative
(b) The basic idea is that two groups are competing either over resources or directly
fighting against each other; if in one group individuals cooperate whereas in the
other they do not, then the overall fitness of the cooperating group will exceed that of
the non-cooperating group, thus driving the latter, along with its non-cooperative
behaviour, to extinction
(c) For example, humans even within large groups are very willing to put aside differences
to fight against a common enemy
(i) (which is why no change of significance is ever achieved by a government except
during times of crisis; the flip side of this is that individuals who selfishly benefit
from the status quo can always be expected to fight, with gusto, for their benefit
from the way things are).
1. The best source of Vitamin C among the following:

(a) Lycopersicum esculentum (b) Cirus medica
(c) Capsicum annum (d) Phyllanthus emblica
2. Pollution of big cities can be controlled to large extent by-
(a) Wide roads and factories away from city
(b) Cleanliness drive and proper use of pesticides
(c) Proper sewage and proper exit of chemicals from factories
3. The Ecological pyramid that is always upright

(a) Pyramid of energy (b) Pyramid of biomass
(c) Pyramid of number (d) None of the above
4. “Green house effect” with respect to global warming refers to-
(a) Cooling & moist condition (b) Warming effect
(c) Increased rainfall & greenery (d) Desertification
5. In India, Tropical rain forest occurs in-

(a) Jammu and Kashmir (b) Andaman & Nicobar
(c) Uttar Pradesh (d) Himachal Pradesh
6. Insectivorous plant generally grow in soil which is deficient in
(a) Water (b) Nitrogen
(c) Potassium (d) Calcium
7. Atomospheric ozone layer which protect us from UV-B & C is getting depleted most
by addition of-
(a) Chloro flurocarbon (b) Carbon monooxide
(c) Carbon dioxide (d) Sulpur dioxide
8. A high BOD value in aquatic environment is indicative of-
(a) A pollution free system
(b) A highly polluted system due to excess of nutrients
(c) A highly polluted system due to abundant heterotrophs
(d) A highly pure water with abundance of autotrophs
9. In which of the following the maximum plant diversity is found-
(a) Tropical evergreen forests
(b) Tropical moist deciduous forests
(c) Sub tropical mountain forests
(d) Temperate moist forests
10. A term biotype means-

(a) All individuals having same phenotype
(b) All individuals having same genotype
(c) All individual with different phenotype
(d) All individuals with different genotype
11. Among the following environmental pollutants has the problem of biomagnifications-
(a) SO2 (b) NO3
(c) Hg fungicides (d) O3 & CO2
12. An increase in the atmospheric level of automobile exhaust gases does not lead to-
(a) Pb Pollution (b) O3 Pollution
(c) Particulate air pollution (d) O3 Pollution
13. The compound mainly responsible for pollution which caused the ill famed Bhopal
gas tragedy was-
(a) NH4 OH (b) CH 3 NCO
(c) CH 3 NH2 O (d) CHCl3
14. In recycling of mineral elements within an ecosystem, the responsible direct acing
organism are called-
(a) Decomposers (b) Producers
(c) Primary consumers (d) Secondary consumers
15. Eutrophication of water bodies resulting to killing of fishes is mainly due to-
(a) Non-availability of food
(b) Non-availability of light
(c) Non-availability of oxygen
(d) Non-availability of essential minerals
16. The pyramid of biomass will be inverted in the ecosystem of-
(a) Forests (b) Ponds
(c) Grasslands (d) Drylands
17. Primary productivity at the climax stage of a succession is-

(a) Higher then consumption (b) Lower then the consumption
(c) Equal to consumption (d) Not related to consumption
18. UV radiations is injurious to plants because it-

(a) Break phosphate bonds (b) Increases respiration
(c) Causes dehydration (d) Causes genetic changes
19. The pyramid of number of a parasitic food chain in forest ecosystem is-
(a) Always inverted
(d) Always upright
(b) Mixture of inverted & upright
(c) Sometimes inverted and sometimes upright
Practice Test Paper – Environmental Biology 353
20. The most stable ecosystem could be-

(a) Ponds (b) Oceans
(c) Desert (d) Forest
21. Air pollutant gases causing acid rain are-

(a) CO2 & Cl2 (b) CO2 & O3
(c) SO2 & NOx (d) CFC & CO2
22. Plants that grows in saline water lodged habitat are called-
(a) Xerophytes (b) Halophytes
(c) Mangrooves (d) Mesophytes
23. Petro-crop plantation refers to-

(a) Establishing gobar gas plant
(b) Planting fast growing trees
(c) Planting hydrocarbon rich plants
(d) Recycling of waste
24. Which of the following is true climax according to monoclimax theory-
(a) Edaphic climax (c) Climatic climax
(b) Biotic climax (d) Physiographic climax
25. Ecotype is-

(a) Genetically different but phenotypically similar
(b) Genetically different but ecologically different individuals
(c) Genetically adapted ecological race
(d) Genetically & phenotypically dissimilar
26. Competition is the most severe between the two-
(a) Closely related species growing in different niche
(b) Closely related species growing in same habitat
(c) Distantly related species growing in same habitat
(d) Distantly related species growing in different niche
27. In ecological succession from pioneer to climax community, the biomass shall-
(a) Decrease (b) No relation
(c) Increase and then decrease (d) Increase continuously
28. Rate of storage of organic matter not used by heterotrophs is termed as-
(a) Net productivity (b) Net primary productivity
(c) Gross primary productivity (d) Secondary productivity
29. Abyssal zone in ocean has-
(a) No sunlight but contains decomposers and consumers
(b) No sunlight but contain producers
(c) Sunlight and decomposers
(d) Sunlight and producers
30. Climate of world is threatened by-

(a) Increasing amount of atmospheric O2
(b) Decreasing amount of atmospheric O2
(c) Increasing amount of atmospheric CO2
(d) Decreasing amount of atmospheric CO2
31. Among the following green house gases will absorb the light of wavelength-
(a) 200 nm (b) 300 nm
(c) 350 nm (d) 450 nm
32. The photochemical smog is produced by-
(a) Nitrogen oxides
(b) Hydrocarbons
(c) Nitrogen oxides & hydrocarbons
(d) Solar radiation on NOX & hydrocarbon
33. Major aerosol pollutant in jet plane emission is-

(a) SO2 (b) CO
(c) Methane (d) Flurocarbon
34. Those species whose populations have been seriously depleted and whose ultimately
security is not assured is known
(a) Threatened species (b) Endangered species
(c) Vulnerable species (d) Rare species
35. Wild life is destroyed most when-

(a) There is lack of proper care
(b) Mass scale hunting for foreign trade
(c) Its natural habitat is destroyed
(d) Natural calamity
36. Increased incidence of floods in plains of North India are due to-
(a) Increased deforestation in catchment areas
(b) Increase in incidence of rainfall
(c) Silting of dams
(d) More area under cultivation
37. The two major aspects of ecosystem are-structure and function. By function we mean-
(a) The rate of biological energy flow i.e., the rate of production of respiration of
community
(b) Biological or ecological regulation including both regulation of organisms by
environment and relation of environment by the organisms
(c) The composition of biological community including species, numbers, biomass
and life history
38. Micro consumers are popularly known as-

(a) Primary consumer (b) Secondary consumer
(c) Tertiary consumer (d) Decomposers
39. Moss bags, epiphytic lichens and mosses have used for monitoring-
(a) Air pollution (b) Water pollution
(c) Oil pollution (d) Land pollution
40. The maximum primary productivity is seen in-

(a) Grasslands (b) Tropical rain forest
(c) Deserts (d) Mangroves
41. Ticks on cattle or cattle ergot feed on lice is an example of –

(a) Ammensalism (b) Commensalism
(c) Proto-cooperation (d) Mutualism
42. When mimic resembles a ferocious/ poisonous/distasteful organism for eg. Viceroy
butterfly mimics monarch butterfly is –
(a) Aggressive mimicry (b) Conscious mimicry
(c) Protective mimicry (d) All of these
43. Early successful stages are tolerant of the harsh, abiotic condition in barren areas
are characterized by-
(a) Weedy a-selected (b) Weedy r-selected
(c) Weedy g-selected (d) Weedy k-selected
44. As ecosystem matures more g-selected replace g-selected. During this species richness
and total biomass increase. Under such condition productivity-
(a) Also Increase (b) remains unchanged
(c) Decreased (d) Random increase
45. Limitating factor in temperate and boreal forest is-

(a) Nutrients (b) Frost
(c) Oxygen (d) Sunlight
46. Limitating factor for plant growth in steppes and desert is-
(a) Nutrients (b) Water
(c) Oxygen (d) Sunlight
47. No succession is seen in Savannah grasslands –

(a) Regular fires (b) Paucity of Nutrients
(c) Low water availability (d) Low oxygen supply
48. Diversity between geographical areas within one overall large area-
(a) a- Diversity (b) b-diversity
(c) g- Diversity (d) m-diversity
49. The characteristic population growth curve of bacteria is-

(a) Straight (b) S shaped
(c) J shaped (d) Random
50. The maximum biodiversity will occur at-

(a) Poles (b) Deserts
(c) grasslands (d) Alpines
51. Chimpanzees have a relatively low birth rate. They take good care of their young,
and most chimps live a long life. The chimp survivorship curve would look like
(a) a line that slopes gradually upward
(b) a relatively flat line that drops steeply at the end
(c) a line that drops steeply at first, then flattens out
(d) a line that slopes gradually downward
52. An oak tree produces thousands of acorns, but very few grow into mature oak trees.
The oak tree exhibits a . . . survivorship curve.
(a) Type I (b) Type II
(c) Type III (d) Type I or II
53. In the models that describe population growth, r stands for
(a) population density
(b) carrying capacity
(c) total number of individuals in the population
(d) growth rate
54. When the per capita birth rate equals the per capita death rate
(a) a population grows rapidly
(b) the size of a population remains constant
(c) density-dependent limiting factors do not affect the population
(d) a population is in danger of extinction
55. A population would always grow exponentially

(a) if it were limited only by density-dependent factors
(b) until it reaches carrying capacity
(c) if there were no limiting factors
(d) if it showed logistic growth
56. A wildlife biologist is trying to predict what will happen to a bear population if bear
hunting is banned. He had the equations all worked out but then realized that he had
grossly underestimated the amount of food available to the bears. To make his
predictions more accurate, he will have to go back to his equations and
(a) decrease N (b) increase N
(c) decrease K (d) increase K
57. A population that grows rapidly at first and then levels off at carrying capacity can be
modeled
(a) by a logistic equation
(b) as delta N/ delta t equals B minus D
(c) as dN/dt = rN
(d) as being relatively unaffected by limiting factor
58. A population that is growing logistically

(a) grows fastest when density is lowest
(b) has a high intrinsic rate of increase
(c) grows fastest at an intermediate population density
(d) grows fastest as it approaches carrying capacity
59. Human population growth was slow and gradual for a long period, but it turned
sharply upward
(a) after the development of agriculture, which decreased the death rate
(b) during the last half-century, when the birth rate increased
(c) as a result of the Black Death, which left more food for the survivors
(d) during the Industrial Revolution, when the death rate dropped
60. Which of the following is the most accurate comment on the Earth’s carrying capacity
for people?
(a) K is smaller now than it was a thousand years ago
(b) The human population is still a long way from K
(c) Our technology has allowed us to keep increasing K
(d) When it comes to humans, the concept of K is irrelevant
61. All of the organisms in a particular area make up a food chain.

(a) a population (b) a community
(c) a niche (d) an ecosystem
62. _______ views a community as a chance assemblage of organisms with similar abiotic
needs.
(a) The niche
(b) The individualistic hypothesis
(c) Species richness
(d) Commensalism
63. Milkweed plants produce bad-tasting and poisonous compounds that deter most plant-
eaters. But the caterpillars of Monarch butterflies are able to eat milkweed leaves
without being harmed. In fact, the chemicals obtained from milkweed actually protect
the Monarch from insect-eating birds. This example illustrates
(a) coevolution (b) competitive exclusion
(c) succession (d) mutualism
64. A bat locates insect prey in the dark by bouncing high-pitched sounds off them. One
species of moth escapes predation by diving to the ground when it hears sonar of a
particular bat species. This illustrates ____ between the bat and moth.
(a) mutualism (b) competitive exclusion
(c) ecological succession (d) coevolution
65. In terms of +, –, and 0, predation can be described as a _______ relationship.

(a) –/0 (b) +/0
(c) +/+ (d) +/–
66. Flounder look like the sea floor. This is an example of

(a) Müllerian mimicry (b) aposomatic coloration.
(c) character displacement (d) cryptic cloration
67. Which of the following describes mimicry?

(a) An insect’s bright colors warn a predator that it tastes bad
(b) The mottled pattern on a fish looks like dead leaves on the bottom of a pond
(c) Two species of mice live in the same area and eat the same kinds of seeds
(d) A harmless frog resembles a poisonous frog
68. A tick has what type of relationship with a dog?
(a) agonistic (b) competitive
(c) commensal (d) parasitic
69. When goats were introduced to an island off the California coast, the goats lived in
the same areas and ate the same plants as the native deer. The deer population
dwindled, and the deer finally disappeared. This is an example of
(a) commensalism (b) succession
(c) coevolution (d) competitive exclusion
70. The niche of an animal is
(a) the number of individuals of the species the environment will support
(b) the same as its habitat
(c) the way the animal fits into its environment
(d) its den or nest
71. The resources a population actually uses describes its ________; while the resources
it actually uses are its _________.
(a) realized niche; habitat
(b) realized niche; fundamental niche
(c) fundamental niche; realized niche
(d) habitat; ecosystem
72. Two species of cuckoo doves live in a group of islands off the coast of New Guinea. Of
33 islands, 14 have one species, 6 have the other, 13 have neither, and none has both.
What might best explain this? The two species of birds could
(a) be on different trophic levels
(b) have similar niches
(c) have a mutualistic relationship

(d) have different niches
73. The relationship between species A and species B is described as commensalism.
This means that
(a) both species suffer
(b) both species benefit
(c) one species benefits and the other species suffers
(d) one species benefits and the other species is unaffected
74. A lichen is actually composed of two organisms–a fungus and an alga. They depend on
each other for survival. The most specific term that describes their relationship is
(a) parasitism (b) commensalism
(c) symbiosis (d) mutualism
75. In Paine’s study of the intertidal zone on the coast of Washington State he found that
(a) competitive exclusion inevitably reduced species richness
(b) mutualism among prey species maintained species diversity
(c) the mussel Mytilus preyed on the sea star Pisaster
(d) the presence of a keystone predator maintained community diversity
76. Under which of the following circumstances would interspecific competition be most
obvious?
(a) when resources are most abundant
(b) in the presence of a keystone predator
(c) when organisms have quite different ecological niches
(d) when a foreign organism is introduced to a community
77. Which of the following best illustrates ecological succession?

(a) A mouse eats seeds, and an owl eats the mouse
(b) Decomposition in soil releases nitrogen that plants can use
(c) Grass grows on a sand dune, then shrubs, and then trees
(d) Imported pheasants increase, while local quail disappear
78. After clear-cutting, timber companies cannot afford to wait for the long process of
_____ to occur naturally; they plant trees right away.
(a) mutualism (b) succession
(c) coevolution (d) decomposition
79. The current view of succession is
(a) expressed by the equilibrial model
(b) that disturbance and nonequilibrium are inevitable
(c) that it ends once the climax community is established
(d) that it proceeds in a linear fashion
80. The . . . hypothesis contends that increased diversity is promoted when disturbances
prevent competitive exclusion. The . . . hypothesis contend that increased diversity is
promoted when disturbances result in the coexistence of several successional stages.
(a) dynamic equilibrium . . .Wilson/MacArthur
(b) Wilson and MacArthur. . . biogeography
(c) aposomatic; cryptic
(d) dynamic equilibrium . . .intermediate disturbance
81. An organism’s trophic level refers to

(a) the rate at which it uses energy
(b) where it lives
(c) what it eats
(d) whether it is early or late in ecological succession
82. Which of the following is a primary producer?
(a) detritivores (b) shrimp
(c) poison ivy (d) lions
83. The main decomposers in an ecosystem are

(a) bacteria and animals (b) plants and fungi
(c) fungi and bacteria (d) bacteria and plants
84. The energy for nearly every organism in nearly every ecosystem ultimately comes
from
(a) minerals in the soil (b) the sun
(c) heat from Earth (d) respiration
85. Which of the following equations is correct?

(a) NPP equals GPP minus Respr
(b) Respr equals NPP + GPP
(c) GPP equals NPP– Respr
(d) NPP equals GPP plus Respr
86. The relationship between biomass and primary productivity is that

(a) biomass is the rate of primary productivity
(b) biomass is the inverse of primary productivity
(c) biomass is the natural log of primary productivity
(d) primary productivity is the rate at which biomass is produced
87. When you eat an apple, you are a
(a) primary consumer (b) tertiary consumer
(c) primary producer (d) secondary consumer
88. Why is a diagram of energy flow from trophic level to trophic level shaped like a
pyramid?
(a) Organisms at each level store most of the energy and pass little on
(b) There are more producers than primary consumers, and so on
(c) Organisms eventually die as they get older

(d) Most energy at each level is lost, leaving little for the next
89. In an ecosystem the _____ is always greater than the _____ .
(a) number of primary producers . . . number of primary consumers
(b) biomass of secondary consumers . . . biomass of primary producers
(c) energy used by primary consumers . . . energy used by secondary consumers
(d) biomass of primary producers . . . biomass of primary consumers
90. The biggest difference between the flow of energy and the flow of chemical nutrients
in an ecosystem is that
(a) the amount of energy is much greater than the amount of nutrients
(b) energy is recycled, but nutrients are not
(c) organisms always need nutrients, but they don’t always need energy
(d) nutrients are recycled, but energy is not
91. Which of the following statements is correct?

(a) Over land, evaporation exceeds transpiration and precipitation
(b) Over land, evaporation and transpiration exceed precipitation
(c) Over oceans, transpiration exceeds precipitation
(d) Over oceans, evaporation exceeds precipitation
92. An ecosystem is unlikely to be limited by the supply of ____ because it is obtained
from the air.
(a) water (b) carbon
(c) phosphorus (d) calcium
93. Local conditions such as heavy rainfall or the removal of plants may limit the amount
of nitrogen, phosphorus, or calcium available to a particular ecosystem, but the amount
of carbon available to the system is seldom a problem. Why?
(a) Organisms do not need very much carbon
(b) Plants can make their own carbon using water and sunlight
(c) Plants are much better at absorbing carbon from the soil
(d) Many nutrients come from the soil, but carbon comes from the air
94. Bacteria are especially important in making ______ available to plants.

(a) water (b) nitrogen
(c) carbon (d) phosphorus
95. The direct product of nitrogen fixation is
(a) NH4 + (b) NO2 –
(c) NO3 .– (d) NH3
96. Nitrification is the conversion of

(a) NO3 – into N2 (b) N 2 to NH3
–
(c) organic nitrogen into NH4 + (d) NH4 + into NO3
97. The major source of nitrogen for most nonagricultural plants is

(a) nitrates in the soil. (b) N 2 gas in the air.
(c) proteins. (d) ammonium in the soil.
98. The phosphorus cycle lacks a(n) _____ component.

(a) atmospheric (b) organic
(c) mineral (d) aquatic
99. Ospreys and other top predators in food chains are most severely affected by pesticides
such as DDT because
(a) their systems are especially sensitive to chemicals.
(b) of their rapid reproductive rates.
(c) the pesticides become concentrated in their prey.
(d) they cannot store the pesticides in their tissues.
100. Most endangered species are victims of

(a) greenhouse warming.
(b) habitat destruction.
(c) overhunting.
(d) competition with introduced species.
1. Minimata disease is due to pollution by

(a) Organic waste into drinking water
(b) Oil spills in oceans
(c) Industrial waste mercury into fishing water
(d) Entry of Cadmium into drinking water
2. The maximum water pollution is caused by-
(a) Detergents (b) Pesticides
(c) Industrial wastes (d) Ammonia
3. Biogas consist of-

(a) CH 4 , SO2 and H2 (b) CO2 , Alcohol and H2
(c) CH 4 , CO2 and water (d) All of the above
4. The Ozone layer saves from lethal UV. It mainly absorbs-
(a) UV-A (b) UV-B
(c) UV-A & B (d) UV-A & C
5. A non harmful species copies a harmful and tasteless form, the type of mimicry
shown is-
(a) Bateson (b) Mullerian
(c) Darwinian (d) Morganarian
6. Exotic weed which proved very harmful for forest and grassland is-
(a) Eupatromia (b) Verbenia
(c) Eichornia (d) Salvia
7. Latest news of conflicts between human and wild animals has happened due to-
(a) Habitat destruction
(b) Increased poaching
(c) Increased conservation
(d) Increased Human population
8. Biological magnification is maximum in human it proves that human is-

(a) Top consumer in food chain
(b) More susceptible
(c) Major Pollutant
(d) Most efficient in storage of reserve food
9. Benthic organism of lakes or sea are usually-
(a) Producer (b) Herbivores
(c) Carnivores (d) Decomposers
10. Among the following which is not an characteristic of r-Selected species-

(a) Short maturation time
(b) Short life span
(c) Small size of offspring’s
(d) More then one time offspring production
11. In India most of plant flowers during spring or summer because-

(a) It is breeding season for butterflies
(b) More solar radiation are available
(c) Fruit and seed setting must be complete before onset of monsoon
(d) Environmental fluctuations are low
12. Total energy available for work at equilibrium is termed as-
(a) Free energy (b) Entropy
(c) Activation energy (d) Enthalpy
13. Drosophila shares more its genes with sister (75%) as compare to its daughter (50%)
due to-
(a) Eusocialbilty (b) Kin selection
(c) Haploidy diploidy (d) Parthenogensis
(a) Punctuated equilibrium (b) Adaptive radiation
(c) Anagenesis (d) Cladogenesis
15. Profitability of prey for predator lies in its energy content and
(a) Prey density (b) Palatability
(c) Foraging time (d) prey availability
16. Net productivity of closed ecosystem is-
(a) 0 (b) <0
(c) >0 (d) +1/–1
17. Number of individual surviving to reproductive stage is termed as-

(a) Fecundity (b) Net reproduction rate
(c) Survivorship curve (d) Reproductive Mortality
18. Major source of green house gases are-

(a) Burning of plants (b) Burning of fossil fuels
(c) Respiration (d) Use of LPG
19. Global warming is due to-

(a) Absorption of UV by Ozone (b) Absorption of IR by CO2
(c) Absorption of IR by ozone (d) Absorption of UV by CO2
20. Soil in naturally growing vegetation is-

(a) Acidic due to Bicarbonate in soil
(b) Basic due to Bicarbonate in soil
(c) Neutral
(d) Acidic due to Sulphuric acid
21. Deepest enriched soil with nutrients is present at-

(a) Tropical rain forests (b) Dry deciduous forests
(c) Grasslands (d) Conifers
22. Maximum biodiversity occurs at-
(a) Tropics (b) Equator
(c) Temperate (d) Shooth
23. Rapid nutritional recycling takes place in-

(a) Coral (b) Deserts
(c) Grasslands (d) Oceans
24. When a marine fish is placed in fresh water, it dies becuase-
(a) Entry of water and it floats (b) Exit of water and shrinks
(c) Deficiency of salts (d) Deficiency of nutrients
25. In winter pollution rate enhances due to-

(a) SPM (b) SO2 and NO2
(c) Burning of fuels (d) Low temperature
26. Which is correct relationship between habitat disturbance and biodiversity-
(a) Areas with no habitat disturbance tends to have high biodiversity
(b) Areas with high habitat disturbance tends to have high biodiversity
(c) Areas with moderate habitat disturbance tends to have high biodiversity
(d) Areas with no habitat disturbance tends to have low biodiversity
27. The birds in tropics are generally smaller in size because of-
(a) To increase surface area to volume ratio
(b) To decrease surface area to volume ratio
(c) For easy flight
(d) Aestivation
28. In an pond ecosystem, net productivity by zooplankton is ‘p’ and biomass consumed
by small fishes is 'c', then the ratio of c/p is termed as-
(a) Assimilation efficiency (b) Net secondary productivity
(c) Consumption efficiency (d) Conversion efficiency
29. For climax which statement is INCORRECT?
(a) Number of perennial species increases
(b) Dependency on detritious food chain increases
(c) Vertical stratification of community increases
(d) Exploitation competition is more then normal competition
30. At present, the relationship between human and monkey can be stated as
(a) They both have common ancestors
(b) Human have evolved from monkey
(c) Both have very distinct phylogeny
(d) Relationship can not be established
31. Each organism occupies a particular trophic level in a food chain. Moving from one
trophic level to the nex involves an energy loss of about ...
(a) 10% (b) 30%
(c) 50% (d) 70%
(e) 90%
32. The greatest amount of food per acre is produced in the ...
(a) tundra (b) grassland
(c) marine biome (d) rain forest
33. Predator populations and types of decomposers are biotic environmental factors. Which
is an abiotic environmental factor?
(a) common flora (b) availability of prey
(c) presence of microbes (d) average precipitation
34. Which of these is a large reservoir of nitrogen that is unusable by most organisms?
(a) soil (b) ocean
(c) atmosphere (d) space
35. The concentration of which gas can be reduced by preventing forest depletion?
(a) Oxygen (O2 ) (b) Methane (CH 4 )
(c) Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) (d) Nitrous oxide (N 2 O)
36. What is the approximate increase in global surface temperatures in the past century?
(a) 1.5°F (.8°C) (b) 5°F (2.8 °C)
(c) 1°F (.5°C) (d) 2°F (1.1°C)
37. What the gas which contributes most to the Greenhouse Effect?
(a) Methane(CH 4 ) (b) Carbon dioxide (CO2 )
(c) All of the above (d) Nitrous oxide (N 2 O)
38. What has been the approximate rise in sea level over the past century?
(a) 14-16 inches (35-40 cm) (b) 10-12 inches (25-30 cm)
(c) 2-4 inches (5-10 cm) (d) 6-8 inches (15-20 cm)
39. This type of biome (habitat) has very long cold winters, short warm summers and
typically has acidic soils as a result of the cold temperatures and litter fall.
(a) Desert (b) Tundra
(c) Taiga (Coniferous forests) (d) Temperate forests
40. A population’s role in the community or the resources it uses is called its _____?
(a) Trophic structure (b) Niche
(c) Community interaction (d) Habitat
41. Two species or populations are competing for the exact same resources, and one will
eventually exclude the other. What is the technical term for this?
(a) Predation (b) Competitive exclusion
(c) Coevolution (d) Mutualism
42. Predators can influence the structure of a community because their removal from
the community causes a catastrophic change in the composition and structure of the
rest of the community. What are the predators called because of this?
(a) Keystone species (b) Oppourtunists
(c) Coevolutionists (d) Edge species
43. What is the single most important factor contributing to losing or creating endangered
species?
(a) air pollution (b) clearcut logging
(c) habitat loss (d) water pollution
44. Which process is most capable of slowing global warming?

(a) Decomposition (b) Respiration
(c) Photosynthesis (d) Chemosynthesis
45. Why have top predators (consumers at the top of the food chain), such as the cheetah
and the tiger, always had smaller populations than organisms lower in the food chain?
(a) Hunted by humans (b) Low birth rate
(c) Limited energy availability (d) None of the above
46. Which of these is NOT a characteristic of a rapid life-history organism?

(a) rapid period of time until maturation
(b) small body size
(c) early reproduction age
(d) long life span
47. Based on the data in the graph, which of these statements is true?
(a) Growth of the housefly population begins to
increase rapidly about 3/4 of the way through
the first year
(b) At the beginning of the year, there are no
houseflies in the population
(c) The population size shows a straight-line
increase
(d) All of the population will be dead at the end
of one year
48. __________ is a density-dependent factor.

(a) Competition (b) Temperature
(c) Drought (d) Floods
49. Which of these is an explanation of why a population can fluctuate once it has reached
carrying capacity?
(a) All populations experience exponential growth once they reach carrying capacity
(b) A population of organisms always grows rapidly once it reaches carrying capacity
(c) Limiting factors can influence the number of organisms in a population once it
reaches carrying capacity
(d) The number of organisms decreases but never increases once it reaches carrying
capacity
50. Ecosytem is mainly concerned with

(a) energy flow and nutrient recycling (b) population
(c) community (d) species
51. An environment’s __________ is the number of organisms of a certain species that
can be supported indefinitely. Deer Population Over Time
(a) exponential growth A
Number
(b) stability
of d eer
(c) carrying capacity
B
(d) density Time
52. When is it possible for a population growth rate to be less than zero?
(a) When the death rate is greater than the birthrate
(b) The population growth rate can never be less than zero
(c) When the birthrate is equal to the death rate
(d) When the birthrate is greater than the death rate
53. What does the dotted line represent on this graph?

(a) predation (b) carrying capacity
(c) death rate (d) birth rate
54. The population distribution for a country shows that each age structure is about the
same size. What type of population growth is this country experiencing?
(a) zero growth (b) rapid growth
(c) stable growth (d) slow growth
55. Based on the data in the graph, which of the colonies was least affected by temperature
as a limiting factor? Number of colonies of Bacterium
(a) 3
grown at different temperatures
70
Number of c olonies
60
(b) 4 50
(c) 2
40
30
(d) 1 20
10
0
56. Which of these is NOT a limiting factor to the growth 1 2 3 4
Temperature test runs
of a population?
(a) availability of food (b) increasing population of predators
(c) introduction of disease (d) long-term abundance of space
57. Which of these equations represents zero population growth?

(a) Birthrate – Death rate = 0
(b) Birthrate – Death rate > 0
(c) Birthrate + Death rate < 0
(d) Birthrate + Death rate = 0
58. The population of a country is experiencing a slow doubling time. Which of these is
true of that country?
(a) It can also be categorized as a developing country
(b) It has zero population growth
(c) It will never double its population
(d) It can also be categorized as a developed country
59. A population of rabbits experiences an increase over time. Which of these statements
about that population is true?
(a) The population may face increased competition due to resource depletion
(b) The population my face decreased competition due to resource depletion
(c) The population may experience exponential growth due to resource depletion
(d) The population may experience straight-line growth due to resource depletion
60. An elephant is considered to have a slow life-history pattern. Which of these

characteristics would be matched to an elephant?
(a) unstable environment (b) long lifespan
(c) reproduce early (d) mature quickly
61. The portion of the shoreline that lies between the low tide line and the high tide line
is called the __________.
(a) intertidal zone (b) aphotic zone
(c) wetlands (d) plankton
62. An organism with the ability to withstand changes to biotic and abiotic environmental
factors is said to have __________.
(a) tolerance (b) a pioneer community
(c) limiting factors (d) secondary succession
63. Which of these biomes would you expect to find a coyote living in?
(a) desert (b) taiga
(c) tropical rain forest (d) tundra
64. Which of these statements is NOT true?
(a) Secondary succession happens in areas where organisms had previously live(d)
(b) Primary succession happens when communities of organisms populate otherwise
barren land
(c) Ecological change does not always equate with destruction
(d) The process of succession resulting in a climax community always happens within
one year
65. An undersea volcano in the Hawaiian Islands chain erupts, forming a new island in
the Pacific Ocean. Over the course of time, which of these would most likely be the
first species to survive on the new island?
(a) lichens
(b) grasses
(c) mammals
(d) birds
Primary and Secondary Succession
High
C 1
S pecies diver sity
A E
D
B 2
Zero Time
66. What does the lower line on the graph represent?

(a) primary succession (b) secondary succession
(c) a climax community (d) a limiting factor
67. Which of these is a characteristic of a grasslands biome?

(a) Warm weather allows for year-round plant growing conditions
(b) It contains an underground mat called sod
(c) There are vast land areas with bare ground and no plants
(d) It has a short plant-growing season
68. Which of these is a characteristic of a tropical rain forest?
(a) populated with squirrels, bears, and deer
(b) location close to the Equator
(c) short, mild summers
(d) relatively few trees per hectare
69. About how much annual precipitation does a taiga usually receive?
(a) about 250-400 cm (b) no more than 50 cm
(c) about 75-190 cm (d) no less than 300 cm
70. Which of these statements is true?

(a) Deciduous forests are populated with broad-leaved hardwood trees that lose their
foliage every year
(b) Tropical rain forests are communities that occur in climates that have a defined
dry season with rainfall totals less than 50 cm of rain per year
(c) The soils in tundras usually have a large humus content
(d) Grasslands are identified by their permanently frozen ground called permafrost
71. Which marine biome is characterized by deep water depths that never receive sunlight?
(a) a lake (b) a bog
(c) an estuary (d) an aphotic zone
72 Which of these statements about the amount of food production after 20 °C is true?
(a) Food production remains the same as temperatures increase beyond 20 °C
(b) Food production stops as temperatures increase beyond 20 °C
(c) Food production drops drastically as temperatures increase beyond 20 °C
(d) Food production continues to increase as temperatures increase beyond 20 °C
(a) In a pyramid of energy, only about 40% of the energy at one level is available for
the next trophic level
(b) The law of conservation, which can be applied to the pyramid of energy, means
that energy is constantly created and destroyed
(c) In a pyramid of numbers, the population size usually gets smaller as the trophic
level increases
(d) In a pyramid of biomass, the weight of a lower trophic level is the same as the
level above it
74. A relationship among organisms where one species benefits while the other species
neither benefits nor is harmed is called __________.
(a) parasitism (b) predation
(c) mutualism (d) commensalism
75. What element is considered the building block of all the molecules of life?
(a) carbon (b) sodium
(c) magnesium (d) hydrogen
76. What is the difference between mutualism and parasitism?

(a) Mutualism means that one member of a species thrives at the expense of the
member of the species. Parasitism means that one member of a species thrives
at the expense of the member of the species
(b) Mutualism means that one member of a species benefits without harming or
benefiting the member of another species. Parasitism means that both species’
members benefit from the relationship
(c) Mutualism means both members of a species benefit from living together.
Parasitism means that one member of a species thrives at the expense of the
member of the species
(d) Mutualism mean that both members of a species benefit from living together.
Parasitism means that one member of a species benefits without harming or
benefiting the member of another species
77. Which of these is NOT an example of a terrestrial ecosystem?

(a) human skin (b) garden pot
(c) rotting log (d) volcano site
78. Which of the following statements about the biosphere is true?

(a) Earth’s biosphere includes the portion of Earth within 1 mile of the surface
(b) Living things in Earth’s biosphere are affected by nonliving things
(c) Ecologists never study animal in Earth’s biosphere
(d) The physical environment of Earth’s biosphere is the only factor in influencing
living things
79. An organism which can produce its own food from simple raw materials and an energy
source is a(n)
(a) autotroph (b) producer
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) neither (a) nor (b)
80. As energy is passed from one trophic level to the next, the amount of usable energy
(a) increases (b) decreases
(c) remains constant (d) is highly variable
81. A ‘habitat’ is:

(a) A place to buy furniture and furnishings
(b) The same as an ecosystem
(c) A particular area inhabited by plants and animals
(d) The number of different organisms living in a specific area
82. How an organism is suited to live in a particular place is called:
(a) Competition (b) Adaptation
(c) Addition (d) Participation
83. ‘Biodiversity’ is described as:

(a) The range of different species in an environment
(b) The seasonal and daily changes in an environment
(c) The way species differ from one another
(d) The influence of physical factors on an environment
84. Which of these is a correct food chain?

(a) Fish®chips®peas (b) Man®cow®grass
(c) Cow®farm®supermarket (d) Grass®cow®man
85. The arrows in a food chain show:
(a) Who eats who
(b) The route of food to the shops
(c) The movement of energy between organisms
(d) Where you need to go to get a meal
86. All the energy in a food chain originates from:

(a) A plant (b) The farmer
(c) The Sun (d) An electric socket
87. In the 1960’s myxomatosis was ‘accidentally’ released killing approximately 90% of
rabbits in the UK. What happened in the food chain below? Carrots®rabbits®foxes
(a) The number of carrots increased
(b) The number of foxes increased
(c) The number of carrots decreased and the number of foxes increased
(d) The number of carrots increased and the number of foxes decreased
88. Rabbits are important grazers, maintaining some important grassland habitats. If
another catastrophe were to reduce rabbit populations what would happen?
(a) Important grassland butterflies would be lost
(b) There would be more grass for the surviving rabbits
(c) The grassland would be invaded by trees and shrubs
89. A food web:
(a) Is made by a spider
(b) Shows how feeding relationships are interlinked
(c) Shows the number of organisms in a habitat
(d) Only shows important animals
90. Which of these are not competed for by plants?

(a) Light (b) Minerals
(c) Warmth (d) Water
91. Weeds compete with crops for resources. Farmers can get rid of weeds by using:
(a) Insecticide (b) Fungicide
(c) Herbicide (d) Rodenticide
92. Which of the following statements about pesticides is true?

(a) Spraying pesticides only affects the farmer’s crops
(b) There do not affect food chains
(c) Without pesticides farmers could not grow crops
(d) Pesticides can end up in rivers and streams
93. Many pesticides are stored in an animal’s body fat. If a pesticide got into a lake, which
organism would have the highest level? microscopic plant®micro animal®fish ®osprey
(a) Osprey (b) Fish
(c) Microscopic animals (d) Microscopic plants
94. What do farmers using modern farming techniques rely on to ensure maximum crop
yields?
(a) Pesticides (b) Fertilisers
(c) Pesticides and fertilisers (d) Large machinery
95. Fertilisers can be washed into rivers by the rain. This can cause:
(a) Bioaccumulation (b) Eutrophication
(c) Biodegradation (d) Spontaneous combustion
96. Organic food is supposed to be better for you because:

(a) It relies on chemicals to improve the flavour
(b) It is more expensive to buy
(c) It is all grown in glasshouses, keeping it clean of environmental pollutants
(d) It is grown without the use of artificial fertilisers and pesticides
97. The biggest impacts are made on the environment by:

(a) The migration of organisms (b) Predation
(c) Human interference (d) Competition
98. Sustainable development is:
(a) New building work to maintain jobs
(b) Just a phrase used by environmentalists
(c) Typical 21st century farming methods
(d) Improving the lives of today’s people, without damaging the quality of life of
future generations
99. Farming crises and food scares arise because:

(a) Animals are dirty
(b) Some people don’t cook their food properly
(c) Man has interfered too much with natural food production
(d) We eat too much fast food
100. The Rio declaration on the Environment and development and Agenda 21 encouraged
people to:
(a) Act local, think global
(b) Act global, think local
(c) Act as we are, think as we do
(d) Not worry, the earth will go on forever
7
Biodiversity and Taxonomy
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is defined as ‘the variability among living organisms from all sources, including
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they
are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems’. India is
one of 12 megadiversity countries of the world. The innumerable life forms harbored by the
forests, deserts, mountains, other land, air and oceans provide food, fodder, fuel, medicine,
textiles etc. There are innumerable species, the potential of which is not as yet known. It
would therefore be prudent to not only conserve the species we already have information
about, but also species we have not yet identified and described from economic point of view.
Taxus baccata, a tree found in the Sub-Himalayan regions, once believe to be of no value is now
considered to be effective in the treatment of certain types of cancer. The diversity of genes,
species and ecosystem is a valuable resource that can be tapped as human needs and demands
change, the still more basic reasons for conservation are the moral, cultural and religious
values.
Biodiversity has direct consumptive value in agriculture, medicine and industry.
Approximately 80000 edible plants have been used at one time or another in human history, of
which only about 150 have even been cultivated on a large scale. Today a mere 10 to 20 species
provide 80%–90% food requirements of the world. The indirect values imply the functions
performed by biodiversity which are not of any direct use such as ecological processes etc. In
India, many rural communities particularly the tribals obtain considerable part of their daily
food from the wild plants. Some examples are: Ceropegia bubosa in Central India and Western
Ghats. At one time, nearly all medicines were derived from biological resources. Even today
they remain vital and as much as 67%–70% of modern medicine are derived from natural
products. In developing countries, a large majority of the people rely on traditional medicines
for their primary health care, most of which involve the use of plant extracts.
• Genetic Biodiversity: Genetic variation within species both among living organisms
and the ecological complex in which they occur. eg., the genetic diversity in rabbit
population.
• Species Biodiversity: Full range of species on earth.

• Community and ecosystem diversity: On wider scale, biodiversity includes variation
in biological community in which species live, the ecosystem in which community
exists and interactions among the levels. Eg., diversity across the landscape of entire
region.
• a -Diversity: Number of species in a single community, used to compare number of
species in different ecosystem types.
• b -Diversity: Degree to which species composition changes along the environmental
gradient. Eg., b -diversity will be low if same species occupy the whole mountain and
high if species changes at successive higher elevations.
• g -Diversity: It applies to larger geographical scales and defined as rate at which
additional species are encountered as geographical replacements within a habitat
types in different localities.
MAJOR BIODIVERSITY THREATS

Habitat destruction, overexploitation, pollution, and species introduction are the major causes
of biodiversity loss in India. Other factors included fires, which adversely affect regeneration in
some cases, and such natural calamities as droughts, diseases, cyclones, and floods. Habitat
destruction, decimation of species, and the fragmentation of large contiguous populations into
isolated, small, and scattered ones has rendered them increasingly vulnerable to inbreeding
depression, high infant mortality, and susceptibility to environmental stochasticity and, in the
long run, possibly to extinction.
This erosion of biodiversity is largely due to habitat loss caused by the expansion of various
development projects such as mines, dams, and road and canal construction. Habitat loss leads
to the fragmentation of continuous stretches of land and consequently fragments wildlife
populations inhabiting them. These small populations are increasingly vulnerable to inbreeding
depression, high infant mortality, susceptibility to environmental stochasticity, and, in the
long run, possibly to extinction. Apart from the primary loss of habitats, there are numerous
other problems contributing to the loss and endangered status of several plant and animal
species. Habitat degradation such as changes in forest composition and quality can in turn lead
to declines in primary food species for wildlife. Poaching is another insidious threat that has
emerged in recent years as one of the primary reasons for extinction of species such as the
tiger. Poaching pressures, however, are unevenly distributed since certain selected species are
more heavily targeted than others. Population pressures and concomitant increases in the
collection of fuelwood and fodder, and grazing in forests by local communities also take their
toll on the forests and consequently its biodiversity. Other minor factors include fires, which
adversely affect regeneration in some cases, and natural calamities like droughts, diseases,
cyclones, and landslides.
India’s contribution to agro-biodiversity has been impressive. India stands seventh in the
world as far as the number of species contributed to agriculture and animal husbandry is
concerned. In qualitative terms too, the contribution has been significant, as it has contributed
such useful animal species as water buffalo and camel and plant species such as rice and sugarcane.
India has also been a secondary centre of domestication for animal species such as horse and
goat, and such plant species as potato and maize. Animal species, which are reported to be
threatened in India, have been listed in Table 9.1.
Biodiversity and Taxonomy 377
India
Percentage of
Taxa2 Species Endemic Threatened World India to
species species the word
Protista 25772 312592 8.242

Mollusca2 50702 9672 665352 7.62
Arthropoda2 683892 16214 (Insects)2 9879492 6.902
Other Invertebrates 283292 871212 9.562
Protochordata2 119 1062 5.652
Pisces 25462 4 217232 11.72
Amphibia2 092 1102 32 51502 4.062
Reptilia2 4562 142 162 58172 7.842
Aves2 1232 692 732 90262 13.662
Mamalia2 3902 382 752 46292 8.42
India has 47 000 species of flowering and non-flowering plants representing about 12% of
the recorded world’s flora. Out of 47 000 species of plants, 5 150 are endemic and 2532 species
are found in the Himalayas and adjoining regions and 1 782 in the peninsular India. India is
also rich in the number of endemic faunal species it possesses, while its record in agro-biodiversity
is very impressive as well. There are 166 crop species an numerous wild relatives of domesticated
animals. Overall India ranks seventh in terms of contribution to world agriculture.
STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA

India occupies only 2.4% of the world’s land area but its contribution to the world’s biodiversity
is approximately 8% of the total number of species, which is estimated to be 1.75 million. Of
these, 126 188 have been described in India. The species recorded includes flowering plants
(angiosperms), mammals, fish, birds, reptiles, and amphibians, constitute 17.3% of the total
whereas nearly 60% of India’s bio-wealth is contributed by fungi and insects. Such a distribution
is similar to that found in the tropics and the subtropics. Biogeographically, India is situated at
the tri-junction of three realms namely Afro-tropical, Indo-Malayan and Paleo-Arctic realms,
and therefore, has characteristic elements from each of them. This assemblage of three distinct
realms probably is a fact which is believed to partly account for its rich and unique in biological
diversity. Based on the available data, India ranks tenth in the world and fourth in Asia in plant
diversity, and ranks tenth in the number of endemic species of higher vertebrates in the world.
There are 10 biogeographical zones in India. They can be classified as under:
The Biogeographic classification of India (Rodgers and Pawar 1990)

• Trans-Himalayas. An extension of the Tibetan plateau, harboring high-altitude cold
desert in Laddakh (J&K) and Lahaul Spiti (H.P) comprising 5.7 % of the country’s
landmass.
• Himalayas. The entire mountain chain running from north-western to northeastern
India, comprising a diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes, 7.2 % of the country’s
landmass.
• Desert. The extremely arid area west of the Aravalli hill range, comprising both the
salty desert of Gujarat and the sand desert of Rajasthan. 6.9% of the country’s
landmass.
• Semi-arid. The zone between the desert and the Deccan plateau, including the Aravalli
hill range. 15.6 % of the country’s landmass.
• Western ghats. The hill ranges and plains running along the western coastline,
south of the Tapti river, covering an extremely diverse range of biotic provinces and
biomes. 5.8% of the country’s landmass.
• Deccan peninsula. The largest of the zones, covering much of the southern and
southcentral plateau with a predominantly deciduous vegetation. 4.3 % of the country’s
landmass.
• Gangetic plain. Defined by the Ganges river system, these plains are relatively
homogenous. 11% of the country’s landmass.
• North-east India. The plains and non- Himalayan hill ranges of northeastern India,
with a wide variation of vegetation. 5.2% of the country’s landmass.
• Islands. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal, with a highly
diverse set of biomes. 0.03% of the country’s landmass.
• Coasts. A large coastline distributed both to the west and east, with distinct differences
between the two; Lakshadeep islands are included in this with the percent area being
negligible.
Forest type2 Distribution % of forest area
Tropical forests2
Tropical wet evergreen2 North East and South, 5.82
Andaman and Nicobar island2
Tropical semi evergreen2 South and East2 2.52
Tropical moist deciduous2 Central and East2 30.32
Tropica littoral and swamp2 Along the coast2 0.92
Tropical dry deciduous2 West and Central2 38.2
Tropical thorn2 West and Central2 6.72
Tropical dry evergreen2 Central and South2 0.12
Subtropical forests2
Subtropical broad leaved hill forests2 South2 0.42
Subtropical pine2 Sub-Himalayan tract2 5.02
Subtropical dry evergreen2 North-East and South2 0.2
Temperate forests2
Montane wet temperate2 Himalaya and Nilgiris 2.02
(in Western Ghats)2
Himalayan moist temperate2 Temperate areas of Himalays2 3.42
Himalayan dry temperate2 Dry temperate areas of Himalayas2 0.2
Sub-alpine and alpine forests2
Sub-alpine2 Himalaya2 4.32
Moist alpine shrub2 Himalaya2 4.32
Dry alpine shrub2 Himalaya2 4.32
Apart from the biogeographic classifications described above ecosystems can also be
demarcated on the basis of purely geographical or geological features like mountains, islands,
valleys, plateaux, oceans; on the basis of vegetative cover like forests, grasslands, mangroves
and deserts; on the basis of climatic conditions like arid and semi-arid areas, permanently
snow-bound areas, high rainfall areas; on the basis of soil characteristic and other such criteria.
In some descriptions the biomes/ecosystems are clubbed together into very general habitat
classifications. The main natural habitat types are:
1. Forests
The forest cover of the country is placed at 633 397 sq km according to the forest survey of India
assessment (1997). This presents 19.27% of India’s total geographical areas. India is endowed
with diverse forest types ranging from the Tropical wet evergreen forests in North-Eastern to
the Tropical thorn forests in the Central and Western India.
2. Grasslands
In India the spread of grassland and shrubland is put at 12% of the total landmass while the
planning commission (1989) and Grasslands and Fodder research Institute, Jhansi gives an
estimate of about 3.7 to 3.9%. The diversity of grasslands in India is high ranging from semi-
arid pastures of the western part of the Deccan peninsula, the humid, semi-waterlogged tall
grassland of the Terai belt, the rolling shola grasslands of the western ghat hilltops, and the
high-altitude alpine pastures of the Himalayas.
3. Wetlands
Wetlands cover 3% of the Indian landmass, or nearly 100 000 sq. Km. Wetlands in India harbor
a vast variety of life forms that are a part of the complex food of these transitional ecosystems.
About 320 species of birds are associated with the Indian Wetlands. Apart from birds, the
wetlands support a diverse population of plants and animals including 150 species of amphibians.
Wetlands are the habitat of some of the world’s endangered and threatened flora and fauna.
The Western and Central flock of Siberian crane, one of the most endangered cranes in the
world, uses Keoladeo as its winter site. The brown antlered deer (Cervus eldi eldi) or ‘sangai’ is
found only in phumadis (floating landmasses) of Lok Tak Lake. Gahirmatha beach is a major
breeding site of olive ridley turtles. Chilka is the habitat of many threatened species such as
green sea turtle, Hawksbill turtle, dugong, and blackbuck.
4. Mangroves
Government of India estimated mangrove cover of 674 000 ha, which is about 7% of the world’s
mangrove. Mangroves are salt-tolerant ecosystems in tropical and subtropical regions. These
ecosystems are largely characterized by assemblage of unrelated tree genera that share the
common ability to grow in saline tidal zone. India harbours some of the best mangroves swamps
in the world, located in the alluvial deltas of Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Cauveri
rivers and on the Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands. The largest stretch of mangroves in
the country lies in the Sunderbans in West Bengal covering an area of about 4,200 sq. km. The
predominant mangroves species are Avicennia officinalis, Excoecaria agallocha, Heritiera fomes,
Bruguiera parviflora, Ceriops decandra, Rhizophora mucronata and Xylocarpus granatum.
Mangroves also harbour a number of molluscs, polychaetes and honeybees. The Indian
mangroves are host to 105 species of fish, 20 kinds of shellfish, and 229 crustacean species. The
Royal Bengal tiger is found in the Sunderban mangroves. Different species of monkeys, otters,
deer, fishing cats, snakes and wild pigs are common. A total of 117 species of migratory and
residential birds have been reported. The most common birds are flamingos, storks, sea eagles,
kites, kingfishers, sandpipers, bulbuls, and whistlers.
5. Coral reefs
Accurate estimates of coral reef extent in the world are not available. A rough estimate puts it
at 600 000 sq Km (Smith 1978) out of which 60% occurs in the Indian Ocean region and most of
it in south-east Asia. The coral reef cover in Indian waters is roughly estimated upto 19,000 sq.
Km (Wafar 1992). Indian reefs belong to the following categories:
1. PalkBay and Gulf of Mannar : Fringing
2. Gulf of Kachchh : Fringing, Patchy
3. Andaman and Nicobar Islands : Fringing
4. Lakshadeep Islands : Atolls
5. Central West coast : Patchy
The diversity of the Indian coral reefs is very impressive with about 200 coral species
belonging to 71 genera. The richest being Andaman and Nicobar Islands which alone harbors
179 species.
6. Deserts
In India, deserts extend over about 2% of the landmass. Three kinds of deserts are noticeable
in India:
1. The sand desert of western Rajasthan and neighbouring areas.
2. The vast salt desert of Gujarat
3. The high-altitude cold desert of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
Desert fauna in India is also quite diverse, with about 1200 sp. of animals reported from
Thar region of which 440 are vertebrates and 755 are invertebrates. Desert fox, Desert cat,
Houbara Bustard and some Sandgrouse species are restricted to the Thar area (Rodgers and
Pawar 1988). In the remote part of Great Rann, Gujarat lies the nesting ground of Flamingoes
and the only known population of Asiatic wild ass.
The cold deserts in India cover a vast area of 109 990 sq. Km, about 87,780 sq. km in
Laddakh (Jammu and Kashmir) and 22,210 sq. Km in Lahaul -Spiti (Himachal Pradesh). The
diversity of the high altitude cold deserts has been studied only recently with many insect
species being endemic. Interestingly the cold desert harbors Kiang a close relative of the Indian
wild ass found the Rann of Kachchh. Other distinctive animals include Snow leopard, Yak,
Tibetan antelope, Ibex, Blue sheep, Tibetan gazelle, Woolly hare etc.
BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS
In order to concentrate resources on those areas that are most vulnerable, conservationists
have identified certain areas as biodiversity “hotspots.” The term was first used by British
ecologist Norman Myers in 1988 to designate areas in which there is a disproportionate number
of endemic species (species that are found nowhere else) and which are losing habitat at a high
rate. In a February 2000 article in Nature, Myers and other ecologists identified 25 “hotspots”
that together comprise only 1.4 percent of the Earth’s surface yet contain 44 percent of all
species of higher plants and 35 percent of all land vertebrate species.
Hotspots are defined according to their plant vegetation. According to Myers’s definition,
a hotspot has to contain at least 0.5 percent of the world’s 300,000 plant species as
endemics. Plants are important because vegetation is what determines the primary productivity
of an ecosystem. Most, but not all, of the hotspots are in tropical areas; many are in developing
countries where populations rely on species-rich ecosystems for food, firewood, cropland, and
income from timber. In Madagascar, for example, about 85 percent of the plants and animals
are found nowhere else in the world
Biodiversity hotspots are areas that are unusually rich in species, most of which are
endemic, and are under a constant threat of being overexploited. Among the 25 hot spots in the
world, two are found in India. These are two distinct areas: the Eastern Himalayas and the
Western Ghats and are also depicted in the National forest vegetation map of India.
1. Eastern Himalayas
Phytogeographically, the Eastern Himalayas forms a distinct floral region and comprises Nepal,
Bhutan, neighbouring states of east and north-east India, and a contiguous sector Yunnan
province in south western China. In the whole of Eastern Himalayas, there are an estimated
9000 plant species, with 3500 (i.e. 39%) of them being endemic. In India’s sector of the area,
there occur some 5800 plant species, roughly 2000 (i.e. 36%) of them being endemic. At least 55
flowering plants endemic to this area are recognized as rare, for example, the pitcher plant
(Nepenthes khasiana). The area has long been recognized as a rich centre of primitive flowering
plants and the area is recognized as ‘Cradle of Speciation’.
Species of several families of monocotyledons, Orchidaceae, Zingiberaceae and Arecaceae
abound in the area. Gymnosperms and pteridophytes (ferns) are also well represented in the
area. The area is also rich in wild relatives of plants of economic significance, e.g., rice, banana,
citrus, ginger, chilli, jute and sugarcane. The region is regarded as the centre of origin and
diversification of five palms of commercial importance namely, coconut, arecanut, palmyra
palm, sugar palm and wild date palm. Tea (Thea sinensis) is reported to be in cultivation
in this region for the last 40,000 years. Many wild and allied species of tea, the leaves of which
are used as substitute of tea, are found growing in the North East in the natural habitats. The
‘taxol’ plant Taxus wallichiana is sparsely distributed in the region and has come under red
data category due to its over exploitation for extraction of a drug effectively used against cancer.
As regards faunal diversity, 63% of the genera of land mammals in India are know from
this area. During the last four decades, two new mammals have been discovered from the
region: Golden Langur from Assam – Bhutan region, and Namdapha flying squirrel
from Arunachal Pradesh indicating the species richness of the region. The area is also a
rich centre of avian diversity – more than 60% of the Indian birds are recorded in the
North East. The region also has two endemic genera of lizards, and 35 endemic reptilian species,
including two turtle. Of the 204 Indian amphibians, at least 68 species are known from North
East, 20 of which are endemic. From Namdapha National Park itself, a new genus of mammal,
a new subspecies of bird, 6 new species of amphibia, four new species of fish, at least 15 new
species of beetles and 6 new species of flies have been discovered.
2. Western ghats
The Western Ghats region is considered as one of the most important biogeographic zones of
India, as it is one of the richest centres of endemism. Due to varied topography and micro-
climatic regimes, some areas within the region are considered to be active zones of speciation.
The region has 490 arborescent taxa, of which as many as 308 are endemics this endemism
of tree species shows a distinct trend, being the highest (43%) in 8N-10°30’N location and
declining to 11% in 16N - 16°30’N location. About 1 500 endemic species of dicotyledonous
plants are reported from the Western Ghats. 245 species of orchids belonging to 75 genera are
found here, of which 112 species in 10 genera are endemic to the region.
As regards the fauna, as many as 315 species of vertebrates belonging to 22 genera are
endemic, these include 12 species of mammals, 13 species of birds, 89 species of reptiles, 87
species of amphibians and 104 species of fish. The extent of endemism is high in amphibian and
reptiles. There occur 117 species of amphibians in the region, of which 89 species (i.e. 76%) are
endemic. Of the 165 species of reptiles found in Western Ghats, 88 species are endemic. Many
of the endemics and other species are listed as threatened. Nearly 235 species of endemic
flowering plants are considered endangered. Rare fauna of the region includes: Lion Tailed
Macaque, Nilgiri Langur, Nilgiri Tahr, Flying Squirrel, and Malabar Gray Hornbill.
Response
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) is the nodal agency in the Government of
India for planning, promotion, coordination, and overseeing the implementation of the
environmental and forestry programmes. The MoEF is also the focal point for implementation
of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The mandates of the Ministry interalia include survey
of flora, fauna, forests and wildlife, and conservation of natural resources. These objectives are
supported by legislative and regulatory measures. A number of institutions affiliated with the
Ministry are involved in the work related to various aspects of biological diversity. Survey and
inventorization of the floral and faunal resources are carried out by the Botanical Survey of
India (BSI) established in 1890, and the Zoological Survey of animals species have been recorded
by the BSI and ZSI respectively. The Survey organizations have published over the years,
documents on flora and fauna at country, state and in some cases district levels and for selected
ecosystems. Besides, extensive reports on inventories of resources indicating level of biodiversity
in selected areas have also been brought out. The Surveys have also published Red Data
Books (Originally printed by International council for conservation of nature and natural
resources) on endangered species. The voucher specimens are preserved in Central National
Herbarium (CNH) of BSI and National Zoological Collection (NZC) of ZSI. The Forest Survey of
India publishes every three years, a State of Forest in India report based on remote sensing
and ground truth data.
CONSERVATION STRATEGICS
Existing policy response In situ conservation (within natural habitat)
India has a network of 85 national parks and 448 sanctuaries, covering 4.2% of the its land area
[MoEF 1998]. This number has progressively increased over the last twenty-five years. Areas
having significant biodiversity value are declared national parks or sanctuaries under the Wild
Life (Protection) Act of 1972 (henceforth referred to as WL Act), as amended in 1991. Before
this act, national parks and sanctuaries were being set up but under various state or area
specific acts.
With the coming of this act, all areas notified under any other act became parks or
sanctuaries notified under this act, Under the WL Act, national parks are given a higher
level of protection and no human use activity is permitted within them: The act specifies that:
“No person shall destroy, exploit or remove any wild life from a National Park or destroy or
damage the habitat of any wild animal or deprive any wild animal of its habitat within such
National Park except under and in accordance with a permit granted by the Chief Wild Life
Warden and no such permit shall be granted unless the State Government, being satisfied that
such destruction, exploitation or removal of wild life from the National Park is necessary for the
improvement and better management of wild life therein, authorises the issue of such permit.”
[Section 35(6) of the Act]. Also, no private land holding or right is allowed within a national
park.
Sanctuaries are accorded a lesser level of protection, and grazing and some community
or individual rights can be permitted. Under the WL Act, national parks are fully protected
from all human disturbance and, consequently, correspond to the revised category Ia (Scientific
Reserves) of the IUCN categorisation system for protected areas. A sanctuary, where grazing
and various other rights can be permitted, corresponds to IUCN category IV Habitat and
Wildlife Management Area).
Some important measures taken are as follows

• A programme entitled “Eco-development” for in situ conservation of biological
diversity involving local communities has been initiated in recent years. The concept
of eco-development integrates the ecological and economic parameters for sustained
conservation of ecosystems by involving the local communities with the maintenance
of earmarked regions surrounding protected areas. The economic needs of the local
communities are taken care of under this programme through provision of alternative
sources of income and a steady availability of forest and related produce. To conserve
the respective ecosystems, a Biosphere Reserve Programme is being implemented.
Twelve biodiversity rich areas of the country have been designated as Biosphere
Reserves (Table 9.5) applying the diversity and genetic integrity of plants, animals
and microorganisms in their totality as part of the natural ecosystems, so as to ensure
their self-perpetuation and unhindered evolution of the living resources.
• Programmes have also been launched for scientific management and wise use of
fragile ecosystem. Specific programmes for management and conservation of wetlands,
mangroves, and coral reef systems are also being implemented. 21 wetlands, 15
mangrove areas and 4 coral reef areas have been identified for management. National
and sub-national level committees oversee and guide these programme to ensure
strong policy and strategic support.
• Six internationally significant wetlands of India have been declared as “Ramsar Sites”
under the Ramsar Convention. To focus attention on urban wetlands threatened by
pollution and other anthropogenic activities, State Governments were requested to
identify lakes that could be include the National Lake Conservation Plan. The activities
of the NLCP include formulation of perspective plans for conservation based on
resource survey using remote sensing technology and GIS studies on biodiversity
and related ecological matters, prevention of pollution from point and non-point
sources, treatment of catchment, desilting and weed control.
• Wild Life Protection Act is in the final stage of revision and provisions have been
made for conservation reserves and community reserves to allow restrictive use to
make it more people oriented. Presently Biodiversity Act which is in the final stage,
has got the component of National Biodiversity Authority to control access to genetic
resources form international community. There will also be State Biodiversity Boards
to control access to domestic consumers. Under the World Heritage Convention, five
natural sites have been declared as “World Heritage Sites”, the name of which are
under:
1. The Tura Range in Gora Hills of Meghalaya is a gene sanctuary for preserving
the rich native diversity of wild Citrus and Musa species.
2. Sanctuaries for rhododendrons and orchids have been established in Sikkim.
3. Large mammal species targeted protection based on the perception of threat to
them have been under implementation.
• Project Tiger. A potential example of an highly endangered species is the Indian
Tiger (Panthera tigris) The fall and rise in the number of Tiger’s in India is an index
of the extent and nature of conservation efforts. It is estimated that India had about
40 000 tigers in 1900, and the number declined to a mere about 1 800 in 1972. Hence,
Project Tiger was launched in 1973 with the following objectives:
• To ensure maintenance of available population of Tigers in India for scientific,
economic, aesthetic, cultural and ecological value
• To preserve, for all times, the areas of such biological importance as a national
heritage for the benefit, education and enjoyment of the people
• At present there are 25 Tiger Reserves spreading over in 14 states and covering an
area of about 33 875 sq km and the Tiger population has more than doubled now due
to a total ban on hunting and trading tiger products at national and international
levels and the implementation of habitat improvement and anti-poaching measures
(MoEF 2000)
• Project Elephant was launched in 1991-92 to assist States having free ranging
population of wild elephants to ensure long term survival of identified viable populations
of elephants in their natural habitats. Major activities of Project Elephant are:
• Ecological restoration of existing natural habitats and migratory routes of elephants.
Development of scientific and planned management for conservation of elephants
habitats and value population of wild Asiatic elephants in India
• Promotion of measures for mitigation of man-elephant conflict in crucial habitats and
moderating pressures of human and domestic stock activities in crucial elephant
habitats
• Strengthening of measures for protection of wild elephants from poachers and unnatural
caused of death. Research on Project Elephant management related issues Public
education and awareness programmes
• Eco-development
• Veterinary care
• Rhinos have been given special attention in selected sanctuaries and national parks
in the North East and North-west India. All these programmes, though focussed on a
single species, have a wider impact as they conserve habitats and a variety of other
species in those habitats. The Ministry of Environment and Forests constituted the
National Afforestation and Eco-development Board (NAEB) in August 1992. National
Afforestation and Eco-development Board has evolved specific schemes for promoting
afforestation and management strategies, which help the states in developing specific
afforestation and management strategies and eco-development packages for
augmenting biomass production through a participatory planning process of Joint
Forest Management and microplanning.
Ex-situ conservation (outside natural habitats)

To complement in situ conservation, attention has been paid to ex-situ conservation measures.
According to currently available survey, Central Government and State Government together
run and manage 33 Botanical Gardens. Universities have their own botanical gardens. There
are 275 zoos, deer parks, safari parks, aquaria etc. A Central Zoo Authority was set up to
secure better management of zoos. A scheme entitled Assistance to Botanic Gardens provides
one-time assistance to botanic gardens to strengthen and institute measure for ex-situ
conservation of threatened and endangered species in their respective regions.
• Maximum biodiversity among vertebrates: Pisces (osteochythes/bony fishes)
• Maximum biodiversity among invertebrates: Arthropods (insecta)
• Maximum biodiversity occurs in: tropics (5° to 25° North South)
• Countries with maximum biodiversity: Brazil, Columbia, China
• In India maximum biodiversity occurs along Western Ghats.
• Wild life which become extinct in near past: Dodo (Mauritus/1680), Yellow headed
Macaw (Jamaica/1765), Stellar sea cow (Bering sea /1767) and many Australian animals
like Wallabies, Tasmanian emus, Tasmanian Tiger, Rat Kangaroo etc.
• Red Data book which have list of Threatened organism is published by Union of
Nature and Natural resources (IUCN)
Threatened Species
The Number of Threatened Species for include “all full species categorized at the global
level as Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable.” Subspecies, introduced species,
species whose status is insufficiently known, and species whose status has not been assessed
are excluded.
Threatened species are classified in one of 3 categories:
1. Critically Endangered: includes species facing an extremely high risk of extinction
in the wild in the immediate future.
2. Endangered: includes species that are not “Critically Endangered” but are facing a
very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future
3. Vulnerable: includes species facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-
term future. For each threat category, five criteria A-E are used to classify species in
one of the three categories mentioned above:
A- Declining population
B- Small population and decline or fluctuation
C- Small population size and decline
D- Very small population/very restricted distribution
E- Quantitative analysis (e.g. Population Viability Analysis)
DNA FINGERPRINTING
On some human chromosomes, a short sequence of DNA has been repeated a number of times.
In any particular chromosomes the repeat number may vary from one to thirty repeats. Since
these repeat regions are usually bounded by specific restriction enzyme sites, it is possible to
cut out the segment of the chromosome containing this variable number of tandem repeats
or VNTR’s, run the total DNA on a gel, and identify the VNTR’s by hybridization with a probe
specific for the DNA sequence of the repeat. VNTR occurs in minisatellite DNA concentrated
around Telomere
It is widely known that each individual has a DNA profile as unique as a fingerprint.
Actually, over 99% of all 3 billion nucleotides in human DNA, which we inherit from each
parent, are identical among all individuals. However, for every 1000 nucleotides that we inherit
there is 1 site of variation or polymorphism, in the population. These DNA polymorphisms
change the length of the DNA fragments produced by the digestion of restriction enzymes. The
resulting fragments are called restriction fragments length polymorphisms (RFLP’s—“riflips”).
Gel electrophoresis can be used to separate and determine the size of the RFLPs. The exact
number and size of fragments produced by a specific restriction enzyme digestion varies from
individual to individual. The fundamental techniques involved in genetic fingerprinting were
discovered in 1984 by Alec J. Jeffreys.
Steps to Producing a Genetic Fingerprint

• The first step is to obtain a sample of DNA from such substances as blood, semen,
hair roots, or saliva. Using newly developed biochemical techniques to multiply the
amount of DNA present, researchers can work with as small a sample as one hair root.
• The individual cells from the sample are split open, and the DNA is separated from
the rest of the cellular debris.
• The DNA is then treated with specialized proteins called restriction enzymes, which
cleave the DNA into smaller fragments by cutting at specific sites. Since the
minisatellites from any two individuals have different compositions, they are cleaved
at different sites, producing fragments of different lengths.
• The DNA fragments are then applied to one end of a thin, jellylike substance called
an agarose gel, and an electric current is passed through the gel. The negatively
charged DNA fragments will migrate across the surface of the gel in response to the
current, with the smaller, more mobile pieces traveling farther. The DNA is thus
separated into individual bands, with the fragments in each one progressively smaller
in size.
• Because the gel cannot be easily handled, a thin nylon membrane is laid over its
surface and covered by a layer of paper towels. As the towels draw moisture from the
gel, the DNA is transferred onto the surface of the nylon membrane, a process called
blotting.
• The DNA bands are still invisible to the eye, and there are too many to be useful.
Therefore, a solution of the radioactive probes made from minisatellites is washed
over the surface of the membrane.
• If any of the probes have the same composition as a part of a DNA fragment, they will
bind to it. The probes will ingnore the vast majority of the hundreds of bands present
and will bind anywhere from 6 to 20.
• To see the pattern of bands, the researchers place a sheet of photographic film on top
of the membrane.
• The radioactive labels will expose the film, ultimately producing a pattern of thick-
and-thin dark bands.
• This pattern of bars is the GENETIC FINGERPRINT.
Varied Applications of DNA Fingerprinting

The likelihood that two individuals—other than identical twins—will have the same genetic
fingerprint varies from about one in 800,000 to about one in 1 billion, depending on the number
of probes that are used in the test. By comparison, the probability that two individuals will have
the same conventional fingerprint is also about one in 1 billion. But the genetic fingerprint has
many other advantages over conventional fingerprints.
• It is unusual for police to find a high-quality fingerprint at a crime scene, but much
more likely that they will find blood or semen. Furthermore, only a microscopically
small sample is required for a positive identification.
• No relationship exists between the conventional fingerprints of parents and children,
but the genetic fingerprints are closely related because the child receives half of her
or his genetic information from each parent. Thus, half the bands int he child’s genetic
fingerprint come from the mother, and half from the father. This similarity can be
used to establish paternity (or maternity) with a much higher degree of certainity
than is possible with other techniques, such as a blood test.
SYSTEMATICS
Systematics is the study of relationships between organisms. It includes all relationships between
organisms in an attempt to identify patterns in their similarities. Systematics includes those
areas of biology concerned primarily with similarities and differences between organisms. It
includes disciplines such as evolution, phylogeny, comparative anatomy, comparative physiology,
comparative biochemistry, comparative embryology, comparative ethology, paleontology,
taxonomy, and classification. The object of systematics is the uncovering of genetic relationships
that will shed light on the evolution, or phylogeny, of the organisms being compared.
Terms
• Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a group of organisms.
• The science concerned with the reconstruction of phylogenies is systematics.
Systematics includes any biological discipline involved in comparisons between
organisms.
• Taxonomy is the science of naming and classification of organisms based on their
genetic (evolutionary) relationships. Taxonomy is very much a field of systematics in
that it is based on phylogeny and comparisons between organisms and groups of
organisms. It is the science of arranging living things into groups reflecting their
relationships.
• Classification is the actual practice of placing animals into these groups.
• Nomenclature is the collection of rules and procedures of assigning names to the
groups.
CLASSIFICATION
There are between 1.4 × 106 (known as of 1992) and 100 × 106 (maximum estimate) species
alive on the planet today. With this many organisms we must have a filing, or classification,
system so we can keep track of the species, their relationships, and what we know about them.
In biology, we use a classification system based on genetic relationships. The system

reflects the evolution of the organisms classified. For example, consider cats, tigers, humans,
flies, oaks, and pneumonia bacteria. We would use systematic biology, including anatomy,
behaviour, physiology, and biochemistry to group these organisms accord to their degree of
kinship. We use physical similarity as our index to kinship and assume that similar organisms
are ore close related than dissimilar ones. We can construct a simple phylogeny, or phylogenetic
tree, showing the relationships between these 6 organisms using our current knowledge of
their appearance and cell biology. The resulting diagram is a cladogram in which the vertical
axis is time and the branching points show the time of the most recent common ancestor
between two groups. We will build the cladogram in class beginning with cats and tigers because
they seem to be the most closely related of any pair of organisms in the collection. We then
arrange other organisms on the cladogram according to how closely related to cats they seem
to be.
The classification system proposed in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus reflects these evolutionary
relationships and is the system used by all biologists today. In its original form it included 7
categories (ranks) but we have added many more. Each if the world’s known organisms is
positioned in a hierarchy of categories with other organisms to which it is related. Thus, those
with very recent common ancestors (and little time to diverge) are grouped closely together
and those with more remote ancestors are placed in different groups.
The most closely related are placed in the same species. The species is the most restrictive
and least inclusive category. Membership in the same species means the organisms share a
very recent common ancestry and have had very little time to diverge, hence they are very
much alike. All humans belong to the same species, (Homo sapiens) and while we are not
identical, we are very much alike.
At the other end of the hierarchy is the kingdom. This category is the most inclusive and
least restrictive. To belong to the same kingdom as another organism does not require recent
common ancestry, genetic commonality, or very much similarity. Humans and jellyfish belong
to the same kingdom (Animalia).
For example, a Linneaen classification of a human would be as follows.
A category is a level in the following hierarchy. Kingdom and order are categories.
A taxon (plural: taxa) is a unit in any category. Reptilia, Homo, and Annelida are taxa.
Linnaean Classification of Humans

Superkingdom: Eukaryota (+ Plantae, Fungi, Protoctista)
Kingdom: Animalia (+ Cnidaria, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, etc)
Phylum: Chordata (+ Cephalochordata, Urochordata)
Subphylum: Vertebrata (+ Osteichthyes, Aves, Reptilia, etc)
Class: Mammalia (+ Carnivora, Rodentia, Perissodactyla, etc)
Order: Primata (+ Hominidae, Pongidae, etc)
Family: Homiinidae (+ Homo, Australopithecus, Zinjanthopus, etc)
Genus: Homo (+ H. habilis, H. erectus, etc)
Species Homo sapiens
Of these categories, only the species is real and exists in nature. The others are artificial
constructs we make for our own convenience and are not unambiguously identifiable in nature.
A species, at least in sexually reproducing organisms, is defined as being a group of potentially
interbreeding individuals that cannot interbreed with individuals outside the group.
Nomenclature: Every species, when it is first described by a taxonomist, is assigned a

binomial name. This name consists of the generic name, which is always capitalized, and the
specific epithet, which is not. Thus our species is Homo sapiens. When written the scientific
name is placed in a different type font, usually italics, than the rest of the text that accompanies
it. The scientific name is unique and no other organism in the kingdom can have it.
PHYLOGENY
One concern in this series of lectures is with phylogeny, how it is reconstructed, and how our
knowledge of it is incorporated into our classification of organisms.
Our understanding of phylogeny is based in part on fossils. A fossil is any preserved
remnant of an organism that lived in the past. Most organisms die without leaving a trace but
occasionally (rarely) some aspect of the organism may be preserved for great lengths of time,
sometimes millions of years. Fossils may be actual hard parts of former organisms, they may
be casts of organisms or their parts, they may be preserved artifacts made by the organism
such as burrows or footprints or fecal pellets. Many fossils are not the actual parts of the
original organism but replacements that have been mineralized.
The fossil record is very incomplete for a number of reasons. The discovery of a fossil by
a paleontologist is the culmination of a series of improbably events. First, very few organisms
die under circumstances that make fossilization likely. Relatively few individuals become fossils
to start with. Second, the fossils must survive millions of years of geologic events such as
erosion, vulcanism, pressure, faulting, orogenies (mountain building episodes), earthquakes
etc and remain intact. Thirdly, the fossil must occur I or be moved by some force to a location
at or near the ground surface where it has a chance of being found. Finally, the fossil must be
noticed by someone who recognizes it as being worthy of attention. All of these steps are
improbable.
Dating: For fossils to be useful in constructing phylogenies we must have some idea of
their age. We use relative and absolute dating.
Relative dating. Most fossils are formed in sediments laid down in water. These sediments
become sedimentary rock which then may be lifted above the water to become dry land during
mountain building episodes. The sediments, and the fossils are laid down in chronological
order, with the oldest in the lower layers or strata, and the youngest in the upper strata.
Simply knowing the level of a stratum of a fossil gives information about its age relative to
other fossils in associated strata.
We also have methods of absolute dating whereby we can put actual ages, in years, on
fossils. Most absolute dating methods rely on known rates of radioactive decay whereby a
radioactive isotope decays to a stable isotope. Carbon 14, for example, has a radioactive decay
rate such that it takes 5,600 years for half of it to decay to nitrogen.
14 C and 12 C are taken up by living organisms in the ratio present in the environment. Let
this initial ratio be X. Once the organism dies the 14 C begins to decay at its known rate. In 5600
years the ratio will be X/2, in 11,200 years it will be x/4 and so on. By measuring the amount of
14 C remaining in carboniferous fossils and comparing the ratio with that originally present.
Because of its relatively short half life 14 C is useful only for times less than about 50,000
years. After that time there is not enough 14 C left to measure accurately. Carbon 14 consequently
is very useful in studies of recent human prehistory. Other isotopes, such as potassium-argon
are used for longer time ranges. Potassium 40 has a half life of 1.3 billion years.
Macroevolution is evolution above the species level. It is the evolution of higher

taxonomic categories such as genera, families, orders, classes and phyla. Does it occur by the
same mechanisms as microevolution but over larger periods of time?
Evidence for Phylogeny

For the first 200 years of the study of biology, physical (anatomical) similarity was the basis for
almost construction of phylogenies and classifications. Early biologists relied on anatomic
similarities, fossil similarities, and embryological similarities (all of which are anatomic) to
determine which organisms were closely and which distantly related. Our early understanding
of evolution was based on anatomy.
Recently, however, new and powerful sources of evidence have been provided by molecular
biology and biochemistry. We can now look amino acid sequences of proteins or at the genes
encoding those proteins for similarities or differences. This is almost like having the answers
at the back of the book. We have struggled mightily to discover the true genetic relationships
between organisms using anatomy and now we can verify our ideas with an independent and
very powerful new set of data. Neither method is infallible and we should continue to use both
and check the results of each against the other.
The new molecular techniques are based on the assumption that closely related organisms
should have proteins with very similar amino acid sequences or, even better, genes with the
same or similar base sequences. This follows the same reasoning developed earlier. The more
time that has elapsed since the last common ancestor, the more time there has been for
differences to develop.
Protein sequences. As you know, the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is determined
genetically in that it is encoded in the nucleotide sequence of the gene. Genes undergo point
mutations reqularly and, if the mutations have no discernable effect on the protein, will persist
in the genome indefinitely. Thus, nucleotide sequences would be expected to change at time
passes and point mutations accumulate. Comparison of the primary structures of the same
protein from different organisms can tell us how similar the genes for that protein are in the
two organisms. from that we can deduce how much change has taken place since the two
organisms shared their last common ancestor.
Cytochrome c, for example, is a polypeptide of 104 amino acids present in all anaerobic
organisms in association with an electron carrier in the electron transport chain on the
mitochondrial cristae. Its amino acid sequence has been determined for a wide variety of
representative organisms.
If you were asked use anatomic characteristics to arrange a rhesus monkey, tuna fish,
rattlesnake, chimpanzee, and dog according to how closely related to humans each is, you
would probably produce the following: chimp, monkey, dog, snake, fish and this is exactly the
arrangement biologists have agreed upon for centuries.
The following data are from amino acid sequencing studies of cytochrome c.
Humans and chimpanzees have identical cytochrome c molecules. All 104 amino acids are
the same.
Humans and rhesus monkey have a difference of 1 amino acid out of 104.
Humans and dogs have 13 different amino acids.
Humans and snake have 20 different amino acids.
Humans and tuna fish have 30 different amino acids.
A phylogeny made using cytochrome c is identical to the traditional one using anatomy.
DNA Hybridization It is now possible to compare the genes of two organisms directly to
see how similar their nucleotide sequences are. One technique for doing this is DNA
hybridization. In this method we look, not at the gene product (protein) but at the gene itself.
DNA from two organisms of interest is removed and heated to cause the 2 strands to
separate into complementary strands. The single stranded DNA from the two species is mixed
and allowed to cool so that double stranded DNA will reform. The new double strands are
hybrids. That is they are composed of one strand from each species. How tightly the two
strands bond to each other is a measure of how similar their nucleotide sequences are. if they
are perfect complements, with no different nucleotides, they will bond perfectly at all base
pairs for the entire length. if they differ they will not find partners for all their bases. The more
different they are, the poorer the match and the looser the bonding. The hybrid molecules can
be heated to cause them to separate again. The amount of heat needed to separate them is
proportional to the tightness of the bonding between them. If the nucleotide sequences are
identical then more heat will be required. The more different they are, the less the heat that
will be needed.
If we construct our phylogeny correctly, using only homology and no analogy, the resulting
taxa are monophyletic, meaning they have one common ancestor. If we slip up and include
some analogy, as in our tuna example, the resulting group is polyphyletic, since there are
many unrelated ancestors. Tuna, sharks, ichthyosaurs, and porpoises do not have a single
common ancestor. A group is polyphyletic if its members are derived from 2 or more ancestors
that are not common to all.
Sometimes we create polyphyletic groups knowing we are probably doing so but we lack
enough information to make monophyletic groups. The Protoctista, for example, is recognized
as a polyphyletic group of many very different organisms that have little in common other than
their unicellularity. As we learn more about these organisms we gradually remove them from
the Protoctista and place them in monophyletic groups. green algae, brown algae, red algae,
diatoms, flagellates, ciliates, amoebas, others
BIOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE
Botanical nomenclature is about naming plants. Bear in mind that plant names refer to abstract
entities – the collection of all plants (past, present, and future) that belong to the same group. As
you will recall, taxonomy is about grouping. Botanical nomenclature is about applying names
to taxonomic groups.
Scientific names of plants reflect the taxonomic group to which the plant belongs. One
must first decide on the groups to be recognized; only then does one start to be concerned about
assigning an appropriate name to the plant.
Scientific names are never misleading. No matter where you are, every plants has only
one correct name. so long as its taxonomic treatment is not in dispute. This last is a major
reservation, but we can ignore it for now. The universality of scientific names means that even
English speaking people can find out what species grow in China or Saudi Arabia by reading a
technical flora of these countries. Not only are the names the same, they are always written in
the Latin alphabet (which is the same alphabet as these notes).
Pronunciation. There is as little point about wo rrying over the ‘correct’ pronunciation
of scientific names as there is in worrying over which is the correct pronunciation of English
words. It may be difficult to recognize a scientific name if it is spoken by someone from another
part of the world but one can always recognize it when it is written out. In this, scientific
names are no different from other words. Think how hard it can be to understand different
versions of English. Nevertheless, it is advantageous to use the same pronunciation as the
other people you work with. Just be prepared to modify your pronunciation if you move to
another part of the world.
Taxonomy refers to forming groups. Plants that belong to the same group have the
same name. The taxonomic decisions concerning how a group is to be treated (what goes in
the group, what rank it should be recognized as ) MUST be made before it can be assigned a
name. It does not matter how you decide what its affinities are (unless, of course, you want
others to support and use your treatment), but you must make these decisions before you can
decide on an appropriate name for the group. So remember, taxonomy first.
If people are going to communicate around the world, there needs to be an internationally
accepted system of nomenclature. Creating such a system was not, and is not, an easy task. It
was not until 1930 that agreement was reached on an International Code had become standard
around 1753. There were, however, many areas where there was widespread agreement in
practice, with some of the practices dating back to before Linnaeus. For reasons that you will
learn later, Linnaeus is taken as the starting point for botanical nomenclature. Let’s consider
for a moment some of the areas of agreement that existed before there was formal agreement
on an International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.
The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
Principles of Botanical Nomenclature

There are six principles that guide decisions concerning the Code.
Uniqueness Principle (Principle IV): The uniqueness principle states that there is
only one correct name for a particular taxonomic group within a given taxonomic treatment. It
is the central principle upon which all the remainder of the code is based. If people disagree on
the taxonomic treatment, they will consider different names to be correct but, within any
treatment, each taxonomic group has only one correct name.
Type Principle (Principle II): The type principle states, “The application of names of
taxonomic groups is determined by means of nomenclatural types”. For vascular plants such
as grasses, a nomenclatural type is a herbarium specimen that has been deposited in a
herbarium. A nomenclatural type anchors the meaning of a name. If there is an argument as to
what kind of plant the author of a name meant by a particular name, one examines the type
specimen. No matter what taxonomic treatment is followed, the name must be used in a sense
that includes its type specimen. If, as occasionally happens, the author of a new name provides
a description that does not match the type specimen, it is the type specimen, not the description,
that determines what kind of plant is called by the name in question.
Adherence to the type principle did not become mandatory until 1958. Prior to that time,
when taxonomists published a new name they frequently simply listed several different
specimens that exemplified what they meant by the name, without identifying any particular
specimen as the ‘top dog’ among the examples. All the designated specimens, including their
duplicates, are referred to as syntypes: nomenclatural types of a single name, all of which were
equally important. This became a problem if later taxonomists decided that there are two or
more taxa among the specimens listed. When this happens, it became necessary to determine
which of the specimens listed belongs with the original name.
To prevent such situations arising, the rules for designating a type specimen were made
more explicit. Since 1990 it has been necessary to identify the exact specimen that is to be the
nomenclatural type of the taxon, and the herbarium in which the specimen is located. Between
1958 and 1990 it was enough to specify who collected the specimen, where it was collected, the
date on which it was collected, and the collection number it was given, if any. The problem was
that, if the collector made several duplicate specimens, each of the duplicates is a syntype. In
most instances this is not a problem, but occasionally the supposed duplicates turn out to
belong to different species. Requiring that an author state exactly which of the specimens is to
be regarded as the nomenclatural type helps prevent even this kind of problem. If possible, the
accession number of the type should be specified as well as the name of the herbarium in which
it is located, but many older herbaria do not give their specimens accession numbers.
There are several different kinds of type specimen, but the most important are holotypes,
lectotypes, neotypes, and epitypes. The next most important are isotypes, syntypes, and paratypes.
The first four kinds of type refer to specimens that are, unequivocally, the nomenclatural type
of a name. A holotype is a specimen that has been designated the nomenclatural type of a
name by the person creating the name. If the person who originally published a particular
name did not designate a holotype, a later taxonomist may select a specimen to serve as the
nomenclatural type. This specimen then becomes what is called the lectotype of the name. If
the holotype or lectotype is destroyed or lost, a new type specimen can be selected. Such
replacement types are called neotypes.
An epitype is a specimen selected to be the nomenclatural type of name for which there is
a holotype, lectotype, or neotype available. Why would it be necessary to select another specimen
as a nomenclatural type? Sometimes the holotype, lectotype, or neotype simply does not show
the features that are needed to determine, unequivocally, to which of two taxa it belongs. In
such a case, it cannot be used to fix the meaning of a name. In such situations, another specimen
can be selected as the ‘anchoring’ specimen; it is this specimen that is the epitype.
Priority Principle (Principle III): This principle states, in essence, that if a taxonomic
group has been given two or more names, the correct name is the first name that meets the
Code’s standards for publication. Basically, this means that the priority of a name dates from
the time that it was first published and made known to other botanists. Writing the name in a
letter (or Email) to a colleague does not count, nor do notes made on herbarium sheets.
Taxonomic groups may end up with two or more names for several reasons. The most
common reason is taxonomic disagreement, about which the Code says nothing. Sometimes,
the person publishing a later name is simply unaware that the group has already been named.
In other cases, two (or more) names were given to different looking specimens of what was
later treated as a single group. Whatever the reason, the priority principle states that only the
first name validly and legitimately published for a particular taxonomic group is correct.
In determining priority, the date that matters is the date on which the material was
actually mailed to other institutions; this is not always the same as the year on the cover of a
book or journal.
RETROACTIVITY PRINCIPLE (PRINCIPLE VI): This principle states, “The Rules of
nomenclature are retroactive unless expressly limited”. The Retroactivity Principle means
that anyone proposing a change in the Code needs to consider the effect that the proposed
change will have on names published in a wide range of literature and over a considerable
period of time. This is an intimidating requirement. It is why all proposed changes to the Code
undergo committee scrutiny before being voted on. If the committee has a problem with a
proposed change, one of its members will get in touch with the person proposing the change.
The committee member may point out unforeseen consequences of the proposed change.
Alternatively, he or she may suggest examples that will make a stronger case for the change,
or suggest modifications that will avoid some undesirable consequences.
All proposals to change the Code are published in Taxon, but they remain proposals until
they are voted on at the next International Botanical Congress.
PRINCIPLES 1 and V: The other two principles are straightforward. Principle I states
that botanical nomenclature is independent of zoological and bacteriological nomenclature. If
an organism is considered to be a plant, then it must be named in accordance with the Botanical
Code. If it is considered a bacterium, it must be named according to the Bacteriological Code.
Principle V states that scientific names are to treated as if they were Latin, regardless of their
derivation.
Other Key Provisions of the Code

1 Any changes in the Code should be designed to increase the stability of plant
nomenclature. No one likes name changes, not even the taxonomists that propose
them.
2. Every plant belongs to a species, every species to a genus, every genus to a family,
every family to an order, every order to a class, every class to a division (also called
a phylum nowadays - a concession to the greater number of zoologists in the world).
This is the taxonomic hierarchy. Note that the Code assumes the existence of species.
It does NOT state what constitutes a species, let alone discuss whether species are
real. The Code also requires that plant diversity be summarized in a hierarchical
structure. Again, it is not a question of whether such a structure really exists. The
fact that the Code assumes the existence of species and a hierarchical structure does
not mean that that the assumptions are correct, merely that, in naming plants (and
the zoological code is similar in this regard), one must act as if species are real and
nature is hierarchical. Many people object to this, but no one has provided a persuasive
argument for dropping the system.
PUBLISHING SCIENTIFIC NAMES

Before a name, even a name that has a Latin form, can be accepted as a scientific name, it must
satisfy several criteria. Some of these have to do with its form, others with how its existence
and meaning are made known to others.
Form
Principle V states that a scientific name must be treated as if it were Latin, but the Articles 16-
28 of the Code also specify what form the name must take. I have summarized them in the
table below.
Family names must be formed by combining a generic name with the suffix –aceae, but
there are eight exceptions to this rule. Each of the eight exceptional names was almost
universally used, and used in the same sense, throughout the world when the first edition of
the Code was prepared and so, in accordance with the overriding goal of achieving nomenclatural
stability, it was agreed that they would continue to be used. The eight names are Gramineae
(Grass Family, alternative Poaceae) Palmae (Palm Family, alternatively Arecaceae), Cruciferae
(Mustard Family, alternatively Brassicaceae), Leguminosae (Pea family, alternatively Fabaceae),
Guttiferae (St. John’s Wort Family, alternatively Clusiaceae), Umbelliferae (Carrot Family,
alternatively Apiaceae), Labiatae (Mint Family, alternatively Lamiaceae), and Compositae (Daisy
Family, alternatively Asteraceae).
Rank Ending Examples
Division (Phylum) -phyta Pinophyta, Magnoliophyta
Class -opsida Pinopsida, Liliopsida, Magnoliopsida
Order -ales Pinales, Liliales, Magnoliales
Family -aceae Pinaceae, Liliaceae, Magnoliaceae
Tribe -eae Pineae, Lilieae, Magnolieae
Genus A noun Pinus, Lilium, Magnolia
Species Depends Pinus flexilis,Lilium grandiflorum,

Magnolia grandiflora
Variety Depends Pinus flexilis var. humilus
Form Depends
The name of a species is ALWAYS a binomial. ‘Grandiflora’ is not the name of a species.
It has to be combined with a generic name to form the name of a species, as in Magnolia
grandiflora. The word ‘grandiflora’ is what we call the specific epithet. It states which species
of Magnolia is under discussion. Specific epithets are often adjectives that describe some attribute
of the plant (it helps to learn a little Latin - ‘grandiflora’ means large flowered), but may refer
to the habitat of a species (pratensis -of fields, lacustris - of lakes, saxicola - of rocky places), the
place where the species occurs (chinensis, europaea, canadensis), or a person that is somehow
connected to the species (the connection may be remote) - wrightii (referring a single, male
person named Wright), wrightiae (referring to a single female person named Wright), wrightorum
(refering to 2 or more people, one of whom - and possibly only 1 out of a 100 - was male) or
wrightarum (referring to 2 or more people with not even one male among them - the Romans
were sexist).
Technically speaking, subspecies is a higher rank than variety. A subspecies may include
several varieties. In practice, most taxonomists nowadays use one rank or the other, but not
both. Europeans tend to use subspecies and expect subspecies to occupy somewhat different
areas whereas Americans use variety to denote plants that are different from the plants first
put in the species. In practice, the two ranks are used almost interchangeably.
Writing Scientific Names

In North America it is customary to write names at the rank of genus and below in italics or
some other font that sets them apart from the rest of the text. The most recent edition of the
Code recommends that all scientific names, no matter what their rank, be in a different font
from the rest of the text. Either practice makes it easy to scan for taxonomic information.
The names of all ranks from subgenus up must be capitalized. In most instances, the
specific epithet – and epithets for lower rankings, must not be capitalized. There are some
exceptions to this rule, cases where it is permissible, but not required, to capitalize the specific
or varietal epithet, but you need to be careful. Personally I recommend always using lower
case for epithets (names distinguishing species and lower ranks). That way one is never wrong.
Authorities
• You will notice that scientific names are often followed by a word or a capital letter
and a period, or one or more unintelligible (to the uninitiated) sets of letters. To join
the initiated, read on.
• The letters and/or words that follow a scientific name (sometimes they may be within
a name – more on that later) are a shorthand reference to the name of the person or
person that first gave a name to the entity involved and, in some instances, to the
person of persons who first treated it at the rank being used. This is probably easier
to understand through some examples. Consider Oryzopsis exigua Thurber
• Note that only the first two words are italicized. This means you are looking at the
name of a species. ‘Thurber’ is the last name of the person who first gave a name to
this species – and the name he gave to it is the one shown. Consider “Oryzopsis
asperifolia Michx.”
• Again, you are looking at the name of a species in the genus Oryzopsis. This species
was first named by a fellow whose name is abbreviated to Michx. The period tells you
that his name has been abbreviated. His full name was Michaux. To whom do you
think “L.” refers to in “Triticum aestivum L.”? “Dichanthelium lanuginosum (Elliott)
Gould”
• The name is Dichanthelium lanuginosum. As you immediately recognize (because
the name is a binomial), the entity being named is being treated as a species. The
first person to give a name to this species was a chap whose last name was Elliott, but
he named it Panicum lanuginsoum. An inner circle of initiates could tell you that
Elliott refers to Walter Elliott, who lived from 1803 to 1887, in eastern North America
(There is a book called Authors of Plant Names that provides such insight).
• “Gould” stands for Frank W. Gould came along later and decided that, although Elliott
was right in describing the species, he should have put it in a different genus, the
genus Dichanthelium. Elliott’s name is in parentheses to show that he was the first
person to say “Aha, these plants are different”’ Gould’s name is outside the parentheses
because he said, yes, Elliott was right - these plants are different – but they should be
included in the genus Dichanthelium, not Panicum Consider “Distichlis spicata (L.)
Greene
• Linnaeus [L. stands for Linnaeus] first described the entity, but as Uniola spicata,
not Distichlis spicata. Greene was the first person to say no, these plants should be
in Distichlis and then publish the combination “Distichlis spicata”. Linnaeus gets
credit for being the first person to describe the entity, Green for being the person to
give it the name shown.
• Most journals, and consequently many professors, ask that you cite the authorities
for a name when it is first used. It is a rather meaningless exercise. It is meant to say
“I am using this name in the sense that it was used by Greene (in the last example)”,
but really you are probably using it in the sense that it is used in some flora – or
based on what your boss told you. The 1999 Congress encouraged editors to be more
rational about when it was useful to cite authorities and when not, but I suspect that
most journals will continue to require them for some time to come.
PROPOSING A NEW NAME OR NEW COMBINATION

If you have to publish a new name or combination, the Code requires that you follow certain
rules (which it calls articles). The key requirements are that:
1. The new name or combination be published in a normal botanical outlet (not the
Herald Journal or Statesman), copies of which are sent to at least two botanical
institutions.
2. If the name is for a new taxon, the distinguishing characteristics of the taxon, and
preferably a full description, must be given in Latin and a holotype specified.
3. If the name is simply a new combination, perhaps reflecting the transfer of a species
from one genus to another or its demotion to a subspecies, there must be a clear and
complete reference to the place where the original name was first published.
1. Different groups of seaweeds can generally be distinguished on the basis of

(a) color.
(b) size.
(c) whether they have true leaves, stems, and roots.
(d) whether they are autotrophic or heterotrophic.
2. Which of the following are protozoans?
(a) diatoms, flagellates, amoebas, and ciliates
(b) apicomplexans, flagellates, amoebas, and ciliates
(c) amoebas, actinomycetes, ciliates, and flagellates
(d) flagellates, ciliates, cyanobacteria, and apicomplexans
3. In general, how do algae and protozoans differ?

(a) Protozoans can move, and algae cannot.
(b) Algae are free-living, and protozoans are parasitic.
(c) Protozoans are autotrophic, and algae are heterotrophic.
(d) Algae are photosynthetic, and almost all protozoans are heterotrophic.
4. Most biologists agree that seaweeds are protists, even though most other protists are
microscopic unicellular creatures. Some biologists think that at least some seaweeds
should be considered plants, not protists. Which of the following would support the
latter position?
(a) Certain seaweeds contain several kinds of specialized cells.
(b) Certain seaweeds undergo sexual and asexual reproduction.
(c) Certain seaweeds are found to be prokaryotic.
(d) Certain seaweeds have very complex cells.
5. Protozoans called choanoflagellates live in small clusters. They look very much like
choanocytes, special feeding cells found in sponges, which are simple animals. Why
might biologists find choanoflagellates of great evolutionary interest?
(a) They show how the very first organisms might have lived.
(b) They might show how the first heterotrophs lived.
(c) offer hint about origin of multicellular organism
(d) They suggest what the first eukaryotes might have been like.
6. Which of the following is not evidence for the role of endosymbiosis in the origin of
eukaryotes?
(a) Chloroplasts have their own DNA.
(b) The inner membrane of a chloroplast is similar to prokaryotic membranes.
(c) Mitochondria and chloroplast both are surrounded by two membranes.
(d) The DNA in the eukaryotic nucleus codes for some enzymes in mitochondria.
Practice Test Paper – Biodiversity and Taxonomy 399
7. Protists are a diverse group of organisms that include

(a) plants. (b) algae.
(c) protozoans. (d) b and c
8. Among the following which statement is NOT a part of principles of current code
adopted by XII International Botanical Congress in Leningrad (1975).
(a) Botanical nomenclature is independent of Zoological nomenclature
(b) The application of names is determined by means of nomenclature types
(c) The nomenclature of taxonomic group is based upon priority of publication
(d) Scientific names of taxonomic group are treated as Italics regardless of their
derivation.
9. Different hybrid forms of the same parentage are designated as-
(a) Apomicts (b) Nothomorphs
(c) Race (d) Variety
10. According to current code for Botanical Nomenclature, the names of class must ends
with-
(a) –opsida (b) –idae
(c) –ales (d) –aceae
11. A specimen or element selected by a competent worker form the original material
studied by the author to serve as a substitute for the holotype if the latter was not
designated in the original publication or is lost or destroyed-
(a) Lectotype (b) Neotype
(c) Isotype (d) Paratype
12. Which technique is routinely used among plants for establishing genetic relationship-
(a) Amino acid sequence (b) Serological investigation
(c) Iso-enzyme profiling (d) Chromosome morphology
13. Numerical taxonomy is also referred as –
(a) Statistical taxonomy (b) Phenetics
(c) Computer aided taxonomy (d) All
14. Which is NOT a characteristic of numerical taxonomy-

(a) The greater the content of information in taxa of classification and the more
character on which it is based, the better is classification
(b) Every character is of equal weight in creating natural taxa.
(c) Classification is based on percentage (%) similarity coefficient for each OTU.
(d) Phylogenetic inferences cannot be made form the taxonomic structure of a group
and from character correlation.
15. Which technique is not utilized during DNA profiling-

(a) Restriction digestion (b) Electrophoresis
(c) Southern blotting (d) RFLP
16. For DNA fingerprinting the region of DNA used for study are the non-coding regions
of chromosome known as-
(a) VNTR (b) RFLP
(c) RAPD (d) All
17. Which is major factor contributing to loss of biodiversity?

(a) Habitat loss and fragmentation
(b) Introduced species
(c) Over exploitation of Plants and Animals
(d) Industrial agriculture and forestry
18. An International treaty designated to protect wildlife from being threatened by
international trade was set up in 1975, it is known as-
(a) WTO (b) IUCN
(c) CITES (d) FAO
19. The diploid generation of the plant life cycle always

(a) produces spores.
(b) is called the gametophyte
(c) is larger and more conspicuous than the haploid stage
(d) develops from a spore
20. The diploid sporophyte stage is dominant in the life cycles of all of the following
except
(a) a pine tree (b) a dandelion.
(c) a rose bush (d) a moss
21. Land plants arose during the

(a) Ordovician (b) Jurassic
(c) Cambrian (d) Carboniferous
22. Most bryophytes, such as mosses, differ from all other plants in that they
(a) do not produce flowers (b) have cones but no seeds
(c) have flagellated sperm (d) lack vascular tissue
23. Deep in the tropical rain forest, a botanist discovered an unusual plant with highly
developed vascular tissue, stomata, flagellated sperm, cone-like reproductive
structures bearing seeds, and an alternation of generations life cycle. He was very
excited about this discovery because it would be rather unusual for a plant to have
both
(a) highly developed vascular tissue and flagellated sperm
(b) vascular tissue and alternation of generations
(c) seeds and flagellated sperm
(d) alternation of generations and seeds
(a) UV-A (b) UV-B
(c) UV-A & B (d) UV-B & C
25. Besides nomenclature of plants in wild, ICBN also gives binomial names for-
(a) Bacteria & Fungus (b) Fungus
(c) Fungus & cultivated plants (d) Cultivated plant
26. __________ are not native to a particular area, and can upset the balance of the
ecosystem.
(a) Exotic species (b) Ultraviolet waves
(c) Decomposers (d) Reintroduction programs
27. What is the difference between a threatened species and an endangered species?
(a) A threatened species means that the population is likely to become endangered
An endangered species has population numbers so low that it is likely to become
extinct
(b) A threatened species is already extinct. An endangered species means that the
population’s numbers have increased greatly over the last 5 years
(c) A threatened species means that the population is likely to become endangered.
An endangered species is already extinct
(d) A threatened species and an endangered species are the same thing
28. Which of these programs is used to preserve a species facing extinction?

(a) edge effects (b) sustainable use
(c) natural resources (d) captive breeding
29. What does this figure illustrate?
(a) habitat fragmentation
(b) biodiversity
(c) extinction
(d) edge effect
30. The maximum biodiversity in India occurs at-

(a) Western Himalayas (b) North East Himalayas
(c) Western Ghats (d) Eastern Ghats
31. In which kingdom would you classify the archaea and nitrogen-fixing organisms, if
the five-kingdom system of classification is used?
(a) plantae (b) fungi
(c) protista (d) monera
32. Plants reproducing by spores such as mosses and ferns are grouped under the general
term
(a) Cryptogams (b) bryophytes
(c) sporophytes (d) thallophytes
33. Which one of the following pairs of plants are not seed producers?
(a) fern and Funaria (b) Ficus and Chlamydomonas
(c) Punica and Pinus (d) Funaria and Ficus
34. According to botanical nomenclature, which are not allowed-

(a) Synonyms (b) Antonyms
(c) Tautonyms (d) Isonyms
35. The original specimen submitted by author himself is termed as-

(a) Holotype (b) Paratype
(c) Lectoype (d) Isotype
36. Phenetic classification is based on

(a) the ancestral lineage of existing organisms
(b) observable characteristics of existing organisms
(c) dendrograms based on DNA characteristics
(d) sexual characteristics
37. Which of the following is Spermatophyte?

(a) Bryophyte (b) Pteridophyte
(c) Thallophyte (d) Gymnosperm
38. The National herbarium in our country is located in-
(a) Bombay (b) Calcutta
(c) Chennai (d) Delhi
39. All of the following are reasonable hypotheses for the high diversity observed in
tropical rain forest except
(a) Habitat heterogeneity
(b) Climatic variability
(c) Niche specialization and resource partitioning
(d) Population interaction and coevolution
40. Research on the nothern spotted owl indicates that
(a) owl population will stabilize if an adequate number of immature forest source
habitats can be preserved
(b) metapopulations must be more closely spaced to compensate for the owl’s limited
flight capacity
(c) setting aside marginal habitat encourages dispersion of owls into areas where
reproductive success is unlikely
(d) the current owl population is too small to disperse into source habitats
41. A population of strictly monogamous swans consists of 40 males and 10 females. The
effective population size for this population is
(a) 50 (b) 40
(c) 20 (d) 10
42. Which of the following conditions is the most likely indicator of a metapopulation’s
long-term survival?
(a) The population is not subdivided into subpropulations
(b) Regular and extensire movement of individuals among patches makes the
subpopulations function essential as a single unit.
(c) Source and sinks all contain subpopulations

(d) All subpopulations are connected by corridors
43. The applications of ecological principles to return a degraded ecosystem to its natural
state is characteristic of
(a) bioremediation
(b) restoration ecology
(c) landscape ecology
(d) conservation ecology
44. ––––––––––––– is the unit of evolution
(a) species (b) individual
(c) community (d) population
45. Not all species contribute equally to the integrity of an ecological community, with
limited time and resources, it would be most reasonable to focus conservation efforts
on
(a) the large vertebrates (b) keystone species
(c) primary producers (d) exotic species
46. Populations with low effective sizes are susceptible to all of the following problems
except
(a) inbreeding
(b) genetic drift
(c) bottlenecking
(d) adaptive radiation
47. Which of the following errors would result in an underestimate of a specie’s MVP?
(a) underestimating the maximum age of reproduction
(b) underestimating the average birth rate
(c) overestimating the death rate
(d) overestimating the average fecundity
48. European zebra mussels, accidentally released into lake Erie in 1988, quickly displaced
native mussel species. This threat to biodiversity is an example of
(a) Metapopulation expansion
(b) exotic introduction
(c) habitat fragmentation
(d) over exploitation
49. Which of these ecosystems has the lowest primary productivity per square meter?
(a) a salt marsh (b) an open sea
(c) a coral reef (d) a grassland
50. The part of chromosome used for DNA fingerprinting is-

(a) Microsatellite (b) Minisatellite
(c) Tandem satellite (d) Macrosatellite
51. International code for botanical nomenclature is not applicable to-

(a) Gymonosperms (b) Bryphytes
(c) Algae (d) Cultivated plants
52. A system of classification in which a large number of traits are considered is-
(a) Artificial system (b) Natural system
(c) Phylogenetic system (d) Synthetic system
53. Western blotting is technique for hybridization of-

(a) Antigen-Antibody (b) DNA-cDNA
(c) Polyamines (d) Monosaccharides
54. A group of plants or animals with similar traits of any rank is-
(a) Species (b) Genus
(c) Order (d) Taxon
55. Basic unit or smaller taxon of taxonomy is-
(c) Family (d) Variety
56. Sequence of taxonomic categories is-

(a) Class-Phylum-Tribe-Order-Family-Genus-Species
(b) Division-Class-Family-Tribe-Order-Genus-Species
(c) Division-Class-Order-Family-Tribe–Genus–Species
(d) Phylum-Order-Class-Tribe-Family–Genus–Species
57. In which kingdom would you classify the archaea and nitrogen-fixing organisms, if
the five-kingdom system of classification is used?
(a) plantae (b) fungi
(c) protista (d) monera

59. Basic unit or smaller taxon of taxonomy is-
(c) Family (d) Variety
60. Rhinoceros are found at-

(a) Kaziranga (b) Nandan Kanan
(c) Runn of Kutch (d) Nilgiri hills
(c) Fungus & cultivated plants (d) Cultivated plants
62. The characteristic type of inflorescence of the Genus Euphorbia is

(a) Capitulum (b) Catkin
(c) Cyathium (d) Panicle
63. The heat that radiates back to the earth from the greenhouse gases results in
(a) additional global warming (b) thermal inversion
(c) eutrophication (d) smog
64. Eutrophication is a kind of

(a) water pollution (b) air pollution
(c) land pollution (d) noise pollution
65. The root cause of Loss of biodiversity is-

(a) Habitat destruction (b) Increasing Population
(c) Overexploitation (d) Pollution
66. Cryopreservation is method mostly applied for conservation of-
(a) Recalcitrant seeds (b) Orthodox seeds
(c) Any germplasm (d) Animal embryo
67. The best cryopreservant for cryo preservation is-

(a) Liquid Nitrogen (b) Dimethyl sulphoxide
(c) Solid Co 2 (d) Glycerol
68. Some species of rotifers consist solely of females. Their method of reproduction is
described as
(a) fragmentation (b) asexual
(c) sperm-stealing (d) parthenogenesis
69. Members of the phylum Mollusca are recognized on the basis of

(a) segmentation
(b) trochophore larva
(c) the presence of a foot, visceral mass, and mantle
(d) water vascular system
70. Cephalopods are the only mollusks
(a) without a mantle (b) with a closed circulatory system
(c) that reproduce sexually (d) that have segmented bodies
71. A marine biologist dredged up a small animal from the bottom of the ocean. It was
uniformly segmented, with short, stiff appendages and soft, flexible skin. It had a
complete digestive system and an open circulatory system, but no skeleton. Based on
this description, this animal sounds most like
(a) a lancelet (b) a crustacean
(c) a mollusk (d) a roundworm
72. Phylum _____ includes the largest number of species.
(a) Mollusca (b) Arthropoda
(c) Annelida (d) Chordata
73. The key to the diversity and success of the arthropods is/are
(a) their trochophore larvae (b) their high reproductive rate
(c) an open circulatory system (d) jointed appendages
74. Among the following, which is NOT an endangered animal-

(a) Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica)
(b) Asiatic Tiger (Panthera tigris)
(c) Indian wild ass (Equus heniunus khur)
(d) Rhesus Monkey (Maccaca mulatta)
75. Chilka lake harbors high biodiversity of-
(a) Pisces (b) Aves
(c) Reptiles (d) Mammals
76. Cause of diversity loss in small population is-

(a) Founder effect (b) A demographic bottleneck
(c) Inbreeding and genetic drift (d) All of the above
77. Extinction rate is high at-
(a) Main lands
(b) Large islands
(c) Small islands near mainlands
(d) Small island far from mainlands
78. Among the following ex-situ conservation method for biodiversity conservation is-
(a) Biosphere reserve (b) National park
(c) Gene bank (d) Historical landscape
79. Among the following phenomenon, which does NOT support the increase in
biodiversity-?
(a) Niche specialization (b) Habitat/Resource partitioning
(c) Habitat fragmentation (d) Mass extinction
80. Among the following, which is NOT a characteristic of extinction prone species-
(a) low reproduction rate and specialized feeding habits
(b) large in size and feed at high trophic level
(c) Fixed migratory pattern or Specialized nesting or breeding areas
(d) Early sexual maturity and short life span
81. Several categories of risk of species extinction have been defined. A species can be
determined as vulnerable if there is considered to be-
(a) 10% probability of extinction within 100 years
(b) If the probability is 20% within 20 years or 10 generations
(c) If within 5 years or two generations the risk of extinction is atleast 50 %
(d) If the probability is 100% of extinction within 50 generation or 100 years
82. Habitat may be adversely affected by human influence by-

(a) Urban and Industrial development (b) Pollution
(c) Tourism (d) All of the above
83. In India, the maximum threat of imminent extinction is at-
(a) Western Ghats (b) Western Himalayas
(c) Sundervan (d) Thar Desert
84. The hot spot of biodiversity in India are-
(a) North and West Himalayas (b) Western Ghat and N E Himalayas
(c) Andaman and Nicobar Islands (d) Sundervan and N.E. Himalayas
85. Among the following, which is best used for biodiversity characterization-
(a) Shanon-weaver Index (b) Sociability Index
(c) Vitality Index (d) All of the above
86. The single greatest current threat to biodiversity
(a) greenhouse warming (b) the introduction of exotics
(c) overhunting (d) habitat destruction
87. Species diversity tends to decrease with
(a) increased habitat heterogeneity (b) increased distance from the poles
(c) increased ocean depth (d) increased fragmentation
88. Which of the following factors does not play a role in increased biodiversity?
(a) Complex population interactions
(b) The introduction of exotic species
(c) A higher degree of habitat heterogeneity
(d) Narrower niches
89. Biodiversity hot spots are

(a) distributed evenly throughout the biosphere
(b) regions where there is the potential for high levels of extinction.
(c) the same for all groups of organisms
(d) regions where thermophilic species thrive
90. The metapopulation of a species found in a particular environment

(a) is the source population
(b) consists of all the populations of a particular guild
(c) consists of all the subpopulations of that species
(d) is the population’s Minimum Viable Potential
91. In a(n) ________ habitat natality exceeds mortality and in a(n) ______ habitat mortality
exceeds natality.
(a) fragmented. . .hot spot
(b) tropical. . .polar
(c) In both tropical and polar environments there may be regions where with differing
rates of mortality and natality.
(d) natural . . .source
(e) source. . .sink
92. Which of the follow does not apply to a population with a low effective population
size?
(a) Genetic drift (b) Increased genetic diversity
(c) Reduced heterozygosity (d) Increased homozygosity
(e) Inbreeding
93. Species that have a disproportionately large impact on the maintenance of an

ecosystems biodiversity are referred to as
(a) exotics (b) primary producer
(c) archaea (d) keystone species
94. A landscape
(a) consists of metapopulations.
(b) is all of the populations found in the same environment
(c) is composed of the trees and flowers that are planted around human dwellings
(d) is composed of interacting ecosystems
95. Edge species

(a) decrease biodiversity
(b) only exist in areas that have been altered by humans
(c) require the unique homogenous edge environment
(d) may require conditions found in both of the bordering ecosystems
96. The zoned reserve concept of landscape management calls for
(a) many small, interconnected nature preserves
(b) protected areas to be surrounded by transitional areas
(c) bioremediation
(d) assisting the movement of individuals from a source to a sink population
97. You have been asked to participate in the cleanup of an oil spill. You dislike the feel
of oil on your hands, so you volunteer to culture Pseudomonas. The aspect of the
cleanup that you are participating in is
(a) biodiversity maintenance (b) preservationism
(c) bioremediation (d) biophilia
98. A type of agriculture that involves rotating a crop such as avocados with a leguminous
crop such as alfalfa is an example of
(a) landscape management (b) biodiversity maintenance
(c) maintaining genetic variation (d) sustainable agriculture
99. According to botanical nomenclature, which are not allowed-
(a) Synonyms (b) Antonyms
(c) Tautonyms (d) Isonyms
100. The original specimen submitted by author himself is termed as-

(a) Holotype (b) Paratype
(c) Lectoype (d) Isotype
1. The maximum biodiversity in world occurs in-

(a) At equator (b) In tropics
(c) Temperate (d) Deserts
2. Phenetic classification is based on
(a) the ancestral lineage of existing organisms
(b) observable characteristics of existing organisms
(c) dendrograms based on DNA characteristics
(d) sexual characteristics
3. The National herbarium in our country is located in-

(a) Bombay (b) Calcutta
(c) Chennai (d) Delhi
4. Two population A & B could freely interbreed in but cannot exchange the genetic
material are termed as-
(a) Biological Species (b) Taxonomic Species.
(c) Ecotype (d) Biotype
5. In India maximum biodiversity occurs in-

(a) Western ghats (b) Eastern Ghats
(c) Western Himalayas (d) All
6. Among the following, which is not endangered species-
(a) Nepenthes khasiana (b) Tecomela undulata
(c) Taxus bacata (d) Comphiphora wightii
7. Taxonomic Species could be precisely defined on basis of Failure of-

(a) Inbreeding (b) Gene Exchange
(c) Morphology (d) Physiology
8. For classification of angiosperms floral characters are preferred over vegetative
characters because-
(a) Reproductive axis shows a large degree of prominent variations
(b) Floral characters show less variation then vegetative traits
(c) Shape of flower is diagnostic feature in many families
(d) It is more handy to study floral features then vegetative characters
9. Phylogenetic system differs from a natural system in its stress on-
(a) Anatomical details (b) Physiological details
(c) Morphological traits (d) Origin and evolutionary trends
10. A species characterized by only morphological traits is-

(a) Biospecies (b) Morphospecies
(c) Taxonomic species (d) Sibling species
11. Among the following, which is not in-situ conservation-

(a) Biosphere reserve (b) Gene bank
(c) National Park (d) Sanctuary
12. In the artificial system of classification

(a) Large number of characters are taken into consideration
(b) Correlated characters are more important
(c) Physiological characters are relied upon
(d) One or few morphological character are considered
13. Species is-
(a) Group of individuals occurring in geographical area
(b) Population of one type
(c) Population or populations of individuals with similar genotypic and phenotypic
traits
(d) Population or populations of interbreeding individuals
14. Lectotype is-

(a) Duplicate of holotype
(b) Specimen described along with holotype
(c) Specimen cited by author without making one holotype
(d) Specimen selected from original material for nomenclature type when there is
no holotype
15. Neotype is-

(a) Nomenclature type from the original material
(b) Nomenclature type when the original material is missing
(c) One of the two or more specimens cited by the author
(d) New species discovered by a scientist
16. Related species which are reproductively isolated but morphologically similar are
called-
(a) Allopatric (b) Sympatric
(c) Sibling (d) Morphospecies
17. The part of chromosome used for DNA fingerprinting is-

(a) Microsatellite (b) Minisatellite
(c) Tandem satellite (d) Macrosatellite
18. International code for botanical nomenclature is not applicable to-
(a) Gymonosperms (b) Bryophytes
(c) Algae (d) Cultivated plants
19. DNA fingerprinting involves hybridization of-

(a) Constant number of tandem repeats
(b) Variable number of dispersed repeats
(c) Constant number of dispersed repeats
(d) Variable number of Tandem repeats
20. A system of classification in which a large number of traits are considered is-
(a) Artificial system (b) Natural system
(c) Phylogenetic system (d) Synthetic system

22. A group of plants or animals with similar traits of any rank is-
(c) Order (d) Taxon
23. Layer of Atmosphere possessing zone is-

(a) Stratosphere (b) Mesosphere
(c) Ionosphere (d) Troposphere
24. The closest algal relatives of land plants are
(a) chrysophytes. (b) psilophytes.
(c) charophytes. (d) rhodophytes.
25. Which of the following is not a homology shared by land plants and their closest
living algal relatives?
(a) thylakoid arrangement
(b) cell wall composition
(c) the presence of cuticle on the surface of leaves
(d) the presence of chlorophyll b and beta-carotene
26. The innovation that was essential to the survival of bryophytes on land was
(a) freedom from water to reproduce.
(b) the embryophyte condition
(c) vascular tissue.
(d) chlorophylla.
27. During the Carboniferous period, forests consisting mainly of ____ produced vast
quantities of organic matter, which was buried and later turned into coal.
(a) early angiosperms
(b) ferns and other seedless plants
(c) gymnosperms
(d) gymnosperms and early angiosperms
28. All heterosporous plants produce

(a) megaspores that develop into female gametophytes and microspores that develop
into male gametophytes
(b) megaspores that bear antheridia and microspores that bear archegonia
(c) spores that produce both archegonia and antheridia
(d) seeds
29. Ferns and mosses are mostly limited to moist environments because
(a) their pollen is carried by water
(b) they lack a cuticle and stomata
(c) they lack vascular tissue
(d) they have swimming sperm
30. All seed plants

(a) produce flowers
(b) are heterosporous
(c) produce antheridia and archegonia on the same gametophyte
(d) exhibit a dominant gametophyte generation
31. In seed plants the ______ is surrounded by ________.
(a) Nucellus . . . integuments
(b) ovule . . . microspores
(c) integument . . . a seed
(d) microsporangium . . . a megasporangium
32. An explorer found a plant that had roots, stems, and leaves. It had no flowers but
produced seeds. This plant sounds like a(n)
(a) fern (b) bryophyte
(c) angiosperm (d) gymnosperm
33. Gymnosperms were most abundant during the

(a) Paleozoic (b) Precambrian
(c) Cenozoic (d) Mesozoic
34. When you look at a pine or apple tree, the plant you see is
(a) haploid sporophyte (b) diploid sporophyte
(c) haploid gametophyte (d) diploid gametophyte
35. Conifers usually

(a) bear cones that produce both microspores and megaspores
(b) have pollen that is transported by water
(c) bear both male and female cones on the same tree
(d) shed their leaves in the fall
36. Which of the following best describes how fertilization occurs in a conifer?
(a) A sperm cell swims through a film of moisture to fertilize the egg
(b) A pollen grain carried by wind carries a sperm that fertilizes the egg
(c) A sperm cell carried by wind fertilizes the egg
(d) A pollen grain swims through a film of moisture to fertilize the egg
37. Angiosperms are different from all other plants because only they have
(a) a vascular system
(b) flowers
(c) a life cycle that involves alternation of generations

(d) seeds
38. Most species of plants are
(a) non-seedbearing plants (b) angiosperms
(c) gymnosperms (d) ginkgophytes
39. Unlike most angiosperms, grasses are pollinated by wind. As a consequence, some
unnecessary parts of grass flowers have almost disappeared. Which of the following
parts would you expect to be most reduced in a grass flower?
(a) stamens (b) petals
(c) anthers (d) carpels
40. The portion of the flower that receives the pollen is the
(a) style (b) ovary
(c) anther (d) stigma
41. A fruit is a mature

(a) seed (b) pollen grain
(c) bulb (d) ovary
42. In a flowering plant, meiosis occurs within the _____, producing a spore that develops
into a female gametophyte.
(a) ovule (b) seed
(c) stamen (d) anther
43. The pollen tube releases two sperm cells into the embryo sac. The result of this is the
(a) union of the two sperm nuclei to form a zygote
(b) union of one sperm nucleus with the egg nucleus while the other sperm nucleus
unites with the nuclei of the center cell forming a triploid nucleus
(c) union of one sperm nucleus with the egg nucleus and the disintegration of the
other sperm nucleus
(d) fusion of both sperm nuclei with the egg nucleus and the formation of a triploid
zygote
44. The triploid nucleus of the embryo sac develops into the
(a) embryo (b) endosperm
(c) fruit (d) carpel
45. Some plants have evolved to attract specific animals. The animal receives a meal
that it does not have to compete for, and the plant is assured that its pollen will not
be wasted on plants of different species. Through time, the plant gets better at
attracting the animal and increases its reproductive success as a result.
Simultaneously, the animal improves its feeding on a specific plant and increases its
reproductive success as a result. This scenario is an example of
(a) coevolution (b) mutualism
(c) diversifying selection (d) commensalism
46. It has been proposed that plants, by _________, may have been responsible for global
________ during the Paleozoic.
(a) increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration . . . warming
(b) increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration. . . cooling
(c) reducing atmospheric CO2 concentration. . . warming
(d) reducing atmospheric CO2 concentration. . . cooling
47. The body of a fungus (with the exception of yeast) consists of threadlike ____ , which
form a network called a ____.
(a) mycelia . . . dikaryon
(b) hyphae . . . chytrid
(c) mycelia . . . hypha
(d) hyphae . . . mycelium
48. The hyphae of parasitic fungi that are modified to penetrate and absorb nutrients
from host tissue are called
(a) haustoria (b) asci
(c) basidiocarps (d) septa
49 .Which of the following is a difference between plants and fungi?

(a) Plants have diploid and haploid phases, and fungi only have haploid stages
(b) Fungi have cell walls
(c) Fungi are heterotrophic and plants are autotrophic
(d) Plants produce spores
50. The asexual spores produced by members of the division Ascomycota are called
(a) conidia (b) lichens
(c) asci (d) mycorrhizae
51. From the human perspective, which of the following kinds of fungi would be considered
the least useful or beneficial?
(a) mycorrhizal fungus (b) yeast
(c) rust (d) decomposer
52. Where and when does fertilization occur in the mushroom life cycle?
(a) underground, as a mycelium begins to spread
(b) on the surface of the ground, when a basidiospore germinates
(c) in a mushroom, when nuclei of a dikaryotic cell fuse
(d) underground, when hyphae of different mating types fuse
53. Fungi are classified on the basis of
(a) their source of food
(b) whether they form molds
(c) their sexual stage
(d) their commercial use
54. Lichens are

(a) a mutualistic association of fungi and plant roots
(b) predatory fungi
(c) the sexual stage of deuteromycetes
(d) a symbiotic association of photosynthesizers and fungi
55. Molecular evidence suggests that fungi

(a) are a polyphyletic group
(b) and animals have a common ancestor
(c) are more closely related to the kingdom Monera than any other kingdom
(d) evolved from plants
56. A graduate student found an organism in a pond and thinks it is a freshwater sponge.
The postdoctoral student thinks it looks more like an aquatic fungus. How can they
decide whether it is an animal or a fungus?
(a) see if it reproduces sexually
(b) figure out whether it is autotrophic or heterotrophic
(c) look for cell walls under a microscope
(d) determine whether it is unicellular or multicellular
57. All animals can trace their lineages to a common ancestor that lived in the
(a) Precambrian (b) Jurassic
(c) Pliocene (d) Devonian
58. Animals probably evolved from colonial protists. How do animals differ from these
protist ancestors?
(a) The protists were prokaryotic
(b) Animals have more specialized cells
(c) The protists were heterotrophic
(d) The protists were autotrophic
59. Which of the following animals does not have a body cavity?
(a) flatworm (b) ant
(c) mouse (d) earthworm
60. Unlike other animals sponges

(a) are unicellular
(b) possess cell walls
(c) lack true tissues
(d) exhibit bilateral symmetry
61. Which of the following is associated with bilateral symmetry?
(a) a sessile lifestyle
(b) cephalization
(c) all bilaterally symmetrical animals are parazoans
(d) none have a mesoderm
62. How do cnidarians and ctenophores differ from all other eumetazoans?
(a) Cnidarians and ctenophores have no nervous tissue
(b) Cnidarians and ctenophores have a gastrovascular cavity; other eumetazoans do
not
(c) Cnidarians and ctenophores have mesoderm, other eumetazoans do not
(d) Cnidarians and ctenophores are radially symmetrical
63. Ectoderm can give rise to _______; mesoderm can give rise to ______; endoderm can
give rise to _________.
(a) Muscle . . . liver . . . the central nervous system
(b) the lining of the digestive tract . . . muscle . . . lungs
(c) the central nervous system . . . liver . . . lungs
(d) muscle . . . liver . . . lungs
64. Which of the following is evidence that the extant phylum that is most closely related
to chordates is Echinodermata?
(a) They are both coelomates
(b) They are both deuterostomes
(c) The mature forms of both phyla exhibit bilateral symmetry
(d) They are both triploblastic
65. Zoologists have placed chordates and echinoderms on one major branch of the animal
phylogenetic tree, and mollusks, annelids, and arthropods on another major branch.
Which of the following is one of the bases for this separation into two branches?
(a) whether the animals have a skeleton
(b) type of symmetry
(c) whether the animals have a body cavity
(d) how the body cavity is formed
66. Which of the following is not a difference between protostomes and deuterostomes?
(a) the presence of a body cavity
(b) Protostomes are schizocoelous and deuterostomes are enterocoelous.
(c) the fate of the blastopore
(d) the cleavage plane of the embryo
67. All of the following are true of the phylum Platyhelminthes, except:
(a) they are dorsoventrally flattened
(b) they are all parasitic
(c) they are bilaterally symmetrical
(d) all of the classes of Platyhelminthes discussed in the text have members that
can reproduce sexually
68. The main cause, which leads to increase in biodiversity is-

(a) Unchanged environment (b) Habitat uniformity
(c) Natural selection (d) Mutation
69. Numerical taxonomy includes-

(a) Chemo taxonomy (b) Statistical taxonomy
(c) Comparative taxonomy (d) Phylogenetic taxonomy
70. A place is designated as hot spot of biodiversity if it covers-

(a) 0.5 % endemic species of total plant species
(b) 1 % endemic species of total plant species
(c) 1.8 % endemic species of total plant species
(d) 22 % endemic species of total plant species
71. The number of ovules present in the ovary of Asteraceae is
(a) one (b) two
(c) four (d) many
72. Which of the following statement(s) is/are false?

(i) 6 orders and 14 families are classified under the series Heteromerae
(ii) Natural system of classification does not attempt at bringing out phylogenetic
relationship
(iii) Darwin published his theory of evolution through the book “Origin of Species” in 1856
(iv) Bicarpellatae has 4 orders and 24 families
(a) (i) and (iv) (b) (i), (ii) and (iii)
(c) (i) and (iii) (d) (ii) and (iv)
73. The first step in the technique of protoplasmic fusion is the

(a) hybridization
(b) collection of somatic cells
(c) isolation of protoplasts
(d) selection and isolation of somatic cells
74. Biological concept of species was given by-
(a) Meyer (b) John ray
(c) Carlos Linneus (d) Dobzzanky
75. Among the following, which is not mangrove plant-

(a) Avicennia officinalis (b) xcoecaria agallocha
(c) Heritiera fomes (d) Sueda fruticosa
76. Project Elephant was launched in 1991-92. Major activities of Project Elephant are:
(a) Ecological restoration of existing natural habitats and migratory routes of
elephants
(b) Promotion of measures for mitigation of man-elephant conflict
(c) Eco-development
(d) ALL
77. Paeonia is separated from Ranunculaceae and placed in paenaceae on the basis of-
(a) Embryology (b) Anatomy
(c) Cytology (d) Chemotaxonomy
78. Natural selection

(a) usually leads to adaptation
(b) is the process whereby organisms who are “best fit” survive and leave more
offspring
(c) favors those organisms that are better able to survive and reproduce in a particular
environment
(d) All of these statements are correct
79. Which statement most clearly contradicts Lamarck’s hypothesis that acquired
characteristics are inherited?
(a) The cactus plant spread very rapidly when introduced into Australia
(b) Most zebras can fun faster than lions, and their offspring also run faster than
lions
(c) Bacteria which are resistant to penicillin have been discovered
(d) The seeds from a pine tree that was bent by the wind grew into tall, straight
trees in a sheltered valley
80. Which of the following observations or assumptions was NOT part of Darwin’s theory
of natural selection?
(a) Traits are inherited as discrete units called genes
(b) Evolution occurs over long periods of time
(c) Populations produce more offspring than their environment can support
(d) Organisms compete for limited resources
81. Which of the following are the main ideas that Darwin advanced in his works?
(a) species change over time
(b) living species have arisen from earlier life forms
(c) the earth is approximately 6,000 years old and is unchanging
(d) both a and b are correct answers
82. Which of the following is the best measure of the “fitness” of an organism?
(a) reproductive success (b) strength
(c) life span (d) geographic range
83. Biodiversity hot spots are mainly located
(a) at equator
(b) in temperate regions
(c) between tropics
(d) in artic region.
84. Which of these organisms population was threatened by DDT prior to it being banned
in 1972?
(a) brown pelican
(b) ginkgo tree
(c) black-footed ferret
(d) gray wolf
85. Cyclosporine is a drug that is used to help organ transplant patients fight off rejection
of their new organs. What organism was used to help isolate this drug?
(a) soil fungus (b) plant
(c) bacterium (d) protist
86. A species that no longer exists in the wild but is protected by humans is said to live in
__ ______.
(a) an island (b) captivity
(c) a corridor (d) reintroduction
87. When the last member of a particular species dies, the species is said to be __________.
(a) isolated (b) diversified
(c) endangered (d) extinct
88. Which of these is NOT usually considered a threat to biodiversity?

(a) preservation of habitats (b) acid precipitation
(c) and pollution (d) use of pesticides
89. What is sustainable use?
(a) Protected strips of land that allow organisms to migrate from one wilderness
area to another
(b) The study of methods to help protect biodiversity
(c) The ability to use natural resources in a way that helps people and protects the
ecosystem
(d) A law that makes it illegal to do harm to species that are listed as endangered or
threatened

(a) Biodiversity tends to increase as you get closer to the equator
(b) Cold climates have greater amounts of biodiversity than warm climates
(c) Tropical regions of Earth contain very few of the world’s land species
(d) Coral reefs tend to be less biologically diverse than temperate deciduous forests
91. Kingdom protista includes-
(a) Slime moulds (b) Archaebacteria
(c) Cyanobacteria (d) Diatoms

93. The largest family of flowering plants is

(a) Fabaceae (b) Musaceae
(c) Composotae (d) Asteraceae
94. Biodiversity means-

(a) Species richness (b) Polymorphism
(c) Habitat diversity (d) All of the above
95. Earth’s maximum biodiversity is confined in-

(a) Equator (b) Tropics
(c) Temperate (d) Tundra
96. The maximum plant diversity occurs in-

(a) Brazil (b) China
(c) India (d) Colombia
97. Among the following animal group which are highly diverse-
(a) Arthropod (b) Mollusk
(c) Pisces (d) Aves
98. The formation and usage of named for cultivated plants is governed by-
(a) ICBN (b) ICZN
(c) INCP (d) None
99. Among the following which rule was NOT part of Paris code decided in first
international Botanical Congress-
(a) Linnaeus as starting point for all plant nomenclature
(b) The rule of priority as fundamental
(c) The requirement for Valid and effective publication
(d) Each species named should be based on herbarium specimen (Type)
100. The first book written by Carlos Linnaeus, “The Father of Taxonomy” was-
(a) Species Plantarum (b) Genera Plantarum
(c) Origin of Species (d) Phoenix
Model Test Paper – 1
PART – A
1. If a pendulum with a time period ‘T’ is placed on moon then its time period will-
(a) Increase (b) Decrease
(c) Unchanged (d) Infinity
2. When the canon is fired, it will move-
(a) Front (b) Back
(c) Randomly (d) not moves
3. Soldiers are not allowed to pass in synchronized march over a bridge because-
(a) It produces more noise
(b) Bridge may break due to resonance
(c) Uniform force distribution will break the bridge
(d) Center of mass of bridge will increase
4. If the cylinder of mass ‘m’ and radius ‘r’ is transformed into disc with radius ‘2r’, then
its moment of inertia will be-
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 1/2 (d) 1/4
5. On putting a thin water film over a glass plate it becomes more transparent to light
because-
(a) Lesser would be reflection
(b) Lesser will be refraction
(c) Trapped air increase transparency
(d) It does not happens
6. For equilibrium reaction the value for Delta G will be

(a) Zero (b) Negative
(c) Positive (d) Infinity
7. The tetrahedral geometry of carbon is best explained by-
(a) Monochoro methane (b) Dichloro methane
(c) Choloroform (d) Carbon tetrachloride
8. About Haber’s process for ammonia production, the false statement is-
(a) It is second order reaction
(b) Slow at room temperature
(c) High pressure is required
(d) Al2 O3 is used as catalyst
9. On increasing the NaCl into water it boiling point decreases because-

(a) Due to more energetic molecules
(b) Weak H-bonding
(c) More collision between molecules
(d) Activation energy is decreased
10. The necessary condition for reaction to be spontaneous is-
(a) H – ve & S + ve (b) H – ve & S – ve
(c) H + ve & S + ve (d) H – ve & S + ve
11. Moon does not have atmospheric gases-

(a) Gravity is not sufficient to hold gases
(b) Speed of rotation is very high
(c) Water and plants are absent
(d) Absence of sheathing ozone layer
12. Earth is slightly inclined on its axes, if axis of rotation is made perpendicular then
major effect will be on-
(a) Day & night (b) Seasons
(c) Tides of ocean (d) Rotation of earth
13. The magnetic field around earth is a result of -

(a) Structure of earth crust (b) Plate faults
(c) Motion of liquid mantle (d) Motion in liquefied core
14. Which of them is a result of process of sedimentation-

(a) Coal (b) CaCO3
(c) Igneous rocks (d) Granite
15. Among the following which radioisotope is routinely used for determination of age of
fossils-
(a) P 32 (b) S 35
(c) C 14 (d) O 18
16. Convert the binary number 1101.101 into decimal number-

(a) 13.625 (b) 13.5
(c) 13.62 (d) 13.26
17. Which of them is not programming language-
(a) BASIC (b) COBOL
(c) PASCAL (d) LOTOUS
Model Test Paper – 1 423
18. The clock speed in computer is usually measured in-

(a) Bytes (b) Seconds
(c) Hertz (d) RAM
19. Bug, in computer terminology means-

(a) Logical error (b) Syntax error
(c) Organism effecting computer (d) High level Programming
20. Consider the following programme and write the result that will print at end of
program-
If A=4 and B=5
Do While A =/= 0
If A >= B
A=A–B
Else
B=B-A
EndIf
PRINT A, B
(a) 0, 0 (b) 0, 1
(c) 1, 1 (d) 1, 0
21. If there is double bond between A & T and triple bond between GC, then which
sequence will be most stable at higher temperature-
(a) ATTGTACCAAA (b) AATTATATATA
(c) AGCAGAGAGTT (d) AGGCCGGCCCTA
22. If a tall pea plant is crossed with pure dwarf pea plant, all F1 progenies were tall, in
subsequent generation after selfing of F1 generation progeny, the ratio of tall to
dwarf plant will be-
(a) 1:1 (b) 1:2:1
(c) 3:1 (d) All tall
23. White blood cells (WBC) have major function as-
(a) Defensive role (b) Respiration
(c) Tumor suppressor (d) Phagocytosis of cell debris
24. Rules stating that as we move toward the polar region from tropics the size of organism
increases-
(a) Allen’s rule (b) Bergman’s rule
(c) Fischer rule (d) Copes rule
25. During photosynthesis evolution of oxygen is from-
(a) Water (b) CO2
(c) Glucose (d) Chlorophyll
26. Maximum numbers of lines producing symmetrical planes from a regular hexagon-
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 6 (d) 8
27. If P=(1,2), Q=(–2, –10) & R=(1, m) and PQ+QR = Minimum, then the value of ‘m’ will
be-
(a) + 6 (b) – 6
(c) + 8 (d) – 8
28. Twenty-Five student participate in competition, marks obtained by first two students
are 6 & 10. Each subsequent student gains an average of preceding students, then
the marks obtained by the 100 student will be-
(a) 6 (b) 8
(c) 10 (d) 16
29. How many boxes of size 2 × 2 × 4 can be fitted in a box of size 11 × 8 × 20-
(a) 100 (b) 110
(c) 120 (d) 220
30. Integration of below mentioned equation would be-
d x d x
e sin 2 θ + e sin 2 ( θ − π / 2 )
dx dx
(a) 2e x(sinq – cosq) (b) 2e x(sinq)
(c) 2e x(cosq) (d) e x(sinq – cosq)
PART-B
1. In Human number of linkage groups present in male is:

(a) 21 (b) 22
(c) 23 (d) 24
3. Layer of Atmosphere possessing ozone is-

(a) UV-A &B (b) UV-B
(c) UV-B & C (d) UV-A & C
5. Major hot spot of biodiversity in India are-

(a) Andaman & western ghats
(b) Eastern Ghats & Western Himalayas
(c) Western ghats & N.E Himalayas
(d) North East and Western Himalayas
6. In humans, XX males and XY Females are rare, such rare sexes are due to-
(a) Deletion of X chromosome
(b) Deletion of Y chromosome
(c) XY translocation
(d) Duplication of X chromosomes
7. The major difference in PS-I and PS-II found in Chloroplast are-

(a) Position on lamellae (b) Chlorophyll a
(c) Position of electron carriers (d) Energy harvesting
8. Testosterone hormone necessary for spermatogenesis is secreted by-
(a) Leydig cells (b) Sertoli cells
(c) Spermatozoa (d) Cowpers gland
9. The major site of attack by HIV-virus on immune system is-

(a) MHC (b) B- Lymphocytes
(c) T- Lymphocytes (d) Macrophages
10. Rarely there is occurrence of gill clefts in higher animals, this shows-
(a) They may be useful for that organism
(b) Ancestral returns of that character
(c) Favorable mutation in organism
(d) Retrogressive Evolution
11. A single base pair mutation occurs in strand CATTACCG, its complementary strand
had a sequence GTTATGGC. It means mutation has changed base pair-
(a) A ® T (b) T ® T
(c) T ® A (d) A ® A
12. Crossing over occurs during-
(a) Mitotic Metaphase (b) Meiotic Metaphase
(c) Mitotic Prophase (d) Meiotic Prophase
13. Maize has 10 pairs of chromosome, what will be number of chromosome and chromatids
at Metaphase II-
(a) 10 & 10 (b) 10 & 20
(c) 20 & 40 (d) 5 & 10

(a) Increase in pH of Apoplast
(b) Increase in pH of cytoplasm
(c) Decrease in pH of Apoplast
(d) Increase in pH of cytoplasm
15. In bacteria site of respiration is-
(a) Glogi bodies (b) Cytoplasm
(c) Endoplasmic reticulum (d) Microsomes
16. In human females there is inactivation of one X chromosomes for dosage compensation
due to-
(a) Methylation (b) Acetylation
(c) Phosphorylation (d) Formylation
17. Type of proofreading activity by DNA polymerase I in E. COLI is-

(a) 5' – 3' exonuclease
(b) 5' – 3' endonuclease
(c) 3' – 5' exonuclease
(d) 3' – 5' endonuclease
18. Fungus used for commercial production of citric acid is-
(a) Neurospora (b) Penicillum
(c) Aspergillus (d) Sacchromyces
19. Wild Ass are found at-

20. Rifampicin resistant mutants of E. Coli were obtained in an experiment which of
following is most likely to undergo mutation-
(a) Aminoacyl t-RNA synthetase
(b) Beta subunit of RNA Polymerase
(c) Sigma factor of RNA polymerase
(d) Alpha Subunit of RNA polymerase
21. Induction of b-galactosidase activity by IPTG is result of-

(a) Stimulation of lac repressor function
(b) IPTG binding to lac operon & inducing transcription
(c) IPTG binding to lac I gene product and inhibiting its activity
(d) Inhibition of b galactosidase degradation
22. Set of genes that are originate by gene duplication are known as-
(a) Paralogues (b) Homologues
(c) Orthologues (d) Epilogues
23. Mammalian promoters sequence is located-
(a) at about 20 bp upstream of translational start site
(b) at about 20 bp upstream of transcriptional start site
(c) downstream of coding sequence
(d) within coding sequence
24. Agrobacterium rhizogenes causes-

(a) Crown gall (b) Nodules
(c) Hairy root (d) Pustles
25. Which of the following technique would you use to separate molecules based upon
their size-
(a) Gel Exclusion chromatography
(b) Antibody affinity chromatography
(c) Ion Exchange chromatography
(d) Isoelectric Focusing
26. Which part of translational modification of proteins does not occur in lumen of ER-
(a) Glycosylation
(b) Ubiquitnation
(c) Conformation folding & formation of quaternary structure
(d) Formation of Disulphide bonds
27. Short Day (Long night) plants flowers when-
(a) night > critical dark period
(b) dark period interrupted by flash of light
(c) night < critical dark period
(d) night < critical dark period & day length is interrupted by dark period
28. In eukaryotes which is not secondary messenger-

(a) 1,2 diacyl glycerol (DAG) (b) 3'-5' Cyclic AMP
(c) Inositol 1,4,5 triphosphate (d) Cyclins
29. If a girl born with sickle cell anemia, what must be true for parents-
(a) Only father has sickle cell an emia
(b) Only mother carried sickle cell an emia
(c) Only mother had sickle cell an emia
(d) Both parents carried sickle cell an emia
30. Michelis Menten hypothesis-
(a) Enables to calculate iso-electric point of enzymes
(b) Postulates all enzymes are proteins
(c) States that rate of a enzymatic reaction may be independent of substrate
concentration
(d) Postulates formation of enzyme substrate complex
31. The half life of radium is 1600, the fraction of sample after 6400 years would be-
(a) 1/4 (b) 1/16
(c) 1/8 (d) 1/2
32. Which enzyme doesn’t require primer-
(a) RNA dependent DNA polymerase
(b) DNA dependent DNA polymerase
(c) DNA dependent RNA polymerase
(d) Taq DNA polymerase
33. Human cytotoxic T-cells have following phenotype-

(a) CD4 + CD8 + CD3 + (b) CD4 + CD8 – CD3 +
(c) CD4 – CD8 – CD3 + (d) CD4 – CD8 + CD3 +
34. Live vaccine is –

(a) Low dose of infectious bacteria administered as prophylactic
(b) A dose of bacterium strain in a modified form which retains immunogenecity
but is not pathogenic
(c) A low dose of toxin produced by bacterium
(d) A sample of cells from a patient who recovered recently from disease
35. B form of DNA is characterized by-
(a) Rare form of DNA bases
(b) Left handed helix
(c) Helical turn having 2 bases per turn
(d) Major and minor grooves that allows molecules interacting with DNA
36. Genes for color blindness are located on-

(a) X-Chromosome (b) Y-chromosomes
(c) Both (d) None of these
37. Photochemical smog always contains-
(a) Ozone (b) Methane
(c) CO (d) None of these
38. Mycorrhiza works as-

(a) Modified root (b) A root hair in adverse condition
(c) Vegetative propagation (d) Mechanical support
39. Development of fruit without fertilization is-
(a) Parthenocarpy (b) Pathenogenesis
(c) Sporogamy (d) Autogamy
40. Linkage decreases the frequency of –

(a) Hybrid (b) Dominant allele
(c) Recessive allele (d) both b and c
41. The bacteria which convert ammonium salts into nitrite is-
(a) Nitrobacter (b) Nitrosomonas
(c) Azobacter (d) none of these
42. The transfer of genetic material form one bacterium to another by virus is-
(a) Transduction (b) Translation
(c) Conjugatiuon (d) Transformation
43. Penicillin inhibits bacterial multiplication because-

(a) It checks spindle formation (b) It destroys chromatin
(c) It inhibits cell wall formation (d) It checks RNA synthesis
44. In photosynthesis, light energy is utilized in-

(a) Converting ATP into ADP
(b) CO2 change into carbohydrate
(c) ADP converting into ATP
(d) All of these
45. The plasma membrane of intestine is highly folded into microvilli. The main function
of Microvilli is-
(a) To Secrete digestive enzymes
(b) To help in blood circulation
(c) To increase its absorptive surface
(d) For ageing of worn out cells
46. The structure formed where two adjacent membrane are thickened with disc shaped
adhesive material in between and tonofibrils radiating out from adhesive region is-
(a) Gap junction (b) Tight junctions
(c) Desmosomes (d) Plasmodesmata
48. The process of sneezing of phagocytes between the endothelial cells of blood vessels
and reaching to damaged area is known as-
(a) Margination (b) Metastasis
(c) Diapedesis (d) Angiobiosis
49. In humans cell recognition molecules are-

(a) HLA (b) B-cells
(c) T-Cells (d) Immunoglobins
50. Cancers cell are monoclonal, are characterized by uncontrolled growth, invasion of
other tissues and dissemination to other tissues. The phenomenon of invasion to
other tissues is termed as-
(a) Angiobiogenesis (b) Metastasis
(c) Diapedesis (d) Transformation
51. Environmental control of sex determination is seen in-

(a) Melandrium (b) Drosophila
(c) Bonelia (d) Apes indica
52. Dosage compensation in case of drossophila is due to-

(c) Hyper activation (d) Heterochromatization
53. During respiration in yeast the end product is-

(a) Water and CO2 (b) CO2 , alcohol and energy
(c) H2 S, C6 H12 O6 and energy (d) Water and CO2
54. When the earth originated, there was a large amount of methane and other
hydrocarbons but now in the present atmosphere, it is replaced by-
(a) Hydrogen (b) Oxygen
(c) Coal (d) CO2
55. The chromatin is made up of repitative units known-

(a) Chromosomes (b) Chromonemata
(c) Nucleosomes (d) Nucleotides
56. In Down’s Syndrome the number of chromosomes in somatic cell is-

(a) 45 (b) 47
(c) 22 (d) 24
57. Among the following which do not bring variation at Individual level-
(a) Gene mutation
(b) Fertilization
(c) Meiosis and Crossing over
(d) Chromosome aberration and Hybridizations
58. Natural selection will not operate if-
(a) Population is isolated and small
(b) Mutating population
(c) Random matting population
(d) Large population
59. Which is best experimental demonstration to prove natural selection-

(a) Lederberg’s replica replicating
(b) Kettelwell’s Industrial metabolism
(c) Pastuer’s Swann nech exp.
(d) Urey millers exp.
60. Which is false about stabilizing selection-

(a) Constant or unchanging environment
(b) Introduces heterozygosity
(c) Favours average
(d) It tends to arrest variance & environmental changes
61. Which hormone is identical and interchangeable and present in all animals is-
(a) Thyroid (b) Adrenalin
(c) Somatotropin (d) Insulin
62. Birds & mammals forms are generally larger size in colder region as compare to
warmer region. This is-
(a) Allens rule (b) Cope’s rule
(c) Bergman’s rule (d) Dollo’s Law
63. The relationship in which one is benefited without other being harmed is-
(a) Ammensalism (b) Commensalism
(c) Proto-cooperation (d) Mutualism
64. When mimic resembles a ferocious/ poisonous/distasteful organism for eg. Viceroy
butterfly mimics monarch butterfly is –
(a) Aggressive mimicry (b) Conscious mimicry
(c) Protective mimicry (d) All of these

(c) r-RNA (d) m-RNA
(a) 0.8 (b) 0.02
(c) 0.34 (d) 0.016
67. Changes in the seasons are caused by:
(a) the tilt of Earth’s axis toward or away from the sun.
(b) annual cycles of temperature and rainfall.
(c) variation in the distance between Earth and the sun.
(d) an annual cycle in the sun’s energy output.
68. Pelvic girdle and hind limbs in python are example of-
(a) Analogous organ (b) Homologous organ
(c) Vestigial organ (d) Paralogous organ
69. For muscles the major source of energy is-
(a) ATP (b) Phosphocreatin
(c) GTP (d) Lactic Acid
70. Early successful stages are tolerant of the harsh, abiotic condition in barren areas
are characterized by-
(a) Weedy a-selected (b) Weedy r-selected
(c) Weedy g-selected (d) Weedy k-selected
PART – A
1. If the pendulum with the time period 't' is placed in the space then its time period will
(c) Zero (d) Infiniti
2. If the ball is thrown with the intial velococity of 100 m/s with angle of 45 0, then what
would be ratio of its maximum height to maxim distance is-
(a) 1/2 (b) 1/2
(c) 3/4 (d) 1
3. The current flowing in the circuit will be- 2 V

(a) 0.25 A (b) 0.5 A
(c) 0.75 A (d) 1.0 A Ω
4. The lens used to correct the myopia is- A

(a) Concave (b) Convex
(c) Concavo-convex (d) Convexo-concave
5. A body of mass ‘m’ goes round a horizontal circle of radius ‘r’. The work done will be-
(a) mv2 /r (b) mv/r2
(c) mgh (d) Zero
6. pH of 10–8 M HCl will be -
(a) 6 (b) 8
(c) 6.92 (d) 7.08
7. The ground state electronic configuration of iron is [Ar] 3d6 4S 2 . The electronic
configuration of ferric ion will be-
(a) [Ar] 3d6 4S0 . (b) [Ar] 3d4 4S2 .
5 0
(c) [Ar] 3d 4S . (d) [Ar] 3d3 4S2 .
8. Among the following one that is not aromatic-
(a) cyclohexadienyl cation
(b) cycloheptatrienyl cation
(c) cyclopentadienyl cation
(d) cyclopropyl cation
9. How much litre of 1.2 Molar solution be added to one litre of 0.6M Nacl to make it
0.75 molar
(a) 0.30 lit (b) 0.33 lit
(c) 0.36 lit (d) 0.15 lit
10. The BLACK is coded KCALB, then the white will be-
(a) TIEHW (b) HTWIE
(c) ETIHW (d) ETHIW
11. Solve the following quadratic equation:

3x2 + 2x – 1 = 0
(a) –2/3 (b) 3/2
(c) 1/2 (d) –1/3
12. A litre of helium at 2 atmospheric pressure and 27° C is heated until both pressure
and volume are doubled . The final temperature of gas will be-
(a) 108° C (b) 927° C
(c) 1000° C (d) 1200° C
13. One machine can do work in 10 minutes and a second can do in 15 min, how many
minutes will both machines working together simultaneously take to do work-
(a) 8 (b) 9
(c) 6 (d) 5
14. If any side of triangle is doubled, the area of new triangle is k times of the old one, K
is equal to-
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 3 (d) Ö2
15. What is the probability of getting to consecutive kings from a peck of playing cards-
(a) 1/52 × 1/53 (b) 4/52 × 4/51
(c) 1/13 × 1/12 (d) 4/52 × 3/51
16. Normal life span of RBC is -

(a) 4 hours (b) 4 months
(c) 4 years (d) Immortal
17. Which one of the following animals do not have milk producing mammary glands-
(a) Bat (b) Dolphins
(c) Platypus (d) Sea Horse
18. A common feature of haemoglobin and chlorophyll is-

(a) They are porphyrin derivative
(b) They are oxygen carrier
(c) Both help in electron transport chain
(d) Both are proteins
19. AIDS virus attacks-

(a) T-helpers cells (b) B-cells
(c) Neutrophils (d) Lymphocytes
20. All living beings have self regulatory mechanism to maintain steady state and this is
called as-
(a) Homeostasis (b) Osmosis
(c) Phagocytosis (d) Parabiosis
21. The ozone layer lies in-

(a) Troposphere (b) Stratosphere
(c) Tropopause (d) Mesophere
22. Seasonal variation is due to-

(a) Rotation of earth
(b) Revolution of earth
(c) Inclination of earth on its axis
(d) Gravitational pull of moon
23. Main cause of earthquakes is disturbances in-
(a) Earth crust (b) upper mantle
(c) Lower mantle (d) Inner core
24. The planet having maximum density is-

(a) Mercury (b) Jupiter
(c) Pluto (d) Earth
25. Computers directly understand which language-
(a) Machine language (b) C
(c) Oracle (d) BASIC
26. Which among the following is not physical component of CPU-

(a) RAM (b) CU
(c) ALU (d) VDU
27. Binary equivalent of 15.5 is-
(a) 1111.101 (b) 1001.1
(c) 1111.1 (d) 1111.01
28. India's latest super computer is-

(a) Paran 1000 (b) Param 10000
(c) Param Padam (d) Param Infiniti
29. The difference between the GMT and place ‘A’ which is 82 ½ 0 E of GM line will be-
(a) + 3 ½ hours (b) – 3 ½ hours
(c) + 5 ½ hours (d) – 5 ½ hours
30. What would be the output of the following program-

A=10 B= 20 I= 0
WHILE I < 5
I=I+1
A=A+2
B=B+2
STOP
PRINT A,B
(a) 18, 28 (b) 20, 30
(c) 22, 32 (d) 16, 26
PART – B
1. Which of the following organelle is involved in photorespiration-

(a) Peroxisomes (b) Ribosomes
(c) Glyoxysomes (d) Dictyosomes
2. In which phase of cell cycle the drug colchine exerts its effect-
(a) G1 (b) G2
(c) S (d) M
3. Seed storage protein of legumes are deficient in-

(a) Threonoine (b) Methionine
(c) Lysine (d) glycine
4. A hormone that controls closure of stomata in response to water stress is-
(a) Abscissic acid (b) Gibberlin
(c) Proline (d) Ethylene
5. The process by which a cell secrete macromolecules by fusing a transport vesicle to

plasma membrane is called
(a) Pinocytosis (b) Phagocytosis
(c) Endocytosis (d) Exocytosis
6. When a cell is expends energy to move a solute across its membrane against a
concentration gradient, the process is called as-
(a) Diffusion (b) Osmosis
(c) Facillitated Diffusion (d) Active transport
7. The CO2 acceptor in C4 plants is-

(a) 3-phosphoglyceric acid (b) Ribulose bis phosphate
(c) Phospho enol pyruvic acid (d) Xylulose 5 phosphate
8. Light harvesting complex II is located in the-
(a) Thylakoid lumen (b) Stroma
(c) Thylakoid membrane (d) Outer membrane of chloroplast
9. The maximum frequency of recombination of genes at two loci is-

(a) 25 % (b) 50 %
(c) 75 % (d) 100 %
10. Symbiotic association between fungi and roots of higher plant is known as-
(a) Mycorrhyiza (b) Lichen
(c) Collaroid (d) Epiphytic roots
11. A known uncoupler of electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation is-
(a) Dinitrophenol (b) Ancymidol
(c) Triaconotol (d) Hexaacamzol
12. Production of transgenic cotton resistant to lepidodenteron insect utilizing bacillus

thuringeneisis is due to-
(a) a-endotoxin (b) a-endotoxin
(c) a-exotoxin (d) d-exotoxin
13. A group of interconnected food chains is called as-
(a) Pyramid of number (b) Complex food chain
(c) Food web (d) Food cycle
14. Among the following phyla, one evolutionarily closest to phylum chordata is-
(a) Annelida (b) Arthopoda
(c) Echinodermata (d) Onchycophora
15. Human originated in epoch known as-
(a) Pleistocene (b) Pliocene
(c) Miocene (d) Holocene
16. The order Anura, Urodela, Apoda belongs the class-

(a) Amphibian (b) Reptilian
(c) Mammalian (d) Pisces
17. The condition albinism in man is linked to deficiency of the enzyme-
(a) Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
(b) Arginase
(c) Tyrosinase
(d) Xanthin oxidase
18. Which among the following is not universal stop codon-

(a) UAA (b) UGA
(c) UAC (d) UAG
19. The body temperature of following groups of animals occurs in order-
(a) Protheria>metatheria>Eutheria>Aves
(b) Aves>Eutheria>Metatheria>Prototheria
(c) Eutheria>Aves>Metatheria>Prototheria
(d) Metatheria>Eutheria>Aves>Prototheria
20. If you are asked to clone a man from a single cell and you are provided with the
following cells, which one would you will choose-
(a) Sperm (b) Erythrocyte
(c) Lymphocyte (d) Kidney fibroblast
21. The number of complementarity determining region(s) present in human kappa chain
are-
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
22. Transfer RNA genes are transcribed by-

(a) RNA polymerase I (b) RNA polymerase II
(c) RNA polymerase III (d) RNA dependent RNA pol
23. Shine-Dalgarno sequences are associated with-

(a) Transcription (b) Translation
(c) Replication (d) Recombination
24. Gonadotropin releasing factor is synthesized by-
(a) Anterior Pituatory (b) Hypothalamus
(c) Adrenal (d) Thymus
25. In Eukaryotic cell, DNA synthesis occurs during the phase of cell cycle-
(a) G1 Phase (b) G2 Phase
(c) S phase (d) M phase
26. The combination of closely related genetic markers which tends to transmitted as
unit to the next generation is called-
(a) Allotype (b) Haplotype
(c) Karyotype (d) Isotype
27. The hormone epinephrine is involved in-

(a) Red blood cell synthesis (b) Stress response
(c) Control of blood sugar level (d) Control of metabolic rate
28. The vector responsible for the spread of filiaris is-
(a) Anopheles (b) Culex
(c) Ades (d) Sand fly
29. The following of the four is not a secondary messanger-

(a) ATP (b) Inositol 1,4,5 triphosphate
(c) Ca++ (d) c-AMP
30. Early pregnancy dtection test detects the presence of whoch one of the following
hormone-
(a) Human chronic hormone (b) Lutenizing hormone
(c) Follicle stimulating hormone (d) Estrogen
31. Selective transfer of which of the following antibodies are responsible for passive
humoral immunity in infants-
(a) IgA (b) IgM
(c) IgG (d) IgE
32. The animal that most recently extinct from India is-
(a) Asiatic Lion (b) Dodo
(c) Asiatic Cheetah (d) Golden Langaur
33. Which of the following anti-tumor agent act by impairing the de novo purine synthesis-
(a) Cytosine arabinoside (b) 5-flurouracil
(c) Methotrexate (d) Hydroxyurea
34. Which one of the following has a quaternary structure-

(a) a-chymotrypsin (b) Haemoglobin
(c) Insulin (d) Myoglobin
35. Which one of the following is conservative substitution-
(a) Val to Ile (b) Asp to Pro
(c) Lys to Leu (d) Trp to Ala
36. Phospholipids are involved in all except one of the following-

(a) Cell to cell recognition
(b) Signal transduction
(c) Surfactant function in lungs
(d) Mediator of hypersensitivity
37. Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus is associated with-
(a) High level of insulin
(b) Severe weight gain
(c) Destruction of b-cells of pancreas
(d) Mutation of insulin
38. The Z-DNA helix -

(a) Has fewer base pair turn then B-DNA
(b) Is favoured by alternate GC base pairs
(c) Tends to found at 3'ends of genes
(d) Is the most common conformation of DNA
39. How many energy bonds are expended in formation of peptide bond-
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 3 (d) 6
40. Receptors for steroid hormones are found-
(a) On cell membrane (b) In cytoplasm
(c) In mitochondria (d) On ribosomes
41. Endonuclease is an enzyme that hydrolyzes-

(a) A nucleotide at 3' ends of oligonucleotides
(b) A phosphodisester bond located in the interior of a polynucleotide
(c) A nucleotide from either termini of an oligonucleotide
(d) A peptide bond located in the interior of polypeptide
42. The Km of enzyme is-

(a) One half of the V max
(b) A dissociation constant
(c) Substrate concentration that gives max velocity
(d) Substrate concentration that gives half-maximum velocity
43. The class of immunoglobin most abundant in body secretion-
(a) Ig M (b) Ig G
(c) Ig A (d) Ig E
44. One of the following participates in phagocytic activity-

(a) Neutrophils (b) Mast cells
(c) T-Cells (d) Thrombocytes
45. Operons-
(a) Are approximately uniform in size
(b) Do not bind protein
(c) Are found in all eukaryotic genes
(d) Are Shorter in lower eukaryotes then higher ones
46. RNA is very susceptible to hydrolysis in alkali because-

(a) It contains uracil in its structure
(b) Its 2'-OH group participates in intramolecular cleavage of phosphodiester
backbone
(c) Cleavage occurs in the glycosylic bonds of purine bases
(d) Cleavage occurs in the glycosylic bonds of pyramidine bases
47. T4 polynucleotide kinase is used for-

(a) Labeling 3' ends of DNA
(b) Labeling 5' ends of DNA
(c) Creating blunt ends of DNA
(d) Dephosphorylation of DNA
48. A plasmid cloning vector should contain all of the following except-
(a) Origin of replication (b) Inducible promoter
(c) Selectable marker gene (d) Multiple cloning sites
49. Enzymes used in “cycle sequencing” of DNA is-

(a) T7 DNA polymerase (b) T4 DNA polymerase
(c) Klenow DNA polymerase (d) Taq DNA polymerase
50. Viral replication within cells is inhibited by-

(a) IL-4 (b) IL-1
(c) IFN-a (d) TNF-a
51. Holoandric inheritance is shown by-

(a) X-chromosomes (b) Y-chromosomes
(c) Autosomes (d) Allosomes
52. Lesch-Nyann Syndrome is due to defect in-

(a) Recessive X-chromosomes (b) Dominant X-chromosome
(c) Autosomes (d) Y-chromosomes
53. Selection of African tribes is more of heterozygous gene for RBC is due to-
(a) Severe malaria (b) Environment unstability
(c) More cases of Sickle cell anemia
(d) both a&c
54. Molecular clock of evolution could be traced on basis of-
(a) Comparison of Short arm of 16-S RNA
(b) Substitution in amoniacids of polypeptide due to mutation
(c) DNA fingerprinting
(d) Fossil study

(c) r-RNA (d) m-RNA
56. The Typical Medelian dihybrid test cross ratio is-
(a) 9:3:3:1 (b) 1:1:1:1
(c) 9:7 (d) 1:2:1
57. Extra nuclear genetic material is present in-

(a) Ribosome (b) Centriole
(c) Plastids (d) Golgi
58. Dosage compensation in human is achieved by-
(c) Hyperactivation (d) Silencing
59. Energy obtained by oxidation of 1 g of protein is -

(a) 9 K cal (b) 4.5 K cal
(c) 18 K cal (d) 12 K cal
60. Among the following the progenitors of mammals were-

(a) Aves (b) Pisces
(c) Amphibians (d) Reptiles
61. Abrupt change in gene frequency in isolated population is termed as-

(a) Adaptive radiation (b) Allopatric speciation
(c) Random drift (d) Mutation
62. Main cause of loss of Biodiversity is-

(a) Pollution (b) Population explosion
(c) Habitat destruction (d) Over exploitation
63. Which radioisotope is used for estimating age of rocks-

(a) U 238 & K40 (b) U 235 & C14
(c) U 238 & H3 (d) C14 & H3
64. What is main cause of evolution of new species-

(a) Natural selection (b) Competition
(c) Mutation (d) Hybridization
65. Competitive exclusion principle operates in-
(a) Distantly related species (b) Closely related sps.
(c) Species in overlapping niche (d) Shortage of nutrition
66. The new type designated when original type is missing-

(a) Co-type (b) Syntype
(c) Neotype (d) Lectotype
67. Inversion when chromosomes are not involved is termed as-
(a) Pericentric (b) Paracentric
(c) Allocentric (d) Autocentric
(a) 0.8 (b) 0.02
(c) 0.34 (d) 0.016
69. Ozone layer is severely depleted at-
(a) Equator (b) Tropics
(c) Poles (d) Temperate
70. The anionic charge of phosphodiester bond of DNA in prokaryotes is balanced by-
(a) Polyamines (b) H-NS
(c) H-L (d) Histone
PART – A
1. What is the fundamental unit on which natural selection acts:

(a) Species (b) Individual
(c) Population (d) Gene
2. In a paddy field, which of the following organism can serve as a bio-fertlizer

(a) N 2 - Fixing Cynobacteria
(b) Methane producing bacteria
(c) Nitrifying bacteria
(d) Photosynthetic bacteria
3. A regular hexagon is inscribed in a circle of diameter (d) What is the perimeter (i.e.
sum of the sides) of the hexagon?
(a) 3d (b) 6d
(c) 3pd (d) (p/3)d
4. The software that forms the web is called:

(a) TCP/ IP (b) html
(c) URL (d) www
5. The octal integer 777 when converted to binary becomes
(a) 100000000 (b) 111111111
(c) 11111110 (d) 111111
6. Consider the following truth table.

P Q P<Q P¹Q
3 3 0 0
4 5 A B
The value of A and B will be-

(a) 0,0 (b) 0,1
(c) 1,0 (d) 1,1
7. An atomic orbital having the quantum no. n = 1 and l = 1 will have the shape of:
(a) ellipsoId (b) dumb-bell
(c) cone (d) sphere
8. H–C–H bond angle in CH 4 is 109.5° due to lone pair repulsion. The H–O–H angle in
H2 O will:
(a) remain the same (b) decrease
(c) increase (d) become 1800
9. 19 girls and 9 boys are asked to stand in a circle. In an such arrangement, it is always
the case that there are:
(a) 2 boys standing next to each other
(b) 2 girls standing next to each other
(c) 3 boys standing next to each other
(d) 4 girls standing next to each other
10. The number (10n – 1) is divisible by 11 for

(a) all values of n
(b) odd values of n
(c) even values of n
(d) n = multiple of 11
1
11. If log 8 x = 3 then value of x is
3
(a) 32 (b) 30
(c) 42 (d) 2
12. At any time t, the rate of change in the no. of decaying nuclei is A times. the no. of
nuclei present where A is the decay constant. The time at which 2/3 of the originally
present nuclei would have decayed is:
(a) ln 2/l (b) l. ln 3
(c) ln 3/2 l (d) l. ln 2
13. Global warming is due to which of the following?

(a) Green house gases absorb both visible and infrared radiation
(b) Infrared radiation is observed by green house gases whereas visible radiation is
not
(c) Infrared radiation is not observed by green hosue gases whereas visible radiation
is
(d) Earth is slowly corning closer to the sun
14. Jupiter's mass is mostly made up of:

(a) Helium (b) Argon
(c) Hydrogen (d) Xenon
15. The southwest monsoon occurs over major parts of India in the months from June to
September. The main cause of the monsoon:
(a) The land is cooler than the sea
(b) The centrifugal force deflects the wind
(c) The land is warmer than the sea
(d) Wind blows from North-east to south-west
16. Which of the following chemical groups is the most Hydrophobic?

(a) CH 2 – CO2
(b) CH 2 – CH 2 – NH3
(c) Histidine
(d) Phenyl alanine
17. A ball of mass 10 gm moving at 10 m/sec collide completely in elastically with another
ball of mass 10 gms which is at the rest. After the collision which of the following is
true?
(a) The combination will be at rest
(b) The combination will get cooled
(c) The combination will have a kinetic energy of 0.5 Joule
(d) The combination will move at 5m/sec.
18. Consider the following programe segment:

N = 20
If N >10 then N = N – 1
If N = 10 then N = 20
If N < 10 then N = N + 1
If N = 0 then STOP
If each step in this program takes 1 second, then the total time for the program to
run will be:
(a) 10 seconds (b) 20 seconds
(c) 100 seconds (d) Infinite
19. Viruses can disable computers. A computer virus can be transmitted one machine to
another if:
(a) they are used to run similar application
(b) they are used by same programmes
(c) floppy disks are exchanged between different computer
(d) they use different operating system
20. The aim of galvanising the iron is to :

(a) give it a better look
(b) protect it from rusting
(c) increase its hardness
(d) make it more elastic
21. Silver halides are used in photo-graphic plates because they are:
(a) Oxidised in air
(b) colourless
(c) easily soluble in hypo solution
(d) readily reduced by light
22. A body will radiate heat

(a) at all finite temperature
(b) when heated and then allowed to cool
(c) when its temperature is higher than surroundings
(d) when its temperature is above 0°C
23. The activity of a radioisotope falls to 12.5% in 90 days. The half life of radio isotopeis
(a) 260 days (b) 265 days
(c) 270 days (d) 268.2 days
24. Heavy water (Deuterium, D2 O) is usually prepared from:

(a) heavy hydrogen (b) sea water only
(c) river water only (d) ordinary water
25. Hydrogen bomb is based on the phenomenon of:
(a) nuclear fusion (b) nuclear fission
(c) nuclear reaction (d) none
26. During the earthquake most damage is seen on earth crust because earth crust is-
(a) Rigid (b) Brittle
(c) Enelastic (d) Molten
27. A certain planet is revolving in a fixed orbit. If the radius of its orbit in increased four
times then its mean surface temperature will decrease-
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 4 (d) 16
28. Charge density is more at poles because-

(a) Magnetic field is parallel to poles
(b) Magnetic field is parallel to equator
(c) Magnetic field is perpendicular to poles
(d) Magnetic field is perpendicular to equator
29. If an object absorbs green part of white light, then its color will be-
(a) Blue (b) Yellow
(c) Green (d) Purple
lmit / t  1
30. n   → ∞ 2 +  equals to
 n
(a) Öe (b) e
(c) e 2 (d) e 3
PART – B
1. A homozygous Rh positive man (RR) marries an Rh negative (rr) woman. Their first
child is normal, but their second child has hemolytic disease (Rh disease). The first
child did not have hemolytic disease because-
(a) the child was heterozygous
(b) the child lacked Rh antigen
(c) The mother had a previous blood transfusion that protected the child against
antibodies
(d) Ant-Rh antibodies were not induced in the mother until the delivery of first
child.
2. Which of the following organelles has protein-phospholipid membrane, energy

conversion enzymes, and ribosomes similar to that found in bacteria-
(a) Lysosome (b) Mitochondria
(c) Peroxisomes (d) Rough ER
3. Which of the following take place during the anaphase of mitosis in an animal cell-
(a) Kinetochore microtubule elongate to push chromosomes towards the metaphase
plate
(b) Sister chromatid remains attached to each other at the centromere and move
towards the poles as a unit
(c) The contractile ring completes the process of cytokinesis
(d) Polar microtubules elongate and slide to push the spindle poles apart.
4. Members of which of the following groups cannot generate their own ATP-
(a) Lichens (b) Diatoms
(c) Viruses (d) Protozoa
5. The complementary RNA sequence for GATCAA is

(a) CTAGTT (b) CUAGUU
(c) AGCTGG (d) AGCUGG
6. Which of the following would best demonstrate that the genomes of differentiated
cell are genetically equivalent?
(a) Isolation and culture of blastomeres of two or four-celled embros
(b) Isolation and culture of the nuclei in the presence of cells from which they have
been removed
(c) Isolation and fusion of two different somatic cell types
(d) Injection of a nucleus isolated from an adult cell into an egg from which nucleus
has been removed.
7. All of the following mechanisms has been shown experimentally to contribute to the
formation of cancer cell EXCEPT
(a) Abnormally high energy reserves in cancer cell that cause them to divide quickly
(b) Mutations that cause excess proliferation of growth factor of cancer cells.
(c) Mutations that reduced the need for growth factor in cancer cells
(d) Mutation that inactivate genes that normally inhibit cell division.
8. Which of the following statement is LEAST likely to be true of mutations in a diploid
organism such as fruit fly-
(a) Some loci are more mutable than others
(b) Some mutation can affect the activity of several genes.
(c) Some mutations can have lethal effects
(d) Most somatic mutations markedly alter the organisms phenotype.
9. The addition of colchicine to a culture of actively dividing flagellated eukaryotic cells
inhibit all of the following EXCEPT-
(a) Movement of the flagella
(b) Growth of the flagella
(c) Formation of microtubular cytoskeleton
(d) Polymerization of tubulin
10. In enzyme mediated reaction, enzyme molecules are capable of all the following
EXCEPT-
(a) altering the equilibrium of the chemical reaction
(b) decreasing the activation energy of the reactions.
(c) increasing the rate of reaction
(d) binding of molecules other then substrate molecules
11. The cDNA fragment that includes the ricin gene is 5.7 kilobases. If the entire fragment
codes for the ricin polypeptide, the approximate number of amino acids in the
polypeptide would be-
(a) 17,100 (b) 5,700
(c) 2,500 (d) 1,900
12. Member of which of the following classes of macromolecules are known to exhibit
enzyme like (catalytic) properties
I. RNA
II. Glycoprotein
III. Lipoprotein
IV. Polysaccharides
(a) II and III (b) I and II
(c) I, II and III (d) All the four
13. Which of the following statement is NOT characteristic of all viruses with DNA
genomes?
(a) Replication occurs only in a living cell
(b) Replication involves the translation on cellular ribosomes
(c) The viral nucleocapsid is surrounded by a lipid envelope
(d) The viral genome is surrounded by a protein
14. In the presence of a fixed concentration of a competitive inhibitor, which of the following
would best characterized an enzyme catalyzed reaction when the concentration of
the substrate is increased?
(a) The Km increases
(b) The inhibition decreases
(c) The maximal rate of reaction (Vmax) increases
(d) The maximal rate of reaction (Vmax) decreases
15. Biological oxidation of glucose resulting in which of the following metabolic end product
would yield the largest number of ATP molecules?
(a) CH 3 CHOHCOOH (b) CH 3 COCOOH
(c) CO2 + N2 + H2 O (d) CO2 + H2 O
16. The distribution of transmembrane proteins in the plane of cell membrane can be
visualized by which of the following?
(a) Thin section electron microscopy
(b) Freeze fracture electron microscopy
(c) Ultraviolet spectroscopy
(d) SDS-gel electrophoresis
17. Plasmodesmata most closely resembles which of following in animal cells

(a) Desmosomes (b) Gap junction
(c) Basal laminae (d) Tight junction
18. All of the following occur during maturation of a proplastid into a chloroplast EXCEPT
(a) an increase in size R1 H R2
| | |
(b) an increase in the number of grana + –
HN
3 — C — C — N — C —COO
(c) the bleaching of chlorophyll | || |
(d) the synthesis of pigments H O H
19. A peptidase hydrolyzes peptide bonds in small (A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
proteins. In the dipeptide shown above, which bond

would be hydrolyzed?
(a) A or E (b) B
(c) C (d) D
20. All of the following cellular events involve actin filaments EXCEPT
(a) Amoeboid movement
(b) Cytoplasmic streaming
(c) Contraction of smooth muscles
(d) Flagellar movement in bacteria
21. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells share all the following EXCEPT
(a) ribosome dependent proteins synthesis
(b) ATP synthesis linked to a protein gradient
(c) a selectively permeable membrane
(d) a cytoskeleton of tubulin
22. In E. coli, induction of the lactose operon occurs when allolactose binds to
(a) galactosidase (b) lac mRNA
(c) the operator (d) the repressor
23. Synthesis and processing of eukaryotic messenger RNA includes all of the following
EXCEPT
(a) formation of a ribonucleoprotein complex
(b) formation of a short region of RNA-DNA duplex
(c) Addition of polyuridine at the 3'end
(d) ligation of exons
24. The autoradiogram above (after the electrophoresis and southern
DNA Base Pairs (× 1,000)

blotting) shows human DNA digested with a specific restriction 15.5
enzyme and probed with labelled rRNA. In the autoradiogram on the
left, the probe was 28S rRNA; at the right, the probe was 18S rRNA.
2.4
If the arrows in the following maps locate the recognition site of the
restriction enzyme, which map best explains the results shown above- 28 S 18 S
(a) 28 S 18 S
(b) 18 S 28 S
(c) 28 S 18 S
(d) 18 S 28 S
25. During which of the following stages of the cell cycle will a diploid cell contains twice
the amount of DNA found in a gamete?
(a) Prophase (b) Entire S phase
(c) Entire G1 phase (d) Entire G2 phase
26. With respect to human height, the production of short individuals by two average
sized parents is best explained by-
(a) mutation (b) Polygenic inheritance
(c) Epistasis (d) Discontinous variation
27. At which of the following trophic levels is the greatest amount of free energy available-
(a) Producers (b) Herbivores
(c) Top consumers (d) Decomposers
28. A balanced polymorphism may be maintained by all of the following EXCEPT
(a) Natural selection
(b) Directional selection
(c) Heterozygote advantage
(d) Use of multiple niches
29. A severe winter storm kills many chickadees. An investigation comparing the body
size of dead birds with that of survivors reveals that the dead birds include mainly the
largest and smallest members of the population. The winter storm exemplifies
(a) Stabalizing selection (b) Directional selection
(c) Balancing selection (d) Kin selection
30. All of the following may be true of a population with a stable age distribution EXCEPT
(a) The number of organism is changing at a constant rate
(b) Age specific births and death rates are not changing over time
(c) Population size increasing
(d) The proportions of organisms in each class are changing
31. Larger islands may have greater species diversity than smaller islands because larger
islands
(a) are in tropics
(b) are farther from continents than smaller islands are
(c) have more habitat than smaller islands do
(d) have no reproductive isolation among their populations
32. Two if the premises that form the basis if Darwin's concept of natural selection are
(a) Ecotype and race
(b) heritability and fitness
(c) Uniformitarianism and catatrophism
(d) geographic and reproductive isolation
33. In an ecosystem, fixed carbon has accumulate in the form of organic matter derived
from dead plants and animals. Which of the following is the best explanation for this
observation?
(a) Decomposer activity has been low
(b) Producers have been utilizing sunlight inadequately
(c) There have been insufficient numbers of secondary consumers
(d) Nitrogen has been cycled, but carbon has not
34. Which of the following is a density-independent factor that could limit a population of
high altitude butterflies?
(a) A late spring snow storm
(b) Scarcity of oviposition sires
(c) Predation
(d) Parasitism
35. One summer the moose population of national park was unusually high, and park
naturalist noticed signs of malnutrition among the adults. The wolf population was
fairly low, near 20. That winter for first time in many years, a substantial number of
seemingly healthy adult mouse as well as calves and crippled animals were killed and
eaten by wolves. This description is part of a general situation in which the wolf and
moose populations-
(a) Are maintained in a stable equilibrium from year to year
(b) Are simultaneously becoming extinct
(c) Fluctuate out of phase with each other
(d) Fluctuate independently of each other
36. A prime factor promoting the adaptive radiation of Darwin's finces on the Galapagos
Islands was the
(a) Variety of available and suitable habitats
(b) High predation pressure
(c) Genetic uniformity of the original invading populations of birds
(d) Presence of warblers and true wood peckers on the islands
37. All of the following are adaptations that permit the camel to be active by day in the
desert EXCEPT
(a) Thick fur (b) Hyperthermia
(c) Elongated nasal cavity (d) Water storage in hump
38. Among the following ecological relationships below which is most different from other
three?
(a) Fungal mycelia around the algal cells in lichens
(b) Algal cells embedded in coral tissues
(c) Salmonella in the human gut
(d) Cellulose digesting protozoa in a termite gut
39. Niches of two coexisting species of pond snails of the same genus are likely to be
similar, but not identical, because of which of the following?
I. Closely related species use similar resources
II. Competitive interactions exist between these species
III. Unlimited resources are available
(a) I only (b) II only
(c) I and II only (d) I and III only
40. In which of the following habitats would one expect to find the highest diversity of
vascular plants?
(a) Salt marsh (b) Spruce-Fir forest
(c) Small islands (d) Prairie-forest ecotone
41. In deep-sea hydrothermal vents near the Galapagos Islands, bacteria obtain energy
by oxidizing hydrogen sulphide released from the vents. Giant tube worms, which
lack mouth and digestive systems, harbor the bacteria in their tissues and use them
as a source of organic molecules. Clams obtain energy by filtering bacteria directly
from the water, and numerous crabs and octopi feed on clams. In this unique ecosystem,
the bacteria are playing the role of
(a) Primary producers (b) Primary consumers
(c) Tertiary consumers (d) Decomposers
42. Which of the following would be considered to be natural populations in pond?

(a) All individuals of the genus Rana
(b) All the individuals of species Rana tigerina
(c) All the organisms of any two species affecting each other ecologically
(d) All the adults of any one species
43. The massive adaptation radiation of insects over the world is most likely related to
the
(a) World wide increase in species diversity in the Cambrian period
(b) evolution of the land flora by the middle of Paleozoic era
(c) human alteration of the environment in the Pleistocene epoch
(d) environmental stability of the seas over all of geological time
44. One group of ecologist has suggested that producers are limited by compettion for
resources, primary consumers (herbivores) are limited by predation, and secondary
consumers (carnivores) are limited by food. If this was true, at which of the following
trophic levels would one expect to find substantial evidence for competitive exclusion?
(a) Producers only
(b) Herbivores only
(c) Carnivores only
(d) Producers and carnivores
45. Which of the following statements is most likely correct concerning the Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium in natural populations?
(a) It occurs infrequently in small populations from natural communities
(b) It occurs in founding populations, but not in established populations
(c) It occurs in populations from late successional communities, but not from early
successional communities
(d) It occurs on small islands, but on large islands.
46. Under some circumstances a population can split into two or more species without
the existence of geographic barriers. All of the following genetically determined
behavior could provide conditions leading to speciation except-
(a) Selection of a specific host fruit for completion of life cycle by a fruit fly
(b) Association of courtship with a particular habitat type in a sparrow
(c) Choice of a butterfly of the time of day to breed
(d) Selection of prey types by a wide ranging hawk
47. If the alleles ‘A’ and ‘a’ conform to Hardy-Weinberg expectations, and if the frequency
of ‘a’ is 0.3, which of the following is the most common genotype in the population
(a) A (b) Aa
(c) AA (d) aa
48. The theory of punctuated equilibrium argues that
(a) Speciation and morphological divergence are weakly associated
(b) Selective forces act throughout a species life time
(c) Major morphological changes are separated by long periods of morphological
statis
(d) Speciation rates are not related to evolutionary rates
49. Which of the following is true of a selectively neutral gene that is a mutant allele at
a locus-
(a) Its effect on fitness are different from those of more frequent allele that leads to
normal phenotype
(b) It reaches high frequencies because of state of balanced polymorphism
(c) It confers neither reproductive advantage nor disadvantage on the individual
(d) Its expression is masked by the normal allele
50. Which of the following is a post zygotic isolating mechanism in speciation?

(a) Isolation by hybrid sterility
(b) Seasonal isolation
(c) Behavioural isolation
(d) Geographical isolation
51. The phenomenon of genetic drift is most likely to occur in populations that
(a) Are allopatric
(b) Are undergoing gene flow
(c) Are small and interbred
(d) Have great reproductive potential
52. The resemblance of body structures and mode of life of some species of Australian
marsupials to certain species of placental mammals is an example of
(a) Convergent evolution
(b) Punctuated equilibrium
(c) Sequential evolution
(d) Polymorphism
53. If one compares the primary structure of the protein cytochrome c in organisms that
are separated in evolutionary time, e.g, humans and yeast, one discovers that
(a) Hydrophilic amino acids are usually substituted fro hydrophobic amino acids
(b) The overall primary and tertiary structure of molecule is quite different
(c) The proteins have evolved different functions
(d) Considerable sequences similarity exist between the two proteins
54. Which of the following genotypes would produce the greatest variety of gametes of
the alleles assorted independently?
(a) aaBBCcDd (b) aabbCCDD
(c) AaBbCCDd (d) AABBCCDD
55. Which of the following is most likely to reduce competition in sympatric, closely
related species
(a) Darwinian fitness
(b) Kin selection
(c) Niche overlap
(d) Character displacement
56. It is now thought that the atmosphere of the primitive Earth was composed largely of
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water vapor. The composition of certain iron-containing
minerals suggest that the carbon dioxide began to be replaced by oxygen about 2
billion years ago. Which of the following is the best explanation for the change in
atmospheric composition?
(a) Ozone produced in the upper atmosphere by UV light broke down to oxygen
(b) Minerals such as iron oxide released oxygen into atmosphere
(c) Oxygen was present in volcanic gases and slowly accumulated with time
(d) Photosynthesis was established in primitive bacteria
57. The amino acids in the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide chain of human proteins
differs from those of chimpanzee by approximately what percent?
(a) 99% (b) 49%
(c) 9% (d) 1%
58. An evolutionary benefit of sexual reproduction is that
(a) It provides a mechanism of genetic recombination.
(b) It requires a lower level of resource investment than asexual does
(c) The offspring will resemble their parents genetically
(d) The reproductive success rates are less variable than for asexual reproduction
59. The unit of life in which biological evolution actually occurs is usually considered to
be the
(a) Whole organism (b) Population
(c) Species (d) Community
60. It has been proposed that mitochondria and chloroplast evolved from certain bacteria
that existed as endo-symbiotic organism in early cells. Which of the following will
best support this hypothesis-?
(a) Both organelles contain DNA molecule
(b) Both organelles have microtubules
(c) Both organelles lacks mRNA
(d) Only chloroplast can synthesize some proteins
61. Which of following plant hormones hasten the apple ripening?

(a) Auxins (b) Gibberellin
(c) Abscisic acid (d) Ethylene
62. All if the following are responses of the vertebrate egg to fusion with the male gamete
EXCEPT
(a) Completion of maturation (meiotic division)
(b) Loss of the ability to undergo mitosis
(c) Transient elevation of intracellular free calcium
(d) Fusion of male and female pronuclei
63. Which of the following is secreted principally by the corpus luteum of the human
ovary?
(a) Luteinizing hormone
(b) Follicle stimulating hormone
(c) Gondotropin releasing factor and estrogen
(d) Progesterone
64. Blood fibrinogen is converted into fibrin during

(a) Immune response (b) Oxygen transport
(c) Glucose regulation (d) Clot formation
65. All of the following are found in vertebrate smooth muscles EXCEPT
(a) Sarcomeres (b) Thin filaments
(c) Thick filaments (d) Tropomyosin
66. A vitamin that has an important role in the formation of collagen fibres and prevention
of scurvy is
(a) Thiamin (b) Riboflavin
(c) Ascorbic acid (d) Tocopherol
67. In mammals, which of the following are produced after rearrangement of DNA
sequence in specific cells?
(a) Hemoglobins (b) Actins
(c) Antibodies (d) Trypsins
68. In a cross between a pure bred, red-eyed female fruit fly and a white-eyed male, what
percent of the male offspring will have white eyes? (white eyes are X-linked, recessive)
(a) 100% (b) 75%
(c) 50% (d) 0%
69. Hemophilia in humans is due to an X-chromosome mutation. What will be the results
of mating between a normal (non-carrier) female and a hemophilac male?
(a) Half of daughters are normal and half of sons are hemophilic.
(b) All sons are normal and all daughters are carriers.
(c) Half of sons are normal and half are hemophilic; all daughters are carriers.
(d) Half of daughters are hemophilic and half of daughters are carriers; all sons are
normal.
70. Two unlinked loci effect mouse hair color. AA or Aa mice are agouti. Mice with
genotype aa are albino because all pigment production is blocked, regardless of the
phenotype at the second locus. At the second locus, the B allele (agouti coat) is dominant
to the b allele (black coat). What would be the result of a cross between two agouti
mice of genotype AaBb?
(a) 4 agouti: 4 black: 8 albino
(b) 9 agouti: 3 black: 3 albino: 1 grey
(c) 9 agouti: 3 black: 4 albino
(d) 8 agouti: 4 black: 4 albino
PART-A
1. Three numbers x, y, z are in geometric progression. If the sum of the three numbers
is 26 and the largest of the three number is 9 times that of the small number, then
the values of largest number is-
(a) 20 (b) 18.
(c) 15 (d) 10
2. An electric beam can deflect-

(a) X-rays (b) a-rays
(c) g-rays (d) neutron beam
3. The half life of the first order reaction is 60 sec. After the first three minutes the
percentage of reactant remaining is-
(a) 7.5 % (b) 15 %
(c) 25 % (d) 12.5 %
4. Aspirin is chemically-
(a) Methyl benzoate (b) Ethyl salicate
(c) Acetyl salicylic acid (d) o-hydorxybenzoic acid
5. Phosphorus normally exhibits a covalency of-
(a) +3 and +5 (b) +1 and +3
(c) +2 and +3 (d) +3 and +4
6. The reaction of ethanol, with a series of inorganic acid is studied. What is order of
reactivity of halogens acid with ethanol-
(a) HCl>HBr>HI (b) HI>HBr>HCl
(c) HBr>HI>HCl (d) HBr>HCl>HI
7. A beam of monochromatic blue light of wavelength 4200 Å in air travels in water
(refractive index = 4/3). Its wavelength in water will be-
(a) 2800 Å (b) 5600 Å
(c) 3150 Å (d) 4200 Å
8. Which of the following has the highest percentage of ionic character in its bonding-
(a) Licl (b) BeCl2
(c) CsF (d) CsCl
9. When the temperature of a chemical reaction is increased, there is increase in the-
(a) Enthalpy (b) Entropy
(c) Free energy (d) Heat capacity
10. If the six amino acids in succession form a hexapeptide, the resulting structure will
have-
(a) Six peptide bond and six Ca atoms
(b) Five peptide bond and six Ca atoms
(c) Five peptide bond and five Ca atoms
(d) Six peptide bond and five Ca atoms
11. For the following algolrithm, what is value of x on completion of the code-
x=0
i=0
j=10
do while i<10
x=i+j
i=i+1
j=j–1
end do
(a) 100 (b) 135
(c) 0 (d) 9
12. The geometry and the type of hybrid orbital present around the centre in BF 3 is
(a) linear, sp (b) trigonal planner, sp2
(c) tetrahedral, sp 3 (d) pyramidal, sp3
13. The electronic configuration of an element is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3P6, 3d5, and 4s1.
This represent its
(a) Excited state (b) Ground state
(c) Cationic form (d) Anionic form
14. In bioinformatics BLAST means

(a) Basic Local Alignment Search Tool
(b) Bioinformatics Local Alignment Search Test
(c) Biological Logarithmic Alignment Search Tool
(d) Basic Local Alignment Software Throughput
15. Potassium permanganate is a/an – agent
(a) reducing (b) alkylating
(c) oxidizing (d) None
16. Unit for the measure of conductance is

(a) volt (b) mho
(c) amp (d) ohm
17. Which of the following is coldest?

(a) North pole (b) Siberia
(c) Liquid nitrogen (d) Dry ice
18. Which one of the five choices makes the best comparison? LIVED is to DEVIL as 6323
is to
(a) 2336 (b) 6232
(c) 3326 (d) 3236
19. Which number should come next?
144 : 12 1 : 100 : 81 : 64 : ?
(a) 17 (b) 19
(c) 36 (d) 49
20. From a garden two girls collect 25 flowers. Hema collects four times as many as Jaya
did How many flowers did Jaya collect?
(a) 4 (b) 5
(c) 8 (d) 10
21. A boy is 4 years old and his sister is three times as old as he is. When the boy is 12
years old, how old will his sister be?
(a) 16 (b) 20
(c) 24 (d) 36
22. In a Redox reaction involving two molecules

(a) both lose electrons
(b) one molecule loses electron and is reduced while the other gains electrons
(c) one molecule loses electrons and is oxidized while the other gains electrons
(d) one molecule gains electrons and is oxidized while the other loses electrons
23. Which of the following compounds would you expect to be most soluble in water?
(a) CH 3 –CH 2 –OH
(b) CH 2 –CH 2 –CH 2 –CH 2 –OH i=0
(c) CH 3 –CH 2 –CH 2 –CH 2 –CH 2 –CH 2 –OH
(d) CH 3 –CH 2 –CH 2 –CH 2 –CH 2 –CH 2 –CH 2 –CH 2 –OH
i=i+1
24. What would be the output of following program
(a) 2 yes
(b) 3
(c) 4 i 2 < 10
(d) 5
Print i
25. If an integer occupies five character in its binary form. The number of characters
required for its decimal form will be-
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
A
26. The distance between point A and B will be- 1
(a) Ö2
(b) 3
1
(c) 3Ö3
(d) Ö3 1
B
27. A wooden box of mass M is suspended between two springs having spring constant K1
and K2. Both springs are fixed to walls. If the wooden block is displaced along (+) X-
axis then the time period for oscillation will be-
(a) T = 2pÖm/k1 + k2
(b) T = 2pÖm(k1/k2) g K1 K2
2
(c) T = 2pÖm(k1 – k2) /g M
(d) T = 2pÖ(k1 – k2)/m
28. A satellite is revolving around an planet with orbital radius R. If mean density of
planet is r and universal gravitational constant is G. Then the orbital velocity will
depend on-
(a) G & r (b) r & R
(c) G, R & r (d) only on R
x dy
29. Given y = a . =
dx
(a) xax–1 (b) 1/ax
(c) ax ln a (d) None of the above
30. Recently Govt. of India has allowed mixing of alcohol in petrol. What is the amount of
alcohol permitted for mixing in petrol?
(a) 2.5% (b) 10 – 15%
(c) 10% (d) 5%
PART – B
1. One of the parents of a cross has a mutation in its mitochondria. In that cross, that
parent is taken as a male. During segregation of F 2 progenies that mutation is found
in
(a) one-third of the progenies
(b) none of the progenies
(c) all the progenies
(d) fifty percent of the progenies
2. When a fresh-water protozoan possessing a contractile vacuole, is placed in a glass

containing marine water, the vacuole will
(a) Increase in number (b) Disappear
(c) Increase in size (d) Decrease in size
3. One of the following is a very unique feature of the mammalian body:

(a) Homeothermy
(b) Presence of diaphragm
(c) Four chambered heart
(d) Rib cage
4. Chemically hormones are
(a) Biogenic amines only
(b) Proteins, steroids and biogenic amines
(c) Proteins only
(d) Steroids only
5. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?

(a) Vitamin B12 - Pernicious anaemia
(b) Vitamin B6 - Loss of appetite
(c) Vitamin B1 - Beri-beri
(d) Vitamin B2 - Pellagra
6. Duodenum has characteristic Brunner's glands which secrete two hormones called
(a) Kinase, estrogen
(b) Secretin, cholecystokinin
(c) Prolactin, parathormone
(d) Estradiol, progesterone
7. Mast cells of connective tissue contain
(a) Vasopressin and relaxin (b) Heparin and histamine
(c) Heparin and calcitonin (d) Serotonin and melanin
8. Cancer cells are more easily damaged by radiation than normal cells because they
are
(a) Starved of mutation (b) Undergoing rapid division
(c) Different in structure (d) Non-dividing
9. ATPase enzyme needed for muscle contraction is located in
(a) Actinin (b) Troponin

(a) Streptomyces - Antibiotic
(b) Serratia - Drug addiction
(c) Spirulina - Single cell protein
(d) Rhizobium - Biofertilizer
11. A free living nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium which can also form symbiotic association
with the water fern Azolla is
(a) Tolypothrix (b) Chlorella
(c) Nostoc (d) Anabaena
12. In the ABO system of blood groups, if both antigens are present but no antibody, the
blood group of the individual would be
(a) B (b) O
(c) AB (d) A
13. Which one of the following pairs correctly matches a hormone with a disease resulting
from its deficiency?
(a) Luteinizing hormone - Failure of ovulation
(b) Insulin- Diabetes insipidus
(c) Thyroxine - Tetany
(d) Parathyroid hormone - Diabetes mellitus
14. In a mutational event, when adenine is replaced by guanine, it is a case of

(a) Frame shift mutation (b) Transcription
(c) Transition (d) Transversion
15. Which of the following hormones is not a secretion product of human placenta?
(a) Human chorionic gonadotropin
(b) Prolactin
(c) Estrogen
(d) Progesterone
16. You are required to draw blood from a patient and to keep it in a test tube for analysis
of blood corpuscles and plasma. You are also provided with the following four types of
test tubes. Which of them will you not use for the purpose?
(a) Test tube containing calcium bicarbonate
(b) Chilled test tube
(c) Test tube containing heparin
(d) Test tube containing sodium oxalate
17. What is a keystone species?

(a) A species which makes up only a small proportion of the total biomass of a
community, yet has a huge impact on the community's organisation and survival
(b) A common species that has plenty of biomass, yet has a fairly low impact on the
community's organization
(c) A rare species that has minimal impact on the biomass and on other species in
the community
(d) A dominant species that constitutes a large proportion of the biomass and which
affects many other species
18. DNA fingerprinting refers to

(a) Molecular analysis of profiles of DNA samples
(b) Analysis of DNA samples using imprinting devices
(c) Techniques used for molecular analysis of different specimens of DNA
(d) Techniques used for identification of fingerprints of individuals
19. Flagella of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in

(a) Type of movement and placement in cell
(b) Location in cell and mode of functioning
(c) Microtubular organization and type of movement
(d) Microtubular organization and function
20. The animals with bilateral symmetry in young stage, and radial pentamerous symmetry
in the adult stage, belong to the phylum
(a) Annelida (b) Mollusca
(c) Cnidaria (d) Echinodermata
21. Lack of independent assortment of two genes A and B in fruit fly Drosophila is due to
(a) Repulsion (b) Recombination
(c) Linkage (d) Crossing over
22. In your opinion, which is the most effective way to conserve the plant diversity of an
area?
(a) By tissue culture method
(b) By creating biosphere reserve
(c) By creating botanical garden
(d) By developing seed bank
23. Which of the following is expected to have the highest value (gm/m2/yr) in a grassland
ecosystem?
(a) Secondary Production
(b) Tertiary Production
(c) Gross Production (GP)
(d) Net Production (NP)
24. If by radiation all nitrogenase enzymes are inactivated, then there will be no
(a) Fixation of nitrogen in legumes
(b) Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen
(c) Conversion from nitrate to nitrite in legumes
(d) Conversion from ammonium to nitrate in soil
25. Age of fossils in the past was generally determined by radio-carbon method and other
methods involving radioactive elements found in the rocks. More precise methods,
which were used recently and led to the revision of the evolutionary periods for
different groups of organisms, includes
(a) Study of carbohydrates/proteins in fossils
(b) Study of the conditions of fossilization
(c) Electron spin resonance (ESR) and fossil DNA

(d) Study of carbohydrates/proteins in rock
26. What kind of evidence suggested that man is more closely related with chimpanzee
than with other hominoid apes?
(a) Evidence from DNA from sex chromosomes only
(b) Comparison of chromosomes morphology only
(c) Evidence from fossil remains, and the fossil mitochondrial DNA alone
(d) Evidence from DNA extracted from sex chromosomes, autosomes and
mitochondria
27. An ecosystem which can be easily damaged but can recover after some time if
damaging effect stops will be having
(a) Low stability and high resilience
(b) High stability and low resilience
(c) Low stability and low resilience
(d) High stability and high resilience
28. During transcription, if the nucleotide sequence of the DNA strand that is being
coded is ATACG then the nucleotide sequence in the mRNA would be
(a) TATGC (b) TCTGG
(c) UAUGC (d) UATGC
29. Extranuclear inheritance is a consequence of presence of genes in
(a) Mitochondria and chloroplasts
(b) Endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria
(c) Ribosomes and chloroplast
(d) Lysosomes and ribosomes
30. Viruses that infect bacteria, multiply and cause their lysis, are called
(a) Lysozymes (b) Lipolytic
(c) Lytic (d) Lysogenic
31. The recessive genes located on X-chromosome in humans are always

(a) Lethal
(b) Sub-lethal
(c) Expressed in males
(d) Expressed in females
32. In C3 plants, the first stable product of photosynthesis during the dark reaction is
(a) Malic acid
(b) Oxaloacetic acid
(c) 3-phosphoglyceric acid
(d) Phosphoglyceraldehyde
33. Crossing over that results in genetic recombination in higher organisms occurs between
(a) Sister chromatids of a bivalent
(b) Non-sister chromatids of a bivalent
(c) Two daughter nuclei
(d) Two different bivalents
34. Which of the following statements is not true for retroviruses?

(a) DNA is not present at any stage in the life cycle of retroviruses
(b) Retroviruses carry gene for RNA-dependent DNA polymerase
(c) The genetic material in mature retroviruses is RNA
(d) Retroviruses are causative agents for certain kinds of cancer in man
35. Restriction endonucleases

(a) Aare present in mammalian cells for degradation of DNA when the cell dies
(b) Are used in genetic engineering for ligating two DNA molecules
(c) Are used for in vitro DNA synthesis
(d) Sre synthesized by bacteria as part of their defense mechanism
36. In glycolysis, during oxidation electrons are removed by

(a) ATP
(b) glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
(c) NAD+
(d) molecular oxygen
37. Phenetic classification of organisms is based on

(a) Observable characteristics of existing organisms
(b) The ancestral lineage of existing organisms
(c) Dendrogram based on DNA characteristics
(d) Sexual characteristics
38. The Ti plasmid, is often used for making transgenic plants. This plasmid is found in
(a) Azotobacter
(b) Rhizobium of the roots of leguminous plants
(c) Agrobacterium
(d) Yeast as a 2 µm plasmid
39. In a plant, red fruit (R) is dominant over yellow fruit (r) and tallness (T) is dominant
over shortness (t). If a plant with RRTt genotype is crossed with a plant that is rrtt,
(a) 25% will be tall with red fruit
(b) 50% will be tall with red fruit
(c) 75% will be tall with red fruit
(d) All the offspring will be tall with red fruit
40. Which one of the following precedes re-formation of the nuclear envelope during M
phase of the cell cycle?
(a) Decondensation from chromosomes, and reassembly of the nuclear lamina
(b) Transcription from chromosomes, and reassembly of the nuclear lamina
(c) Formation of the contractile ring, and formation of the phragmoplast
(d) Formation of the contractile ring, and transcription from chromosomes
41. A normal woman, whose father was colour-blind is married to a normal man. The
sons would be
(a) 75% colour-blind
(b) 50% colour-blind
(c) All normal
(d) All colour-blind
42. In the amino acid GLY, the Ca atom is connected to one carboxyl group, one amino
group and two hydrogen bonds. The H-Ca-H bond angle is likely to be close to-
(a) 1800 (b) 900
(c) 109.50 (d) 1200
43. In which of the following structure, you are likely to see non-watson crick base pairs-
(a) B-DNA (b) A-DNA
(c) Z-DNA (d) t-RNA
44. In the structure of ideal Watson -crick B-DNA
(a) Base pairs are perpendicular to the helix axis
(b) Base pairs are parallel to the helix axis
(c) Base pairs are inclined with respect of the helix axis
(d) Hydrogen bond between bases are perpendicular to the helix axis
45. If the side R groups of alternate aminoacids along a polypeptide strand points in
opposite direction then the secondary structure of polypeptide stretch should be-
(a) a-helix (b) 310 -helix
(c) b-strand (d) Random coil
46. The peptide ITVNGKTY can take up the following three structures-
A. all 8 amino acids are in a-helix conformation
B. all 8 amino acids are in b-helix conformation
C. all 8 amino acids are in 310-helix conformation
Arrange the structure in decreasing order of their N to terminal distances-
(a) ABC (b) BCA
(c) CAB (d) BAC (changed)
47. The phospholipids which form a membrane bilayer are-
(a) Completely non-polar molecules
(b) Completely polar groups
(c) Ampipathic molecules with polar head group and hydrophobic tail
48. In the pedigree above, circles denotes females, squares denote males, and shaded
figures denote individual expressing a specific trait. Which of the following is most
probable mode of inheritance of this trait?
(a) Simple Mendelian dominant
(b) Simple Mendelian recessive
(c) Codominant relationship of a single pair
of alleles
(d) X-linked dominant transmission
49. Catabolite repression in E. coli bacteria, involving the catabolite activator protein
(CAP), is actually a type of positive regulation, because
(a) cAMP-CAP helps RNA polymerase to initiate transcription
(b) cAMP-CAP prevents RNA polymerase from initiating transcription
(c) Glucose stimulates the production of cAMP
(d) Glucose binds CAP and inactivates it
50. The rate at which a DNA fragment moves in an electrophoretic gel is primarily a
function of the fragment's
(a) Length
(b) Double helical structure
(c) Degree of methylation
(d) Adenine content
51. Mitochondria and chloroplast carry out oxidative phosphorylation and photo phospho
-rylation, respectively, by means of
(a) Conformational coupling
(b) Chemiosmotic coupling
(c) High energy intermediate coupling
(d) Sliding filaments
52. C4 plants, by decreasing photorespiration and efficiency carrying out photosynthesis,

can
(a) Decrease stomatal openings and thereby reduce the water loss.
(b) Decrease stomatal opening and thereby reduce the leaf temperature
(c) Increase stomatal opening and thereby increase water loss
(d) Increase stomatal opening and thereby increase transpiration rates
53. Which of the following adaptation appeared for first time in the common ancestor of
the mammals, birds, and modern reptiles?
(a) Membranous lungs
(b) Internal nostrils
(c) Tetrapod limbs
(d) Amniotic eggs
54. Intron-free genes can be obtained through:

(a) Inverse-transcription
(b) Direct transcription
(c) Reverse transcription

(d) Sequence transcription
55. According to inducible operon concept, an operator gene combines with:
(a) Inducer gene to switch on transcription
(b) Regulator protein to switch off transcription
(c) Regulator gene to switch off transcription
(d) Regulator protein to switch on transcription
56. The peptide, Gly - lie - Met - Lys -Glu - Phe, upon treatment with Trysin produces:
(a) Gly-Ile-Met+ Lys-Glu-Phe
(b) Gly-Ile-Met-Lys+Glu-Phe
(c) Gly- lie + Met-Lys-Glu-Phe
57. Ouabain inhibits the Na+/K+ pump by:

(a) Binding toNa+- binding site
(b) Binding to K+- binding site
(c) Binding to ATP binding site
(d) None
58. When [S] = KM, the velocity of an enzyme catalyzed reaction is about:
(a) 0.1 × Vmax
(b) 0.2 × Vmax
(c) 0.3 × Vmax
(d) 0.5 × Vmax
59. Many enzymes require cofactors to function. Many of these cofactors are vitamins.
Which of the following statements is NOT true?
(a) Fe, Zn, Cu, Mg, Mn, K, Ni, and Mo are classified as vitamins
(b) Humans have lost the ability to synthesize vitamins
(c) Vitamins are modified by the body to form coenzymes
(d) There are 2 classes of vitamins: water-soluble and fat-soluble
60. The first antibody synthesized by the fetus:

(a) IgG
(b) IgA
(c) IgM
(d) IgE
61. Multimeric forms may contain a secretary component:
(a) Ig A &IgD
(b) IgD & IgG
(c) IgG & IgE
(d) IgA & IgM
62. In the diagram above, the centre of each circle represents the location at which
homing pigeons were released. The top of each circle is the homeward direction, each
dot represents the direction taken by the one bird, and the arrows represents the
statistical average if the chosen directions. The bird in left-hand circle were equipped
with the magnets that prevented them from detecting the Earth's magnetic field.
This experiment demonstrated that homing pigeons
Sunny
Day
Overcast
Day
(a) can navigate only on sunny days

(b) can use either the sun or earth's magnetic field as navigational aids
(c) use only the sun as a compass for navigation
(d) lose navigational ability when magnet are attached to them
63. Two populations of land snails have been effectively isolated from each other for a
long period. According to the biological species concept, which of the following would
demonstrate that the two populations have become separate species?
(a) The two populations behave differently when subjected to same dose of pesticides
(b) Sterile hybrids are produced when member of the two populations are
experimentally mated
(c) DNA nucleotide sequence are different between two populations
(d) The two populations have different electrophoretic pattern of proteins
64. Behaviour by an individual that confers evolutionary benefits to a recipient at no
evolutionary cost to donor because the recipient delivers benefits to the donor at
some later time and behavior by an individual that increases the fitness of recipients
but lowers the fitness of donor are termed as
(a) Reciprocity and Altruism
(b) Cooperation and Spite
(c) Nepotism and Kin selection
(d) Symbiosis and Predation
(c) For easy flight
(d) Aestivation
by small fishes is ‘c’, then the ratio of c/p is termed as-
(a) Assimilation efficiency
(b) Net secondary productivity
(c) Consumption efficiency
(d) Conversion efficiency
69. Most of new species are formed by the process of -

(a) Anagenesis (b) Cladogenesis
(c) Sympatric speciation (d) Phylogenetic evolution
70. First organism evolved on earth were-
(a) Aerobic heterotrophs
(b) Anaerobic heterotrophs
(c) Aerobic autotrophs
(d) Anaerobic autrotrophs
MODEL TEST PAPER – 5
PART – A
1. Three students are picked at random from a school having a total of 1000 students.
The probability that these three students will have identical date and month of their
birth is:
(a) 3/1000 (b) 3/365
(c) 1/(365)2 (d) 1/(365)3
2. In how many different ways can six players be arranged in a line such that two of
them, Ajit and Mukherjee, are never together?
(a) 120 (b) 240
(c) 360 (d) 480
3. A and B together can do a piece of work in 12 days, which B and C together can do in
16 days. After A has been working at it for 5 days and B for 7 days, C finishes in 13
days. In how many days C alone will do the work.
(a) 16 (c) 24
(c) 36 (d) 48
4. A spherical body moves with a uniform angular velocity w around a circular path of
radius r. Which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) The body has no acceleration
(b) The body has a radial acceleration directed directed towards the centre of the
path
(c) The body has a radial acceleration directed away from the centre of the path
(d) The body has an acceleration tangential to its path
5. Consider the following geological phenomea:

1. Development of a fault
2. Movement along a fault
3. Impact produced by volcanic eruption
4. Folding of rocks
Which of the above cause earthquakes?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4

(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
6. Two cars X and Y start from two places A and B respectively which are 700 km apart
at 9 a.m. Both the cars run at an average speed of 60 km/hr. Car X stops at 10 a.m.
and again starts at 11 a.m. while the other car Y continues to run without stopping.
When do the two cars cross each other?
(a) 2 : 40 p.m. (b) 3 : 20 p.m.
(c) 4 : 10 p.m (d) 4 : 20 p.m.
7. Nine different letters are to be dropped in three different letter boxes. In how many
different ways can this be done?
(a) 27 (b) 39
(c) 93 (d) 69
8. A person stands at the middle point of a wooden ladder which starts slipping between
a vertical wall and the floor of a room, while continuing to remain in a vertical plane.
The path traced by a person standing at the middle point of the slipping ladder is
(a) A straight line (b) An elliptical path
(c) A circular path (d) A parabolic path
9. How many 3 digit numbers can be formed with the digits 2, 3, 5, 7 and 9 if the digits
are not repeated
(a) 60 (b) 90
(c) 210 (d) 405
10. Param Padma, which was in news recently, is

(a) A new Civilian Award instituted by the Government of India
(b) The name of supercomputer developed by India
(c) The name given to a proposed network of canals linking northern and southern
rivers of India
(d) A software programme to facilitate e-governance in Madhya Pradesh
11. A weightless rubber balloon is filled with 200 cc of water. Its weight in water is equal
to
(a) 2 g (b) 200 mg
(c) 200 microgram (d) Zero
12. Consider the following statements:

1. Smart Card is a plastic card with an embedded microchip.
2. Digital technology is primarily used with new physical communication medium
such as satellite and fibre optics transmission.
3. A digitial library is a collection of documents in an organized electronic form
available on the Internet only.
Which of the statements given above is /are correct?
(a) 3 only (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

1. Femur is the longest bone in the human body.
2. Cholera is a disease caused by bacteria.
3. ‘Athlete’s foot’ is a disease caused by virus.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
14. Salts of which of the following elements provide colours to fireworks?

(a) Zinc and Sulphur
(b) Potassium and mercury
(c) Strontium and barium
(d) Chromium and nickel
15. Match List-I (Biosphere Reserves) with List-II (States) and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the Lists:
List-I List-II
(Biosphere Reserves) (States)
A. Similipal 1. Sikkim
B. Dehong Deband 2. Uttaranchal
C. Nokrek 3. ArunachalPradesh
D. Kanchenjunga 4. Orissa
5. Meghalya
(a) ABCD – 1354 (b) ABCD – 4521

(c) ABCD – 1524 (d) ABCD – 4351
16. In which organ of the human body are the lymphocyte cells formed?
(a) Liver (b) Long bone
(c) Pancreas (d) Spleen
17. Which one of the following statements is correct?

(a) Cirrus clouds are composed of ice crystals
(b) Cirrus clouds exhibit a flat base and have the appearance of rising domes
(c) Cumulus clouds are white and thin, and form delicate patches and give a fibrous
and feathery appearance
(d) Cumulus clouds are classified as high clouds
18. Which one of the following statements is not correct?

(a) Gulfs with narrow fronts and wider rears experience high tides
(b) Tidal currents take place when a gulf is connected with the open sea by a narrow
channel
(c) Tidal bore occurs when a tide enters the narrow and shallow estuary of a river
(d) The tidal nature of the mouth of the river Hooggly is of crucial importance to
Kolkata as port
19. A car is running on a road at uniform speed of 60 km/hr. The net resultant force on
the car is:
(a) Driving force in the direction of car’s motion
(b) Resistance force in the direction of car’s motion
(c) An inclined force
(d) Equal to zero
20. Jupiter’s mass is mostly made up of:

(a) Helium (b) Argon
(c) Hydrogen (d) Xenon
21. The southwest monsoon occurs over major parts of India in the months from June to
September. The main cause of the monsoon:
(a) The land is cooler than the sea
(b) The centrifugal force deflects the wind
(c) The land is warmer than the sea
(d) Wind blows from North-east to south-west
22. Nitric acid does not react with :

(a) Copper (b) Silver
(c) Iron (d) Gold
23. Silver halides are used in photo-graphic plates because they are:
(a) Oxidised in air
(b) Colourless
(c) Easily soluble in hypo solution
(d) Readily reduced by light
24. The theory of ionization was given by

(a) Rutherford (b) Cavendish
(c) Arrhenius (d) Faraday
25. Heavy water (Deuterium, D2 O)is usually prepared from:

(a) Heavy hydrogen (b) Sea water only
(c) River water only (d) Ordinary water
26. A number of images of a candle flame can be seen in a thick mirror. The brightest
image is
(a) First (b) Second
(c) Third (d) Last
27. Hydrogen bomb is based on the phenomenon of:

(a) Nuclear fusion
(b) Nuclear fission
(c) Nuclear reaction
28. Sound is transmitted by longitudinal waves of compression and rarefaction through

an elastic medium. What might the quality of sound be when the listener is at a
great distance from the source as compared to being very close?
(a) The high-frequency component will be reduced
(b) The low frequency component will be reduced
(c) All frequencies will be reduced to the same extent
(d) There will be no difference
29. Viruses can disable computers. A computer virus can be transmitted one machine to
another if:
(a) They are used to run similar application
(b) They are used by same programme
(c) Floppy disks are exchanged between different computer
(d) They use different operating system
30. An atomic orbital having the quantum no. n=1 and l=1 will have the shape of:
(a) Ellipsoid (b) Dumb-bell
(c) Cone (d) Sphere
PART – B
1. When CO2 concentration in blood increases, breathing becomes

(a) Shallower and slow
(b) There is no effect on breathing
(c) Slow and deep
(d) Faster and deeper
2. Certain characteristic demographic features of developing countries are
(a) High fertility, low or rapidly falling mortality rate, rapid population growth and
a very young age distribution
(b) High fertility, high density, rapidly rising mortality rate and a very young age
distribution
(c) High infant mortality, low fertility, uneven population growth and a very young
age distribution
(d) High mortality, high density, uneven population growth and a very old age
distribution
3. Which one of the following is not correctly matched?

(a) Glossina palpalis - Sleeping sickness
(b) Culex pipiens - Filariasis
(c) Aedes aegypti - Yellow fever
(d) Anopheles culifacies - leishmaniasis
4. A major component of gobar gas is

(a) Ammonia (b) Methane
(c) Ethane (d) Butane
5. Angiosperms have dominated the land flora primarily because of their

(a) Power of adaptability in diverse habitat
(b) property of producing large number of seeds
(c) nature of self pollination
(d) domestication by man
6. An ovule which becomes curved so that the nucellus and embryo sac lie at right
angles to the funicle is
(a) Hemitropous (b) Campylotropous
(c) Anatropous (d) Orthotropous
7. Ovulation in the human female normally takes place during the menstrual cycle
(a) at the mid secretory phase
(b) just before the end of the secretory phase
(c) at the beginning of the proliferative phase
(d) At the end of the proliferative phase
8. Injury to vagus nerve in humans is not likely to affect

(a) Tongue movements
(b) gastrointestinal movements
(c) pancreatic secretion
(d) cardiac movements
9. The cardiac pacemaker in a patient fails to function normally. The doctors find that
an artificial pacemaker is to be grafted in him. It is likely that it will be grafted at the
site of
(a) Atrioventricular bundle
(b) Purkinje system
(c) Sinuatrial node
(d) Atrioventricular node
10. Blood analysis of a patient reveals an unusually high quantity of carboxyhaemoglobin
content. Which of the following conclusions is most likely to be correct? The patient
has been inhaling polluted air containing unusually high content of
(a) Carbon disulphide (b) Chloroform
(c) Carbon dioxide (d) Carbon monoxide
11. In which one of the following enzymes, is copper necessarily associated as an activator?
(a) Carbonic anhydrase (b) Tryptophanase
(c) Lactic dehydrogenase (d) Tyrosinase
12. In Arthropoda, head and thorax are often fused to form cephalothorax, but in which
one of the following classes, is the body divided into head, thorax and abdomen?
(a) Insecta
(b) Myriapoda
(c) Crustacea
(d) Arachnida and Crustacea
13. Which one of the following is the correct matching of a vitamin, its nature and its
deficiency disease?
(a) Vitamin A - Fat -soluble - Night blindness
(b) Vitamin K - Fat -soluble - Beri -beri
(c) Vitamin A - Fat -soluble - Beri -beri
(d) Vitamin K - Water -soluble - Pellagra
14. In 1984, the Bhopal gas tragedy took place because methyl isocyanate
(a) reacted with DDT
(b) reacted with ammonia
(c) reacted with CO2
(d) Reacted with water
15. Lead concentration in blood is considered alarming if it is
(a) 20 µg/100 ml (b) 30 µg/100 ml
(c) 4 – 6 µg/100 ml (d) 10 µg/100 ml
16. Anthesis is a phenomenon which refers to

(a) Reception of pollen by stigma
(b) Formation of pollen
(c) Development of anther
(d) Opening of flower bud
17. One set of a plant was grown at 12 hours day and 12 hours night period cycles and it
flowered while in the other set night phase was interrupted by flash of light and it did
not produce flower. Under which one of the following categories will you place this
plant?
(a) Long day
(b) Darkness neutral
(c) Day neutral
(d) Short day
18. In which one of the following pairs is the specific characteristic of a soil not correctly
matched?
(a) Laterite - Contains aluminium compound
(b) Terra rossa - most suitable for roses
(c) Chernozems - Richest soil in the world
(d) Black soil - Rich in calcium carbonate
19. In a longitudinal section of a root, starting from the tip upward, the four zones occur
in the following order:
(a) Root cap, cell division, cell enlargement, cell maturation
(b) Root cap, cell division, cell maturation, cell enlargement
(c) Cell division, cell enlargement, cell maturation, root cap
(d) Cell division, cell maturation, cell enlargement, root cap
20. Presence of gills in the tadpole of frog indicates that

(a) fishes were amphibious in the past
(b) fishes evolved from frog -like ancestors
(c) frogs will have gills in future
(d) Frogs evolved from gilled ancestors
21. Which one of the following hormones is a modified amino acid?

(a) Epinephrine (b) Progesterone
(c) Prostaglandin (d) Estrogen
22. In the resting state of the neutral membrane, diffusion due to concentration gradients,
if allowed, would drive
(a) K+ into the cell (b) K+ and Na+ out of the cell
+
(c) Na into the cell (d) Na + out of the cell
23. The maximum growth rate occurs in

(a) Stationary phase (b) Senescent phase
(c) Lag phase (d) Exponential phase
24. Diversification in plant life appeared
(a) Due to long periods of evolutionary changes
(b) Due to abrupt mutations
(c) Suddenly on earth
(d) By seed dispersal
25. The technique of obtaining large number of plantlets by tissue culture method is
called
(a) Plantlet culture (b) Organ culture
(c) Micropropagation (d) Macropropagation
26. Cell elongation in internodal regions of the green plants takes place due to
(a) Indole acetic acid (b) Cytokinins
(c) Gibberellins (d) Ethylene
27. The most abundant element present in the plants is

(a) Carbon (b) Nitrogen
(c) Manganese (d) Iron
28. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) represents the following range of

wavelength:
(a) 500 – 600 nm (b) 450 – 950 nm
(c) 340 – 450 nm (d) 400 – 700 nm
29. A terrestrial animal must be able to

(a) excrete large amounts of water in urine
(b) conserve water
(c) actively pump salts out through the skin
(d) excrete large amounts of salts in urine
30. A male human is heterozygous for autosomal genes A and B and is also hemizygous
for hemophilic gene h. What proportion of his sperms will be abh?
(a) 1/8 (b) 1 /32
(c) 1 /16 (d) 1 /4
31. Edible part of mango is

(a) Endocarp (b) Receptacle
(c) Epicarp (d) Mesocarp
32. In chloroplasts, chlorophyll is present in the

(a) Outer membrane (b) Inner membrane
(c) Thylakoids (d) Stroma
33. Dough kept overnight in warm weather becomes soft and spongy because of
(a) Absorption of carbon dioxide from atmosphere
(b) Fermentation
(c) Cohesion
(d) Osmosis
34. In the somatic cell cycle
(a) In G1 phase DNA content is double the amount of DNA present in the original
cell
(b) DNA replication takes place in S-phase
(c) A short interphase is followed by a long mitotic phase
(d) G2 phase follows mitotic phase
35. A nutritionally wild type organism, which does not require any additional growth
supplement is known as
(a) Phenotype (b) Holotype
(c) Auxotroph (d) Prototroph
36. Which of the following propagates through leaf-tip?
(a) Walking fern (b) Sprout-leaf plant
(c) Marchantia (d) Moss
37. Common indicator organism of water pollution is

(a) Lemna pancicostata
(b) Eichhornia crassipes
(c) Escherichia coli
(d) Entamoeba histolytica
38. ELISA is used to detect viruses, where

(a) DNA-probes are required
(b) Southern blotting is done
(c) Allkaline phosphatase is the key reagent
(d) Catalase is the key reagent
39. If you are provided with root-tips of onion in your class and are asked to count the
chromosomes, which of the following stages can you most conveniently look into?
(a) Metaphase (b) Telophase
(c) Anaphase (d) Prophase
40. When a diploid female plant is crossed with a tetraploid male, the ploidy of endosperm
cells in the resulting seed is
(a) Tetraploidy (b) Pentaploidy
(c) Diploidy (d) Triploidy
41. India’s wheat yield revolution in the 1960s was possible primarily due to
(a) Hybrid seeds
(b) Increased chlorophyll content
(c) Mutations resulting in plant height reduction
(d) Quantitative trait mutations
42. The most likely reason for the development of resistance against pesticides in insects
damaging a crop is
(a) Random mutations
(b) Genetic recombination
(c) Directed mutations
(d) Acquired heritable changes
43. The following ratio is generally constant for a given species:
(a) A + G/ C + T
(b) T + C/ G + A
(c) G + C /A + T
(d) A + C /T + G
44. A self-fertilizing trihybrid plant forms

(a) 8 different gametes and 64 different zygotes
(b) 4 different gametes and 16 different zygotes
(c) 8 different gametes and 16 different zygotes
(d) 8 different gametes and 32 different zygotes
45. Lichens are well known combination of an alga and a fungus where fungus has
(a) A saprophytic relationship with the alga
(b) An epiphytic relationship with the alga
(c) A parasitic relationship with the alga
(d) A symbiotic relationship with the alga
46. In oogamy, fertilization involves
(a) A small non-motile female gamete and a large motile male gamete
(b) A large non-motile female gamete and a small motile male gamete
(c) A large non-motile female gamete and a small non-motile male gamete
(d) A large motile female gamete and a small non-motile male gamete)
47. Which one of the following is a living fossil?

(a) Cycas (b) Moss
(c) Saccharomyces (d) Spirogyra
48. In which one of the following habitats does the diurnal temperature of soil surface
vary most?
(a) Shrub land (b) Forest
(c) Desert (d) Grassland
49. Which form of RNA has a structure resembling clover leaf?

(a) rRNA (b) hnRNA
(c) mRNA (d) tRNA
50. The telomeres of eukaryotic chromosomes consist of short sequences of

(a) Thymine rich repeats
(b) Cytosine rich repeats
(c) Adenine rich repeats
(d) Guanine rich repeats
51. After a mutation at a genetic locus the character of an organism changes due to the
change in
(a) Protein structure
(b) DNA replication
(c) Protein synthesis pattern
(d) RNA transcription pattern
52. During replication of a bacterial chromosome DNA synthesis starts from a replication
origin site and
(a) RNA primers are involved
(b) Is facilitated by telomerase
(c) Moves in one direction of the site
(d) Moves in bi-directional way
53. Plants adapted to low light intensity have

(a) Larger photosynthetic unit size than the sun plants
(b) Higher rate of CO2 fixation than the sun plants
(c) More extended root system
(d) leaves modified to spines
54. According to Oparin, which one of the following was not present in the primitive
atmosphere of the earth?
(a) Methane (b) Oxygen
(c) Hydrogen (d) Water vapour
55. The richest sources of vitamin B12 are

(a) Goat’s liver and Spirulina (b) Chocolate and green gram
(c) Rice and hen’s egg (d) Carrot and chicken’s breast
56. The most thoroughly studied of the known bacteria - plant interactions is the
(a) Cyanobacterial symbiosis with some aquatic ferns
(b) Gall formation on certain angiosperms by Agrobacterium
(c) Nodulation of Sesbania stems by nitrogen fixing bacteria
(d) Plant growth stimulation by phosphate-solubilising bacteria
57. In transgenics, expression of transgene in target tissue is determined by

(a) Enhancer (b) Transgene
(c) Promoter (d) Reporter
58. The Ramachandran map is relevant in the study of
(a) DNA structures
(b) RNA structures
(c) Protein structures
(d) Carbohydrate structures
59. Which one of the following pairs refers to paralagous proteins?

(a) Rat myoglobin and rat hemoglobin
(b) Rat myoglobin and mouse myoglobin
(c) Rat myoglobin and mouse hemoglobin
(d) Rat myoglobin and rat cytochrome
60. t-RNAs in eukaryotes are transcribed by

(a) RNA polymerase II
(b) RNA polymerase I
(c) RNA polymerase III
(d) Reverse transcriptase
61. Which technique will be most appropriate to purify dCTP from a mixture of dCTP,
dCDP and dCMP?
(a) Anion exchange chromatography
(b) Cation exchange chromatography
(c) Gel filtration chromatography
(d) Hydrophobic interaction chromatography
62. Which enzyme breaks down cAMP to AMP?

(a) Adenylyl cyclase
(b) Phosphodiesterase
(c) 5' nucleotidase
(d) cAMP-dependent protein kinase
63. Of the following ecological relationships, which one is the most different from the
other three?
(a) Algae embedded in coral tissues
(b) Salmonella in human. gastric tract
(c) Cellulolytic bacteria in a termite gut
(d) Pollen-collecting bees visiting flowers.
64. Wild type E. coli was plated on a Rifampicin containing medium and incubated at
37°C. Majority of the cells died; however, some colonies appeared after a few days.
What is the most likely explanation for this observation?
(a) Degradation of Rifampicin
(b) Mutation in DNA polymerase III
(c) Efflux of Rifampicin
(d) Mutation in the b subunit of RNA polymerase
65. Human genomic DNA is digested into fragments approximately 1 kb in size, denatured
and then renatured. Which of the following statements is true?
(a) All fragments will renature at the same rate
(b) Fragments composed largely of repetitive DNA sequences will renature fastest
(c) Fragments composed largely of non-repetitive DNA sequences will renature
fastest
(d) Fragments with high A:T content will renature fastest
66. When an infectious agent was analyzed chemically, it was found to contain nitrogen
and sulfur but not phosphorous. It is likely to be a
(a) Bacterium (b) Virus
(c) Mycoplasma (d) Prion
67. Which of the following hormones does not act by a second messenger system?
(a) Glucagon (b) Epinephrine
(c) Luteinizing hormone (d) Aldosterone
68. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis carries out protein separation based on
(a) Mass and hydrophobicity
(b) Mass
(c) Charge and mass properties
(d) Disulphide bonding
69. About 1 % individuals in a population suffer from a genetic disorder. The cause was
traced to such individuals being homozygous recessive for a single locus with two
alleles. The elder of the two children of a family (where both the parents are normal
suffers from the disorder, while the younger one is normal). What is the probability
that the third child of the family will be a normal daughter?
(a) 49.5% (b) 12.5%
(c) 37.5% (d) 25%
70. A red-flowered tall parent plant (P1) was crossed to a true breeding red-flowered
dwarf plant (P2) and half of the progenies obtained was red & tall and the other half
red & dwarf. In the next generation, half of all these progenies segregated only for
flower colour and the other half segregated only for height. The genotype of the P1 is
(a) Heterozygous for color & height
(b) Homozygous for color; heterozygous for height
(c) Heterozygous for color; homozygous for height
(d) Homozygous for color; homozygous for height
PART – A
1. Between 00:30 hrs on 1st January, 1801 to 23:30 hrs on 31st December 2000, how
many times did the sun rise in Bangalore?
(a) 73000 (b) 73050
(c) 73049 (d) 73051
2. A mammalian cell line grows as a monolayer in a cell culture. Individual cells are
disc-shaped, with a diameter of 1 micrometer. A colony made up of a single, dense
layer of such cells is one centimeter in diameter. What is the approximate number of
cells at the periphery of the colony
(a) 31400 (b) 314159
(c) 3143 (d) 10000
3. Let us designate the four hydrogen in the methane molecule as HA, H B, HC and HD.
Imagine a plane passing through the central carbon, HA and HB and another plane
passing through the central carbon, HC and HD. what is the angle between two
planes-
(a) 0° (b) 90°
(c) 109.47° (d) 120°
4. The oxygen consumption of a rat and a lobster were measured first after 1 hour at
30°C and then after 1 hour at 15 °C. Which of the following lobster best describes the
change in oxygen consumption from 30 °C to 15 °C ?
(a) Increased in rat and decreased lobster
(b) Decreased in rat and increased in lobster
(c) Increased in rat and unchanged in lobster
(d) Decreased in rat and unchanged in lobster
5. The structures of enantiomers are

(a) Superimposable on each other
(b) Mirror images of each other
(c) Related by a 2-fold symmetry
(d) Exactly the same
6. A solid object dropped from the top of a building takes 2 seconds to reach the ground.
What is the best approximation for the height of the building in meters?
(a) 10 (b) 20
(c) 40 (d) 80
7. The density of deuterated water is

(a) Twice that of ordinary water
(b) Less than that of ordinary water
(c) Same as that of ordinary water
(d) Slightly greater than that of ordinary water
8. At the melting temperature of ice ( 0 °C) which statement is true?
(a) The molar free energy difference between ice and water is zero
(b) The entropy difference between ice and water is zero
(c) Addition of salt will decrease the free energy of the solid phase more than that of
the liquid phase
(d) The mole fraction of ice at 0 °C is 1
9. The weights of fish in a pond are observed to be normally distributed, with a mean
weight of 10 kg and a standard deviation of 1 kg. What proportion of fish will be
heavier than 12 kg at a 95% confidence level?
(a) About 95% (b) About 33.3%
(c) About 5% (d) About 2.5%
10. Consider the equation px2+qx+r = 0. If rp = q2 / 4 then how many real solutions of this
equation are possible?
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) Infinite
11. The female of a species of insects lays about 300 eggs in June-July. Half of them
hatch successfully (equal proportion of males and females) by October. Forty percent,
of the larvae form pupae by January, and adults emerge from one third of the pupae
by March. Mating takes place during May, and 20% of the adult insects manage to
mate successfully. Thereafter, all the adults die after the females have laid eggs in
June-July. There are no sex specific differences in survival, mortality, successful
completion of developmental stages and mating success. If 10 fertilized females are
released in a very large enclosure in June-July 2001, how many eggs are likely to be
laid during June-July 2005?
(a) 48000 (b) 6000
(c) 36000 (d) 24000
12. Which of the following is a post-zygotic isolating mechanism in speciation
(a) Behavioural isolation
(b) Seasonal isolation
(c) Fertilisation failure
(d) Hybrid sterility
13. If the pH of the parietal cells in the stomach is 7 and that of the lumen of the stomach
is 1, then against what concentration difference do the parietal cells pump out protons?
(a) 1,000,000 (b) 6
(c) 60 (d) 700,000
14. One of the angles between the diagonals of a rectangle is 60°. The lengths of the sides
of the rectangle are in the ratio
(a) 1: 6 (b) 1: Ö2
(c) 1:.Ö3 (d) 1:Ö6
15. Apart from the 20 naturally occurring amino acids, 700 ‘unnatural’ amino acids have
been reported in the literature. If all the 720 were to be accommodated in the genetic
code, what is the minimum number of bases needed in a codon?
(a) 4 (b) 5
(c) 6 (d) 7
16. A stream is free of pollutants within a few miles downstream of a point at which it is
being contaminated by a small amount of sewage. This is most likely the result of
(a) Eutrophication (b) Decomposition
(c) Photosynthesis (d) Succession
17. Computers directly understand which language-
(a) Assembly language (b) Machine language
(c) BASIC (d) High level language
18. Which among the following is a programming language-

(a) SQL (b) Oracle
(c) Sybase (d) LOGO
19. Which among the Following is Data base management system-
(a) MS-Word (b) MS-Excel
(c) MS-Access (d) MS-PowerPoint
20. The out come following equation would be-

n ® ¥ (1+ 2/n)n
(a) e2 (b) e
(c) e2 + 1 (d) e2 – 1
21. f(x) = ax2 + bx + C
g(x) = px2 + q + r
f(x).g(x) = 0
If a, b, c & p, q, r = real, then
(a) Öb2 – 4ac = 0 & ÖP2 – 4pr = 0
(b) Öb2 – 2ac = 0
(c) b2 – 4ac = 0 & P2 – 4pr = 0
(d) ÖP2 – 4pr = 0
22. Which is the correct statement for a collapsing star-

(a) Its gravitational force will decrease
(b) It will stop emitting light
(c) Its density increases
(d) No changes in internal pressure are seen
23. Our sun is a Young star. It will turn into_______ after 500 million years as
(a) White dwarf (c) Red giant
(b) Neutron star (d) Black hole
24. An air bus take off from London to Paris departs at 4:00 PM Monday. When it crosses
the Prime Meridian what will be time and Day
(a) 4:00 PM Sunday (b) 4:00 PM Tuesday
(c) 4:00 PM Monday (d) 4:00 AM Sunday
25. Geological time scale is-

(a) Sequence of geological events in different ages of past
(b) Division of geological event in 24 hours
(c) Period of formation of earth divided into million of years
(d) Sequence of geological events not measured in exact time period.
26. The surface of earth where life is possible is termed as-
(a) Lithosphere (b) Biosphere
(c) Ecosystem (d) Hydrosphere
27. Fill the values of x and y in |xy| for Decimal number 9 in Binary codes-
(a) x = 0, y = 0 (b) x = 0, y = 0
(c) x = 1, y = 1 (d) x = 1, y = 0
(a) Logical error
(b) Syntax error
(c) Organism effecting computer
(d) High level Programming
program-
Do While A =/= 0
If A >= B
A = A–B
Else
B = B–A
EndIf
PRINT A, B
(a) 0, 0 (b) 0, 1
(c) 1, 1 (d) 1, 0
30. If there is double bond between A & T and triple bond between GC, then which
sequence will be most stable at higher temperature-
PART – B
1. A synthetic peptide has the sequence (Ala)10 and forms a right handed a helical
structure. Its molecular weight is
(a) 890 (b) 728
(c) 1000 (d) 710
2. The most abundant protein in human blood is

(a) Transferrin (b) Albumin
(c) g globulin (d) Hemoglobin
3. Consider three polypeptides of 15 residues each. They adopt distinct conformations
corresponding to right-handed a-helical structure, left-handed a-helical structure and
single strand of a b-sheet structure. Considering the shortest distance between the
first and the last residues as the length of the structure, which one of the following
statements is true?
(a) Right-handed a-helical structure is longest
(b) Left-handed a-helical structure is longest
(c) b-strand structure is longest
(d) All the three polypeptides have identical length
4. The absorption spectrum of a protein solution will always show a maximum at

(a) 190 nm (b) 260 nm
(c) 280 nm (d) 340 nm
5. Long term reflex actions such as cycling and swimming are controlled by
(a) Cerebellum (b) Spinal cord
(c) Hypothalamus (d) Cerebrum
6. HIV replicates its genome using unique mechanisms. Which of the following statements
about HIV is not correct?
(a) HIV is an enveloped RNA virus
(b) The virion contains an RNA dependent DNA polymerase
(c) A DNA copy of the HIV genome integrates into host cell DNA
(d) Virion contains an RNA dependent RNA polymerase
7. A mutation that inactivates a trans-acting regulatory gene of a positively controlled

operon would lead to
(a) Hyper-expression of the operon
(b) Expression of the operon is shut off
(c) Constitutive expression
(d) Delayed expression, comparable to that of the wild type at later stages of growth
8. The coenzyme involved in oxidative decarboxylation is

(a) Thiamine pyrophosphate (b) Biotin
(c) Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
(d) Pyridoxal phosphate
9. The term “zygotic induction” refers to

(a) Embryogenesis of the fertilized egg
(b) Process of fertilization
(c) Prophage induction in a F – (F minus) recipient bacteria after Hfr strain mediated
conjugation
(d) Prophage entering the lytic cycle after UV irradiation of a lysogen
10. Which of the following is common to both fatty acid synthesis and degradation?
(a) The oxidation/reduction reactions occur between the a and the b carbons of the
fatty acid
(b) The biochemical nature of the reductant/oxidant
(c) The intracellular location of the metabolic pathways
(d) The nature of the two carbon unit
11. The colour of flowers of an annual species of plants is controlled by a single locus with
two alleles R and r, and the genotypes RR, Rr and IT are red, pink and white
respectively. A large number of seeds from individuals with pink flowers were collected
and planted on an island, where, because of absence of pollinators, only self-pollination
is possible. What will be the most likely outcome after 25 years?
(a) About 50% plants with red flowers, 50% with white flowers
(b) Almost 100% plants with pink flowers
(c) Red, pink and white flowered plants in a ratio of 1:2: 1
(d) Red, pink and white flowered plants in equal proportion
12. The fermentation of glucose by yeast normally yields

I/Vmax = 0.72 units
(a) Lactic acid, CO2 and 2 ATP
(b) Ethanol, CO2 and 36 ATP
(c) Ethanol, CO2 and 2 ATP Slope = 1.89 units
(d) CO2 , H2 O and 36 ATP
13. The Km of the enzyme for the substrate that gives the
following Lineweaver-Burk plot is
(a) 3.646
(b) 0.734
(c) 2.625
(d) 1.361
14. The synthesis of DNA was shown to be template dependent and semi-conservative.
This would predict that
(a) No organism can have a single-stranded genome
(b) RNA cannot serve as the genome of any organism
(c) All single stranded genomes would be synthesized via a double-stranded

intermediate
(d) Template-independent DNA polymerases do not exist in nature
15. Phage P1 lysate was raised on an E. coli strain with a genotype Tn 10, A– , B– , C–, D–
and used to transduce a wild type strain of E. coli. Transductants were selected on
tetracycline (based on Tn 10) and then checked for the transfer of the remaining
markers. Fifteen percent of the transductants were B- and C-, 40% were D- but all of
them were A+. Assuming that all of the markers were on one side of Tn 10, the order
of the markers is
(a) Tn 10, A, B, C and D
(b) Tn 10, A, C, Band D
(c) Tn 10, D, A, Band C
(d) Tn 10, D, B, C and A
16. ‘Kin selection’ is
(a) The mating of relatives
(b) The recognition of relatives in societal groups
(c) A process of keeping young females while forcing young males out
(d) A behavior that increases the survivorship of an individual’s relatives
17. A laboratory-synthesized protein has an amino acid sequence same as that of human
lysozyme but with all chiral residues in D-configuration. Which one of the following
statements is false?
(a) Such a protein will never fold into a compact shape
(b) This protein will have left-handed a-helical regions in the places of right-handed
a-helical regions in the natural lysozyme
(c) This protein will not be functional with the natural substrates
(d) This protein could form crystals
18. Which one of the following genes is defective in patients suffering from severe
combined immunodeficiency syndrome (SCID)?
(a) Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductor (CFTR)
(b) Adenosine deaminase
(c) Ribonucleotide reductase
(d) a2-microglobulin
19. Helium and Deuterium have the same
(a) Number of protons
(b) Protons to neutrons ratio
(c) Number of electrons
(d) Atomic mass
20. Which of the following compounds is an end product of β-oxidation

(a) Pyruvic acid (b) Acetyl CoA
(c) Oxaloacetate (d) Alanine
21. Non-polar amino acids are found mostly

(a) In the core of the protein
(b) On the surface of the protein
(c) In a-helices
(d) In no specific regions
22. Which one of the following amino acids is most hydrophilic?

(a) Glycine (b) Serine
(c) Arginine (d) Cysteine
23. Fatty acids yield more energy per mole than carbohydrates and proteins. This is
because they
(a) Have larger molecular weight
(b) Are more non-polar
(c) Are more reduced
(d) Have more carbon atoms for CO2 production
24. The relative viscosity of a protein solution is affected by

(a) Temperature, shape and molecular weight
(b) Temperature and molecular weight
(c) Molecular weight and shape
(d) Temperature and shape
25. Which of the following statements regarding signaling is not true?

(a) Steroid hormone-intracellular receptor complex binds to the regulatory sequence
of certain genes
(b) Chaperone proteins bind to the intracellular receptors in the absence of hormone
ligands
(c) Vitamin D acts via intracellular receptors
(d) Intracellular receptors activate gene expression in the absence of ligand
26. In animals, ritualized contests with little risk of serious injury or death to participants
within the species lead to
(a) Stable dominance hierarchy
(b) Biological altruism
(c) Instinctive behavior
(d) Spread of recessive genes
27. The residue histidine can act as a ligand for the heme iron in proteins such as
myoglobin because
(a) Histidine side chain has a pKa close to pH 5.0
(b) One of the nitrogens has a lone pair of electn;ms available for coordination
(c) The aromatic ring of the histidine can act favorably with the heme iron
(d) Five membered rings have a favorable dipolar interactions with ferrous or ferric
Ions
28. Conversion of Testosterone to Estrogen is mediated by

(a) Aromatase
(b) 5-a reductase
(c) 3-b-hydroxy-steroid dehydrogenase
(d) Desmolase
29. Which of the following is degraded upon treatment with RNase A?

(a) DNA-RNA duplex
(b) RNA-RNA duplex
(c) Single stranded RNA
(d) DNA-RNA duplex, RNA-RNA duplex and single stranded RNA
30. Which one of the following statements with respect to Testosterone is not true?
(a) Testosterone receptor mutant is embryonic lethal
(b) Testosterone receptor is essential for male reproduction
(c) Testosterone is produced in female rats
(d) Testosterone is not essential for fetal growth
31. In the genome of a eukaryotic organism, if all the four bases occur randomly, then
which amino acid pair will occur least frequently in its proteome?
(a) Methionine and Tryptophan
(b) Arginine and Serine
(c) Proline and Tryptophan
(d) Glycine and Methionine
32. Carboxypeptidase Y has the following kinetic parameters for a series of substrates.
At very low substrate concentration, which of these substrates would be hydrolyzed
most quickly?
Substrate Kcat (s–1 ) Km (M)
(a) Ala-He-Asp 2 × 10–1 3 × 1 0 –2
(b) Ala-Pro-Arg 5 × 10–3 2 × 10–6
(c) Ala-Val-Gin 5 × 10–2 4 × 10–3
(d) Ala-Ile-Lys 5 × 10–1 1 × 10–5
33. Some cells divide by budding. After budding, you have a mother cell and a daughter
cell. If the mother cell cannot bud any more, the increase in cell number as a function
of time will be
(a) Exponential (b) Linear
(c) Logarithmic (d) Hyperbolic
34. Histones, proteins that playa role in packaging DNA, are characterized by a
(a) High pI
(b) Low pI
(c) pI at 7
(d) Hydrophobic surfaces
35. Ketone bodies are formed due to

(a) Breakdown in the p-oxidation pathway which would produce an excess of acetyl
CoA
(b) Inhibition of fatty acid activation and transport
(c) Channelisation of oxaloacetate from the citric acid cycle to gluconeogenesis
(d) Inhibition of cAMP production
36. Ribozymes are known to catalyze reactions on

(a) Phosphorus centers but not carbon centers
(b) Carbon centers but not phosphorus centers
(c) Both carbon and phosphorus centers
(d) Neither carbon nor phosphorus centers
37. Topological winding number (T w) of two DNA strands in a covalently closed circular
plasmid is 200. If the value of writhe (W r) for the plasmid is zero, the linking number
(L k) is
(a) –100 (b) 200
(c) 100 (d) –200
38. Administration of Estrogen to adult male rats results in

(a) Decreased Testosterone production
(b) Decreased Luteinizing hormone and Testosterone production
(c) Increased Estrogen secretion in the testis
39. What is the [S] for the enzyme-catalyzed reaction which has an initial velocity of
12.62 mole/litre/min, and the maximum velocity of 21.85 mole/litre/min, and a
Michaelis-Menten constant of 3.88 mole/liter?
(a) 2.51 mole/litre (b) 5.30 mole/litre
(c) 0.24 mole/litre (d) 4.31 mole/litre
40. When nonsense mutations occur in the reading frame of mRNA, protein synthesis
gets terminated at the nonsense mutation to deliver a truncated polypeptide. However,
in certain bacterial strains, this does not phappen; these bacterial cells are able to
synthesize full-length polypeptide. This phenomenon is due to
(a) Compensatory frame shift mutation that occurs elsewhere in the mRNA
(b) Involvement of suppressor tRNAs
(c) Polypeptide splicing at the broken point
(d) Post-transcriptional editing of the nonsense mutation
41. The sediment at the bottom of a lake contains small proportions of deuterium and
l3 C, the stable isotopes of hydrogen and carbon respectively. The methane produced
by the methanogenic bacteria from the lake is subjected to complete combustion in

air, which contains a small proportion of 170, to produce CO2 and H2 O. How many
distinct species of CO2 and H2 O (i.e., compounds differing only in the atomic weights
of the constituent atoms) will be formed?
(a) 2 of CO2 and 3 of H2 O
(b) 4 of CO2 and 4 of H2 O
(c) 6 of CO2 and 6 of H2 O

(d) 3 of CO2 and 2 of H2 O
42. The phenomenon of genetic drift is most likely to occur in populations that are
(a) Small and inbred
(b) Undergoing gene flow
(c) Allopatric
(d) Large and panmictic
43. A DNA polymerase isolated from a novel bacterium was found to incorporate many
errors during DNA synthesis. Which of the following activities would you predict to
be missing from this enzyme?
(a) 3' to 5' exonuclease activity
(b) RNA primase activity
(c) 5' to 3' exonuclease activity
(d) 5' to 3' endonuclease activity
44. When a mutation produces the first copy of a new, advantageous allele within a
population of ‘wild-types’, the initial spread of this new allele through the population
will be faster if it is
(a) Dominant to the wild-type
(b) Recessive to the wild-type
(c) Co-dominant with the wild-type
(d) Semi dominant with the wild-type
45. The peptide, Ala-Arg-Gln-Met-Thr-Trp-Lys-Val, is treated with cyanogen bromide to
produce
(a) Ala-Arg-Gln-Met + Thr-Trp-Lys-Val
(b) Ala-Arg-Gln-Met-Thr-Trp + Lys-Val
(c) Ala-Arg + Gln-Met-Thr-Trp-Lys-Val
(d) Ala-Arg-Gln + Met-Thr-Trp-Lys-Val
46. Which of the following antibiotics is inactivated by neomycin phosphotransferase?
(a) Ampicillin (b) Chloramphenicol
(c) Spectinomycin (d) Kanamycin
47. Transmembrane domains of proteins are typically

(a) b sheets (b) a helical
(c) random coils (d) unstructured
48. Isozymes can be characterized by
(a) The different chemical reactions that they catalyze
(b) The differences in their elution profile from a size-exclusion column
(c) Differences in their amino acid sequences
49. The absorbance of 0.02mM ATP solution at 260nm with a cuvette having a path
length of 0.5 cm is 0.154. Therefore, the molar absorption coefficient of ATP is
(a) 15400 (b) 7700
(c) 770 (d) 1540
50. Using standard 20 amino acids, how many tripeptide sequences can be designed with
at least one glycyl residue in every sequence?
(a) 40 (b) 4000
(c) 800 (d) 8000
51. N-linked Glycosylation can occur in a protein containing the amino acid sequence
(a) Asn- Thr- Thr-Gly (b) Asn-Asn-Asn-Gly
(c) Glu-Asn- Thr-Gly (d) Ser-Ser-Ser-Gly.
52. Introns are released as lariats during splicing of

(a) Pre-mRNA transcripts and Group II intron containing transcripts
(b) Pre-mRNA transcripts only
(c) Group I intron containing transcripts
(d) tRN A precursors
53. Two cysteine residues in a protein form a disulfide bond. Which one of the following
statements is false?
(a) The shortest distance between the two residues will be between the sulfur atoms
of each residue
(b) Disulfide formation is normally favored at pH5 compared to pH8
(c) Neither of the sulfur atoms involved in the disulfide bridge can be protonated
(d) Disulfide bond formation decreases the conformational entropy of the unfolded
state of the protein
54. Urea is a water soluble product of nitrogen metabolism. How many hydrogen bonds
can it form with water molecule
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 6 (d) 2
55. Two identical twin adults look alike and they have been brought up in the same
environment. If a crime has been committed by one of them, which test will identify
the criminal with more certainty?
(a) DNA finger printing
(b) Blood group testing
(c) Finger print testing
(d) Serotyping
56. Membrane protein biogenesis initiates in the following compartment.
(a) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(b) Golgi
(c) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(d) Endosomes
57. What is the number of hydrogen bonds in a double helical B-DNA structure of 100
base pairs with 20 adenines and 10 thymines in one of the two strands?
(a) 200 (b) 230
(c) 270 (d) 300
58. Which one of the following amino acids has chirality at the side chain?
(a) Threonine (b) Cysteine
(c) Valine (d) Proline
59. Which amino acid substitution will not result in a change in the mass spectrum of a
peptide.
(a) Arg to Lys (b) Ser to Thr
(c) Ile to Leu (d) Asn to Met
60. In species with two sexes, “males” are defined by which of the following characters?
(a) Males have brighter colouration than females
(b) Males have smaller gametes compared to females
(c) Males are larger than females
(d) Males defend territories while females brood the eggs
61. Virally infected cells can be killed directly by
(a) B cells (b) Basophils
(c) NK cells (d) Eosinophils
62. Which one of the following [3 H] precursors can be used to monitor biosynthesis of
DNA in activated lymphocytes in culture?
(a) Thymidine tri-phosphate
(b) Thymidine di-phosphate
(c) Deoxythymidine tri-phosphate
(d) Thymidine
63. Actin filaments are involved in all of the following except
(a) Amoeboid movement
(b) Cytoplasmic streaming
(c) Contraction of smooth muscles
(d) Flagellar movement in bacteria
64. The Hardy-Weinberg Law describes
(a) Genotype frequencies of a population when evolutionary forces are not acting
(b) How sexual reproduction would change the relative gene frequencies in a
population
(c) How mutations occur and balance each other
(d) Genotype frequencies of a population when evolutionary forces are acting
65. The receptor for which of the following hormones is a transcription factor?
(a) Insulin (b) Glucagon
(c) Estradiol (d) Adrenalin
66. You would expect a cell with an extensive Golgi apparatus to

(a) Synthesize large amounts of ATP
(b) Secrete large amounts of protein
(c) Synthesize large amounts of steroids
(d) Synthesize excess phospholipids
67. Radioactive iodine can be incorporated into

(a) Serine (b) Threonine
(c) Tyrosine (d) Leucine
68. A Graafian follicle is
(a) An immature developing follicle
(b) A mature follicle ready to ovulate
(c) A follicle undergoing apoptosis
(d) Ovulated follicle
69. Which one of the following techniques was used in elucidation of the Watson-Crick
double helical model of DNA?
(a) Entirely by theoretical calculations and by using Chargaff’s rule without performing
any experiment.
(b) X-ray diffraction by single crystals
(c) X-ray diffraction by quasi crystals
(d) X-ray diffraction by fibers
70. Which one of the following interactions between the side chains of amino acids in a
protein structure is most favourable?
(a) Asp – Glu (b) Arg – Lys
(c) Lys – Val (d) Trp – Phe
PART-A
1. In a substitution nucleophilic first order reaction (SN1) the stereochemical outcome

is
(a) Raemisation
(b) Inversion of configuration
(c) Retention of configuration
(d) Difficult to predict
2. When irradiated with ultraviolet light Chlorine (Cl2 ) reacts with tetrachloroethylene.
But under similar condition when Oxygen (O2 ) is vigorously bubbled through the
solution the reaction
(a) becomes more violent
(b) does not get affected
(c) slows down
(d) stops
3. Which of the following compounds is optically inactive?
(a) Lactic acid (b) 2-Methyl propionic acid
(c) Tartaric acid (d) Butyric acid
4. Addition of excess bromine (Br 2 ) to 1,4-pentadine will yield

(a) Only 4,5 dibromo 1-pentene
(b) Only 1,2,4,5-tetra bromo pentene
(c) Mixture of (a) and (b)
(d) There will be no reaction
5. If you want to synthesize 1-Phenyl ethanol from phenyl magnesium bromide you will
have to add
(a) Water to it (b) Formaldehyde to it
(c) Acetaldehyde to it (d) Acetone to it
6. When you will treat phenol with dilute HNO3 at 20 °C, you will get
(a) Only ortho nitro phenol
(b) Only para nitro phenol
(c) Mix1ure of ortho and para nitro phenol
(d) Only 2,4,6 trinitro phenol
7. Soaps are
(a) Esters of fatty acids
(b) Metal salts of fatty acids
(c) Glyceryl esters of fatty acids
(d) Salts of fatty acids with organic bases
8. Natural rubber is a polymer of
(a) Butadiene (b) Isoprene
(c) Chloroprene (d) Nesprene
9. Ethylene when treated with dilute alkaline KMnO4 forms

(a) Ethyl alcohol (b) Ethylene glycol
(c) Acetaldehyde (d) Ethane
10. EDTA is used as
(a) Oxidized agent (b) Reducing agent
(c) Chelating agent (d) Alkylating agent
11. Linkage present in cellulose molecule is

(a) b (1 ® 4) (b) a ( 1 ® 4)
(c) a (1 ® 6) (d) both (b) and (c)
12. Blocking action of enzyme through blocking its active site is
(a) Allosteric inhibition (b) Feedback inhibition
(c) Competitive inhibition (d) Non-competitive inhibition
13. Which one of the following is without coenzyme activity ?

(a) Vitamin E (b) Thiamine
(c) Biotin (d) Riboflavin
14. Active transport

(a) Releases energy (b) Require energy
(c) Produces energy (d) Produces toxic material
15. Correct sequence of stages in cell cycle is

(a) G1, S, G2, M (b) G1, G2, S, M
(c) M, S, G1, G2 (d) G1, G2, M, S
16. 0.1 M acetic acid is mixed with 02 M sodium acetate. Give that pKa of Acetic acid is
4.76, the pH of the mixture will be nearly
(a) 4.5 (b) 5.0
(c) 5.5 (d) 6.0
17. The scalar product of two vectors (u, u2, u3) (V1, V2, V3) =
(a) u1V1 + u2V2 + u3V3 (b) u1 v2 + u2v1 + U3V3
(c) u3v1, + U2V2 + u1v3 (d) u3v2 + u2v1 + u1v2
18. The determinant of a singular matrix

(a) Is equal to 0 (b) Is greater than 0
(c) Is less than 0
(d) Can be either greater than, equal to or less than 0
19. If the differential equation is stiff
(a) It should be solved by Gear's method
(b) Enters method
(c) 2nd order Rung-Kutta method
(d) Cannot be solved
20. The path of a projectile

(a) is parabola (b) is hyperbola
(e) is straight line (d) depends on the angle of throw
21. The probability of a man hitting a target is ¼. The number of times he must fire so
that the probability of his hitting the target at least once is greater than 2/3 is
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) Infinity
22. The number of spectral lines emitted by atomic hydrogen excited to the nth energy
level is
(a) n(n + 1)/2 (b) n(n – 1)/2
(c) n2 /2 (d) n(n – 1)
23. A piece of ice slides down at 45° incline in twice the time if it takes to slide down a
frictionless 45° incline. The coefficient of friction between the ice and the incline it
(a) 2 (b) 1/2
(c) 1/4 (d) 2 ½
24. A bucket of water is hung from a spring balance. A piece of iron is suspended into the
water without touching the sides from an independent support. The reading on the
spring balance will
(a) increase
(b) decrease
(c) not change]
(d) decrease with depth of immersion of iron piece
25. Which is not an programming language-
(a) BASIC (b) C
(c) MS-WORD (d) LOGO
26. Number of values that can be stored in 8 bits are-

(a) 8 (b) 16
(c) 64 (d) 256
27. If 11×11=100. Then which statement is correct-

(a) Left hand side is binary and right is octal
(b) Left hand side is binary and right is ternary
(c) Left hand side is hexadecimal and right is octal
(d) Left hand side is binary and right is also binary
P Q P<Q P¹Q
3 3 0 0
4 5 A B

(a) 0, 0 (b) 0, 1
(c) 1, 0 (d) 1, 1
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 4 (d) 16
PART – B
1. Viroids differ from viruses in being

(a) Naked ANA molecules only
(b) Naked DNA molecules only
(c) Naked DNA packaged with viral genomes.
(d) Satellite ANA packaged with visual genome
2. A virus can be made radioactive by
(a) culturing the virus in a medium of 32 P
(b) culturing the viruses on a medium of potato, dextrose and 32 P
(c) providing 32 P to virus when they are about to attack the bacteria
(d) providing 32 P to a bacterium which have been infected by a virus
3. A short length of double stranded DNA molecule contains 120 adenine and 120 cytosine
bases. The total number of nucleotides in this DNA fragment is
(a) 60 (b) 120
(c) 240 (d) 480
4. Besides having C, H, O which of these may also contain N, S & P ?

(a) Protein (b) Fat
(c) Carbohydrate (d) Vitamins
5. Which of the following element plays an important role in nitrogen fixation?

(a) Manganese (b) Molybdenum
(c) Zinc (d) Copper
6. Specificity of an enzyme depends upon

(a) Active site (b) Linear sequence
(c) Km (d) Turn over number
7. Sulphur containing Amino acid is
(a) Valine (b) Leucine
(c) Methionine (d) Histidine
8. Viruses are
(a) Cellular organisms
(b) Non-cellular organisms
(c) Unicellular organisms
(d) Cellular without wall
9. Which of the following does not contain both DNA and RNA ?
(a) Yeast (b) Bacteria
(c) Mycoplasma (d) Virus
10. Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate (SDS) is used while separating proteins by polyacrylanide
gel electrophoresis because
(a) It helps in solubilization of proteins thereby making it easier to separate
(b) It binds to proteins and confers uniform negative charge density thereby making
them move during electrophoresis
(c) Decreases the surface tension of the buffer used for electrophoresis
(d) Stabilizes the proteins
11. Absorption of UV radiation by proteins and nucleic acids is due to transition of Electrons
between the
(a) Vibrational energy levels
(b) Rotational energy levels
(c) Nuclear energy levels
(d) Electronic energy levels

(a) In a pyramid of numbers, the population size usually gets smaller as the trophic
level increases.
(b) In a pyramid of biomass, the weight of a lower trophic level is the same as the
level above it.
(c) In a pyramid of energy, only about 40% of the energy at one level is available for
the next trophic level.
(d) The law of conservation, which can be applied to the pyramid of energy, means
that energy is constantly created and destroyed.
13. Which of these statements about the amount of food production after 20° C is true?
(a) Food production stops as temperatures increase beyond 20° C.
(b) Food production continues to increase as temperatures increase beyond 20° C.
(c) Food production drops drastically as temperatures increase beyond 20° C.
(d) Food production remains the same as temperatures increase beyond 20° C.
14. Which of these organisms breaks down and releases nutrients from other dead
organisms?
(a) Producers (b) Decomposers
(c) Herbivores (d) Carnivores
15. Which of these is NOT an example of a terrestrial ecosystem?
(a) Volcano site (b) Garden plot
(c) Rotting log (d) Human skin
16. What is the difference between mutualism and parasitism?

(a) Mutualism means that one member of a species thrives at the expense of the
member of the species. Parasitism means that one member of a species thrives
at the expense of the member of the species.
(b) Mutualism means that one member of a species benefits without harming or
benefiting the member of another species. Parasitism means that both species'
members benefit from the relationship.
(c) Mutualism mean that both members of a species benefit from living together.
Parasitism means that one member of a species benefits without harming or
benefiting the member of another species.
(d) Mutualism means both members of a species benefit from living together.
Parasitism means that one member of a species thrives at the expense of the
member of the species.
17. Based on the data in the graph, which of the following statements is true?
(a) There is no food production happens at 10° C.
(b) Food production is the smallest at about 20° C.
(c) Food production is the greatest at about 30° C.
(d) Food production at 40° C is about 5 mg of glucose per hour.
18. Which of these organisms uses light energy to manufacture food for itself?
(a) A heterotroph
(b) An autotroph
(c) A carnivore
(d) An omnivore
19. Which of the following statements about the biosphere is true?

(a) Ecologists never study animal in Earth's biosphere.
(b) The physical environment of Earth's biosphere is the only factor in influencing
living things.
(c) Living things in Earth's biosphere are affected by nonliving things.
(d) Earth's biosphere includes the portion of Earth within 1 mile of the surface.
20. A relationship among organisms where one species benefits while the other species
neither benefits nor is harmed is called __________.
(a) Mutualism
(b) Predation
(c) Parasitism
(d) Commensalism
21. A DNA solution of 100µM concentration when placed in a cuvette of path length 1 cm
gave an absorbency of 0.66. The extinction coefficient of DNA is-
(a) 6.6 × 103 (b) 0.66 × 103
(c) 1.5 × 10 –4 (d) 6.6 ×10 –3
22. Trace of a matrix is

(a) Some of the elements in the main diagonal
(b) Some of the elements in all the diagonals
(c) Value of determinant
23. Formation of alpha helix in proteins is promoted by

(a) Glutamic acid, arginine and leucine
(b) Valine, leucine and phenylalanine
(c) Proline, glycine and aspartic acid
(d) Asparagine and serine
24. The major Source of stability of the DNA Double helix structure is
(a) Hydrogen bonding between bases
(b) Screening of phosphate changes by counter ions
(c) Stacking interaction of neighboring basis
(d) Solvation of phosphates
25. Urea acts as a protein denaturant because it binds to the
(a) Charged residues of proteins
(b) Hydrophobic residues of proteins
(e) Peptide groups of proteins
(d) CH 2 group of the protein backbone
26. In Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy the resonance phenomenon is observed

after subjecting the nucleus under Question by one of the following electromagnetic
radiations.
(a) Infrared (b) X-rays
(c) Radio frequency (d) Microwaves
27. Thermodynamics dictate that entropy, a measure of disorder in a system increase

with every spontaneous process. Living system is highly ordered as well as
spontaneous. This means that
(a) Thermodynamics does not apply to living systems
(b) Living systems increase the entropy of the surroundings
(c) Living systems decrease the entropy of their surroundings
(d) Living systems are not really ordered systems
28. Highly cooperative binding of a ligand to multiple binding sites on a macromolecule
is best demonstrated by
(a) Adair equation (b) Hill Plot
(c) Lineweaver-Burk Plot (d) Arrhenius Plot
29. A hybridoma cell secreting mouse monoclonal antibodies can be generated by

(a) Fusing spleen cells from immune mice with any cell from that mice
(b) Culturing B cells in the presence of B cell growth factors
(c) By transforming splenic B cells from an immune mouse with Epstein Barr virus
(d) By fusing spleen cells from an immune mice with an appropriate plasmacytoma
cell line
30. A virus is growing inside a B cell. The Viral antigens
(a) Cannot be presented to T cells under that condition
(b) Will be presented to T cells in association with MHC-I molecule
(c) Can be presented to T cells in association with both MHC-I and MHC-II molecules
(d) The virus has to use that B cell before any antigen presentation can take place
31. Super antigens stimulate
(a) Only T cells by binding to TCA in the absence of antigen presenting cells
(b) Can stimulate T, B and any other type of cells
(c) Only T cells by binding to the Vb domain of T cells receptor and the MHC-II
molecule an antigen presenting cells
(d) Only T cells by binding to CD2 molecules
32. For developing a candidate vaccine for malaria
(a) We should identify several T cell and B cell epitopes which can elicit protective
response in a large population
(b) We should identify only few T cell epitopes of the parasite
(c) We should identify only few B cell epitopes of the parasite
(d) We should identify epitopes which can induce antibody response in the host
33. In a chemical reaction, transition-state species have free energies

(a) Lower than either the reactants or the products
(b) Higher than either the reactants or the product
(c) Lower than the reactants, but higher than the products
(d) Higher than the reactants, but lower than the products
34. More free energy is released during the citric acid cycle than during glycolysis, but
only 1 mole of ATP is produced for each mole of acetyl CoA that enters the cycle.
What happens to most of tile remaining free energy that is produced duril1g the
citric acid cycle?
(a) It is used to synthesize GTP
(b) It is used to reduce electron carriers
(c) It is lost as heat
(d) It is used to reduce pyruvate
35. The general name for an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a
Protein is
(a) Protein kinase (b) Phosphorylase
(c) Phosphatase (d) ATPase
36. How do the daughter cells at the end of mitosis and cytokinesis compare with their
parent cell when it was in G1 of the cell cycle?
(a) The daughter cells have half the amount of cytoplasm and half the amount of
DNA
(b) The daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes and the same amount
of DNA
(c) The daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes and half the amount
of DNA
(d) The daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes and half the amount
of DNA
37. Which of the following is FALSE in comparing prophase I of meiosis and prophase of
mitosis
(a) The nuclear envelope disassembles in both
(b) The chromosomes Condense in both
(c) Each chromosome has two chromatids in both
(d) Tetrads form in both
38. Once transcribed the eukaryotic primary transcript typically undergoes substantial
alteration that includes.
(a) Fusion into circular forms known as plasmids
(b) Linkage to histone molecules
(c) Union with ribosomes
(d) Tetrads form in both
39. All of the following arc potential control mechanisms for regulation of gene expression
in eukaryotic organisms EXCEPT
(a) Gene amplification
(b) The degradation of mRNA
(c) The lactose operon
(d) Transcription
40. It is theoretically possible for a gene from any organism to function in any other
organism. Why is this possible?
(a) All organisms have similar nuclei
(b) All organisms have the same genetic code
(c) All organisms are made up of cells
(d) All organisms have transfer RNA
41. DNA fragments from a gel are transferred to a membrane via a procedure called
Southern blotting. The purpose of Southern blotting is to
(a) Analyze the RFLPs in the DNA
(b) Separate out the PCRs'
(c) Permanently attach the. DNA fragments to a substrate
(d) Separate the two complementary DNA strands
42. Influenza viruses require the presence of the nucleus in their host cells because
(a) They use reverse transcriptase to make a cDNA which is integrated into the
host genome
(b) They scavenge capped fragments from host mRNA in the nucleus to use as
primers for viral mRNA
(c) They use the host RNA polymerase II to transcribe viral mRNAs.
(d) They scavenge poly [A] tails from host mRNAs in the nucleus
43. HIV is the causative agent of AIDS and is a member of the Lentivirus genus of the
family Retroviridae. Which of the following features of HIV makes it different from
other members of this family?
(a) HIV uses reverse transcriptase to convert its RNA genome into cDNA
(b) HIV infects human cells that are CD4+

(c) HIV is enveloped
(d) The genomic RNA of HIV is 5' capped and 3' polyadenylated
44. Which of the following vectors can carry the longest piece of foreign DNA?
(a) Plasmids
(b) Bacteriophage
(c) Cosmids
(d) Yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs)
45. DNA and RNA synthesis polymerization [of deoxynucleotides] which takes place
(a) In a 3' to 5' direction
(b) In a 5' to 3' direction
(c) In either (or both) directions
(d) DNA in 5' to 3' and RNA in 3' to 5'
46. TATA boxes and Pribnow boxes are components of

47. The RNA in the cell with the greatest sequence diversity is
(c) Transfer RNA (d) (a) and (c)
48. During the overall process of protein synthesis, amino acids become covalently attached
to
(c) Transfer RNA (d) More than one of the above
49. Proteins whose binding to DNA acts to prevent transcription are known as
(c) Repressors (d) Transcription factors
50. Which of the following genes is not common to all retroviruses?

(a) Pal (b) Env
(c) Src (d) Gag
51. The presence of an extra chromosome in a eukaryotic cell is most likely due to
(a) Linkage (b) Fertilization
(c) Transposition (d) Non-disjunciton
52. In fruitflies, the autosomal gene R causes red eyes and an alternative allele r causes
white eyes. A testcross is done with a fly that is Rr. What percent of the offspring can
be expected to have white eyes?
(a) 0% (b) 25%
(c) 50% (d) 75%
53. Which of the following is a function of a singal peptide?

(a) To direct DNA polymerase to a site on DNA
(b) To direct RNA polymerase to a site on DNA
(c) To direct a ribosome to insert a growing portein into the E.R.
(d) To terminate translation on an mRNA
54. Which of the following is incorporated in the model of logistic population growth but
NOT in the exponential population growth model?
(a) Change in population size over time
(b) Maximum sustainable population size
(c) Population birth rate
(d) Population death rate
55. Which of the following is the best example of competitive exlusion?
(a) Two fish species cannot live in the same habitat
(b) An introduced plant species will exclude a similar native species
(c) Two parasite species cannot occupy the same host
(d) Two bird species in the same forest cannot use the same set of resorces
56. Addition of detergents containing phosphates can disturb aquatic ecosystems because
the phosphates
(a) Kill bacteria (b) Poison fish
(c) Stimulate algae growth (d) Fertilize crop plants
57. A genetic defect prevents guard cells from closing stomata in the leaves of a plant.
This plant will most likely have excessive ______
(a) CO2 in its leaves (b) O2 in its leaves
(c) Nitrogen fixation (d) Loss of water
58. A hollow ball of cells best describes a

(a) Blastula (b) morula
(c) Gastrula (d) Gamete
59. In a nephron of the human kidney, urea can normally leave the _______ and enter
the ______.
(a) Collecting duct / descending loop of Henle
(b) Collecting duct / ascending loop of Henle
(c) Ascending loop of Henle/ descending loop of Henle
(d) Ascending loop of Henle / collecting duct
60. In one complete turn of the Krebs cycle, what is the maximum number of ATP
molecules that can be produced in the Krebs cycle itself?
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 3
61. Which of the following do chloroplasts and mitochondria NOT have in common?
(a) ATP synthase (b) Electons transport chain
(c) ATP (d) NADH
62. Microfilaments are part of the structure of

(a) Cilia (b) Mitotic spindles
(c) Cell cleavage furrows (d) Flagella
63. The pH of human blood is slightly basic. Which of the following is most likely to be
the pH of human blood?
(a) 10.6 (b) 7.4
(c) 7.0 (d) 6.4
64. Euchromatin contains

(a) Single-copy genetical1y-active DNA
(b) Repetitive and genetically inactive sequences
(c) Single-copy, genetically-inactive DNA
(d) Repetitive and genetically active sequences
65. Centromeres are directly involved in

(a) DNA replication (b) Transcription
(c) DNA repair (d) Chromosome segregation
66. Telomere repeat sequences contain
(a) (T / A)x Gy (b) (A / T)x Cy
(c) (G / C)x Ay (d) (G / C)x Ty
67. The transcriptional initiation site usually starts with

(a) AG (b) GC
(c) AT (d) AC
68. A stretch of double-stranded DNA contains 1000 base pairs, and its base composition
is 71 % G + C. How many thymine residues are in this region of DNA?
(a) 270 (b) 280
(c) 290 (d) 300
69. A 5-month-old male presents with seizures and delayed development. Upon newborn
screen he was detected to have hyper phenyl alaninemia and is on a phenylalanine-
restricted, synthetic diet. The most likely cause for his current symptoms is a
(a) defect in tetrabydrofolate reductase
(b) defect in dihydropteridine reductase
(c) tyrosine deficiency
(d) tryptophan deficiency
70. Coding regions of eukaryotic gene that encode polypeptides are called
(a) hnRNAs (b) Exons
(c) Enhancers (d) Leader peptide
PART – A
1. For purifying drinking water alum is used

(a) For coagulation of mud particles
(b) To kill bacteria
(c) To remove salts
(d) To remove gases
2. A weather balloon is not fully inflated on the ground because

(a) If the balloon is fully inflated, it may not remain stable in a storm
(b) The air inside the balloon expands as it rises and may burst
(c) It cannot withstand the outside pressure if fully inflated
(d) None of these
3. Vitamin BI2 is most useful for combating
(a) Anaemia (b) Goitre
(c) Night blindness (d) Rickets
4. The volume of which of the following materials decreases when it is heated from 0° C
to 5°C ?
(a) Air (b) Copper
(c) Water (d) Mercury
5. On a night when the sky is clear, the temperature may dip considerably; on a cloudy
night the temperature will usually dip much less. The reason for this difference is
that
(a) the clear sky allows radiant energy to escape readily from the earth
(b) on a cloudy night the clouds are warm and therefore retard the cooling
(c) the clear sky allows the cold of outer space to reach the earth
(d) currents of air carry the heat away from the earth on a clear night
6. Which of the following chemicals is useful in photography?
(a) Aluminium hydroxide (b) Potassium nitrate
(c) Silver bromide (d) Sodium chloride
7. The purest form of water can be obtained from

(a) A deep tubewell (b) A running stream
(c) A hot water spring (d) A heavy shower of rain
8. Which of the following vitamins is stored in the liver?

(a) Vitamin A (b) Vitamin C
(c) Vitamin E (d) Vitamin K
9. Which of the following is needed by a person suffering from diabetes?

(a) Antibiotics (b) Insulin
(c) Penicillin (d) Streptomycin
10. An element common to all acids is

(a) Oxygen (b) Hydrogen
(c) Sulphur (d) Chlorine
11. Which of the following statements relating to sound and light is true ?
(a) Light is a form of kinetic energy, whereas sound is a form of potential energy
(b) Light can be reflected but sound cannot be
(c) Light travels faster in air than does sound
(d) Sound travels in waves but light does not
12. Radioactive substances can be produced readily in

(a) An electron gun (b) An atomic pile
(c) A transistor (d) A Wilson cloud chamber
13. The method of estimating the age of the crust of the earth, which is now believed to
be the most accurate, makes use of the rate of
(a) Accumulation of sedimentary beds
(b) Accumulation of salt in the ocean
(c) Atomic disintegration (radioactivity)
(d) Loss of heat by the earth
14. When a given amount of air is cooled

(a) The amount of moisture it can hold decreases
(b) Its absolute humidity decreases
(c) Its relative humidity remains constant
(d) Its absolute humidity increases
15. With the present-day advance in medical techniques, transplants are possible in all of
the following except
(a) Artery (b) Bone
(c) Cornea (d) Kidney
16. A transistor is most likely to be found in a
(a) Fuse (b) Fluorescent lamp
(c) Hearing aid (d) Wrist watch
17. Steel is more elastic than rubber because

(a) Its density is high
(b) It is a metal
(c) Ratio of stress to strain is more
(d) Ratio of stress to strain is less
18. Free surface of a liquid behaves like a sheet and tends to contract to the smallest
possible area due to the
(a) Force of adhesion (b) Force of friction
(c) Centrifugal force (d) Force of cohesion
19. If speed of rotation of the earth increases, weight of the body
(a) Increases (b) Remains unchanged
(c) Decreases (d) may decrease or increase
20. The buoyancy depends on

(a) The shape of the body
(b) The mass of the body
(c) The mass of the liquid displaced
(d) The depth to which the body is immersed
21. The working of a rocket is based on the principle of
(a) Electricity (b) Kepler’s Law
(c) Newton’s Law (d) Conservation of momentum
22. Friction can be reduced by changing over from

(a) Sliding to rolling
(b) Rolling to sliding
(c) Potential energy to kinetic energy
(d) Dynamic to static
23. It takes 30 days to fill a laboratory dish with bacteria. If the size of the bacteria
doubles each day, how long will it take for the bacteria to fill one half of the dish
(a) 10 days (b) 15 days
(c) 29 days (d) 20 days
24. A tap can fill a cistern in 8 hours and another can empty it in 16 hours. If both the
taps are opened simultaneously, the time (in hours) to fill the tank will be
(a) 8 (b) 10
(c) 16 (d) 24
25. A and B can together do a piece of work in 12 days. B and C together can do the same
work in 16 days. After A has been working at it for 5 days, and B for 7 days, C finishes
it in 13 days. In how many days will C alone be able to do the work ?
(a) 16 (b) 24
(c) 36 (d) 48
26. A certain distance is covered by a cyclist at a certain speed. If a jogger covers half the
distance in double the time, the ratio of the speeds of the jogger to that of the cyclist
is
(a) 1:4 (b) 4:1
(c) 1:2 (d) 2:1
27. If a man travels at 30 krn/hr, he reaches his destination late by 10 minutes, but if he
travels at 42 krn/hr, then he reaches 10 minutes earlier. Therefore the distance
travelled by him is
(a) 36 km (b) 35 km
(c) 40 km (d) 45 km
28. Receiving a file from another computer over network line is called-
(a) Log in (b) Downloading
(c) Copying in (d) Uploading
29. IP address is made up of –

(a) 32 bits (b) 16 bits
(c) 8 bits (d) 4 bits
30. Consider the following program-
P=0
Q=0
DOWHILE (i=5) i=i+1
A=A+3
B=B+2
PRINT A,B
(a) 10, 15 (b) 12, 18
(c) 18, 12 (d) 15,10
PART – B
1. Which one of the following conditions differentiates eukaryotic DNA replication from
prokaryotic DNA replication?
(a) Bidirectional replication fork
(b) No use of an RNA primer
(c) Multiple origins of replication
(d) Use of only one DNA polymerase
2. Restriction-modification system of bacteria exists to
(a) Promote conjugation
(b) Encourage recombination of new genetic material
(c) Promote complementation
(d) Protect bacteria from invading foreign DNA
3. With reference to the enzymes in mitochondria, match List-I (Location in

Mitochondria) with List-II (Enzymes) and select the correct answer using the code
given below the Lists
List-I List-II
(Location) (Enzymes)
A. Outer membrane 1. Adenylate cyclase
B. Inner membrane 2. Fatty acid CoA ligase
C. Inter-membranal space 3. Malate dehydrogenase
D. Matrix 4. Succinic acid dehydrogenase
Code:
(a) A B C B
2 1 4 3
(b) A B C D
2 4 1 3
(c) A B C D
3 1 4 2
(d) A B C D
3 4 1 2
4. Consider the following enzymes

1. ATPase 2. Acid phosphatase
3. Glucose-6-phosphatase
Which of the above enzymes is/are present in the Golgi complex of animal cells?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
5. Which one of the following statements is NOT correct?

(a) In deoxyribose, the phosphate is attached to 3' carbon and the hydroxyl group is
attached to 5' carbon
(b) Any nucleic acid has a 3' end and a 5' end
(c) A gene is always written from 5' end.
(d) The length of the promoter sequence varies from gene to gene
6. A sequence of nucleotides on DNA ‘CATCATCATCAT’ is changed through mutation

to ‘CAATCATCATCAT’. What is this type of mutation called?
(a) Frame shift (b) Transition
(c) Transversion (d) Nonsense

1. Histones are found in all organisms that have nuclei.
2. There are eleven types of histones.
3. Histones are temporarily removed during transcription.
4. Any change in the amino acid sequence of histone proteins is harmless for the
organism.
Which of the statements given above is / are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 3 and 4 only
8. As an antibiotic inhibiting protein synthesis, what is the specific action of Rifamycin?

(a) Inhibition of elongation at transcription in eukaryotes
(b) Denaturing RNA polymerase thereby blocking initiation at transcription in
prokaryotes
(c) Inhibition of recognition on mRNA in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
(d) Blocking binding at A-site or causing misreading of codon in prokaryotes
9. Which among the following are the precursor amino acids for purines?
(a) Arginine and Tyrosine
(b) Aspartate and Glycine
(c) Histidine and Tyrosine
(d) Methionine and Tryptophan
10. Bacterial cells can be rendered more permeable to the uptake of plasinids by treatment
with
(a) Heat (b) Calcium phosphate
(c) Alkali detergent (d) Ultrasound or magnetism
11. Which one of the following human genes has the longest stretch of DNA (~24 Mb)?
(a) Globin gene (b) Histone gene
(c) Dystrophin gene (d) Insulin gene
12. Consider the following statements :

1. Chloramphenicol does not affect mitochondrial protein synthesis.
2. Mitochondria employ f-methionine as the initiating amino acid.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
13. Which one of the following cells is diploid?

(a) Primary polar body (b) Spermatid
(c) Primary spermatocyte (d) Spermatozoon
14. Consider the following statements: A mammalian protein expressed in E. coli by
means of recombinant DNA technology can lack
1. glycosylation
2. phosphorylation
Which of the statements given above are correct?

15. Hormones are thought to regulate gene activity primarily ay the level of
(a) Transport of RNA from nucleus to cytoplasm
(b) Post-translation processing of protein
(c) Transcription
(d) Translation
16. An antibiotic that resembles the 3' end of a charged tRNA molecule and brings
premature termination of protein synthesis is
(a) Streptomycin (b) Chloramphenicol
(c) Tetracycline (d) Puromycin
1. In a bacterial ribosome, the 30 S subunit contains one molecule of rRNA and the
large subunit contains two molecules each of three types of rRNA.
2. All tRNAs have five loops caused by complementary base pairing and the anticodon
is at the third loop from the 5' end.
18. In DNA, the deoxygenation is at

(a) First carbon atom (b) Second carbon atom
(c) Third carbon atom (d) Fourth carbon atom
19. Consider the following statements regarding the structure of DNA :

1. There are three hydrogen bonds between adenine and thymine whereas between
cytosine and guanine the hydrogen bonds are two.
2. Irrespective of the source of DNA, the ratio of adenine to thymine and the ratio
of cytosine to guanine is always one.
20. Which one of the following is correct?
(a) DNA fingerprinting and DNA footprinting are one and the same
(b) DNA fingerprinting is used to identify DNA from living organisms whereas DNA
footprinting is used to identify DNA from fossils
(c) DNA fingerprinting and DNA footprinting both are used for individual identification
(d) DNA fingerprinting is used for individual identification whereas DNA footprinting
is used for protein binding regions in DNA
21. Consider the following statements with reference to lactose (lac) operon in E. coli :
1. Lac enzymes are encoded in a single polycistronic mRNA molecule (lac mRNA).
2. Cyclic AMP induces the initiation of transcription of lac mRNA.

1. The eyeball of rabbit is moved in the orbit by four sets of muscles and the eyeball
of frog is moved by three sets of muscles.
2. The pecten in the eye is more developed in diurnal birds than in nocturnal birds.
23. Consider the following amino acids:

1. Arginine 2. Alanine
3. Histidine
Which of the above amino acids are polar in nature?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

The most important role of folic acid in promoting growth is through
1. conversion of decarboxylated pyruvic acid into acetyl CoA
2. synthesis of purine and thymine synthesis
3. calcium deposition in bones
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 3 only
25. Which one of the following sensations is not generated by impulses initiated in naked
nerve endings?
(a) Touch (b) Pain
(c) Cold (d) Taste
26. In glycolysis, which enzyme acts on 2-phosphoglycerate to form phosphoenol pyruvate?
(a) Aldolase (b) Enolase
(c) Phosphoglycerokinase (d) Phosphoglyceromutase
27. In the vertebrates,. the hormones which control osmoregulation are

(a) Vasopressin and thyrotropin
(b) Aldosterone and corticotropin
(c) Thyrotropin and corticotropin
(d) Vasopressin and aldosterone
28. Which one of the following vitamins is the precursor of coenzyme A?
(a) Pantothenic acid (b) Pyridoxamine
(c) Riboflavin (d) Thiamine
29. Nicotinic acid can be synthesized biologically from

(a) Gglutamic acid (b) Aspartic acid
(c) Tyrosine (d) Tryptophan
30. With reference to mitochondrial ‘Electron Transport Chain’, which one of the following
statements is correct?
(a) Ubiquinone can carry two electrons and two protons simultaneously
(b) The electrons that each molecule of NADH contributes to the mitochondrial
electron transport chain provide enough power to create two ATPs
(c) The contribution of FADH 2 provides enough power for the production of three
ATPs
(d) Cytochrome b and cytochrome c1 are parts of an enzyme complex known as
cytochrome oxidase

1. ATP cannot be stored in the cell.
2. ATP can be moved from one cell to another.
3. NAD+ picks up two electrons at once.
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
32. Which one of the following hormones controls gluconeogenesis?

(a) Thyroxine (b) Insulin
(c) Cortisol (d) Glucagon
33. Dietary carotenes and carotenoids are absorbed & transported in the plasma of higher
mammals as
(a) Albumins (b) Globulins
(c) Lipoproteins (d) Glycoproteins
34. Consider the following conditions

1. Enlarged thyroid
2. Protruding eyeballs
3. Decreased blood sugar
Which of the above is / are the symptom(s) of Graves’ disease?
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
In citric acid cycle
1. the generation of A TP is done at two steps
2. NAD+ is reduced to NADH at two steps
3. FAD is reduced to FADH2 at one step
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
36. Proteins also release the energy in our body but before that their deamination is
carried out in
(a) Spleen (b) Muscles
(c) Lungs (d) Liver
37. Consider the following processes:

1. Generation of cytotoxic T -cells
2. Stimulation of interferon release
3. Formation of bursin
4. Release of opsin
Which of the above are the functions in mammalian tissues performed by interleukin
(T-cell growth factor) which is secreted by certain activated T-Lymphocytes?
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 3 and 4 only
38. Which one of the following is a Tyrosine derivative?’
(a) Insulin
(b) Growth hormone
(c) Oxytocin
(d) Thyroxine
39. With reference to sucrose, consider the following statements:

1. Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.
2. The linkage in it is an a2-b1 glycosidic bond
3. It is a disaccharide having a-glucose and b-fructose.
Which of the statements given above is(are) correct
(c) 1and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
40. The epididymis in viviparous mammals mainly helps in the

(a) Transport of sperms only
(b) Maturation of sperms only
(c) Storage and transport of sperms
(d) Maturation and storage of sperms
41. In frog, eye lens develops from
(a) Ectoderm (b) Mesoderm
(c) Endoderm (d) Mesenchyme
42. Which one of the following is the characteristic of an adult ascidian?

(a) Elongated tail
(b) Large notochord
(c) Enlarged pharynx
(d) Well-developed statocyst
43. With reference to the development of allantois in mammals, consider the following
statements:
1. It is composed of endoderm and splanchnic mesoderm.
2. As it grows, mesodermal components of allantoic wall give rise to the blood
vessel system of the allantois and fuse with mesoderm of chorion.
3. Allantois of mammals supplies / oxygen and nutrients to the embryo.
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

1. Haemophilia is determined by sex-linked recessive gene.
2. Haemophilia is known only in males; and females homozygous for this gene are
unknown.
45. Who of the following proposed the theory that all organs of an individual produce
minute particles carrying information about the organs?
(a) Wallace (b) Darwin
(c) Lamarck (d) Huxley
46. Neo-Lamarckism is getting a new life with the discovery of
(a) RNA interference (b) Epistasis
(c) Genetic imprinting (d) Paedomorphosis
47. consider the following :

1. Alanine 2. Glycine
3. Aspartic acid
Which of the above amino acids were produced in Miller’s experiment to produce
organic molecules from the gaseous composition of early/primitive atmosphere of
earth?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
48. Golden langur (P resbytis geel) is naturally found in which one of the Wildlife
Sanctuaries/National Parks?
(a) Periyar (b) Sariska
(c) Manas (d) Sasan Gir
49. Which one among the following is a mammal with least number of diploid set of
chromosomes?
(a) Dog (b) Rhinoceros
(c) Barking deer (d) Red deer
50. Who of the following has given the Y -shaped two-channel energy flow model consisting
of grazing and detritus food chains?
(a) Clements (b) Hardin
(c) Odum (d) Tansley
51. Similar environment in different continents produce similar type of ecosystems.

Species occupying similar ecological niche in such disjunct ecosystems are known as
(a) Ecological guilds
(b) Ecological equivalents
(c) Ecotypes
(d) Ecological indicators
52. The grazing pathway of energy flow is relatively more important than the detritus
pathway
(a) In grassland ecosystem
(b) Tropical forest ecosystem
(c) Pond ecosystem
(d) Marine ecosystem
53. A taxon facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate
future is regarded as
(a) Critically endangered (b) Endangered
(c) Vulnerable (d) Near threatened
54. Consider the following characteristics
1. Loss of hair on the skin
2. Loss of sweat -glands
3. Presence of thick blubber
4. Presence of swim bladder
In Cetacea, due to aquatic mode of life, which of the above are the adaptations that
have taken place?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 3 and 4 only
55. The area over which an individual animal roams during the course of its usual daily
wandering and in which it spends most of its time is called
(a) Nesting territory (b) Home range
(c) Mating territory (d) Feeding range
56. The interspecific interaction between the termites and the protozoans (Trichonympha
sp.), present in the guts of termites is called
(a) Amensalism (b) Commensalism
(c) Parasitism (d) Mutalism
57. Consider the following :

1. Bandipur Wildlife Sanctuary
2. Manas Wildlife Sanctuary
3. Simlipal Wildlife Sanctuary
Which of the above are tiger reserves under the Project Tiger?
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
58. Thamin deer (Cervus eldi) is an inhabitant of

(a) Kanha National Park
(b) Keibul Lamjao National Park
(c) Bandipur Wildlife Sanctuary
(d) Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary
59. Similarity in the appearance of two or more unpalatable species resulting over
evolutionary time is called
(a) Mutual adaptation (b) Batesian mimicry
(c) Mullerian mimicry (d) Convergent mimicry
60. The pyramids of biomass are always inverted in

(a) Forest ecosystem
(b) Grassland ecosystem
(c) Pond ecosystem
(d) Desert ecosystem

1. The king cobra is ophiophagus.
2. The king cobra is the only snake in the world which builds a nest.
62. Which one of the following refers to the largest tiger reserve?
(a) Corbett (b) Sariska
(c) Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam (d) Kanha

1. In India, the Sangai is confined to Nagaland only.
2. Four-horned antelope (Tetraeerus quadrieomis) exclusively lives in Indian sub-
continent.
64. Who discovered Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) ?

(a) James Watson (b) David Baltimore
(c) Kary Mullis (d) F. Crick

1. Marfan syndrome is a sex linked disorder.
2. Phenylketonuria is an autosomal disorder.
66. The pollen basket in honeybee is located at the

(a) Lower side of the abdomen
(b) Tip of antenna
(c) Tarsus of first leg
(d) Tibia of third leg
67. Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a/an
(a) Sex-linked disorder
(b) Autosomal disorder
(c) Pre-disposition to multiple cancer
(d) Trinucleotide repeat expansion
1. The females, but not males, of all wasps have sting.
2. The adult wasps have shorter tongue than bees, and so can suck the nectar only
from shallow flowers.
69. The synthesis of plasma albumin is done by

(a) Liver (b) Muscle cells
(c) Pancreas (d) Spleen
70. What is the role of secretin from the following?
(a) It stimulates the testis to secrete testosterone
(b) Stimulates stomach to release HCI
(c) It stimulates pancreas to secrete the digestive enzymes
(d) It stimulates spleen to release the stored RBC
PART – A
1. An eye defect which usually results from an unequal curvature of the cornea is
(a) Nearsightedness (b) Astigmatism
(c) Colour blindness (d) Night blindness
2. The velocity of sound in air under normal conditions is
(a) 30 m/sec
(b) 320 m/sec
(c) 332 m/sec
(d) 3,320 m/sec
3. A photo-electric cell converts

(a) Sound energy into electrical energy
(b) Light energy into electrical energy
(c) An electrical signal into sound waves
(d) Electrical energy into light energy
4. Which of the following sounds cannot be heard by human ear?

(a) 300 vibrations/sec
(b) 1,000 vibrations/see
(c) 10,000 vibrations/sec
(d) 30,000 vibrations/sec
5. If force is expressed in newton and the distance in metre, then the work done is
expressed in
(a) Joule (b) Kg wt
(c) Kg wt m (d) Watt
6. The Law of Natural Selection is associated with

(a) Dalton (b) Darwin
(c) Kepler (d) Mendel
7. When cream is separated from milk

(a) The density of milk increases
(b) The density of milk decreases
(c) The density of milk remains unchanged
(d) It becomes more viscous
8. The element of an electric stove is made of

(a) Copper (b) Invar
(c) Magnalium (d) Nicrome
9. Which of the following is based on the procesS’of fusion?
(a) Atom bomb (b) Hydrogen bomb
(c) Ordinary bomb (d) Napalm bomb
10. Hybridisation is
(a) Downward movement of water through soil
(b) A process of tilling the land
(c) Decayed vegetable matter
(d) Cross-fertilisation between two varieties
11. Of the following foods, which one is the best source of protein ?
(a) Butter (b) Fish
(c) Lettuce (d) Milk
12. The red blood cells are formed in the

(a) Heart (b) Liver
(c) Lymph nodes (d) Marrow of bones
13. A wet-bulb and a dry-bulb thermometer are used to determine
(a) The minimum temperature at a place in any 24-hour period
(b) Relative humidity
(c) Air pressure
(d) The maximum temperature at a place in any 24-hour period
14. One of the isotopes of iodine has a “half life” of 25 minutes. This information tells us
that if we start with a given quantity of the isotopes, 50 minutes later there will
remain
(a) One-fourth of the original amount
(b) None
(c) One-half of the original amount
(d) Approximately the same amount
15. Small amount of iodine are necessary in our diet to

(a) Prevent pellagra
(b) Compensate for underactivity of the thyroid gland
(c) Stimulate clotting of blood
(d) Stimulate pituitary gland
16. On sudden cardiac arrest, which of the following is advised as a first step to revive the
functioning of human heart ?
(a) Mouth to mouth resuscitation (b) Giving external cardiac massage
(c) Sprinkling water on the face (d) Giving cool water to drink
17. A triode differs from a diode in the way that

(a) It can amplify a signal
(b) It has vacuum inside
(c) It has a heated cathode
(d) Its current is caused by the photo electric effect
18. If the angles of a triangle are in the ratio 5: 4 :3, how many degrees are there in the
largest angle
(a) 750 (b) 900
(c) 400 (d) 450
19. Two numbers are in the ratio 5 : 4, and there difference is 10. What is the larger
number?
(a) 30 (b) 40
(c) 50 (d) 60
20. The ratio of the prices of two houses A and B was 4 : 5 last year. This year, the price
of A is increased by 25% and that of B by Rs. 50,000. If their prices are now in the
ratio 9 : 10, the price of A last year was
(a) Rs. 3,60,000 (b) Rs. 4,50,000
(c) Rs. 4,80,000 (d) Rs. 5,00,000
21. Three-fourths of 68 is less than two thirds of 114 by

(a) 12 (b) 25
(c) 35 (d) 48
22. Two cards are drawn together from a pack of 52 cards (a set of traditional playing
cards), at random. The probability that one is a spade and other is a heart is
(a) 13/102 (b) 3/20
(c) 47/100 (d) 29/34
23. A bag has 4 red and 5 black balls. A second bag has 3 red and 7 black balls. One ball is
drawn from the first bag and two from the second. The probability, that there are two
blacks balls and a red ball, is
(a) 14/45 (b) 11/45
(c) 7/15 (d) 9/54
24. The transverse, longitudinal and surface waves in an earthquake originate from
(a) The epicentre within the body of the earth
(b) The focus on the surface of the earth
(c) The focus within the body of the earth
(d) The epicentre on the surface of the earth
25. Seasonal contrasts are maximum in

(a) Mid latitudes (b) Low latitudes
(c) High latitudes (d) Subtropics
26. Although only the southern part of India lies in the tropical region, but the whole of
India has tropical climate. This is because.
(a) India comes under the influence of monsoons.
(b) Northern part of India has large tracts of plain region
(c) Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country
(d) High Himalayan mountain ranges separate it from the rest of Asia
27. What is the main cause of movement in the earth’s atmosphere?
(a) Difference in air pressure (b) Solar energy
(c) Difference in temperature (d) Wind
28. Among the following which is a general purpose programming language-

(a) C (b) COBOL
(c) PASCAL (d) FORTRAN
29. Consider the following program:
A=0
B=0
I=0
Do While I =/=0
A=A2 +1
B=B2 –3
Else
PRINT A
The output of the programme will be
(a) 0 (b) 16
(c) 9 (d) 15
30. Among the following which is not an input device:

(a) Mouse (b) Scanner
(c) OMR (d) Plotter
PART – B
1. One of the parents of a cross has a mutation in its mitochondria. In that cross, that
parent is taken as a male. During segregation of F 2 progenies that mutation is found
in
(a) One-third of the progenies
(b) None of the progenies
(c) All the progenies
(d) Fifty percent of the progenies
2. When a fresh-water protozoan possessing a contractile vacuole, is placed in a glass

containing marine water, the vacuole will
(a) Increase in number (b) Disappear
(c) Increase in size (d) Decrease in size
3. One of the following is a very unique feature of the mammalian body:

(a) Homeothermy (b) Presence of Diaphragm
(c) Four chambered heart (d) Rib cage
4. Chemically hormones are

(a) Biogenic amines only
(b) Proteins, steroids and biogenic amines
(c) Proteins only
(d) Steroids only

(a) Vitamin B12 – Pernicious anaemia
(b) Vitamin B6 – Loss of appetite
(c) Vitamin B1 – Beri-beri
(d) Vitamin B2 – Pellagra
6. Uricotelism is found in
(a) Mammals and birds
(b) Fishes and fresh-water protozoans
(c) Birds, reptiles and insects
(d) Frogs and toads
7. Duodenum has characteristic Brunner’s glands which secrete two hormones called
(a) Kinase, estrogen
(b) Secretin, cholecystokinin
(c) Prolactin, parathormone
(d) Estradiol, progesterone
8. Mast cells of connective tissue contain

(a) Vasopressin and relaxin
(b) Heparin and histamine
(c) Heparin and calcitonin
(d) Serotonin and melanin
9. Cancer cells are more easily damaged by radiation than normal cells because they
are
(a) Lack of mutation
(b) Undergoing rapid division
(c) Different in structure
(d) Non-dividing
10. Certain characteristic demographic features of developing countries are

(a) High fertility, rapidly falling mortality rate, rapid population growth & young
age distribution
(b) High fertility, high density, rapidly rising mortality rate and a very young age
distribution
(c) High infant mortality, low fertility, uneven population growth and a very young
age distribution
(d) High mortality, high density, uneven population growth and a very old age
distribution
11. ATPase enzyme needed for muscle contraction is located in

(a) Actinin (b) Troponin
12. Which one of the following is not correctly matched?
(a) Glossina palpalis – Sleeping sickness
(b) Culex pipiens – Filariasis
(c) Aedes aegypti – Yellow fever
(d) Anopheles culifacies – Leishmaniasis

(a) Streptomyces – Antibiotic
(b) Serratia – Drug addiction
(c) Spirulina – Single cell protein
(d) Rhizobium – Biofertilizer
14. A free living nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium which can also form symbiotic association
with the water fern Azolla is
(a) Tolypothrix (b) Chlorella
(c) Nostoc (d) Anabaena
15. In the ABO system of blood groups, if both antigens are present but no antibody, the
blood group of the individual would be
(a) B (b) O
(c) AB (d) A
16. Which one of the following pairs correctly matches a hormone with a disease resulting
from its deficiency?
(a) Luteinizing hormone – Failure of ovulation
(b) Insulin– Diabetes insipidus
(c) Thyroxine – Tetany
(d) Parathyroid hormone – Diabetes mellitus
17. Angiosperms have dominated the land flora primarily because of their
(a) Power of adaptability in diverse habitat
(b) Property of producing large number of seeds
(c) Nature of self pollination
(d) Domestication by man
18. Which of the following hormones is not a secretion product of human placenta?
(a) Human chorionic gonadotropin
(b) Prolactin
(c) Estrogen
(d) Progesterone
19. You are required to draw blood from a patient and to keep it in a test tube for analysis
of blood corpuscles and plasma. You are also provided with the following four types of
test tubes. Which of them will you not use for the purpose?
(a) Test tube containing calcium bicarbonate
(b) Chilled test tube
(c) Test tube containing heparin
(d) Test tube containing sodium oxalate
20. In your opinion, which is the most effective way to conserve the plant diversity of an
area?
(a) By tissue culture method
(b) By creating biosphere reserve
(c) By creating botanical garden
(d) By developing seed bank
21. Which of the following is expected to have the highest value (gm/m2 /yr) in a grassland
ecosystem?
(a) Secondary Production
(b) Tertiary Production
(c) Gross Production (GP)
(d) Net Production (NP)
22. If by radiation all nitrogenase enzymes are inactivated, then there will be no
(a) Fixation of nitrogen in legumes
(b) Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen
(c) Conversion from nitrate to nitrite in legumes
(d) Conversion from ammonium to nitrate in soil
23. What kind of evidence suggested that man is more closely related with chimpanzee
than with other hominoid apes?
(a) Evidence from DNA from sex chromosomes only
(b) Comparison of chromosomes morphology only
(c) Evidence from fossil remains, and the fossil mitochondrial DNA alone
(d) Evidence from DNA extracted from sex chromosomes, autosomes and
mitochondria
24. A gene which suppresses the action of another gene not situated on the same locus
on the same chromosome is termed
(a) Jumping gene (b) Epistatic gene
(c) Supplementary gene (d) Hypostatic gene
25. Gene therapy is

(a) Same as recombinant DNA technology
(b) Aimed at growing plants in vitro
(c) Aimed at growing animals in vitro
(d) Employed to replace defective genes of animals or plants by correct genes
26. According to operon concept, an operator gene combines with

(a) Inducer gene to ‘switch on’ transcription
(b) Regulator gene to ‘switch off, transcription
(c) Regulator protein to ‘switch off, transcription
(d) Regulator protein to ‘switch on’ transcription
27. Which among the following is not an endocrine gland?
(a) Pineal (b) Pituitary
(c) Adrenals (d) Gonads
28. The excreta of lizards is rich in

(a) Urea (b) Uric acid
(c) Guanidine (d) Alantoin
29. Which among the following is not a stem modification?
(a) Rhizome of ginger
(b) Sweet potato tuber
(c) Corn of Colocasia
(d) Potato tuber
30. Down’s syndrome is due to

(a) Trisomy of chromosome 21
(b) Trisomy of Y chromosome
(c) Trisomy of X chromosome
(d) Deletion of X chromosome
31. To get a constant specific growth rate in a fed batch reactor the feeding pattern
should be
(a) Constant rate
(b) Linearly increasing rate
(c) Pulse feeding
(d) Exponential feeding
32. A plasmid was treated with topoisomerase followed by an intercalator which is known
to unwind DNA by 18 degrees. Subsequently the ligand-DNA mixture was extracted
with phenol chloroform and run on an agarose gel where it was found to have 2
positive supercoils. The number of ligand molecules bound to one plasmid is
(a) Zero (b) 20
(c) 40 (d) 80
33. When a protein is denatured by heating, the absorbance as measured in a UV

spectrometer will
(a) Always increase
(b) Always decrease
(c) Increase or decrease depending on wavelength
(d) Remain unaffected
34. Chymotrypsinogen in the native state and reduced unfolded states is loaded in well A
and B respectively. They are electrophoreses and stain, one of the following results
is likely to be observed.
(a) Protein in well A would have moved longer distance than that in well B
(b) Protein in well A would have moved shorter distance than that in well B
(c) Protein in well A and B would have moved the same distance
(d) Protein in well A and B would not move at all
35. Urea is known to denature proteins at high concentration due to
(a) Its ability to disrupt water structure
(b) Its ability to hydrogen bond with the peptide group in proteins
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) Its ability to disrupt electrostatic interactions
36. Super antigens activate

(a) T cells only in an antigen non-specific manner by cross linking T cell receptors
with the MHC-II molecules
(b) B cells only in an antigen non-specific manner by Cross linking a large number
of surface immunoglobulin molecules
(c) Both T and B cells without interacting through TCR or BCR
(d) T cells only through an unknown mechanism
37. Macrophages. which are also called monocytes, have the ability to
(a) Process and present antigens to T cells
(b) Produce antibodies
(c) Express IgM molecules on their surface
(d) Differentiate into dendritic cells when necessary
38. Indicate which statement is not correct. T helper cells
(a) Stimulate migration of macrophages
(b) Help B cells to produce antibodies
(c) Are cytotoxic to virus infected cells
(d) Help in generation of cytotoxic T Cells
39. Which of the following substances will not produce antibodies when injected into an
animal?
(a) Bacterial polysaccharides (b) DNA
(c) Dinitrophenol (d) Actin
40. Monoclonal antibodies are secreted by Hybridomas which are generated by

(a) Fusion of immune spleen cells with any type of cells capable of growing in tissue
culture
(b) Fusion of immune spleen cells with plasmacytoma cells
(c) Growing immune spleen cells in the presence of HAT
(d) Growing immune spleen cells in the presence of B cell growth factors
41. The dendritic cells can only present antigen to naive T cells-
(a) Because they constitutively express MHC-II and costimulatory molecules on
their surface
(b) Because they can phagocytose antigens very rapidly and process them
(c) Because they are the only antigen presenting cells present at the site of antigen
entry
(d) Because they are the only type of cells which have receptors for naive T cells
42. In a mouse during the embryonic stage of development of the immune system
(gestation period)
(a) Both gd and ab thymocytes are generated in equal numbers
(b) The gd thymocytes predominate over the ab thymocytes till about 17 days of
gestation
(c) The ab thymocytes predominate over the ab thymocytes till about 17 days of
gestation
(d) There are no gd or ab thymocytes produced during the gestation period
43. Which class of proteins is not generally specified by an oncogene?

(a) Ion channels
(b) Growth factors
(c) Transcription factors
(d) Signal transduction protein
44. A characteristic of homologous chromosomes is that

(a) They carry alleles for the same genes in the same relative positions
(b) They regularly exchange parts by crossing over at meiosis
(c) They physically pair at meiosis
45. Which one of the following characteristics best applies to an allosteric effector?
(a) Competes with substrate for the catalytic site
(b) Binds to a site on the enzyme molecule distinct from the catalytic site
(c) Changes the nature of the product formed
(d) Changes the substrate specificity of the enzyme
46. Which one of the following toxins inhibits eukaryotic protein synthesis through the
depurination of a single adenine residue in 28S ribosomal RNA (rRNA)?
(a) Diptheria toxin (b) Ricin
(c) a-Sarcin (d) Colicin E-3
47. Which one of the following enzyme-catalyzed reactions generates a high-energy

phosphate bond?
(a) The phosphorylation of glucose
(b) 2_phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate
(c) 3_phosphoglycerate to 2_phosphoglycerate
(d) Dihydroxyacetone phosphate to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
48. Which one of the following enzymes is tightly associated with the inner mitochondrial
membrane?
(a) Citrate synthase
(b) Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
(c) Succinate dehydrogenase
(d) Fumarase
49. Which one of the following supports glycogen synthesis?
(a) High cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels
(b) Inactive adenyl cyclase
(c) Active phosphorylase-a
(d) Epinephrine
50. A patient is suffering from a deficiency in the activity of acetyl coenzyme A (CoA)
carboxylase. Which one of the following metabolites is most likely to accumulate in
the patient’s serum?
(a) Short-chain fatty acids
(b) Long-chain.fatty acids
(c) Ketone bodies
(d) Malonyl CoA
51. Which one of the following statements describes the ubiquitin-mediated degradation
of proteins in the cytosol?
(a) One molecule of ubiquitin binds. to the protein to be degraded
(b) The process is catalyzed by a single enzyme
(c) The process depends on adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
(d) The N-terminal residue of ubiquitin becomes covalently attached to the protein
to be degraded
52. A patient is suffering from untreated insulin-dependent diabetes. Which one of the
following metabolic actions is occurring in this patient?
(a) Glucose is used by skeletal muscle for fuel
(b) Ketone bodies are released by the liver into the blood
(c) Glucose is used by the liver for fuel
(d) Fatty acids are transported from the liver to the adipose tissue
53. The initiator codon in eukaryote is-

(a) AUG (b) GUG
(c) CUG (d) UUU
54. If the same aminoacid is coded by 2 or more codons, it is called-

(a) Universal (b) Overlapping type
(c) Degenerate (d) Non-sense
55. Uncoiled DNA in differentiating cells is generally busy in synthesis of-

(a) DNA (b) mRNA
(c) Proteins (d) Glucose
56. What do mutation and recombination have in common-

(a) They increase variation (b) They cause genetic drift
(c) They cause natural selection (d) All of the above
57. Actinomycin D is an inhibitor of

(a) Respiration (b) Photosynthesis
(c) Protein synthesis (d) Transcription
58. The B-form of the DNA molecule takes a complete turn after
(a) Every base pair (b) Every five base pairs
(c) Every ten base pairs (d) Every two base pairs
59. Stem cells are

(a) Callus cells from plant stems
(b) Embryonic cells of higher animals in culture
(c) Tumor cells from kidneys
(d) Tumor cells from bone marrow
60. All of the following are sources of energy for active transport except
(a) ATP (b) Proton gradients
(c) Light (d) All of the above
61. While studying a cell with the electron microscope, a scientist notes the following
numerous ribosomes, a well-developed endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplasts, and a
cell wall. Which of the following could be the source of this cell?
(a) A fungus (b) An animal
(c) A bacterium (d) A plant
62. Which of the following statements is true about the Krebs (citric acid) cycle and the
Calvin (light-independent) cycle?
(a) They both result in a net production of ATP and NADH
(b) They both result in a release of oxygen
(c) They both are carried out by enzymes located within an organelle matrix
(d) They both take place within the cytoplasmic matrix
63. Which therapeutic antibiotic blocks the peptidyl transferase reaction of protein
synthesis?
(a) Chloramphenicol (b) Erythromycin
(c) Tetracycline (d) Puromycin
64. The mitochondrial electron transport chain carriers are located

(a) In the inner mitochondrial membrane
(b) In the mitochondrial matrix
(c) in the inter-membrane space
(d) On the inner surface of the outer mitochondrial membrane
65. The release of arachidonate from membrane glycerophospholipids is inhibited by

which one of the following compounds?
(a) Aspirin
(b) Linoleic acid
(c) A specific protein induced by glucocorticoids
(d) 2-Acyl lysophosphatidylcholine
66. Cell lysis can be brought about by
(a) Ligase
(b) Gyrase
(c) Lysozyme
(d) Cellulase
67. The two principals and products of photosynthesis are

(a) Starch and sucrose
(b) Glycerol and glycogen
(c) Cellulose and glycogen
(d) Glycerol and cellulose
68. Find out which is not the correct statement

The collagen triple helix domain
(a) Is rich in glycine
(b) is rich in proline
(c) Is rich in alanine
(d) Is rich in hydroxyproline
69. Extranuclear inheritance is a consequence of presence of genes in
(a) Mitochondria and chloroplasts
(b) Endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria
(c) Ribosomes and chloroplast
(d) Lysosomes and ribosomes
70. An ecosystem which can be easily damaged but can recover after some time if
damaging effect stops will be having
(a) Low stability and high resilience
(b) High stability and low resilience
(c) Low stability and low resilience
(d) High stability and high resilience
Model Paper – 10
PART – A
1. Effect of ozone layer on life on earth is:

(a) Harmful because it cuts cosmic rays
(b) Beneficial because it cuts down UV radiation
(c) Prevention of mutation
(d) Negligible
2. Age of the oldest rock on the earth is about
(a) 4 billion years
(b) 3 billion years
(c) 2 billion years
(d) 1 billion years
3. The land-sea breezes arise because

(a) Land has a higher heat capacity than land
(b) Ocean has higher heat capacity than land
(c) Of a periodic variation in trade winds
(d) Of rotation of the earth
4. According to current understanding, the Himalayas have resulted from:

(a) Cometary impact on earth
(b) Asymmetrical pull of the moon on earth
(c) Uneven cooling of solidified magma
(d) Collision of continents due to continental drift
5. An ideal material for making cooking vessels must have
(a) Small conductivity and large heat capacity
(b) Large heat capacity and large conductivity
(c) Small heat capacity and large conductivity
(d) Small heat capacity and small conductivity
6. X-rays are electromagnetic radiations. They can therefore be deflected by

(a) Electric and magnetic fields together
(b) Electric fields only
(c) Magnetic fields only
(d) Neither electric nor magnetic fields
7. Which one of these is caused by extrinsic factors

(a) Malfunctioning of organs
(b) Genetic disorders
(c) Normal disturbance
(d) Deficiency diseases
8. For a rection to be exothermic, the value of DG and DS should be
(a) +, – (b) –, +
(c) +, + (d) –, –
9. Predict which relation cannot occur?

(a) Cu + 2HCl ® CuCl2 + H2
(b) H2 + CuO ® H2 O + Cu
(c) Mg + 2HCl ® MgCl2 + H2
(d) Zn + 2HCl ® ZnCl2 + H2
10. pH of 10–8 M HCl is

(a) 8 (b) 4
(c) 7 (d) 6.8
11. Which of the following is not correct?

(a) Sucrose is a carbohydrate
(b) Ribonuclease is an enzyme
(c) C12 H25 – C15 H31 fraction of petroleum is kerosene oil
(d) Cellulose is a lipid
12. A flight started from Adelade on 5.00 A.M. Monday to california. It crosses
International date line at 10.00 AM, the time and day after crossing it would be
(a) 10.00 A.M. Sunday
(b) 5.00 A.M. Tuesday
(c) 10.00 A.M. Tuesday
(d) 5.00 A.M. Sunday
13. During the earthquake most damage is seen on earth crust because earth crust is
(a) rigid (b) brittle
(c) inelastic (d) molten
14. Both mother and father are of AB blood type. The possible blood types of their children
will be
(a) AB only (b) AA only
(c) AA and BB only (d) AA, BB and AB
15. Which among the following animals has the tongue fixed in front and free at the
back?
(a) Monkey (b) Rabbit
(c) Cat (d) Frog
16. Rauwolfia serpentine is a

(a) Helminth parasite
(b) Causative organism of AIDS
(c) Medicinal plant
(d) Poisonous snake
17. Which of the following sets of substances are parts of the essential requirements for
the growth of green plants?
(a) Carbon dioxide, oxygen, sulfate
(b) Nitrate, carbon dioxide, phosphate
(c) Nitrate, vitamin B1, sulfate
(d) ADP, carbon dioxide, nitrate
18. The roots of the equation x2 + 7x + 12 = 0 are a and b. The real value of a2 + b2 is
(a) 5 (b) 2
(c) 0 (d) 3
1
19. The number of real solutions of cos2 − = 0 is
4
(a) 1/2 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) infinity
π /2
1
20. The value of ∫ 1 − x2
dx is
−π / 2
(a) 2 (b) 0
(c) p (d) p/2
21. The average age of 40 students of a class is 15 years. When 10 new students are
admitted, the average is increased by 0.2 years. The average age of new students is
(a) 16 years (b) 15.2 years
(c) 16.2 years (d) 16.4 years
22. Which one of the following is not an electronic computer?

(a) IBM-PC (b) ENIAC
(c) PC-DOS (d) IBM-1620
23. A statement of the type

10 LET AS = ‘STRING’ is allowed in
(a) FORTRAN (b) COBOL
(c) C language (d) BASIC language
24. Integrated Circuits were first used in

(a) First generation system
(b) Second generation system
(c) Third generation system
(d) Fourth generation system
25. Microcomputer application software is usually written in

(a) Multiprogramming environment
(b) Timesharing environment
(c) User friendly environment
(d) Network Environment
26. The UNIX operating system has been written in
(a) Machine language (b) C language
(c) Assembly language (d) PASCAL language
27. Indicate which one of the software requires a COMPILER for execution
(a) SPSS (b) LOTUS
(c) COBOL (d) ORACLE
28. An Hexadigit can be represented by
(a) Three binary consecutive bits
(b) Four binary consecutive bits
(c) Eight binary consecutive bits
(d) Sixteen binary consecutive bits
29. Which one of the following is the correct matching of a vitamin, its nature and its
deficiency disease?
(a) Vitamin A – Fat-soluble – Night blindness
(b) Vitamin K – Fat-soluble – Beri-beri
(c) Vitamin A – Fat-soluble – Beri-beri
(d) Vitamin K – Water -soluble – Pellagra
30. Lack of independent assortment of two genes A and B in fruit fly Drosophila is due
to
(a) Repulsion (b) Recombination
(c) Linkage (d) Crossing over
PART – B
1. Which of the following amino acid is entirely incorporated in the nucleotide bases
(a) Glutomic acid
(b) Alanine
(c) Glycine
(d) Serine
2. 9 + 2 fibrillar arrangement is present in

(a) Bacterial flagella (b) Bacterial Fimbriae
(c) Eukaryotic flagella (d) T4 bacteriaophage
3. Coated vesicles in the cell gives rise to

(a) Endosome (b) Microsome
(c) Ribosome (d) Episome
4. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are suggested to have evolved from symbiotic

prokaryotes present in primitive eukaryotic cells. One evidence for this is that
(a) These organelles contain cristae or thylakoids
(b) These organelles contain electron transport chain
(c) The ribosome in these organelles share properties with those of prokaryotes
(d) The genetic code in these organelles is same as in all organisms
5. A genetic region found in all humans whose products are primarily responsible for
the rejection of grafts between individuals, is called
(a) Junctional
(b) Diversity
(c) Major histocompatibility complex
(d) Fc
6. Chiasmata are formed during meiosis
(a) Before metaphase I (b) After metaphase
(c) During prophase II (d) During metaphase II
7. In animals differentiation of cells is mostly due to

(a) Cell type specific mutations
(b) Deletion of specific DNA sequence in specific cell types
(c) Specific gene repression and expression
(d) Regulated expression of mitochondria DNA
8. Button like points of intercellular contact that serve as anchoring sites of intermediate
filaments and help to hold adjacent cells together are called
(a) Gap junctions (b) Connexons
(c) Cadherins (d) Desmosomes
9. DNA duplication occurs in
(a) Mitosis only (b) Meiosis only
(c) meiosis-I and mitosis (d) meiosis II and mitosis
10. The (OH– ) concentration of a 0.01 N HCl solution is

(a) 1 × 10–8 g mol per litre
(b) 1 × 10–10 g mol per litre
(c) 1 × 10–12 g mol per litre
(d) 1 × 10–14 g mol per litre
11. Activity of which of the followig enzymes is not increased by insuline

(a) acetyl CoA carboxylase (b) pyruvate carboxylase
(c) glycogen synthase (d) glucokinase
12. Infant suffering from galactosemia are unable to utilize normal milk because they
(a) Lack the enzyme glucokinase in the liver
(b) Are unable to hydrolyse lactose
(c) Lack the enzyme glactose-1-phosphate uridylyl transferase
(d) Accumulate the sugar alcohol
13. The number of high energy phosphate bonds in ATP is
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 0
14. Which bond has the minimum length?

(a) C = C (b) C = C
(c) C – C (d) C = O
15. The Tm of DNA can be calculated using the formula: Tm = 69.1 + 0.41 (GC), where
GC is the per cent of guanine + cytosine. A double stranded DNA has 27% adenine. Its
Tm is
(a) 79° C (b) 80.37° C
(c) 95.40° C (d) 88° C
16. Intron is a region of the chromosomal DNA

(a) Which is a part of a gene that is transcribed but is removed during maturation of
the transcript
(b) Which is a part of a gene that is transcribed and persists in the mature mRNA
(c) That is located between two adjacent genes
(d) That is located at the centromere
17. The characteristics of a weak acid is
(a) High Ka (b) Low pKa
(c) High pKa (d) None of these
18. Colchicine treated cells are arrested in

(a) S phase (b) Prophase
(c) G1 phase (d) Metaphase
19. One of the following enzymes is involved in translation step in protein biosynthesis
(a) Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
(b) RNA polymerase
(c) Ribozyme
(d) Reverse transcriptase
20. The sites of O2 evolution and photophosphorylation in chloroplast are
(a) Grana stacks (b) Matrix
(c) Inner wall of chloroplast (d) Surface of chloroplast
21. Photophosphorylation in chloroplasts requires movement of

(a) Electrons across the membrane
(b) Ions across the membrane
(c) Protons across the membrane
(d) Electrons and protons across the membrane
22. Bacterial sporulation is induced in response to

(a) Starvation of nutrients (b) Change in temperature
(c) Change in pH (d) Change in light intensity
23. Fixation of one molecules of 14CO2 by photosynthesis will yield
(a) One molecule of 14C-phosphoglyceric acid
(b) Two molecule of 14C-phosphoglyceric acid
(c) Three molecule of 14C-acetate
(d) One molecule of 14C-glucose
24. Pick out from the following the mammalian stress hormone
(a) Glucocorticosteriods (b) Estrogen
(c) Growth hormone (d) Relaxin
25. Solar tracking is exhibited by
(a) Helianthus annuus (b) Arabidopsis thaliana
(c) Mimosa pudica (d) Xanthium strumarium
26. Which of the following compounds have been reported to accumulate in a plant in
large amounts as a result of water stress?
(a) Aspartic acid (b) Proline
(c) Citric acid (d) Indoleacetic acid
27. Inhibition of photosynthesis by oxygen is called as
(a) Emerson effect (b) Warburg effect
(c) Pasteur effect (d) Red drop phenomenon
28. Tetrodoxin is used as a

(a) K channel blocker (b) Na channel broker
(c) Ca channel broker
29. Erythrocytes resist shearing forces while travelling through narrow blood vessels
because they contain mesh work of
(a) Glycophoria A (b) Spectrin
(c) Hemoglobin (d) Ankyrin
30. Cytoplasmic male sterility in maize is due to

(a) Absence of mitochondrial genome
(b) Absence of plastid genome
(c) Deletions in plastid genome
(d) Alteration(s) in the mitochondrial genome
31. In a typical Mendelian population, individuals carrying gene ‘a’ in homozygous

condition suffer from phenylketonurea. Those with A in homozygous condition are
normal. Others, who are heterozygotic with Aa, are carriers. If the frequency of ‘a’ in
a population is 0.005 what is the percentage of carriers in the population?
(a) 10.0 (b) 1.0
(c) 0.1 (d) 90.0
32. The rate of occurrence, per generation, of spontaneous mutations in all living
organisms is
(a) 10–2 to 10–4 (b) 10–5 to 10–7
(c) 10–10 to 10–15 (d) 10–20 to 10–30
33. Chromatid-type breaks occur during the cell cycle in the

(a) S-phase (b) G1-phase
(c) G2-phase (d) Mitosis
34. After digestion of chromatin for a short time with micrococcal nuclease, DNA
fragments of this size are obtained
(a) 100 base pairs (b) Variable length
(c) 200 base pairs (d) 146 base pairs
35. Which one of the following is not true for a disease inherited as a sex-linked dominant
in humans?
(a) All daughters of an affected male will inherit the disease
(b) Sons will inherit the disease, only if their mother has the diseases
(c) Daughters will inherit the disease, only if their father has the diseases
(d) Both affected males and affected heterozygous females will pass the trait to half
their children
36. Frame shift mutations occur following

(a) Tautomeric shifts
(b) base substitutions
(c) Dimer formation
(d) Insertion/deletion of single base
37. Genetic element in bacteria that can replicate in the cytoplasm or can integrate into
the bacterial chromosome and replicate with the host chromosome
(a) Retrovirus (b) Plasmid
(c) Episome (d) Plastome
38. Hypophosphatemia is caused by an X-linked dominant gene in humans, if a

hypophosphatemic man marries a normal woman, which of their children will have
Hypophosphatemia?
(a) All daughters
(b) half of their daughters
(c) All of the sons
(d) half of their sons
39. The most common cause of the pleiotropic effect of gene is due to
(a) The same product of the given gene being involved in different metabolic pathways
(b) The gene making very different products in different cell types
(c) The DNA sequence of the gene getting changed in cell specific manner
(d) The gene not functioning in some cells
40. Life is believed to have originated on earth

(a) 3.6 billion years ago
(b) 3.6 million years ago
(c) 4.5 billion years ago
(d) 4.5 million years ago
41. The evolutionary divergence of higher taxonomic groups is due to
(a) Adaptive radiations (b) Anagenesis
(c) Cladogenesis (d) Stasigenesis
42. Molecular drive, which is associated with the origin of biological discontinuities, is
the consequence of
(a) Unequal crossing over, gene conversion and DNA transposition
(b) Environmental control of gene expression
(c) Selection
(d) DNA methylation
43. The process that led to the evolution of the common bread wheat from its progenitors
is
(a) Triploidy
(b) Aneuploidy
(c) Introgression
(d) Hybridization followed by doubling of the chromosomes
44. The hypothesis of Oparin and Haldane regarding origin of life is called as
(a) Autotroph hypothesis (b) Heterotroph hypothesis
(c) Chemotroph hypothesis (d) biogenesis hypothesis
45. Ribosomal RNAs are better molecules for phylogenetic studies because
(a) Antiquity of protein synthesizing process, and moderately well conserved
(b) They can be easily sequenced
(c) They are present in 70 S and 80 S ribosomes
46. The chemical evolution preceding biological evolution during origin of life was initiated
through formation of
(a) Condensing agents, e.g. cyanogens
(b) ATP and other triphosphates
(c) Both A and B
(d) Pre-biotic catalyst-like compounds
47. The evolutionary process involving long periods of stasis interrupted by short periods
of rapid speciation is called
(a) Quantum evolution (b) Punctual equilibria
(c) Macroevolution (d) Irregular modes
48. The nature of the pre-biotic environment on the earth was

(a) Reducing (b) Oxidizing
(c) Nitrifying (d) Rich in ozone
49. lThe condition which leads to a reduction in population to only a few individuals is
called
(a) Population oscillation (b) Migration
(c) Population crash (d) Bottleneck phenomenon
50. Acid rain is caused by

(a) CO and CO2 (b) CO2 and O2
(c) O2 and CO (d) SO2 and NO2
51. CO2 present in the atmosphere
(a) Helps in stopping the sun radiation reaching the earth surface
(b) Works only as insulator protecting the earth from cooling
(c) Merely gives life to plants
(d) Absorbs and reradiates some of the longer-wave length infra-red radiation that
otherwise would be transmitted back into the space from the surface of the
earth
52. The most productive ecosystem in the biosphere is

(a) Desert (b) Open ocean
(c) Estuary (d) Tundra
53. Biodegradable plastics are made using the following bacterial compounds
(c) Poly b-hydroxy alconates (d) Alkaloids
54. Population of plants within a species adapted genetically to a particular habitat but
able to cross freely with other plants of the same species is called
(a) Ecophene (b) Ecad
(c) Ecotype (d) Ecotone
55. Biotic potential of a species is
(a) Intrinsic rate of natural increase
(b) Theoretical maximum production of new individuals
(c) Difference between the intrinsic rate and the rate that occurs in an actual field
condition
(d) Instantaneous coefficient of population growth
56. Maximum stratospheric ozone concentration occurs above

(a) Equator (b) temperate latitudes
(c) Poles (d) Subtropical latitudes
57. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is measure of

(a) Amount of dissolved oxygen present in a water body
(b) The rate anaerobic decomposition of organic matter
(c) The amount of dissolved oxygen required to oxidize the organic matter present
in the water by aerobic decomposers
(d) The rate of consumption of dissolved oxygen by aerobic decomposers for
decomposing the organic matter present in the water body
58. The intrinsic rate of population increase is high

(a) For a population consisting of more juveniles
(b) For a population consisting of more reproductive females
(c) For a population consisting of more reproductive males
(d) For a population consisting of more senescent individuals
59. Chronologic ordering of species is based on
(a) Electrophoretic mobility of protein
(b) Molecular weights of proteins
(c) Number of amino acids substituted in a protein molecule
(d) 2-D analysis of proteins
60. The correct sequence of taxonomic hierarchy in eukaryotes is

(a) Phylum – class – order – family – genus – species
(b) Class – order – phylum – family – genus – species
(c) Phylum – order – class – family – genus – species
(d) Phylum – family – class – order – genus – species
61. A classic example of utilization of biodiversity in green revolution is

(a) Cryopreservation of germplasm
(b) in vitro regeneration of somatic hybrids
(c) Photoperiod insensitivity
(d) Use of frozen gametes
62. The species replacement that occurs over very large geographic region is described
as
(a) Alpha diversity (b) Beta diversity
(c) Gamma diversity (d) Point diversity
63. Consider an island population where a majority of the individuals display hexadactylyty
of their hands. Evolutionary biologist would readily explain this phenomenon based
on
(a) Dominance of hexadactyl condition
(b) Small size of founder population
(c) Novel mutation
(d) Improved fitness and adaptation of the hexadactyl individuals
64. Populations that are morphologically similar but do not interbreed for physiological
or behavioural reasons are grouped as
(a) Races (b) Varieties
(c) Sub-species (d) Sibling species
65. Which is the hot-spot for biodiversity in India?

(a) Western ghats (b) Eastern ghats
(c) Central ghats (d) Upper Gangetic ghats
66. When all the original material collected by the author who described a new species,
is lost, the specimen designated to serve as nomenclatural type is
(a) Neotype (b) Lecotype
(c) Isotype (d) Holotype
67. In a stable ecosystem the food chain mostly contains

(a) Three to five links (b) Two links
(c) Six links (d) Seven links
68. A predation series linking animals to ultimate plant food is called
(a) Food web (b) Tropic level
(c) Food cycle (d) Food chain
69. What is a keystone species?

(a) A species which makes up only a small proportion of the total biomass of a
community, yet has a huge impact on the community’s organisation and survival
(b) A common species that has plenty of biomass, yet has a fairly low impact on the
community’s organization
(c) A rare species that has minimal impact on the biomass and on other species in
the community
(d) A dominant species that constitutes a large proportion of the biomass and which
affects many other species
70. DNA fingerprinting refers to
(a) Molecular analysis of profiles of DNA samples
(b) Analysis of DNA samples using imprinting devices
(c) Techniques used for molecular analysis of different specimens of DNA
(d) Techniques used for identification of fingerprints of individuals
CSIR-NET Life Sciences DEC., 2003
PART-A
1. If a pendulum with a time period ‘T’ is placed on moon then its time period will-
(c) Unchanged (d) Infinity
2. When the canon is fired, it will move-

(a) Front (b) Back
(c) Randomly (d) not moves
3. Which is not correct representation of line of forces-
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
4. Soldiers are not allowed to pass in synchronized march over a bridge because-
(a) It produces more noise
(b) Bridge may break due to resonance
(c) Uniform force distribution will break the bridge
(d) Center of mass of bridge will increase
5. On putting a thin water film over a glass plate it becomes more transparent to light
because-
(a) Lesser would be reflection
(b) Lesser will be refraction
(c) Trapped air increase transparency
(d) It does not happens
6. For equilibrium reaction the value for D G will be -

(a) Zero (b) Negative
(c) Positive (d) Infinity
7. The tetrahedral geometry of carbon is best explained by-
(a) Monochoro methane (b) Dichloro methane
(c) Choloroform (d) Carbon tetrachloride
8. About Haber’s process for ammonia production, the false statement is-
(a) It is second order reaction
(b) Slow at room temperature
(c) High pressure is required
(d) Al2 O3 is used as catalyst
9. On increasing the NaCl into water it boiling point decreases because-

(a) Due to more energetic molecules
(b) Weak H-bonding
(c) More collision between molecules
(d) Activation energy is decreased
10. The necessary condition for reaction to be spontaneous is-

(a) H - ve & S + ve (b) H – ve & S – ve
(c) H + ve & S + ve (d) H – ve & S + ve
11. Moon does not have atmospheric gases-
(a) Gravity is not sufficient to hold gases
(b) Speed of rotation is very high
(c) Water and plants are absent
(d) Absence of sheathing ozone layer
12. Earth is slightly inclined on its axes, if axis of rotation is made perpendicular then
major effect will be on-
(a) Day & night (b) Seasons
(c) Tides of ocean (d) Rotation of earth
13. The magnetic field around earth is a result of -
(a) Structure of earth crust (b) Plate faults
(c) Motion of liquid mantle (d) Motion in liquefied core
14. Which of them is a result of process of sedimentation-

(a) Coal (b) CaCO3
(c) Igneous rocks (d) Granite
15. Among the following which radioisotope is routinely used for determination of age of
fossils-
(a) P 32 (b) S 35
(c) C 14 (d) O 18
16. Convert the binary number 1101.101 into decimal number-

(a) 13.625 (b) 13.5
(c) 13.62 (d) 13.26
17. Which of them is not programming language-

(a) BASIC (b) COBOL
(c) PASCAL (d) LOTOUS
18. The clock speed in computer is usually measured in-

(a) Bytes (b) Seconds
(c) Hertz (d) RAM
CSIR-NET Life Sciences, Dec., 2003 551

(a) Logical error (b) Syntax error
(c) Organism effecting computer (d) High level Programming
program-
Do While A ¹ 0
If A ³ B
A=A–B
Else
B=B–A
EndIf
PRINT A, B
(a) 0, 0 (b) 0, 1
(c) 1, 1 (d) 1, 0
21. If there is double bond between A& T and triple bond between GC, then which sequence
will be most stable at higher temperature-
22. If a tall pea plant is crossed with pure dwarf pea plant, all F1 progenies were tall, in
subsequent generation after selfing of F1 generation progeny, the ratio of tall to
dwarf plant will be-
(a) 1:1 (b) 1:2:1
(c) 3:1 (d) All tall
23. White blood cells (WBC) have major function as-

(a) Defensive role (b) respiration
(c) Tumor suppressor (d) Phagocytosis of cell debris
24. Rules stating that as we move toward the polar region from tropics the size of organism
increases-
(a) Allen’s rule (b) Bergman’s rule
(c) Fischer rule (d) Copes rule
25. During photosynthesis evolution of oxygen is from-

(a) Water (b) CO2
(c) Glucose (d) Chlorophyll
26. Maximum numbers of lines producing symmetrical planes from a regular hexagon-
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 6 (d) 8
27. If P = (1, 2), Q = (–2, –10) & R = (1, m) and PQ + QR = Minimum, then the value of ‘m’
will be-
(a) + 6 (b) – 6
(c) + 8 (d) – 8
28. Twenty-Five student participate in competition, marks obtained by first two students
are 6 & 10. Each subsequent student gains an average of preceding students, then
the marks obtained by the 100 student will be-
(a) 6 (b) 8
(c) 10 (d) 16
29. How many boxes of size 2 × 2 × 4 can be fitted in a box of size 11 × 8 × 20-
(a) 100 (b) 110
(c) 120 (d) 220
30. Carbon dioxide is

(a) a basic oxide (b) an acidic oxide
(c) a neutral oxide (d) none of these
PART – B LIFE SCIENCES
1. In Human number of linkage groups present in male is:

(a) 21 (b) 22
(c) 23 (d) 24

3. Layer of Atmosphere possessing ozone is-

(a) UV-A (b) UV-B
(c) UV-A & B (d) UV-B & C
5. Major hot spot of biodiversity in India are-

(a) Andaman & western ghats
(b) Eastern Ghats & Western Himalayas
(c) Western ghats & N.E Himalayas
(d) North East and Western Himalayas
6. In humans, XX males and XY Females are rare, such rare sexes are due to-
(a) Deletion of X chromosome
(b) Deletion of Y chromosome
(c) XY translocation
(d) Duplication of X chromosomes
7. The major difference in PS-I and PS-II found in Chloroplast are-

(a) Position on lamellae (b) Chlorophyll a
(c) Position of electron carriers (d) Energy harvesting
8. Testosterone hormone necessary for spermatogenesis is secreted by-

(a) Leydig cells (b) Sertoli cells
(c) Spermatozoa (d) Cowpers gland
9. The major site of attack by HIV-virus on immune system is-

(a) MHC (b) B- Lymphocytes
(c) T-Lymphocytes (d) Macrophages
10. Rarely there is occurrence of gill clefts in higher animals, this shows-
(a) They may be useful for that organism
(b) Ancestral returns of that character
(c) Favorable mutation in organism
(d) Retrogressive Evolution
11. A single base pair mutation occurs in strand CATTACCG, its complementary strand
had a sequence GTTATGGC. It means mutation has changed base pair-
(a) A ® T (b) T ® T
(c) T ® A (d) A ® A
12. Crossing over occurs during-

(a) Mitotic metaphase (b) Meiotic Metaphase
(c) Mitotic Prophase (d) Meiotic Prophase
13. Maize has 10 pairs of chromosome, what will be number of chromosome and chromatids
at Metaphase II-
(a) 10 & 10 (b) 10 & 20
(c) 20 & 40 (d) 5 & 10
14. In a cell if acidity of Lysosome is lost, then loss of -

(a) Phagocytosis of invading bacteria
(b) Elevated phosphatase level
(c) Glycogen degradation
(d) No major effect
15. Criss-cross inheritance is shown by-

(a) Sex linked traits (b) Sex influenced traits
(c) Sex limited traits (d) Autosomes
(a) Increase in pH of Apoplast
(b) Increase in pH of cytoplasm
(c) Decrease in pH of Apoplast
(d) Increase in pH of cytoplasm
17. In bacteria site of respiration is-

(a) Glogi bodies (b) cytoplasm
(c) Endoplasmic reticulum (d) Microsomes
18. In human females there is inactivation of one X chromosomes for dosage compensation
due to-
(c) Phosphorylation (d) Formylation
19. Type of proofreading activity by DNA polymerase I in E. Coli is-

(a) 5'-3' exonuclease (b) 5'-3' endonuclease
(c) 3'-5' exonuclease (d) 3'-5' endonuclease
20. Fungus used for commercial production of citric acid is-

(a) Neurospora (b) Penicillum
(c) Aspergillus (d) Sacchromyces
21. Wild Ass are found at-

(c) Fungus & cultivated plants (d) Cultivated plants
23. In geological time scale, the Era of reptiles is -

(a) Paleozoic (b) Mesozioc
(c) Holozoic (d) Proterozoic
24. Age of Fossils is usually determined by-
(a) Sediment deposition (b) Mineral deposition
(c) Radioactive decay of isotopes (d) Age of surrounding rock
25. Cells absorbs Iron by the process of-

(a) Phagocytosis (b) Pinocytosis
(c) endocytosis (d) Active transport
26. The optimum pH of soil for easy absorption of Minerals by plants is-
(a) 4 – 5 (b) 5 – 6
(c) 7 – 8 (d) 7 – 10
27. For muscles the major source of energy is-

(a) ATP (b) Phosphocreatin
(c) GTP (d) Lactic Acid
28. Pelvic girdle and hind limbs in python are example of-
(a) Analogous organ (b) Homologous organ
(c) Vestigial organ (d) Orthologous organ
29. Reverse transcriptase of retero virus is-

(a) DNA dependent DNA polymerase
(b) DNA dependent RNA polymerase
(c) RNA dependent DNA polymerase

(d) RNA dependent RNA polymerase
30. Which chemical is used for cryo-preservation-
(a) DMSO (b) DCMU
(c) PITC (d) Thiourea
31. The major pollution in lake by effluents coming from cloth industry containing high
detergents is by-
(a) Nitrates (b) Sulphates
(c) Phosphates (d) Silcates
32. In a stable well adapted populations there are frequent increase and decrease in
population size around a mean value, such population fluctuations are due to-
(a) Genetic drift (b) Disease & Mortality
(c) Carrying capacity (d) Migration
33. Hardy-weinberg law helps in detecting-

(a) Allele frequency (b) Genotype frequency
(c) Heterozygote frequency (d) Inbreeeding
34. A normal ovulating female may be sterile due to-

(a) Blockage in fallopian tube (b) Hyposecretion of LH
(c) Hyposecretion of FSH (d) Hyposecretion estrogen
35. Bacterial genomes is prevented by its own endonucleases by-
(a) Methylation at restriction sites
(b) Immune mechanism
(c) Nuclease resistant genome
(d) Are not much effective on bacterial genome
36. In some cases there are male characteristics in females due to-
(a) Hormonal imbalance (b) XXY chromosomes
(c) XYY (d) XXX
37. In Eukaryotic 5' -Capping in m-RNA is required for-
(a) Initiation of transcription (b) Initiation of translation
(c) Intron removal (d) Termination of transcription
38. Plasmids in bacteria helps in-

(a) Transformation (b) Transduction
(c) Conjugation (d) Replication
39. Production of sound due to grinding of hind limbs can been seen in-
(a) Cricket (b) Dragon fly
(c) Mouse (d) Cockroach
40. In Present condition origin of life from inorganic molecules is not possible because of-
(a) Absence of raw material (b) Presence of Oxygen
(c) Low enthalpy (d) Presence of ozone layer
41. A female with 47 chromosomes have normal phenotype. Her chromosome complements
will be-
(a) 44 + XXY (b) 44 + XXX
(c) 45 + XX (d) 44 + XYY
42. A Rh + ve male marries a Rh-ve female, their progenies will be-

(a) Rh +ve only (b) Rh -ve only
(c) Both Rh +ve & – ve (d) Cannot be predicted
43. Self cross between Aa results in AA, Aa & aa F1 progenies, the force of evolution
preserving either AA or aa is-
(a) Stabilizing selection (b) Cyclic
(c) Disruptive (d) Directional
44. A non harmful species copies a harmful and tasteless form, the type of mimicry
shown is-
(a) Bateson (b) Mullerian
(c) Darwinian (d) Morganarian
45. In mitochondria the enzymes of electron transport chain are located at-
(a) Outer membrane (b) Inter membrane space
(c) Inner membrane (d) Matrix
46. Glucose-1-P level is increased in body by the action of glycogen phosphorylase, this is
released from-
(a) Increased glycogen breakdown (b) Reduced glycogenesis
(c) Both (d) None
47. False statement of competitive inhibition is-

(a) Structure same as substrate
(b) Inhibits substrate binding
(c) Binds to active site
(d) Reaction cannot be favorably biased by increasing substrate concentration
48. Change in elasticity of cell membrane is due to-
(a) Change in cis-trans phase of fatty acids
(b) Change in Protein confirmation
(c) Cholesterol
(d) phospholipids
49. Amino acid sequence for a protein is known, we can estimate the sequence of m-RNA
coding that protein -
(a) Precisely (b) Can’t be predicted
(c) Precisely to certain extent if codon frequency is known
(d) Data not sufficient
50. Modern molecular taxonomy involves comparison of-

(a) chromosome morphology (b) r-RNA
(c) C-DNA (d) t-RNA
51. Exotic weed which proved very harmful for forest and grassland is-
(a) Eupatromia (b) verbenia
(c) Eichornia (d) Salvia
52. Latest news of conflicts between human and wild animals has happened due to-
(a) Habitat destruction (b) Increased poaching
(c) Increased conservation (d) Increased Human population
53. Percentage (%) energy transferred from plants to herbivores is-

(a) 1 (b) 10
(c) 50 (d) 80
54. Milk sugar Lactose, a disaccharide has linkage-
(a) Glucose + galactose 1 ® 4
(b) Glucose + Glucose 1 ® 4
(c) Glucose + Fructose 1 ® 6
(d) Glucose + Galactose 1 ® 6
55. Sex determination in Drossophila is based on ratio of number of X chromosomes to-

(a) Number of autosomes (b) Sets of autosomes
(c) Number of Y chromosome (d) Sets of total chromosomes
56. Human biodiversity is characterized by-

(a) Y chromosome (b) Mitochondrial genes
(c) Both A&B (d) VNTR
57. Which technique is used for biodiversity characterization-

(a) RAPD (b) RFLP
(c) SSR (d) SNP
58. Which branch of taxonomy gives equal weightage to all characters under study-
(a) Chemo taxonomy (b) Numerical taxonomy
(c) Paleotaxonomy (d) @ taxonomy
59. Human genome contains 3 × 10 9 bp having all four bp in equal proportion . A restriction
endonuclease can cut a segment of 4 bp long. then how many fragments will be
obtained after digestion-
(a) 1.2 × 10 7 (b) 1.2 × 10 6
(c) 1.2 × 10 5 (d) 1.2 × 10 4
60. Biological magnification is maximum in human it proves that human is-

(a) Top consumer in food chain (b) More susceptible
(c) Major Pollutant (d) Most efficient in storage of reserve food
61. Early embryonic stages of pig and mouse are almost identical, it reveals-
(a) Common ancestry (b) Progressive evolution
(c) Directional Evolution (d) Homology
62. Endemism is shown by-

(a) Grassland (b) Island
(c) plateaus (d) Mountains ranges
63. Ventral nerve cord and tubular heart is present in

(a) Annelida & arthopoda (b) Annelida & mollusca
(c) Arthopoda & mollusca (d) Coelentera and mollusca
64. Zygote formation by sperm and egg is result of phenomenon called-

(a) Fusion (b) Endocytosis
(c) Phagocytosis (d) En-nucleation
65. A Plant with variegated plants were allowed for photosynthesis by placing it in light
and then brought into dark, then final reserve material of photosynthesis, the starch
will accumulate in which part of leaf-
(a) Green portion (b) Colored portion
(c) In whole leaf (d) No where
66. All genes of mendelian population makes-

(a) Genome (b) Gene pool
(c) Genotype (d) Alleles
67. Abrupt change in gene frequency of small population is termed as-
(a) Genetic loss (b) Genetic erosion
(c) Founders effect (d) Genetic load
68. Kingdom protista includes-

(a) Slime moulds (b) Archaebacteria
(c) Cyanobacteria (d) Diatoms
70. A apple plant yielding 1 pound apple was crossed with a 1.5 pound apple yielding
plant, all F 1 progenies yielded apples of 2 pound, the F2 generation will be in ratio
of -
(a) 9:4:3 (b) 1:2:1
(c) 3:1 (d) 9:3:4
CSIR-NET Life Sciences, June, 2004
PART – A
1. If the cylinder of mass ‘m’ and radius ‘r’ is transformed into disc with radius ‘2r’, then
its moment of inertia will be-
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 1/2 (d) 1/4
2. Among the following which is correct representation of rate constant ‘k’ and
temperature ‘t’, for an enzymatic reaction-
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
3. If 10 g of substance at temperature 200 °C with specific heat 2 is mixed with other

substance of 20 g at 20 °C with specific heat of 1. Then the final temperature of
mixture would be-
(a) 90 (b) 110
(c) 1000 (d) 1110
4. Force felt by driver and passengers in car while it is moving in the arch of a tunnel
will be-
(a) Perpendicular to arch of tunnel
(b) Away from the center of arch of tunnel
(c) In forward direction
(d) Toward the center of arch of tunnel
5. In coal CO2 is formed in

(a) through the fire
(b) in top layers
(c) in lower layers
(d) in middle layers
6. The isotpops of hydrogen have

(a) different number of electrons
(b) different number of protons
(c) different number of neutron
(d) different numbers of orbits
7. Among the following which is not a ketone body-

(a) Hydroxy butyrate (b) Acetoacetate
(c) Acetone (d) Acetyl CoA
8. Water is made purified by adding-

(a) NaCl (b) NaOCl
(c) CaCl2 (d) BeCl2
9. Certain deformity is observed in body on applying stress as shown in the diagram. If

stress is removed at point ‘P’. Then path of body will be-
(a) Break along PLO
P
(b) Break along PQ L
(c) Break along PLQ
(d) Break Along LQ
Q
10. Rational number is designated in form ‘m/n’. What would be maximum possible rational
number between 3/11 and 8/11-
(a) Infinite (b) 6
(c) 9 (d) 7
11. The perimeter of the rectangle whose length and bredth are 30m and 20m is-
(a) 250m (b) 100m
(c) 60m (d) 40m
12. If the sum of square of two numbers is 12402 and the product of two numbers is 999.
Then what would be the sum of two numbers-
(a) Ö12402 (b) Ö909
(c) 120 (d) 306
13. Differentitation of below mentioned equation would be-
d x d x
e sin 2 θ + e sin 2 ( θ − π/ 2)
dx dx
(a) 2e x(sinq – cosq) (b) e x
(c) 2e x(cosq) (d) e x(sinq – cosq)
14. There are 15 boys and 13 girls in a class. 4 members are to be selected for a quiz
program such that two are girls and two are boys. In how may ways selection can be
made-
15 × 14 × 13 × 12 15 × 14 × 13 × 12
(a) (b)
4 4 ×3
15 × 14 × 13 × 12 28 × 27 × 26 × 25
(c) (d)
4 ×3×2×1 4
CSIR-NET Life Sciences, June, 2004 561
15. Which is not an programming language-

(a) BASIC (b) C
(c) MS-WORD (d) LOGO
16. Number of values that can be stored in 8 bits are-

(a) 8 (b) 16
(c) 64 (d) 256
17. If 11X11=100. Then which statement is correct-

(a) Left hand side is binary and right is octal
(b) Left hand side is binary and right is ternary
(c) Left hand side is hexadecimal and right is octal
(d) Left hand side is binary and right is also binary

P Q P<Q P¹ Q
3 3 0 0
4 5 A B

(a) 0, 0 (b) 0, 1
(c) 1, 0 (d) 1, 1
(a) Logical error (b) syntax error
(c) organism effecting computer (d) high level programming
20. During the earthquake most damage is seen on earth crust because earth crust is-
(a) Rigid (b) Brittle
(c) Enelastic (d) Molten
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 4 (d) 16

23. If an object absorbs green part of white light, then its color will be-
(a) Blue (b) Yellow
(c) Green (d) Purple
24. Biston betualaria population have different colored individuals because-

(a) To escape from predators
(b) To keep genetic equilibrium
(c) To occupy different niche
(d) To keep distinct identity
25. In honey bee males are developed parthenogenetically while female gives females
and sterile workers on fertilization. It means-
(a) Males cannot have male child
(b) Males cannot have female child
(c) Females cannot have male child
(d) Females cannot have female child
26. The main reason for various genetic disorders are-
(a) Mutation in gene at one more location’
(b) Faulty repair mechanism
(c) Faulty Transcription process
(d) Incorrect protein synthesis
27. Farmers generally grow legumes after cereals. Since leguminous plant have symbiotic
nitrogen fixing bacteria which provide nitrogen to plants. The nitrogen available to
plant is in form of-
(a) Nitrates (b) Nitrites
(c) Ammonia (d) Ammonium nitrate
28. The main force involved in protein folding are-

(a) H-bonding (b) Hydrophobicity
(c) Covalent bonds (d) Vanderwall force
29. Fossils are generally found in-

(a) Sedimentary rocks (b) Igneous rocks
(c) Metamorphic rocks (d) Ice reserves
PART – B
1. Which one is the main function of Golgi complex-

(a) Protein synthesis (b) Protein sorting
(c) Detoxification (d) Phagocytosis
2. Cytological manifestation of crossing over during meiosis is visible as-

(a) Synaptinemal complex (b) Chaisma
(c) Diakinesis (d) Sister chromatid exchange
3. Recombination of genes takes place during-

(a) Pachytene (b) Diplotene
(c) Zygotene (d) Diakinesis
4. In mammals effective dosage of genes of two sexes is made equal by-

(a) Elimination of X chromosome
(b) Hyper activation of X
(c) Hypoactivation of X
(d) Inactivation of X
5. A well known genetic disorder is carried by a woman. She marries a normal man and
her all female child are alive but she lost all male child. Such a disorder must be-
(a) X-linked dominant (b) X-linked recessive
(c) Y-linked dominant (d) Autosomal recessive
6. Among the following enzyme which is not involved in DNA replication process-
(a) Primase (b) RNA polymerase
(c) DNA polymerase (d) Helicase
7. Ratio of observed double crossover frequency to the expected frequency of double

crossover gamete is termed as-
(a) Coefficient of interference (b) Coefficient of Coincidence
(c) Coefficient of variance (d) Coefficient of suppression
8. The somatic cell hybridization of human and mouse cell can be effectively carried out
using-
(a) PEG (b) Dextron
(c) Inactivated Sendai virus (d) Enzymatic treatment
9. Which enzyme is involved in repair mechanism-

(a) DNA polymerase (b) RNA polymerase
(c) Restriction endonuclease (d) Photolase
10. Which statement is not true for DNA transcription-
(a) Template strand & m-RNA have complementary sequences
(b) Template strand is used as coding strand
(c) Transcription is in 5’ ® 3’ direction
(d) Template strand & m-RNA have identical sequences
11. The most critical step for correct proteins synthesis is-
(a) Binding of ribosome to m-RNA
(b) Formation of Initiation complex
(c) Aminoacylation of t-RNA
(d) Translocation of ribosome
12. Point mutation in which there is deletion or addition of one base pair is termed as-
(a) Deletion (b) Transition
(c) Transversion (d) Frame shift mutation
13. Chromosome aberration in which suppression of crossing over, psuedo-dominance,

lethal gene and non-reversal of mutation occurs in-
(a) Inversion (b) Deletion
(c) Translocation (d) Duplication
14. In human males, autosomal and sex trisomy mainly occurs due to-
(a) Non-dysjuncion of chromosome
(b) Error in meiosis
(c) Dominant Y chromosome
(d) Faulty Repair mechanism
15. Among the following which do not have any role in blood clotting mechanism-
(a) Ca++ (b) Na+
(c) Prothrombin (d) Platelets
16. Among the following which chemical inhibits the mitochondrial electron transport
chain-
(a) Streptomycin (b) Nystanin
(c) Azides (d) Penicillin
17. The main force involved in protein folding are-

(a) H-bonding (b) Hydrophobicity
(c) Covalent bonds (d) Vanderwall force
18. RBC obtain their energy from-
(a) Mitochondria (b) Fatty acid synthesis
(c) Anaerobic glycolysis (d) Glyoxylate cycle
19. Shape of RBC is-

(a) Circular Biconcave (b) Oval Biconcave
(c) Circular Biconvex (d) Oval Biconvex
20. The Shape of RBC is maintained by-
(a) Proteins of Cytoskeleton (b) Hemoglobin
(c) Fibronectin (d) Cell wall
21. Degradation of protein takes place in-

(a) Lysosome (b) Lysome & Cytoplasm
(c) Mitochondria & Lysosome (d) Mitochondria
22. pH of endosome is about-
(a) 3-4.5 (b) 5-6
(c) 7 (d) 8-9
23. Phytohormone responsible for conversion of stored proteins into glucose in germinating
cereals is-
(a) Cytokinin (b) Auxin
(c) Gibberellin (d) Abscissic Acid
24. Direct oxidation of peroxides in plants is carried our by-

(a) Superoxide Dismutase (b) Glutathione Synthase
(c) Catalase (d) Peroxidase
25. A strong peptide bond is present in arginine and aspartic aci(d) This Bond will be
weak if arginine is being replaced by-
(a) Glutamic Acid (b) Lysine
(c) Histidine (d) Proline
26. Mainly absorption of glucose by intestine is by-

(a) Na-K Pumps (b) Diffusion
(c) Na-glucose Symporters (d) Uniporters
28. During nerve impulse when acetyl choline binds receptors, there is-
(a) In flow of Na & K ions
(b) In flow of Na and outflow of K ions
(c) In flow of K ions and outflow of Na ions
(d) In flow of K and H ions
29. Cellulose digester digest cellulose of fermentation. Fore gut fermentors such as rabit
and elephant ferment before intestine while hind gut digestor like deer ferment in
large intestine. It suggest that-
(a) Hind gut fermentor are effective digestor of Cellulose
(b) Fore gut fermentor are effective digestor of Cellulose
(c) Both hind gut & fore gut fermentor are effective digestor of Cellulose
(d) Cellulose digestion do not depend on gut position
30. Addison disease and Cushing syndrome are due to malfunctioning of –
(a) Adrenal medulla (b) Adrenal cortex
(c) Thyroid (d) Pituitary
31. Which hormone is present in high amount during pregnancy in urine and used for
pregnancy test-
(a) hCG (b) Progestrone
(c) Estrogen (d) Relaxin
32. Osmotic potential in plant cell is maintained by-

(a) Proline & beta Glycine (b) Histidine
(c) Lysine (d) Glycine
33. Which of the following are involved in antibody production-

(a) T cells, Macrophages
(b) B cells
(c) B cells, T cells, Macrophages
(d) Macrophages
34. Drug such as methotrexate which inhibit DNA synthesis are generally used for
treatment of cancer because-
(a) Cancer cells are converted into normal cells
(b) Drugs act only on rapidly dividing cells
(c) Cancerous cells are selectively eliminated
(d) Enzyme telomerase is inhibited
35. When two fungi namely one sterile and other Microconidial are grown together in
culture, it was seen that sterile fungi get degenerated while size of conidia of
microconidial fungi increased. The probable reason might be-
(a) Sterile fungi suicide to provide nutrition to micro conidial fungi
(b) Microconidial fungi secreted toxins in medium
(c) Both cultures can not be grown together
(d) Nutritional requirement of both fungi is different
36. During inhibition of enzyme action Vmax remains unchanged while Km is altered.
Inhibition is-
(a) Competitive (b) Non-competitive
(c) Un-competitive (d) Allosteric
37. During an enzyme assay if the initial velocity Vo=Vmax , then substrate concentration
will be-
(a) a Km (b) Km
(c) ½ Km (d) 0.2 Km
38. The maximum possible available energy of substance is termed as-

(c) Enthalpy (d) Chemical potential
39. The primary cause of variation among individual is-
(a) Recombination (b) Mutation
(c) Isolation (d) Hybridization
40. Biological species are defined on basis of-

(a) Morphology (b) Alkaloids
(c) Anatomy (d) Reproductive isolation
41. In phylogenetic relationship can be best established by-

(a) Allozymes (b) Alakaloids
(c) Alcohol dehydrogenase (d) Morphology
42. Among the following which trend shows the decreasing population-
(a) More individual in post reproductive stage
(b) More individual in pre-repd stage and repd. stage
(c) Less individual in pre-repd stage & more in post repd stage
(d) Less individual in repd stage & more in repd stage
43. r-selection is characterized by-
(a) Rapidly developing individuals
(b) Slowly developing individuals
(c) Small number of offsprings
(d) Large sized offsprings
44. Water potential decreases when-

(a) Solute concentration increases
(b) O.P decreases
(c) Solute concentration decreases
(d) DPD decreased
45. Pyramid of energy may be inverted in-

(a) Desert (b) Oceans
(c) Tundra (d) Grasslands
46. Net productivity of closed ecosystem is-

(a) 0 (b) <0
(c) >0 (d) +1/–1
47. Number of individual surviving to reproductive stage is termed as-

(a) Fecundity (b) Net reproduction rate
(c) Survivorship curve (d) Reproductive Mortality
48. Major source of green house gases are-
(a) Burning of plants (b) Burning of fossil fuels
(c) Respiration (d) Use of LPG
49. Global warming is due to-

(a) Absorption of UV by Ozone
(b) Absorption of IR by CO2
(c) Absorption of IR by ozone
(d) Absorption of UV by CO2
50. Soil in naturally growing vegetation is-
(a) Acidic due to Bicarbonate in soil
(b) Basic due to Bicarbonate in soil
(c) Neutral
(d) Acidic due to Sulphuric acid
51. Deepest enriched soil with nutrients is present at-

(a) Tropical rain forests (b) Dry deciduous forests
(c) Grasslands (d) Conifers
52. Maximum biodiversity occurs at-

(a) Tropics (b) Equator
(c) Temperate (d) Shooth
53. The place is designated as hot spot of biodiversity, if it have percentage of endemic
species more then-
(a) 0.5 % (b) 2 %
(c) 15 % (d) 30 %
54. On earth there are 15 hot spot of biodiversity. They covers total-
(a) 24 % of total plant species and 1.8 % of total land area
(b) 44 % of total plant species and 1.8 % of total land area
(c) 24 % of total plant species and 15 % of total land area
(d) 44 % of total plant species and 15 % of total land area
55. When different species formed are touching a boundary, such a speciation is termed
as-
(a) Sympatric (b) Allopatric
(c) Allo-sympatric (d) Parapatric
56. Diversity within community or habitat is termed as-

(a) a-biodiversity (b) b-biodiversity
(c) g-biodiversity (d) l-biodiversity
57. Hanuman languor when occupy Haram starts infanticide because-
(a) They does not want child of earlier dominant male to survive
(b) For reproductive advantage
(c) To remove alleles of dominant gene
(d) To maintain the constant population
58. Zea mays originated in-

(a) South America (b) Asia
(c) Europe (d) Africa
59. Coenozoic era is characterized by-

(a) Disappearance of reptiles and adaptive radiation in aves
(b) Disappearance of Dinosours and adaptive radiation in aves
(c) Disappearance of Dinosours and adaptive radiation in mammals
(d) Appearance of Mammals and Aves
60. Phylogenetic relationship cannot be established on basis of-
(a) 5 S r-RNA (b) 16 S r-RNA
(c) Mitochondrial genes (d) Ribosomal DNA
61. The first oxygen evolving forms among the following were-
(a) Anaerobic autotrophs (b) Cyanobacteria
(c) Protists (d) Algae
62. Fossils are generally found in-

(a) Sedimentary rocks (b) Igneous rocks
(c) Metamorphic rocks (d) Ice
63. Rapid nutritional recycling takes place in-

(a) Coral (b) Deserts
(c) Grasslands (d) Oceans
64. Shannon index is measure of –

(a) Biodiversity evenness (b) Population
(c) Pollution (d) Speciation
65. During Beagle voyage of Charles Darwin he observed that the flora of tropical America
is most similar to-
(a) Asia (b) Temperate America
(c) Europe (d) Australia
66. When a marine fish is placed in fresh water, it dies becuase-

(a) Entry of water and it floats
(b) Exit of water and shrinks
(c) Deficiency of salts
(d) Deficiency of nutrients
67. The Cuvier’s theory, which states that there had been several creations, each preceded
by another due to some geographical disturbances. Such theory is termed as-
(a) Theory of catastrophism (b) Special creation
(c) Pangenesis (d) Eternity of life
68. In winter pollution rate enhances due to-

(a) SPM (b) SO2 and NO2
(c) Burning of fuels (d) Low temperature
69. Distance between two genes is measured in which units-
(a) cM (b) Å
(c) bp (d) nm
70. Among the following which ions are not used in active transport-
(a) Na+ (b) K+
(c) Ca++ (d) Cl–
CSIR-NET Life Sciences, Dec., 2004
PART – A
1. Among the following, which is maximum soluble in water-
(a) Phenol (b) Benzaldehyde
(c) Chlorobenzene (d) Aniline
2. KCl is highly soluble in water but MgO2 is insoluble in it because-
(a) KCl is ionic while MgO2 is covalent molecule
(b) Hydration energy of MgO2 cannot overcome its lattice energy.
(c) Size of K and Cl ion is small
(d) Both are equally soluble
3. Number of geometrical isomers for an octahedral molecule MA3 B3 would be-
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 5 (d) 8
4. Rate constant for any reaction may be represented as K ∝ [A]n. When the substrate
concentration of substrate is increased twice its rate of reaction increases four times,
then the value for n will be-
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 4 (d) 1/4
5. Among the following which compound prevents the teeth decay-

(a) SnF2 (b) BF 4
(c) BeF2 (d) CF 4
6. A sound source is moving with the velocity Vs toward the moving object which is
moving with velocity Vo toward the sound source, then the ratio of frequency of
sound heard after time period ‘t’ will be-
(a) Vs + Vo/Vs + Vo (b) Vs – V/Vs + Vo
(c) Vs + Vo/Vs – Vo (d) Vs – Vo/Vs – Vo
7. There is dispersal of light into several colors after falling on oil drop suspended in
water due to-
(a) Diffraction of light by oil
(b) Different refractive index of oil and water
(c) Interference of light from lower & upper layers of oil
(d) Refraction of light from oil medium
8. An uniformly positive charged cupper wire is suspended by a rope as shown in diagram.
on bringing another unit positive charge toward one end of this wire, the cupper wire
would- +
(a) Repel away from positive charge +
(b) Will be attracted toward positive charge +
+
+
+
+
+
+
(c) Displace away from mean position

+
(d) There would be no deflection
9. Which statement is correct regarding the Archimedes principle-

(a) A body immersed in a fluid displaces fluid equal to its weight.
(b) The displaced fluid molecule tries to regain their original position
(c) All compounds equally sinks in water
(d) There is up thrust inversely proportional to mass of body
10. Consider the following program for factorial of real number ‘n’. It will not give the
valid result when the value of ‘n’ is –
START
READ N
FOR N=ÖN 2 +1
DO N=N+1
ELSE
END
(a) – 1 (b) 0
(c) + 1 (d) –1 and 0
11. In an computer program it is written that A=10, it means-

(a) There are 10 bits allocated to location A
(b) Location A can store 10 characters
(c) The previous value of A has changed to 10
(d) The program performs 10 calculations
12. Consider the following, truth table-
P Q P<Q P< = Q
3 7 1 A
5 5 B 1
The values for A and B will be-

(a) 0, 0 (b) 0, 1
(c) 1, 0 (d) 0, 0
13. Which of the following is not an operating system-
(a) DOS (b) Unix
(c) Linux (d) Oracle
14. Consider the following binary numbers

1 + 10 + 100 + 1000 ………… + 100000000
The sum of following binary number would be-
(a) 29 –1 (b) 210 – 1
9
(c) 2 +1 (d) 210 + 1
15. The height of Himalaya is gradually increasing due to-

(a) Shifting of Asian plates toward NE Asia
(b) Sinking of East Asia into pacific
(c) Volcanic disturbances

(d) Separation of plates between Asia and China
16. The rate of evaporation is more in Bay of Bengal as compare to Arabian sea because-
(a) More drainage of rivers in Bay of Bengal
(b) Strong winds over Bay of Bengal
(c) Bay of Bengal is swallow
(d) Monsoon winds
17. During the ice age the mean sea level decreased by 15 m and ice masses floated to
poles, during that time the period of rotation which is 24 hours would have been-
(a) Increased by one hour
(b) Decreased by an hour
(c) Decreased by more then one hour
(d) Remained unchanged.
18. On evaporation, there is cooling in surrounding because-

(a) Winds blows away energy from the water vapors
(b) More radiation absorbs heat
(c) Temperature of surrounding is always low
(d) Molecules evaporating gains energy
19. When a ship floats on water
(a) it displaces no water
(b) the mass of water displaced is equal to the mass of ship
(c) the mass of water displaced is lesser than the mass of the ship
(d) the mass of water displaced is greater than the mass of the ship
20. The probability of getting two girls and one boy for a family in sib ship of three would
be-
(a) 1/8 (b) 3/8
(c) 5/8 (d) 2/3
21. The outcome of following addition would be-
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 ... + 100
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5... + 99
(a) 1 + 100/99 (b) 1 + 99/100
(c) 101/99 (d) 99/100
22. The out come following equation would be-

n ® ¥ (1 +2/n)2
(a) e 2 (b) e
(c) e 2 +1 (d) e 2 –1
23. f(x) = ax2 + bx + C

g(x) = px2 + q + r
f(x).g(x) = 0
If a, b, c & p, q, r = real, then
(a) Öb2 – 4ac = 0 & ÖP2 – 4pr = 0 (b) Öb2 – 2ac = 0
(c) b2 – 4ac = 0 & P2 – 4pr = 0 (d) ÖP2 – 4pr = 0
24. Among the following which organ is not used for respiration in organisms-
(a) Nose (b) Lung
(c) Skin (d) Gills
25. How genes are involved in carbohydrate synthesis-
(a) Gene code m-RNA, which code for carbohydrates
(b) Genes directly synthesize carbohydrate
(c) Gene code m-RNA, which is used by ribosome for protein synthesis
(d) Gene code for enzymes, which are involved in carbohydrate metabolism
26. According to Darwin theory of natural selection, the cause of variations in population
is-
(a) Inheritance of acquired character
(b) They are pre-existing
(c) Due to environmental changes
(d) Due to mutation
27. Why we are wording about increasing concentration of CO2 , since in past the CO2
was higher then today’s amount-
(a) Burning of fossil fuels
(b) It has been never been so high
(c) It is added at highest rate on earth’s history.
(d) It is causing global warming
28. The order of following organisms as phylogenetic closeness to human-
(a) Chimpanzee > languor > lemur > tree shrews
(b) Languor > chimpanzee > tree shrews > lemur
(c) Chimpanzee > languor > tree shrews > lemur
(d) Languor > lemur > chimpanzee > tree shrews
29. When there is lunar eclipse on earth, a man is standing in shadow of earth he will
observe-
(a) Lunar eclipse (b) Total sun eclipse
(c) Annular sun eclipse (d) He will not see anything
30. There is a certain bond between A and B which is stronger then bond between A-A
and B-B because-
(a) The bond length between A-B is more then A-A and B-B
(b) More energy is required to break bond between A-B
(c) The energy of A/2 is and B/2 is more then AB/2
(d) The entropy of AB is less then A and B
31. The basic unit of the genetic material, which can be visualized, is -
(a) Metaphase chromosome
(b) Anaphase chromosome
(c) Interphase chromonema
(d) Nucleosome
PART – B
1. Which statement supports the second law of thermodynamics-

(a) Photosynthetic efficiency of plants is low
(b) There is limited numbers of tropic level
(c) Energy transfer from one tropic level to another always below 15 %
(d) High numbers of producers
2. Among the following which equation denotes the population growth when resources
are not limitating-
(a) N t = Noe –rt (b) dN/dt = rt
(c) N t/N t = Nt–N o (d) dN/dt = Krt
3. The cause of blood borne hepatitis is-
(a) HAV (b) HBV
(c) HCV (d) HGV
4. The enzyme responsible for conversion of O–2 ® H2 O2 is-

(a) Catalase (b) Ascorbate
(c) Superoxide dismutase (d) Peroxidase
5. Dosage compensation in drosophila can be visualized using-
(a) Gel electrophoresis
(b) Autoradiography
(c) Chromosome banding
(d) Tritium hydrogen labeled DNA
6. N-linked glycosylation of protein begins in-
(a) ER (b) Golgi
(c) Lysosome (d) Cytoplasm
7. The portion of golgi which contain irregular cisternae and tubules is known as-
(a) Cis golgi (b) Trans golgi
(c) Medial golgi (d) Intercisternal golgi
8. Mannose-6 phosphate tagged protein are targeted to-
(a) Lysosome (b) Peroxisome
(c) Mitochondria (d) Vacuole
9. The frame shift mutation is induced by-

(a) Nitrous oxide (b) Acradines
(c) EMS (d) UV rays
10. Then typical Mendel test cross ratio in two point cross is-
(a) 9:3:3:1 (b) 1:2:1
(c) 1:1 (d) 1:1:1:1
11. Germplasm theory was proposed by-

(a) Dobszzhanky (b) Weismann
(c) Meyer (d) Mendel
12. Mendel’s laws of inheritance is applicable to-

(a) Nucleus (b) Plasmid
(c) Mitochondria (d) Plastid
13. Number of base pairs in 68 µm long DNA would be-
(a) 2 × 104 (b) 2 × 105
(c) 6.8 × 105 (d) 3.4 × 105
14. Three DNA strands have 40%, 50 % and 60 % GC sequence. The probability of matching
8 bp sequences will be more in-
(a) A (b) B
(c) C (d) A& C
15. During RNA processing splicing is mediated by-
(a) Sn RNA (b) m-RNA
(c) r-RNA (d) t-RNA
16. Hormone which is responsible for absorption of water by kidney and prevents water
loss is-
(a) ACTH (b) Insulin
(c) Vasopressin (d) Oxytocin
17. The main function of oxytocin is-
(a) Relaxation of uterine muscles during pregnancy
(b) Contraction of uterine muscles at birth
(c) Ovulation of egg from ovary
(d) Maintenance of embryo attached to placenta
18. Possible types of gametes formation from genotype AABBCcDdEe would be-
(a) 16 (b) 64
(c) 8 (d) 128
19. Generally the number of cells present in the embryo sac of angiosperm are-
(a) 7 (b) 8
(c) 3 (d) 5
20. Among the following which is not responsible for maintaining ionic balance in animal
cell-
(a) Ca++ (b) Mg++
(c) Na+ (d) K+
21. There is always unidirectional flow of nerve impulse because-

(a) It is transmitted from pre-synaptic membrane to post synaptic membrane
through acetyl choline
(b) Due to presence of myelin sheath
(c) Axon and Dendrites
(d) Polarization and depolarization
22. Lesch-Nyann syndrom is due to defect in
(a) Recessive X-chromosome (b) Dominant X-chromosome
(c) Autosomes (d) Y-chromosomes
23. Profitability of prey for predator lies in its energy content and
(a) Prey density (b) Palatability
(c) Foraging time (d) Prey availability
24. Besides sexual reproduction in Planaria it also shows -
(a) Conjugation
(b) Budding
(c) Fragmentation and regeneration
(d) Binary fission
25. Among the following which is source of maximum antibiotics-

(a) Streptomyces (b) Penicillin
(c) Actinomyces (d) Bacillus
(a) Punctuated equilibrium
(b) Adaptive radiation
(c) Anagenesis
(d) Cladogenesis
27. Among the following which statement is false about r-selected species-
(a) Long generation time
(b) Large number of offspring
(c) Short life cycle
(d) Tendency to disperse
28. Cataloging and classification of plant species in India are maintained by-
(a) BSI (b) NBPGR
(c) Forest survey of India (d) National botanical garden
29. The branch of science which deals with classification, naming, identification of plants
on morphological basis without establishing the phylogenetic relationship is termed
as-
(a) Taxonomy (b) Systematics
(c) Phenetics (d) Cladastics
30. In India, among the following the maximum number of species are of-
(a) Antelops (b) Apes
(c) Panthera sps (d) Marsupials
31. Type of speciation observed in slow moving organisms is termed as-

(a) Sympatric (b) Parapatric
(c) Allopatric (d) Peripetric
32. Taxol, an anti-cancerous drug is obtained from plant Taxus bacata which belongs to-
(a) Bryophytes (b) Pteridophytes
(c) Gymnosperms (d) Angiosperms
33. Among the following commonly used method for classification in numerical taxonomy
is-
(a) Simple Matching Coefficient (S)
(b) Centroid Matching Coefficient
(c) Clustered Arithmetic average
(d) Unweighted Pair Group Method
34. If there is mutation in cdk/cyclin, the key molecule in regulating the cell cycle, then-
(a) There would be uncontrolled growth
(b) Cell will not pass to S phase
(c) The level of cdk/cyclins will enhance
(d) Cells will arrest to Go phase
35. Allergy or hypersensitivity reaction are due to secretions of –
(a) T-cells (b) Mast cells
(c) B-cells (d) Basophils
36. In humoral immunity humor means-

(a) lymph and plasma (b) Bone marrow
(c) Interstitial cells (d) B-cells
37. The structural change which leads into crossover suppression is-
(a) Deletion (b) Duplication
(c) Inversion (d) Translocation
38. NADPH enters the electron transport chain through-

(a) Co Q (b) FAD
(b) Succinate dehydrogenase (d) Cytochrome oxidase
39. Formation of glucose from acetyl CoA is called-

(a) Glycogenesis (b) Gluconeogenesis
(c) TCA cycle (d) Glycolysis
40. Cells absorbs insulin by-

(a) Endocytosis (b) Pinocytosis
(c) Phagocytosis (d) Active transport
41. The deficiency of cyanocobaltamine leads to-

(a) Microcytic anemia
(b) Macrocytic Anemia
(c) Thalsemmia
(d) Hypochoramtosis
42. An enzyme profile due to certain disease is shown

in following figure. It means that this disease is-
(a) Sex linked
(b) X linked
(c) Autosomal
(d) Both B & C
43. When an radioactive phosphorus is incorporated into DNA strand, the phospho diester
bond generally break after a short while because-
(a) The bond number of phosphorus decreases
(b) Phosphorus on radioactive decay converts into sulphur, which has valency of
two
(c) It attacks glycosidic bond
(d) It breaks hydrogen bond
44. Among the following which is generally not utilized for establishing phylogenetic
relationship between two species-
(a) % similarity (b) Geographical distance
(c) Marcoli distance (d) ______similarity
45. Mangroves are highly productive ecosystem but they are rich in bird diversity because-
(a) Lack of structural diversity
(b) Rich in food diversity
(c) More number of predators that feed on birds
(d) Lack of breeding place
46. Among the following which would lead into new species formation-
(a) Increased resources
(b) Niche overlapping tolerance
(c) Niche specialization
(d) Lack of competition
47. Origin of life is not possible under present environmental conditions because-
(a) Hydrogen is absent (b) Due to presence of oxygen
(c) Lack of source of energy (d) Lack of raw material for origin of life
48. Disaster such as earthquake or fire may reduce the size of population drastically and
the genetic make up of the small surviving population is unlikely to be representative
of make up of original population the situation is termed as-
(a) Bottle neck effect (b) Adaptive radiation
(c) Founder effect (d) Gene migration
49. A certain organism developed an adaptation as to adapt existing environment but if

this adaptation prove useful for some other function as well, it is termed as-
(a) Co-adaptation (b) Adaptive radiation
(c) Exadaptation (d) Co-evolution
50. In a population frequency of a homozygous recessive disease is 16% then the frequency
of dominant allele would be-
(a) 0.84 (b) 0.6
(c) 0.16 (d) 0.4
51. Ferritin tagged antibody can be visualized through-
(a) Fluorescence microscopy
(b) Electron microscopy
(c) Autoradiography
(d) Phase contrast microscopy
52. The bonding which are responsible for holding two beta sheets together is-
(a) Disulphide bond (b) Covalent bond
(c) Hydrogen bond (d) Hydrophobic interaction
53. The best example of regulation of enzyme by reversible covalent modification is-
(a) Phosophorylation (b) Acetylation
(c) Glycosylation (d) Proteolytic cleavage
54. Use of inactivated Sendai virus and PEG for fusion of two cells has proved very
beneficial in studies for-
(a) Transgenic
(b) Tissue culture
(c) Genetic manipulation
(d) Recombinant DNA technology
55. In a population individuals having heterozygous phenotype are more favored then
homozygous dominant which are more favored then homozygous recessive genotypes,
under such condition-
(a) Recessive alleles would be lost from population
(b) Dominant alleles would be lost
(c) Both alleles would remain in population
(d) Alleles would be lost randomly
56. The graph between new species encountered with progressive area covered would
be-
(a) Straight line (b) Hyperbola
(c) Sigmoid (d) Parabola
57. Minimata disease is an example of-

(a) Bioaccumulation (b) Bioconcentration
(c) Biomagnification (d) Air Pollution
58. First child of an parent is diseased They want to take help from genetic counselor for
their second child. The genetic counselor must know to predict the fate of second
child
(a) Both parents are diseased
(b) Disease is hereditary
(c) Marker for disease is monomorphic
(d) Marker for disease is polymorphic
59. C-AMP is directly involved in regulation of

(a) Adenylate cyclase (b) Protein kinase A
(c) Phospho frucotokinase (d) ATP
60. There is net gain of energy in form of ATP, if glucose which has converted into acetyl
coA enters-
(a) TCA cycle (b) Glycolysis
(c) Beta oxidation (d) Pentose phosphate pathway
61. When organisms are restricted to certain area and they are found nowhere else they
are called-
(a) Cosmopolitan (b) Endemic
(c) Sibling species (d) Ecotypes
62. If + represents the beneficial interaction and – represents the harmful interaction,
then the commensalism may be designated as interaction-
(a) ++ (b) + –
(c) + 0 (d) – 0
63. In small intestine, cholera toxin acts by

(a) active absorption of NaCl
(b) activation of GTPase
(c) inhibition of adenyl cyclase
(d) ADP-ribosylation of the G-protein
64. Transfer of impulse across the nerve fibres is not directly proportional to-
(a) Insulation of myelin sheath (b) Diameter
(c) Cold temperature (d) Length of neuron
65. Drosophila shares more its genes with sister (75%) as compare to its daughter (50%)
due to-
(a) Eusocialbilty (b) Kin selection
(c) Haploidy diploidy (d) Parthenogensis
66. Electrons excited from PS II are accepted by-

(a) PQ (b) Pheophylin
(c) PC (d) Cyt b6
67. Total energy available for work at equilibrium is termed as-

(c) Activation energy (d) Enthalpy
68. A group of species which are phylogenitically closer but they are lacking common
ancestor. Such an group is regarded as-
(a) Monophyletic (b) Polyphyletic
(c) Paraphyletic (d) Sympatric
69. Among the following which is not an characteristic of r-Selected species-
(a) Short maturation time
(b) Short life span
(c) Small size of offspring’s
(d) More then one time offspring production
70. In India most of plant flowers during spring or summer because-

(a) It is breeding season for butterflies
(b) More solar radiation are available
(c) Fruit and seed setting must be complete before onset of monsoon
(d) Environmental fluctuations are low
PART – A
1. Moon have many craters which are easily visible from earth, but earth looks almost
without craters when seen from the space because-
(a) Earth have atmosphere
(b) Moon is located near asteroid belt
(c) Earth is bigger then moon
(d) Moon have formed earlier then earth
2. Consider the following reaction.

A+B®C
If the concentration of A is doubled the rate of reaction doubles and if the concentration
of both A and B is doubled the rate becomes 16 times. So the rate constant can be
represented as-
(a) K a [A][B]2 (b) K a [A]2 [B]2
(c) K a [A]2 [B]3 (d) K a [A][B]3
3. The binary representation of decimal number 63 will be-

(a) 11111 (b) 111111
(c) 100101 (d) 10101010
4. For a computer among the following which is NOT a peripheral device-
(a) Keyboard (b) Mouse
(c) CPU (d) Monitor
5. For element among the following properties, which donot show trends in periodic
properties-
(a) Electro negativity (b) Bond behaviour
(c) Neutron/proton ratio (d) Electron affinity
235
6. 92 U
was bombarded with a slow moving neutron which resulted in its fission forming
149
50 X +84
42 Y
and some neutrons. The number of neutron released were-
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
7. Among the following which will have maximum pH at their 1M concentration-

(a) Sodium hydroxide
(b) Sodium carbonate
(c) Acetic Acid
(d) Potassium hydroxide
8. An laser beam with the wavelength 6300nm formed an interference pattern of 8.1 nm
while another laser beam of unknown wavelength produced an interference pattern
of 7.2 nm. Then the wavelength of second laser beam will be-
(a) 5600 (b) 4600
(c) 4800 (d) 3200
9. A wooden box of mass M is suspended between two springs having spring constant
K1 and K2. Both springs are fixed to walls. If the wooden block is displaced along (+)
X–axis then the time period for oscillation will be-
(a) T = 2pÖm/k1+k2 K1 K2
(b) T = 2pÖm(k1/k2) g M
(c) T = 2pÖm(k1-k2)2 /g
(d) T = 2pÖ(k1-k2)/m
10. During winters in Tundra when the lake freezes into ice, the temperature of water
just beneath the ice would be-
(a) 0 °C (b) –4 °C
(c) –10 °C (d) 4 °C
11. Consider the statement “Value of P lies in Q”. It means-

(a) P is true or Q is true
(b) P is true and Q is true
(c) P is false or Q is true
(d) P is false and Q is true
12. What would be the output of following program
(a) 2
(b) 3 i=0
(c) 4
(d) 5
i=i+1
yes
i 2 < 10
Print i
13. If an integer occupies five character in its binary form. The number of characters
required for its decimal form will be-
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
 1
14. n  → ∞ 2 +  equals to
 n
(a) Ve (b) e
(c) e 2 (d) e 3
15. Integers 1 to 7 are randomly arranged in a line. What is the probability that first two
numbers in line are odd-
(a) 2/7 (b) 4/9
(c) 12/9 (d) 7/9
16. If the value of integer a = 8 and c = 10. The values of log a, log b and log c are in
certain arithmetic progression. The value for integer b will be-
(a) Ö81 (b) Ö80
(c) Ö18 (d) Ö1.8 A
1
17. The distance between point A and B will be-
(a) Ö2
1
(b) 3
(c) 3Ö3 1
B
(d) Ö3
18. If all the oxygen present in atmosphere is replaced by nitrogen. What would be effect
on atmospheric pressure-
(a) Increase by 9% (b) Decrease by 9%
(c) Increase by 3% (d) Remain unchanged
19. The main function of ozone layer is-
(a) Protect us from UV rays
(b) Maintain global temperature
(c) Global warming
(d) Absorption of cosmic rays
20. Generally the deeper layers of oceans have low temperature, probable reason is-
(a) Sunlight cannot penetrate below 100 m
(b) Salt decreases the freezing point
(c) Endothermic reaction of ocean due to tidal forces
(d) Exchange of heat from deeper layer of ocean to earth crust
21. A satellite is revolving around an planet with orbital radius R. If mean density of
planet is r and universal gravitational constant is G. Then the orbital velocity will
depend on-
(a) G & r (b) r & R
(c) G, R & r (d) only on R
22. In an photoelectric effect if the light incident is above the threshold frequency with
constant intensity then-
(a) Kinetic energy of emitted electron will increase and no effect on frequency of
electrons
(b) Number of electrons emitted is more
(c) Frequency of emission of electron will be more
(d) No net effect
23. If the sphere is uniformly charged with charge density r. Then the electric field at
point A which is at distance x from centre will be-
1 q q
(a) E = 4 πε 2 (b) E = 4πε 0
0 x x2
x A
1 q2 1 q
(c) E = 4 πε 2 (d) E = 4 πε
0 x 0 x
24. DNA differs from RNA in-

(a) Bases (b) Sugar and Bases
(c) Sugar, bases and phosphate (d) Sugar and phosphate
25. The Rh-factor present on RBC gets it names from rhesus monkey which occurs in
(a) Africa (b) N. America
(c) S. America (d) Europe
26. If protein synthesis can start without start codon, then the number of different amino
acids coded by fragment 5’ TAGGCATAGGCACTATAGG-3’
(a) 4 (b) 3
(c) 5 (d) 7
27. The given graph suggest that
(a) Survibility decreases with increase in reproductive
potential High food availability
(b) Survibility is independent of food availability

(c) Reproductive potential is independent of food Low food availability
(d) Adverse effect of food on survibilty is more on
organisms with low food availability as compare to Reproductive potential
high food availability
28. A plant was taken from Leningrad to Brazil and Russia. The plant in Brazil flowered
during February while that in Russia flowered in July. The reason for these differences
would be-
(a) Cold temperature decreases flowering
(b) Inclination of axis of earth
(c) Differences in day length
(d) Rotation of earth on its axis
dy
29. Given y = ax = dx
(a) xax–1 (b) 1/ax

(c) ax ln a (d) None of the above
30. Carbon dioxide is being depleted from the atmosphere because of –
(a) Photosynthesis (b) Forest fire
(c) Coral reef formation (d) Volcanic erruption
PART – B
1. Maximum recombination frequency between two genes is-

(a) 25 % (b) 50 %
(c) 75 % (d) 100 %
2. The distance between two base pairs in Watson-Crick B-DNA is
(a) 34 nm (b) 3.4 nm
(c) 0.34 nm (d) 0.034 nm
3. The stage of meiosis I in which crossing over takes place

(a) Zygotene (b) Diplotene
(c) Diakinesis (d) Pachytene
4. Among the following which mutagen induces formation of thymidine dimmers in
DNA
(a) UV (b) Ethyl methyl sulphate
(c) Nitrous oxide (d) Ethydium bromide
5. Na+ – K+ pump is-

(a) Symport system (b) Antiport system
(c) ABC transporter (d) Diffusion pump
6. Consider the following statements. Which is correct?
(a) Intracellular concentration of Na+ is always high
(b) Intracellular concentration of K+ ion is low
(c) Extra cellular concentration of K+ and Na+ ion is isotonic to intracellular
concentration
(d) Extra cellular concentration of Na+ and intracellular concentration of K+ is always
high in normal cell
7. Exrachromosomal inheritance can be detected by-

(a) Back cross (b) Test cross
(c) Reciprocal cross (d) Dihybrid cross
8. Dosage compensation occurs in-

(a) Insects and mammals (b) Reptiles and mammals
(c) Reptiles and aves (d) Insects and reptiles
9. Drosophilla with chromosome complement XXXXY/AA will be-

(a) fertile female (b) meta male
(c) normal male (d) Intersex
10. During fusion of Rat and Human cell it was found that chromosomes of one species
was selectively eliminated, this had opened new doors to study-
(a) Transgenic study
(b) Chromosomal incompatibility
(c) Gene and linkage mapping
(d) Dominance of genes
11. B and T-cells of immune system are activated by-
(a) T-cytotoxic cells (b) T-helper cells
(c) Macrophages (d) B-cells
12. Immunoglobulin playing role in allergic reaction

(a) IgG (b) IgM
(c) IgD (d) IgE
13. A bacteria growing exponentially with doubling rate of 10 minutes. The intrinsic rate
of growth would be maximum when bacterial numbers are-
(a) at carrying capacity
(b) half of carrying capacity
(c) start of log phase
(d) remains constant at all phases
14. The nutritional medium was supplied to growing bacteria. If whole nutrient get
depleted in 20 cycles, then stage at which the amount of nutrient was half used-
(a) At end of 10 cycle (b) At beginning of 19 cycle
(c) At end of 19 cycle (d) At end of 11 cycle
15. Regarding gene expression in prokaryotes and Eukaryotes, which statement is correct-
(a) m-RNA and DNA are colinear
(b) m-RNA and protein synthesis can occur simultaneously
(c) processing of hn-RNA yields m-RNA
(d) RNA polymerase can bind to promoters situated upstream to gene
16. DNA fragment between size 2000 KD and 500 Kd can be separated using-
(a) PAGE (b) chromatography
(c) centrifugation (d) Pulsed field gel electrophoresis
17. The strongest evidence which suggest that RNA was ancient then DNA
(a) RNA can act as template for DNA synthesis
(b) RNA can work as catalyst
(c) RNA is single stranded
(d) RNA is genetic material in certain viruses
18. In an polypeptide if alanine is replaced by praline then-

(a) Its tendency to form á-helix increases
(b) Its tendency to form â-sheets increase
(c) The hydrophobicity of chain decreases
(d) There would no effect
19. Phosopho fructokinase is allosterically regulated by-

(a) ATP (b) ADP
(c) AMP (d) Fructose-6-P
20. cdK-2 exerts its effect during which stage of cell cycle
(a) G1 phase (b) S phase
(c) G2 phase (d) M phase
21. Diploid maize have 10 pairs of chromosome. Number of chromosome at Metaphase-I

will be-
(a) 10 (b) 20
(c) 30 (d) 40
22. For an endothermic reaction to occur spontaneously the
(a) DG = 0 (b) DG > 0
(c) DG < 0 (d) independent of DG
23. Arrage them according to decreasing order of strength

(a) sp3 > sp2 > sp1 (b) sp1 > sp2 > sp3
3 1
(c) sp > sp > sp 2 (d) sp1 > sp3 > sp2
(c) For easy flight
(d) Aestivation
by small fishes is ‘c’, then the ratio of c/p is termed as-
(a) Assimilation efficiency
(b) Net secondary productivity
(c) Consumption efficiency
(d) Conversion efficiency

28. Most of new species are formed by the process of –

(a) Anagenesis (b) Cladogenesis
(c) Sympatric speciation (d) Phylogenetic evolution
29. The alternative pathway of respiration can be inhibited by
(a) Cyanide (b) SHAM
(c) Arachodoic acid (d) Amphicillin
30. Dendrogram is-

(a) Arrangement of chromosomes
(b) graphical representation of phylogenetic tree
(c) taxonomic key to establish relationship
(d) evolutionary time scale representation
31. Development of sporophyte directly from gametes without fertilization is termed as-
(a) Apogamy (b) Apospory
(c) Adventive embryony (d) Apomixis
32. Goblet cells are located in-

(a) Liver (b) Oesophagus
(c) Intestinal villi (d) Duodenum
33. The phytohormone which provides desiccation resistance to embryo in germinating
seed is-
(a) Gibberlic Acid (b) Ethylene
(c) Abssicic acid (d) Cytokinin
34. Plants growing in cold environments generally have

(a) high cholesterol (b) high saturated fatty acid
(c) high unsaturated fatty acid (d) short chain fatty acids
35. Which is not true about TCA cycle-

(a) takes place in mitochondrial matrix
(b) Single largest source of direct ATP
(c) is linked to glycolysis via pyruvate
(d) there is formation of NADPH and FADH
36. Which is correct relationship between habitat disturbance and biodiversity-
(a) Areas with no habitat disturbance tends to have high biodiversity
(b) Areas with high habitat disturbance tends to have high biodiversity
(c) Areas with moderate habitat disturbance tends to have high biodiversity
(d) Areas with no habitat disturbance tends to have low biodiversity
37. The probability of capturing an individual of certain species is P i, then total biodiversity
can be represented as
(a) S(P i ) 2 (b) 1 – S (P i ) 2
(c) 1– S(1-P i ) 2 (d) 1/S(P i ) 2
38. Hardy Weinberg law operates on-

(a) Non-evolving population (b) Slow evolving population
(c) Random evolving population (d) Fast evolving population
39. If a gene have a three alleles namely p, q, r. Then Hardy- Weinberg law can be
represented as-
(a) (p + q + r)2 (b) (p + q + r)3
(c) (p + q + r) (d) (p + q)2
40. In a graph population density is plotted on X-axis then what should be plotted on
Y-axis to get a bell shape curve
(a) dN/dt (b) 1 – dN/dt
(c) T (d) N t – 1
41. In an organism G + C content is 50 %. What is probability of matching 6 nucleotide
sequence in genome
(a) (0.25)4 (b) (0.25)5
(c) (0.25)6 (d) (0.25)7
42. The bacteria which are classified on basis of morphology are-

(a) Spore forming bacteria
(b) non-sporulating bacteria
(c) aerobic bacteria
(d) anaerobic bacteria
43. Among the following which groups do not obey Linneus Nomenclature?
(a) Virus (b) Bacteria
(c) Archae (d) fungi
44. ICBN stands for

(a) International Code for Botanical Nomenclature
(b) International Code for Biological Nomenclature
(c) International Code for Botanical Naming
(d) International Code for Binomial Nomenclature
45. The differences in chromosome morphology between different species can be compared
by
(a) chromosome banding
(b) Tritium Hydrogen labeling
(c) Fluorescence screening
(d) in-situ hybridization
46. Typical mendelian dihybrid ratio for F2 generation is-

(a) 9:3:3:1 (b) 9:7
(c) 1:2:1 (d) 9:7
47. Smallest unit which can evolve is-

(a) Individual (b) Species
(c) population (d) cell
48. Nerves are connected to each other by

(a) hormone (b) neurotransmitter
(c) bones (d) muscles
49. Endocrine signaling is analogous to-

(a) Making a telephone call (b) Radio transmission
(c) Talking to self (d) Talking to partner over walky-talky
50. Examples of connective tissue are
(a) Bone and muscle (b) Bone and Blood
(c) Bone and cartilage (d) Blood and skin
51. Which enzyme is involved in detoxification reaction-

(a) glutathione oxidase (b) topoisomerase
(c) catalse (d) restriction enzymes
52. First organism evolved on earth were-
(a) aerobic heterotrophs (b) anaerobic heterotrophs
(c) aerobic autotrophs (d) anaerobic autrotrophs
53. Among the following most primitive eukaryotes are-

(a) Fungi (b) Diatoms
(c) Diplomonads (d) Tricomonads
54. Main cause of respiratory problem arising from pollution from automobile combustion
is due to-
(a) NOx (b) SO2
(c) SPM < 10µm (d) SPM > 50µm
55. Among the following which is global cycle-

(a) Carbon (b) Sulphur
(c) Boron (d) Nitrogen
56. Virus which replicates via DS DNA as intermediates-
(a) HPV (b) HIV
(c) HBV (d) HCV
57. Chlorosis in plants is due to deficiency of

(a) Boron (b) Nitrogen
(c) Phosphorus (d) Sulphur
58. Botanical name of ‘Great Indian Banayan tree” is

(a) Ficus reliogosa
(b) Ficus bengalensis
(c) Ficus elipitca
(d) Ficus indica
59. Which protein is coded by chloroplast genome

(a) Small sub-unit of RUBISCO
(b) Large sub-unit of RUBISCO
(c) Entire RUBISCO
(d) none
50. During evolution the limbs of snakes were lost. The explanation for this is
(a) Limbs degenerated due to disuse
(b) This was more adapted
(c) Limbs were not desirable
(d) none of the above
51. A normal man was found to have 45 chromosomes the probable reason is-
(a) Deletion (b) Translocation
(c) Ecentric Fission (d) Mutation
52. Changes in gene frequency in a small population is termed as-

(a) Gene migration (b) Genetic drift
(c) gene flow (d) Gene fluctuation
53. Size of insect doesnot increased during the course of evolution as compare to
vertebrates because of-
(a) larval feeding (b) tracheal respiration
(c) heavy exoskeleton (d) None of the above
54. Which is essential for evolution

(a) Mutation (b) Reproduction
(c) Meiosis (d) Natural selection
55. Salt exclusion is mechanism necessary for
(a) Halophiles (b) Xerophytes
(c) Plants in cold habitat (d) Hydrophytes
56. Areas with annual cool temperature and almost contant rate of precipitation
throughout year is
(a) Tundra
(b) Temperate deciduous
(c) Tropics
(d) Poles
57. What should be the criteria for choosing prey-predator relationship for long term of
biological control
(a) High host specificity and high virulence
(b) low host specificity and high virulence
(c) High host specificity and moderatevirulence
(d) moderate host specificity and moderate virulence
58. In receptor mediated endocytosis the pits are coated by

(a) laminin (b) clathrin
(c) intergrin (d) tubulin
59. Inositol at first placei in anticodon can base pair with any base in third place of codon.
This suggest that
(a) There is flexibility over last base of codon and first base of anticodon
(b) There is flexibility over first base of codon and first base of anticodon
(c) There is flexibility over last base of codon and last base of anticodon
(d) There is flexibility over only at last base of codon
70. The excretory waste in birds is uric acid, it suggests that

(a) Birds are more advanced
(b) Birds are omnivores
(c) Birds are adapted for conservation of water
(d) Uric acid is toxic metabolite
CSIR-NET Life Sciences, DEC., 2005
PART – A
1. If each resistance in the given circuit is 1 ohm, then effective resistance between
point A and B will be-
(a) 0.5 ohm
(b) 1 ohm
A B
(c) 8 ohm
(d) 12 ohm
2. According to debroglies equation wavelength associated with the charged particle is-
(a) l = nh/2p (b) l = nh/4p
(c) l = 2ME (d) l = h/Ö2ME
3. A wire AOB is placed perpendicular to magnetic field shown by dotted lines. If another
wire PQ slides from top to bottom parallel to magnetic field, then the graph for the
change in e.m.f as function of ‘t’ will be is as follows-
P A
B
Q
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
4. When beam of light falls on oil droplet following phenomenon is observed-

(a) Refraction (b) Reflection
(c) Interference (d) Diffraction
5. Resolution of electron microscope is better then compound microscope because-

(a) Wavelength used is very small
(b) Power of lens is very high
(c) Specimen is very thin
(d) Frequency of light is very small
6. The electronic configuration of Atom ‘A’ is 1S2 2S2 2P 6 3S2 and atom ‘B’ is 1S2 2S2 2P 1 .
Their molecular formula will be-
(a) A3 B2 (b) A2 B2
(c) A2 B3 (d) AB
7. Among the following which oxides are not found-
(a) Fe 2 O3 , BaO, CaO (b) FeO, BaO2 , Mn3 O2
(b) Co 2 , CO, O3 (d) CO3 , MnO4
8. Among the following which atom do not form any molecules

(a) Argon (b) Krypton
(c) Uranium (d) Helium
9. What would be the mass of air in a room of size of 6 × 11 × 4 at normal temperature
and pressure
(a) 3.4 kg (b) 34 kg
(c) 17 kg (d) 340 kg
10. The series of lines present in the visible region of the hydrogen spectrum is
(a) Lyman (b) Balmer
(c) Paschan (d) Brackets
11. If the amount of ice at poles is doubled, then according to energy conservatives the
length of day will-
(c) No effect (d) Unpredictable
12. If earth would not have been not inclines 23 ½ on its axis, then there would be-
(a) Lesser rainfalls
(b) Hotter summers and cooler winters
(c) Length of day increase in northern hemisphere
(d) No seasonal rainfalls
13. If the mean temperature of earth would have been increased from 20 to 25 oC, then
the rate of radiation from earth will be-
1 2
 298   298 
(a)   (b)  
 293   293 
3 4
 298   298 
(c)   (d)  
 293   293 
14. Main cause of scarcity of water in India-

(a) Lack of sufficient rainfall
(b) Most of water runs to oceans
(c) Soil don’t percolates the water
(d) Due to green house effect
15. The fossils are generally seen in-

(a) Metamorphic rocks
(b) Igneous rocks
(c) Sedimentary rocks
(d) Ocean beds
16. If an Mendelian cross between pure tall and pure dwarf yield all tall plants in F1
generation while in F2 generation the ratio of tall to dwarf plant is 75:5. The number
of genes involved for plant height are-
(a) one (b) two
(c) Three (d) Many
17. There are 64 codons for 20 amino acids it means-

(a) Most of codon do not code for any amino acid
(b) Most of codon are involved in other types of amino acids
(c) One amino acid can be coded by more then one codon
(d) One codon can code for more then one amino acid
18. During replication process in bacteria-

(a) One bacteria possess parental DNA while another possess new copy
(b) Both bacteria possess new copy
(c) Half of the DNA in both bacteria is parental while another half is newly synthesized
(d) Both bacteria possess only parental DNA
19. Which of the following macromolecule denaturates at 65 °C
(a) Lipids (b) Carbohydrates
(c) Proteins (d) DNA
20. Which one of the following is lewis base

(a) NH3 (b) HCl
(c) HNO3 (d) HF
21. If I AI = 10
IBI=7
It means that always
(a) A È B ³ 10 (b) A È B =17
(c) A Ç B ³ 10 (d) A Ç B ³ 7
22. The equation x2 + 4xy+3y2 = 7 will give a/an-

(a) Straight line (b) Ellipse
(c) Parabola (d) Hyperbola
23. If P is rational
Q is irrational
Then sum of P+Q will always-
(a) rational (b) Irrational
(c) Real number (d) Prime number
24. In the given figure the length BO will be A
(a) 12/5
(b) 3/4 5
4 O
(c) 5/3
(d) 4/5
C
25. 4x + 6y = 12 B 3
6x + 9y = C
(a) It has unique solution
(b) Have many solutions
(c) Have many solutions if C = 15
(d) Have many solution if C ¹ 15
26. If an pendulum clock strikes 6 times at 6 O’ clock and takes 30 seconds. Then the
time taken to strike 12 times at 12 O’ clock will be-
(a) 60 (b) 54
(c) 66 (d) 61
27. Given A =12, which is followed by condition A³11 it means-
(a) A cannot be 12
(b) A is lesser then 11
(c) A must be 12
(d) A must be smaller or equal to 11
28. Among the following which is not an programming language-

(a) BASIC (b) UNIX
(c) FORTRAN (d) COBOL
29. Consider the truth table where ‘F’ stands for ‘false’ and ‘T’ for ‘true’; ‘V’ stands for
‘and’ and ‘A’ stands for ‘Or’
P Q PVQ PAQ
T T A T
F F T B
(a) A = True B = False (b) A = True B = True
(c) A = False B = False (d) A = False B = True
6. T-helper cells can be marked on basis of-

(a) CD4 (b) CD8
(c) Phagocytotic activity (d) Membrane lipids
7. Among the following which exerts its effect during ‘S’ phase in yeast-
(a) cdc1 (b) cdc2
(c) cdc3 (d) cdc28
8. Dosage compensation in drosophila is achieved by-

(a) Selective elimination of maternal X chromosome
(b) Heterochromatization of paternal X chromosome
(c) Hyperactivation of maternal X chromosome
(d) Hyperactivation of paternal X chromosome
9. Chromosomes of yeast and protozoa are best studied by-

(a) Visible Microscopy
(b) Electron microscopy
(c) PAGE
(d) Pulse field gel electrophoresis
10. Systemic Lupus Erytheromatosus(SLE) is an-
(a) Metabolic disorder
(b) genetic disorder
(c) Autoimmune disorder
(d) Vitamin disorder
11. In India maximum biodiversity is seen at-

(a) Eastern and western Himalayas
(b) Eastern Himalayas and western Ghats
(c) Eastern and Western Ghats
(d) Eastern Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands
12. Among the following which amino acid can act as buffer against addition of acid-
(a) Glycine (b) Histidine
(c) Arginine (d) Phenylalanine
13. Which bond is can not be observed between enzyme and substrate-
(a) ionic covalent bond (b) Hydrogen bond
(c) Peptide bond (d) ionic bond
14. Lipids which ranges from 120-160 kD in size. Then also they are kept amongst the
macromolecules because-
(a) They are main component of membrane
(b) They are main component of cell
(c) In water they form large complex structures
(d) They are present in large amount
15. Consider the following redox reaction of glycolysis

Pyruvate + 2e– ® lactate
NADH2 ® NAD+ + 2H+ + 2e –
The correct statement is-
(a) The electron are readily picked up by NAD from pyruvate
(b) NADH2 provide electrons to pyruvate for oxidation
(c) Both reaction are independent
(d) NADH2 is not formed during glycolysis
16. Which statement is FALSE about glycolysis-

(a) NADH2 is formed
(b) FADH2 is formed
(c) Electron are transferred from glucose to Pyruvate
(d) Pyruvic acid is formed at last step
17. The role of carrier proteins in light reaction is-

(a) To transfer energetic electrons from PSII to PSI.
(b) Pumping of Protons
(c) Formation of ATP
(d) Transferring of high energy electrons from PSI to PSII
18. Among the following which mineral plays an important role in photolysis of water-
(a) Mg++ (b) Ca++
(c) Na+ (d) Mn++
19. Chlrosis in young leaves is generally due to deficiency of-

(a) Mg++ (b) Ca++
(c) Na + (d) Mn++
20. Which statement is correct if we compare a protein and its DNA for phylogenetic
studies-
(a) DNA and protein have similar differences
(b) Proteins are more similar then DNA
(c) DNA is more similar then the protein sequences
(d) Differences in DNA and protein do not have any similarity
21. Which is one of the major step during programmed cell death in plants-
(a) Systemic acquired resistance
(b) Hypersensitivity
(c) Cell lysis
(d) Cell necrosis
22. Which plant growth regulator is involved in activating a-amylase activity in

germinating seeds-
(a) Auxin (b) Cytokinin
(c) Gibberlic acid (d) Brassicosteroids
23. The hormone secreted by developing placenta is-

(a) Choronic gonadotropin (b) Estrogen
(c) Relaxin (d) ADH
24. The given structure is of – I I

(a) Thyroxine
(b) Calcitonin CH–NH 3
(c) Parathormone |
COO–
(d) Aldosteroids I I
25. Arrange the following according to increasing order of concentrated urine-
(a) Beever < Human < Sand Rat
(b) Human < Beever < Sand Rat
(c) Sand Rat < Beever < Human
(d) Beever < Sand Rat < Human
26. If we compare the respiration in amphibian and mammals we will find that-
(a) Positive pressure in both amphibian and mammals
(b) Negative pressure in both amphibian and mammals
(c) Positive pressure in amphibian and Negative in mammals
(d) Negative pressure in amphibian and Positive in mammals
27. Athletes are usually trained at high altitudes because-

(a) To increase the number of RBC
(b) To form modified haemoglobin
(c) To increase number of WBC
(d) To increase the amount of proteins
28. Which statement is FALSE about animal hormones-
(a) They are secreted by many specialized cells
(b) They can influence through humoral root
(c) They can bind to variety of receptors
(d) They are required in large amount to elicit their response
29. Among the following which muscle protein as affinity to bind with Ca++ ions-
(a) Troposmyosin (b) Troponin
(c) Actin (d) Myosin
30. If 10 ml of 540 dpm of Cr was injected in a person and 1 ml of blood was withdrawn
after 10 minutes, it was found that it contains 40 dpm of Cr, it means the total
volume of blood in that person will be-
(a) 5.4 lt (b) 6.0 lt
(c) 6.2 lt (d) 6.4 lt
31. Among the following which is probable cause of unequal results during the reciprocal
crosses-
(a) X-linked inheritance (b) Polygenic inheritance
(c) Mendelian Inheritance (d) Epitasis
32. The maps based on recombination frequency are termed as-

(a) Genetic Map (b) Linkage map
(c) Physical Map (d) Cytogenetic Map
33. The minimum number of genes in an autonomous replicating organism is

(a) 50 – 100 (b) 300 – 400
(c) 1000 – 1500 (d) 4000 – 5000
34. If bacteria possess two copies of certain genes then they are referred as-
(a) Amphidiploid (b) Merodiploid
(c) Euploid (d) Polyploid
35. HIV are kept under category of retero-viruses because-

(a) RNA is genetic Material
(b) RNA directly form m-RNA
(c) RNA is used as template for DNA synthesis
(d) DNA is not present at any stage of life cycle
36. If substitution is the only possible type of mutation, then which technique would be
no more useful
(a) Allignment (b) PCR amplification
(c) Database searching (d) Restriction fragment analysis
37. Number of linkage group in human male is-

(a) 22 (b) 23
(c) 24 (d) 46
38. If observed number of recombinant are more (or less) the what is expected from
Mendelian crosses, the probable cause is-
(a) Linkage equilibrium (b) Linkage disequilibrium
(c) Epitasis (d) Polygenic Inheritance
39. The PAGE profile of certain protein associated with klinefelter syndrome is as follows,
it means the non-disjuction of chromosome was in-
(a) Maternal Maternal Paternal Klinefelters
(b) Paternal
(c) Maternal and Paternal
(d) Cannot be predicted
40. Among the following the living fossil is-

(a) Ginkgo biloba
(b) Taxus bacata
(c) Psilotum
(d) Nepenthes
41. Inter-specific somatic hybridization are often followed by-
(a) Fusion of paternal chromosome
(b) Fragmentation of Paternal chromosomes
(c) Selective elimination of one of parental chromosome

(d) Fusion of nuclei
42. If E. coli are grown on lactose free medium for 20 generations under presence of
constant mutagen which produces the lac- mutants as well as lac- revertant in equal
amount. At the end it will be observed that
(a) Equal number of Lac- and Lac revertant
(b) More number of Lac revertant at the end
(c) More number of Lac- at the end of experiment
(d) Cannot be predicted
43. Selection which operates against any direction and donot allow to disrupt the present
mean is termed as-
(a) Directional (b) Stabilizing
(c) Disruptive (d) Balancing
44. In a population obeying Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the frequency of recessive allele

is 0.88, while of dominant allele us 0.12. The frequency of heterozygotes in population
will be-
(a) 11.1 % (b) 21.1%
(c) 79.9 % (d) 14.4%
45. After implication of Green Air Act in England which species become virtually absent-
(a) Biston betularia carbonifera
(b) Biston betularia typica
(c) Drosophila
(d) Apes Americana
46. If an allele is linked to the second allele at other locus which is favorably selected are
inherited together. Such an movement of an allele without any evolutionary benefit
to next generation is termed as-
(a) Selective drive (b) Evolutionary drive
(c) Hitch hiking (d) Linkage
47. Random change of gene frequency in a population is termed as-
(a) Genetic drift (b) Gene flow
(c) Mutation (d) Evolution
48. The morphological modification is transferred to next generation without any present
application which may prove beneficial in changed environment is termed as –
(a) Exadaptation (b) Pre-adaptation
(c) Analogous (d) Paralogous
49. The changes in prey brings changes in predator and vice-vers(a) Such an evolution
due to competition for existence is termed as-
(a) Converging evolution (b) Diverging Evolution
(c) Co-evolution (d) Parallel Evolution
50. The anti-cancerous drug vincristine is obtained from-

(a) Catharanthus (b) Taxus
(c) Raulofia (d) Cinchona
51. In comparison to aquatic ecosystem, in terrestrial ecosystem autotrophs expends

their most of energy in production of material which are indigestible by heterotrophs
because-
(a) Autotroph diversity is high in terrestrial ecosystems
(b) Autotroph diversity is high in aquatic ecosystems
(c) Heterotroph diversity is high in terrestrial ecosystems
(d) Energy takes a longer period to pass from autotroph to top consumer in terrestrial
ecosystem
52. On application of certain pesticide it was observed that the population of pests
increased. The probable cause would have been-
(a) Development of resistance
(b) Pesticide is ineffective
(c) Pesticide is not used properly
(d) Pesticide has removed natural biological control
53. The mean temperature and rainfall in Taiga is-

(a) –5 to 10 and 50 to 100 mm
(b) –5 to 10 and 150 to 200 mm
(c) 5 to 15 and 50 to 100 mm
(d) 5 to 15 and 150 to 200 mm
54. Which graph best explains the relation between the body size of an organism and
intrinsic rate of growth ‘r’-
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
B A
55. Among the following which is logistic equation-
(a) A C
(b) B
(c) C
(d) D D
56. If rate of mortality and natality become constant in each age group. Then the result
would be-
(a) Number of childrens increase
(b) Number of older one will increase
(c) Number of individuals in repd stage will increase
(d) The increase or decrease within any cohort will become independent
57. What would happen if we release the high BOD water into fresh lake-
(a) Opacity will decrease
(b) Number of organism will decrease
(c) Amount of dissolved oxygen will decrease
(d) No effect
58. Which sporulating bacteria also possess the phenomenon of social behaviour and
communication-
(a) Actinomycetes (b) Bacillus
(c) Cyanobacteria (d) Archaebacteria
59. During succession the bare rock is first colonized by-
(a) Algae (b) Bacteria
(c) Fungi (d) Lichens
60. Which graph correctly represents density dependent growth
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
61. The bird biodiversity in India is-

(a) 50 (b) 1200
(c) 3200 (d) 5200
62. The dendrogram in numerical taxonomy represents-
(a) Phylogenetic relationship
(b) Evolutionary relationship
(c) All observable characters
(d) Few characters
63. Among the following which has permanent status and is governed by central legislation-
(a) National park (b) Wild sanctuary
(c) Forests (d) Sport gardens
64. The phenomenon of bioluminescence is observed in-
(a) Dinoflagelletes (b) Copypods
(c) Cyanobacteria (d) Archie bacteria
65. Silicon is essential requirement for-

(a) Diatoms (b) Fungi
(c) Algae (d) Cyanobacteria
66. Ernst Meyer is known for

(a) Taxonomic classification
(b) Biological species concept
(c) Five kingdom classification
(d) Evolutionary history
67. Maximum productivity is observed at-

(a) Corals (b) Mangroves
(c) Oceans (d) Lakes
68. If a-diversity is diversity of pathogen per host and b-diversity is diversity of pathogen
between the two host and g-diversity is overall diversity. If g-diversity is constant and
a-diversity increases then-
(a) b-diversity will also increase
(b) b-diversity will decrease
(c) Both b and g-diversity will increase
(d) Both b and g-diversity will decrease
69. Which is Incorrect statement both for Deer and Antelope-

(a) Both are gregarious
(b) Male and female both have antlers
(c) There is female heirchy
(d) Live in social unions
70. Which is best technique to separate the two loci on chromosome-

(a) C-banding (b) G-banding
(c) Gel electrophoresis (d) Chromatography
PART – A
1. Consider the following program
Read m, n
No
if m > 0
Yes
t=m Print m
m = reminder after n
divided by m
m=t
What would be print if initial value for m and n is 462 and 242
(a) 22 (b) 11
(c) 13 (d) 14
2. Let there is any numbers f and g and f>any number ‘n’ and n > n0 . f(n) > g(n). Then
f3 n = eÖlogen will be
(a) Ön (b) n2
(c) n (d) 1/n
3. Among the following what would be increasing order of gases dissolved in oceans
(a) CO2 < O2 < NH4 (b) Ar < N < Oxygen
(c) CO2 < Oxygen < Argon (d) CH 4 < NH3 < CO2
4. Under what conditions reaction will be exothermic at all temperatures
(a) DH<0 and DS>0 (b) DH>0 and DS>0
(c) DH<0 and DS<0 (d) DH<0 and DS=0
5. If there is any salt TiCl similar to CeCl2 in geometry, then coordinate numbers for Ti
will be
(a) 6, 8 (b) 6, 6
(c) 4, 4 (d) 6, 4
6. If Ú stands for ‘and’, Ù stands for ‘or’, Ø stands for ‘not’ and Þstand for ‘implies’ then
under what condition pÞ q = ØpVq stands true
(a) pÚ (p Ù q) (b) ØpVq
(c) pÙ (p Ú q) (d) Ø pÙ (p Ú q)
7. For an ideal gas at 1 atmospheric pressure if volume occupied is 830 cm3 at temperature
123 °C, calculate the number of moles in given gas (if R = 6. moles, 1 atmosphere =
105 )
(a) 1.5 × 10–1 (b) 1.5 × 10–6
(c) 1.5 × 10–9 (d) 1.5 × 10–4
8. Among the following which cannot act as electrolyte when dissolved in water
(a) C6 H12 O6 (b) CH 3 COOH
(c) NaHCO3 (d) NaCl
9. What would be the bond angle in cyclopropane, cylcobutane and cylopentane

respectively
(a) 60, 90, 108 (b) 60, 90, 109
(c) 90, 120, 108 (c) 60, 90, 120
10. A stone of mass ‘m’ is moved in a circle of radius ‘r’ with constant speed ‘v2 ’. The work
done by the force over half the circumtence of the circe is
mv 2
(a) Zero (b) × πr
r
mv 2
(c) × 2 πr (d) mg × 2pr
r
11. If Q is antiparticle of P which will hold true
(a) mass will same (b) Will have opposite spin
(c) Obey pauli exclusion principle (d) Same number of neutrons
12. If all ice locked in icebergs melts what will happen to sea water level
(a) Increase by large extent (b) No effect
(c) Increase slightly (d) It will decrease
13. If a bacteria doubles itself in 5 minutes. What would be number of bacteria at end of
20 minutes if you start with 4 bacteria
(a) 64 (b) 32
(c) 48 (d) 16
x+2  1
14. Given fx = then f  f 
x+3  3
(a) 4/7 (b) 11/18
(c) 16/49 (d) 121/324
15. If radius of Circle A is 18 and of Circle B is 8 and both circle are touching each other
and tangent to line AB. Then what would be distance between A and B
(a) 24
(b) 28
(c) 25
(d) 32
A B
16. If number n is greater then or equal to 1000 and lesser then 10000 (1000< n >10000)
and its factorial fx are separate and members of {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, then fx will be
(a) 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 (b) 5 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 6
(c) 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 (d) 6 × 5 × 3 × 2
17. Given x – y = 1, x and y are real number then the

value of x3 – y3 cannot be θ/2
(a) 0 θ/2
Object
(b) 1/4
(c) –1
(d) –1/4
18. If a person see five images in mirror of an object, then the q between two mirror will
be
(a) 60 (b) 45
(c) 90 (d) 120
19. If u is at midpoint of AB and r is at midpoint of BD, A u

B
then sine of angle UCR will be
(a) Ö3/2
(b) 1/Ö3 r
(c) 1/3
(d) Ö3 C D
20. Mass m 1 is suspended to pulley and connected to mass

m 2 . If mass m1 can move only in vertical direction m2
then acceleration for m1 and m2 will be
(a) m 1 /m 2 + m1 g m 1 /m 2 + m1 g
(b) m 2 /m 1 + m2 g m 1 /m 1 + m2 g m1
(c) m 1 /m 1 + m2 g m 1 /m 1 + m2 g
(d) m 2 /m 1 + m2 g m 1 /m 1 + m2 g
21. Among the following which is a gaseous hormone

(a) Ethylene (b) Abscisic acid
(c) Gibberllic acid (d) Auxins
22. Among the following which cannot be a part of a gene

(a) UUUUUUUUU (b) AAAAAAAAA
(c) CATCATCAT (d) GCGCGCGCG
23. Conservation of ground water can be done efficiently by
(a) Construction of dams
(b) Banning tube wells
(c) Controlled consumption of ground water
(d) Water restoration by checking flow of running water
24. Type of genotype in individual having blood group will be

(a) IBIo (a) IAIo
(c) IAIB (d) IoIo
25. Among the following which are programming language

(a) C, JAVA, VC (b) EXCEL. MS OFFICE
(c) ORACLE, WINDOWS (d) POWERPOINT, WORD, EXCEL
26. 109 Flop’s are equal to

(a) 1 giga flop (b) 1000 flop
(c) 1 terra flop (d) 1 Mega flop
27. Ratio of daughter radioisotope to parent isotope in certain sample was found to be
3:1. If half life of radioisotope is 5 m.y, then the age of sample is
(a) 20 my (b) 15 my
(c) 10 my (d) 25 my
28. If a sedimentary rock A is 20 m.y old. An another rock B is lying over it which is
dissected by 10 m.y. intrusive rock. Then the age of rock B will be
(a) In between 10 m.y and 20 m.y
(b) 20 m.y
(c) 10 m.y
(d) Lesser then 10 m.y
29. A magnet is suspended near an current carrying

conductor as shown in diagram
r N S
If r is very small the torque acting will be in direction
(a) k (b) j
(c) i (d) cannot be estimated
30. The oxidative phosphorylation occurs at
(a) Inner membrane of mitochondria
(b) Vacoule
(c) Cytoplasm
(d) Chloroplast
PART – B
1. Major regulatory step in cholesterol biosynthesis is

(a) HMG coenzyme reductase (b) HMG coenzyme synthase
(c) Epimerase (c) Acetyl CoA carboxylase
2. Group of members which are morphologically identical bur genetically different are
termed as
(a) Sibling species (b) Taxonomic species
(c) Morphospecies (d) Biological species
3. Occurrence of similar morphological forms in clade at different interval is termed as

(a) Iterative (b) Convergent
(c) Coevolution (d) Parallel evolution
4. Group of members which cannot interbreed freely are termed as

(a) Biological species (b) Taxonomic species
(c) Morphospecies (d) Sibling species
5. Which is true for gap junction

(a) It is made of connexin protein
(b) Allows free movement of large molecules across cells
(c) Made up of two subunit of connexons
(d) Movement of gases takes place by gases
6. The mode of action of antiobiotic penicillin is

(a) It inhibits glycolase moiety of cell wall enzyme
(b) Antibode is exclude by membrane
(c) Antibiotic is not allowed to enter the cell
(d) It deactivates membrane transport
7. b-diversity is defined as diversity
(a) Between two different ecosystems
(b) Overall large area
(c) Within a sampling area
(d) total species richness
8. Speciation occurring due to geographical barrier is termed as

(a) Allopatric (b) Sympatric
(c) Parapatric (d) Peripatric
9. Diffusion of gas in plant cells is by

(a) Symplast (b) Plasmodesmata
(c) Apoplast (d) Passive transport
10. Among the following which hormone can induce flowering in short day plants grown
under long duration of light
(a) Gibberllic acid (b) Auxins
(c) Cytokinin (d) Abscisic acid
11. If water is oxygenated and inoculated by bacteria, then the graph of BOD with time
for duration of five days will be
(a) BOD (b) BOD
Time Time
(c) BOD
(d) BOD
Time Time
12. Probability of occurring similar amino acid sequence in two oligopeptides of length n
will be
(a) 1/20n (b) n20
(c) 20n (d) 1/n20
13. The graph between area studied and number of species encountered will be
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
14. The type of survivorship curve present in Paleozoic fishes was A
(a) D B
(b) B C
(c) C D
(d) A
15. If a nerve extracted is activated in reverse direction by giving

impulses and following reactivity is obtained with time, then
the speed of transmission of impulse across the nerve is
Reactivity
(a) 500m/s 100m/s 10 m/s
(b) 500m/s 100m/s 50 m/s
(c) 100m/s 50m/s 10 m/s
t
(d) 200m/s 100m/s 50 m/s 1 2 3 4 5
16. Among the following which relationship shows positive logarithmic interaction
(a) Generation time and animal size
(b) Generation time and longevity of animal
(c) Animal size and number of offspring
(d) Longevity and number of offspring
17. Among the following which is not an characteristic feature of r-selected species
(a) Maturity at later stage (b) Large clutch size
(c) Small size of offspring (d) Maturity at early stage of life
18. If a sequence 5’AAA(AAA)n AAAAAC 3’ was transcribed in cell free system and peptide
obtained was partially hydrolyzed with carboxypeptidase, the result was an Aspargine
residue and oligopeptide. It suggest the direction of translation was
(a) 5' – 3' (b) 3' – 5’
(a) 3' – 5' at pH 7.2 (d) 5' – 3'at pH 5.4
19. The given graph shows

(a) Cooperativity
(b) Lograthimic growth
(c) Linear rise
(d) Saturation kinetics
20. Albinos have visual problem in bright light because they lacks
(a) Melanin (b) Rods
(c) Cones (d) Creatin
21. The percentage of protein coding sequence in E. coli genome is
(a) 70 % (b) 24%
(c) 3 % (d) 0.2 %
22. If the frequency of recessive allele causing disease in homozygous recessive condition
in a population of 10,000 is 0.04, then the number people affected by disease will be
(a) 16 (b) 400
(c) 3600 (d) 496
23. Hard-Weinberg law in a population represents
(a) Genotype frequency
(b) Allele frequency
(c) Heterozygote frequency
(d) Homozygote frequency
24. The F+ segment of bacteria may be transferred to F – bacteria by the process of

(a) Conjugation (b) Transduction
(c) Transformation (d) Fragmentation
25. In a genetic test 9 : 7 ratio in F2 generation represents
(a) Epitasis (b) Co-dominance
(c) Incomplete dominance (d) Complete dominance
26. Periodic toxic algal booms in oceans are due to

(a) Dinoflagellates (b) Cyanobacteria
(c) Diatoms (d) Green Algae
27. Among the following which is best indicator of water pollution due mixing of human
faeces
(a) E. coli (b) Trypanosoma
(c) Paramecium (d) Bacillus
28. The main alkaloid obtained for Dioscorea deltoids is

(a) Diosgenin (b) Digitoxin
(c) Qunene (d) Serpentine
29. If the two or more morphological forms are favored against heterozygotes, such an
selection is termed as
(a) Disruptive (b) Directional
(c) Stabilizing (d) Cyclic
30. It has been observed the bacteria secretes toxin at high population density to check
the population size. This phenomenon is termed as
(a) Quremsensing (b) Population control
(c) Allelopathy (d) Inter specific Competition
31. Dosage compensation in mammal females is achieved by

(a) Methylation of one X chromosome
(b) Hyper activation of one X chromosome
(c) Elimination of one X chromosome
(d) Hypoactivation of Both X chromosome
32. It has been observed the transfer of certain X segment in XO Caenorhhabditis elegans,
restores female character. It suggest that mode of sex determination is
(a) X/A ratio (b) XY type
(c) A/X (d) Ploidy difference
33. Number of cycles required to completely hydrolyze arachodoic acid into acetyl CoA is
(a) 9 (b) 8
(c) 10 (d) 11
34. Endocytic vesicles are usually coated by

(a) Clathrin (b) Laminin
(c) Desmins (d) Actin
35. Which of the following gene is involved in apoptosis
(a) caspace (b) cyl2
(c) bxl (d) apc
36. Mast cells have receptor for

(a) Ig E (b) Ig A
(c) Ig G (d) Ig M
37. Secondary immune response is generated due to
(a) Memory cells (b) Naive B-cells
(c) Naive T-cells (d) Natural killer cells
38. Which is true about Mitosis Promoting Factor (MPF)

(a) concentration cyclically varies during entire M phase
(b) Its concentration can be sensed during S
(c) Its concentration can be sensed during G1
(d) Control the replication of DNA
39. Among vertebrates the maximum biodiversity occurs in

(a) Pisces (b) Aves
(c) Mammals (d) Reptiles

40. Which is observed after crossing over between chromosomes having pericentric
inversion and normal
(a) Segmental Deletion and Duplication
(b) Bridge formation
(c) Ring formation
(d) Acentric and dicentric chromosomes
41. If a gene product in Sps A is 90 % similar to gene product in Sps.B. Such genes are
termed as
(a) Orthologous (b) Perilogous
(c) Paralogous (d) Allologous
42. Formation of various species from one common ancestor is termed as

(a) Adaptive radiation (b) Phylogeny
(c) Cladisitics (d) Natural selection
43. If mutation in regulatory gene increases 1000 fold efficiency of repressor protein to
operator under such condition, which is true about operon
(a) No protein production
(b) Basal protein production
(c) Normal protein synthesis
(d) Increased protein synthesis
44. What would be decreases order of viability bacteria if it is stored at

a. 4–9 °C b. 0 °C c. –196 °C
(a) c b a (b) a b c
(c) b c a (d) c a b
45. The type of vegetation in climate having annual temperature range 5–20 °C and
rainfall 150–300 mm will be
(a) Temperate deciduous (b) Temperate evergreen
(c) Taiga (d) Grasslands
46. Heavy metal (Pb) resistance in Thalspie curulesiensis is due to

(a) Presence of cation efflux pumps
(b) Presence of Na-K pumps
(c) Metal adsorbtion
(d) Metal metabolism
47. Which ion gradient is formed across the thylakoid membrane If a light is incident on
isolated thylakoid
(a) H+ (b) Na+
+
(c) Both Na and H + (d) Cl–
48. In haemoglobin efficiency for oxygen increases when there is

(a) Low pO2 (b) High pCO2
(c) Low pCO2 (d) High pO2
49. Molecular phylogenetics is based on

(a) Neutral evolution (b) Natural selection
(c) Parallel evolution (d) Co evolution
50. Advantage of numerical taxonomy is

(a) Objective in nature (b) Subjective in nature
(c) Easily manageable (d) Few characters are considered
51. Among the following which is characteristic feature of Meiosis-I

(a) Separation of homologous chromosome
(b) Separation of chromatids
(c) Doubling of DNA content
(d) Movement of chromosome towards poles
52. RNA dependent DNA polymerase is present in
(a) Human Papiloma Virus (b) Hepatitis B
(c) Hepatitis C (d) Epstein-Barr Virus
53. Aldosterone is involved in

(a) Electrolyte balance (b) Carbohydrate metabolism
(c) Fat metabolism (d) Growth and Developmemt
54. Insulin resistance females generally have problem in ovulation because
(a) The elevated androgens cause an increase in free estrogen which results in a
decrease in follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
(b) The androgens are decreased thus follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is
increased.
(c) Amount of free estrogen decreases
(d) Ovary become non-functional
55. If the organism carrying the gene, the bearer survives to reproduce and also helps
the borne who carry many of the same genes survive to reproduce. This phenomenon
is termed as
(a) Inclusive fitness (b) Darwinian fitness
(c) Reproductive fitness (d) Survival fitness
56. In glycolysis if concentration of Gyceraldehyde-3-P is 2 × 10–6 and of Di hydroxyl

acetone Phosphate is 4 × 10-4 at pH 7.2 and DG0 value 9.2 K cal/mole. Then the
reaction will proceed
(a) More toward Glyceraldehyde-3-P
(b) More toward Dihydroxy Acetone phosphate
(c) Remain at equilibrium
(d) Cannot be predicted by given information
57. The penta-cyclic ring common is Vitamin A, Vitamin K and Chlorophyll is

(a) Isoprene (b) Phenol
(c) Pentose (d) Aldehyde
58. The repeating structure common in Haemoglobin, Chlorophyll and cytochrome
is
(a) Porphyrin (b) Pentose
(c) Benzene (d) Phenol
59. The accumulation of DDT has decreased the population of Pelican ducks because
DDT
(a) Decreased availability of Ca for egg shells which leads into thin shelled fragile
eggs
(b) Killed all ducken
(c) Interfered Ca Metabolism
(d) Stopped synthesis of eggs
60. DNA is destabilized by
(a) Formamide (b) Polyglycine
(c) Sucrose (d) PEG
61. The present concept for origin of life is

(a) At hydrothermal vents (b) In mid oceans
(c) Pangenesis (d) On land
62. Section 1 of Indian wild life act deals with
(a) Preservation of endangered animals
(b) Formation of zoo and botanical gardens
(c) Banning poaching and hunting
(d) Allowing limited wildlife sports
63. Hot spots are primarily designated on basis
(a) endemism (b) Species diversity
(c) Area covered (d) Flowering plant species
64. Phytoplankton spends very little energy on developing protective structures against
predator, this suggest that why
(a) Assimilation efficiency is high in aquatic ecosystem
(b) Productivity of aquatic ecosystem is low
(c) There is less competition
(d) Food chain is small
65. If bacteria genome and plasmid are allowed to replicate in same manner then
(a) Plasmid genome will replicate fast
(b) Bacterial genome will replicate fast
(c) Both will replicate at same time
(d) Depends on GC content
66. Interspecific hybrids have proved very useful for

(a) Gene mapping (b) Genetic manipulation
(c) Gene structure (d) Gene function
67. Semi-conservative mode of DNA replication can be experimentally demonstrated by

using
(a) BrU labeling (b) S32
(c) In situ hybridisitation (d) G-banding
68. Stenohaline organisms can

(a) tolerate Narrow range of salt concentration
(b) tolerate wide range of salt
(c) Can excrete extra salt to keep salt amount constant
(d) Escapes salty conditions
69. Temporary fluctuation in population size is due to

(a) Migration (b) Carrying capacity
(c) Bottle neck (d) Interspecific competition
70. Maximum number of species are of
(a) Amphibians (4780) (b) Fish (27000)
(c) Aves (9700) (d) Mammals (4650)
CSIR-NET Life Sciences, Dec, 2006
PART – A
1. A ball is dropped from a height of 1 meter, collision with floor is inelastic and ball
looses half the energy after collision. What would be the total vertical distance covered
by the ball before it comes to rest-
(a) 2 m (b) 2.5 m
(c) 3 m (d) 4 m
2. Objects can not be seen from the corner of building but sound produced at back of
building can be heard because of -
(a) Diffraction
(b) Interference
(c) Reverbation of sound from building
(d) Refraction of sound
3. If two charges ‘+q’ and ‘–4q’ are placed on X-axis as shown in diagram. Where a
another charge ‘+q’ must be placed on X-axis that it do not experience any force
+q –4q
A d B
(a) d/2 (b) d

(c) –d (d) –4d
4. Length of two vectors A and B is equal. Sum of A and B is thrice of A–B. Then the
angle between the vectors A and B will be
(a) cos– (3/4) (b) cos– (1/4)
–
(c) cos (1/Ö2) (d) cos– (Ö3/2)
5. Wavelength of one light waves is l while other have l/2 but then also they have the
same intensity I. Then the ratio of number of photons associated with each light
waves is
n1 1 n1 1
(a) = (b) =
n2 2 n2 2
n1 3 n1
(c) n = 2 (d) n2
=1
2
6. If atom A is at corners of cube while atom B is located on all planar faces, then
probable formula for the compound will be
(a) AB (b) AB2
(c) A2 B (d) A3 B
7. Among the following which equation best represents the formation of proton from
neutron
(a) 11N®11P + –10e (b) 11N®10P + –10 e + v
(c) 11N®11P + –10e + v (d) 11N®11P + –11e + v
8. Consider the following compounds

(i) BF 3 (ii) Ethene (iii) Cyclopropene
Out of these which compounds have planar triagonol geometry
(a) i only (b) i and iii
(c) i and ii (d) i, ii and iii
9. Volume of most of liquids shrinks when they freezes but volume of water increases
when it converts into ice. On basis of this we can conclude that
(a) Freezing point decreases with pressure
(b) There is non-characteristic curve obtained during solid-liquid transition
(c) Triple point of water is not affected by pressure
(d) Boiling point of water decreases on removal of pressure
10. Among the following which graph correctly represents relationship between P and V
for ideal gas
(a) (b)
P P
V V
(c) P (d) P
V V
11. If f(x) = ex(x2 –2x2 +3x–5), then f'(x) will be

(a) e x(x2 –x2 +5x) (b) e x(3x2 +3x–3)
x 2
(c) e (3x +5x–2) (d) e x(x3 +x2 –x–2)
12. The value for term described below will be
2 2 +4 3
4 2 +2 3
2 2 +2 2 4 2 +2 3
(a) (b)
5 5
2−2 2 3−2 2
(c) (d)
5 5
CSIR-NET Life Sciences, Dec, 2006 621
13. Consider the following equation Y= ½x+1½+ ½x-1½. The graphical representation for
above equation will be
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
14. Consider the DABC.
A
P9
P2
P1
B C
If length BC is 10 cm and triangle is divided horizontally into nine zones by line P1,
P2, P3…P9 which are parallel to BC. The total length of all lines from P1 to P9 will be
(a) 40 (b) 80
(c) 45 (d) 90
15. If a weight of one elephant is 10,000 kg and of a rat is 10 g. Then amount of calories
needed to maintain constant body temperature for one elephant and for 10,0000 rats
will be
(a) More for elephant
(b) More for rat
(c) Both will require equal calories
(d) Calories are not needed to maintain body temperature
16. The DNA sequence for two DNA was found to be different then also they code similar
protein. It may be due to
(a) Start of transcription at different sites
(b) Using similar enzymes for transcription
(c) More the one codon can code single amino acid
(d) Due to mutation in DNA
17. If inheritance of disease to next generation is only possible through females. The
probable inheritance is
(a) Sex-linked
(b) Mendelian
(c) Organeller
(d) Autosomal
18. Till date we have not succeeded in generating vaccine against HIV because
(a) It has reverse transcriptase
(b) It mutates rapidly
(c) It don't have any protein over its surface
(d) It is intracellular pathogen
19. The key difference between Lamarckism and Darwinism is
(a) Genes are made up of DNA not RNA
(b) DNA codes for proteins
(c) Variations are at random
(d) Evolution is abrupt
20. Among the following which process does not remove CO2 from environment?
(a) Photosynthesis
(b) Eruption of Volcano
(c) Dissolution in Oceans
(d) Weathering of rocks
21. During ice age there was large ice deposit at poles and thus there was large
temperature gradient between poles-Equator. The wind velocity at that time would
have been
(a) Stronger in summers
(b) Stronger in Winters
(c) Stronger in all seasons
(d) No effect was seen
22. Same face of moon is visible on earth during its orbital revolution of 28 days.
Considering earth as stationary then with reference to earth correct statement for
the rotation of moon over its axis is
(a) Moon completes 28 rotation in 28 days in same direction to earth.
(b) Moon completes 28 rotation in 28 days opposite in direction to earth.
(c) Moon completes 1 rotation in 28 days in same direction to earth.
(d) Moon completes 1 rotation in 28 days opposite in direction to earth.
23. We can find terrestrial rocks as old as 3 billion year but rocks more then 200 million
is not seen in oceans because
(a) During this period rock dissolves in ocean
(b) In 200 MY rocks subduct into floor of ocean
(c) Sensitive techniques to study age are not present

(d) Weathering of rocks takes place in 200 MY
24. Budha statue of limestone at Ladakh would be preserved for longer time then one at
Sri Lanka because
(a) Humidity at Sri Lanka is more
(b) Sri Lanka is close to equator
(c) Peoples care less in Sri Lanka
(d) Both will be preserved for same time
25. Tsunami are more common in Japan than any other part of world because
(a) There are many islands
(b) Wave velocity is very vigorous
(c) There are many seaquakes
(d) It is in pacific sea
26. There are various electronic gates like OR, AND, NOR, XOR etc. Which GATE is
described as universal?
(a) OR (b) AND
(c) XOR (d) NOR
27. Among the following which is not an hardware bus/port
(a) USB (b) CMOS
(c) Printer Port (d) Mouse Port
28. Consider the following flow diagram. If 1001 means from STATE A move to STATE B
then to STATE C return to STATE B and then to STATE A. The STATE achieved
after following code 001100010010
State 1 State
A 1 B
0 0 0 0
State 1 State
C D
1
(a) STATE A
(b) STATE B
(c) STATE C
(d) STATE D
29. Consider the programme

n=0
If n >2
Factorial ‘f’
Else
i=f(n–1)+f(n–2)
return
If initial value n=5, then output of the program will be
(a) 0 (b) 4
(c) 5 (d) No result will be produced
30. What would be the output of the following program if
Smallest integer³x
Float i
Input i
i=[i /2]
Return
Initial value of i= 7
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 7 (d) 3
PART – B
1. Cell fusion is an essential phenomenon in development of

(a) Nerve (b) Muscle
(c) Spleen (d) Liver
2. Gibberllic acid activates a-amylase activity in

(a) Endosperm
(b) Aleuronic layer
(c) Cotyledons
(d) Embryo
3. Protein RNAase A have 8 cysteine residue which involves in 4 disulphide bond

formation in a random manner. If the probability for formation of first correct
disulphide bond is 1/7, then what would be the probability that all four correct disulphide
bonds are formed
(a) 1/28 (b) 1/32
(c) 1/105 (d) 1/210
4. Light signals for flowering is received by

(a) Flower bud (b) Apical bud
(c) Leaves (d) Flower bract
5. Which hormone induces formation of Late Embryogenesis Abundant (LEA) protein

during seed maturation?
(a) Gibberllic acid (b) Ethylene
(c) Abscisic acid (d) Cytokinin
6. Effective population size for completely monogamous species having 40 males and 10
females would be
(a) 40 (b) 30
(c) 20 (d) 10
7. Musk deer is abundant in

(a) Gharwal Himalaya (b) Eastern Himalaya
(c) Kumau Himalaya (d) All
8. Among the following which follows the population growth pattern according to equation
dN/dt=rN when no limitating force is acting
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
9. Among the following ecological factor which is density independent factor

(a) Food (b) Predation
(c) Disease (d) Extreme temperatures
10. The curve for renaturation of denaturated DNA

(a) Linear (b) Inverse
(c) Direct (d) Hyperbolic
11. Among the following which has highest Productivity/Biomass ratio
(a) Opean sea (b) Large lakes
(c) Rain forests (d) Grassland
12. Patch of evergreen forest surrounded by grassland is termed as

(a) Prarie (b) Pampas
(c) Chapprals (d) Shola
13. The correlation between species richness and productivity is
(a) Species richness directly increases as increase in productivity
(b) Species richness has inverse relation to productivity
(c) Species richness and productivity is independent
(d) Species richness is maximum at intermediate levels of productivity
14. In a massive earthquake on island only few related species of lizards survived and
occupied the island. The phenomenon is also referred as
(a) Founder effect (b) Bottle Neck effect
(c) Vodka-Bertoni effect (d) Darwin's effect
15. Numerical taxonomy involves

(a) Overall similarity (b) Phylogenetic relationship
(c) Evolutionary relationship (d) Molecular taxonomy
16. Genetic Drift occurs by

(a) Chance (b) Immigration
(c) Emigration (d) Mutation
17. Organism inhabiting water scarce environment are likely

(a) Uricotelic (b) Ureotellic
(c) Ammonotellic (d) to have small kidney size
18. Circadian rhythms are controlled by
(a) Medulla (b) Cortex
(c) Pituatory gland (d) Suprachaismatic nucleus
19. What is prophage

(a) l phage DNA
(b) Stage of cell cycle
(c) DNA of temperate phage inserted into host chromosome
(d) A transposons
20. Among the following which plant family can be separated on basis of inflorescence
(a) Asteraceae (b) Euphorbiaceae
(c) Leguminosae (d) Solanacae
21. DNA sequence responsible for chromatid separation is

(a) Kinetochore (b) Centromere
(c) Satellite (d) Telomere
22. Glycoconjugates on proteins in intra cellular membranes are oriented toward
(a) Cytoplasmic face
(b) Lumen side
(c) Embedded in membrane
(d) On both sides
23. Which of the histone protein is not involved in nucleosome assembly?

(a) H1 (b) H2A
(c) H2B (d) H4
24. Synthesis of Betalain is characteristics of family

(a) Chenopodiacae (b) Carophyllaceae
(c) Asteraceae (d) Solanaceae
25. The book by Rachel Carson -'Silent Spring' is related with

(a) Environmental pollution
(b) Use of pesticides in agriculture
(c) Flowering in spring season
(d) Effect of pesticides on non-target organism
26. The mechanism of action of steroid hormone is

(a) Binding to membrane receptor and activating secondary messenger
(b) Binding to cytosolic receptor and hormone-receptor complex activates target
gene expression
(c) Hormone moves to nucleus and starts transcription
(d) Hormone effect mainly protein synthesis
27. On buyout density centrifugation of certain DNA band was observed as high peak
corresponding to low density as compare to other DNA. It means
(a) DNA is AT rich
(b) DNA is GC rich
(c) Equal AT to GC ratio
(d) Single Stranded DNA
28. Which of the following can induce SOS response in bacteria

(a) Thymidine dimers (b) Hydorxylamine
(c) 5-Fluro Uracil (d) 2-Aminopurine
29. Cyanobacteria out competes the green algae in eutrophic lakes due to organic
pollutions because they can
(a) tolerate low oxygen level
(b) tolerate high phosphorus level
(c) fix nitrogen, so it is not limitating for them
(d) low light is required for photosynthesis
30. The organism with high parental care will also show
(a) Semelparity
(b) Iteroperety
(c) Maturation at early stage
(d) Small size of offsprings
31. If any one of the parent invest more time for parental care on offsprings it would lead
to differences in
(a) Life span (b) Mental level
(c) Metabolism (d) Differential sex mate
32. The development of social behavior is related to
(a) Complex Brain size
(b) Genetic relatedness
(c) Size of population
(d) Size of organism
33. The correct graphical representation of a bacteria growing exponentially under

depleting nutrient condition is
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
34. The acidic nature of orange juice is mainly due to citric acid. What would be pH of
0.1 M citric acid, if K1 for citric acid is 8.4 × 10–4 .
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
35. Vavilov’s origin of centre for sorghum is
(a) South East Asia (b) Central Africa
(c) India (d) East Asia
36. Oogenesis in human females results in

(a) 1 egg and 3 polar bodies
(b) 2 egg and 2 polar bodies
(c) 3 egg and 1 polar bodies
(d) 1 egg and 1 polar bodies
37. Direct correlation between recombination frequency and distance between genes can
be disturbed by presence
(a) Heterochromatin region between genes
(b) Exons
(c) Introns
(d) Euchromatin
38. Among the following interactions which will not force co-evolution
(a) Commensalisms (b) Parasitism
(c) Mutualism (d) Interspecific competition
39. Antibiotic resistance among bacteria represents

(a) Balancing selection
(b) Stabilizing selection
(c) Directional selection
(d) Disruptive selection
40. In a population a single gene locus has two alleles A and a with allele frequency of
‘a’ = 0.3. If genotype Aa is lethal and only individual with genotype AA and aa are
favored then over several generation
(a) Allele frequency will be 1:1
(b) Allele frequency will remain same to that of present
(c) Allele ‘a’ would be lost from population
(d) Genetic drift will be seen
41. The most variable stage of cell cycle is

(a) G1 (b) G2
(c) Go (d) S
42. Among the following which order of arthropods has maximum species richness
(a) Hymenoptera (b) Lepidoptera
(c) Coleoptera (d) Diptera
43. The probability of a son to be color blind for parent with color blind father and normal
homozygous mother would be
(a) 0 % (b) 25 %
(c) 50 % (d) 100 %
44. Which statement is correct for following biological reaction:

C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 ®6CO2 + 6H2 O
(a) Entropy of system will increase
(b) Enthalpy for system will increase
(c) Free Energy for system will increase
(d) No change would be seen in free energy
45. Second most affecting green house gas after CO2 is
(a) Methane (b) NOx
(c) CFC (d) Ozone
46. Among the following which gas was totally absent during period of primitive origin of
life
(a) Oxygen (b) Hydrogen
(c) Methane (d) Ammonia
47. If a certain parasitic bacteria on insect prevents cross breeding among them. It will
lead into
(a) rapid speciation
(b) Divergence of insects
(c) Extinction of insects
(d) No effect
48. Among the following which compound links glycolysis and Kreb's cycle
(a) Acetyl Co A
(b) Pyruvic Acid
(c) Glucose
(d) Oxaloacetic acid
49. Secretion of histamine by degranulation from which cell leads in immediate

hypersensitivity
(a) Basophils (b) Mast cells
(c) T-helper cells (d) B-cells
50. Which cell is involved in eliminating antigen by engulfing them without recognition
(a) phagocytotic cells (b) T-helper cells
(c) Killer T-cells (d) B-cells
51. Recently reptile fossils of age 200-250 MY have been found in Brazil and Ghana-
portion of West Africa. The landmass during that period was a portion of
(a) Pangea (b) Laurasia
(c) Gondwana (d) Tethys Sea
52. Among the following which gene is not concerned with induction of cancer
(a) Src (b) Ras
(c) P53 (d) Actin
53. The morphological distinct sexual dimorphism is absent in

(a) Peacock, Myena, bulbul
(b) Crow, peacock, bulbul
(c) Hyena, bulbul, Sparrow
(d) Myena, bulbul, Hyena
54. Among the following Mendelian inheritance is obeyed by
(a) Quantitative traits
(b) Transposons
(c) Organelles
(d) Gene for vertical transfer of disease
55. Which species concept stress mainly on failure of interbreeding to keep them in
distinct species
(a) Biological species concept
(b) Ecological species concept
(c) Morphological species concept
(d) Phylogenetic species concept
56. The cells of warm blooded animals can be best stored at temperatures
(a) 37 °C (b) 0 °C
(c) –100 °C (d) –196 °C
57. The polysome can be describes as
(a) A special ribosome occurring in prokaryotes
(b) A DNA strand which is being transcribed by may RNA polymerase
(c) String of RNA occupied by many ribosomes
(d) Involved in control of transcription in prokaryotes
58. If there is no correct initiation of transcription. Which subunit of RNA polymerase

holoenzyme would have defect
(a) a subunit (b) b
(c) b' (d) s-subunit
59. The pattern of genomic imprinting is maintained from one generation to another by
(a) Phosphorylation of DNA
(b) Methylation
(c) Acetylation
(d) Glycosylation
60. If an enzyme obeying Hills reaction shows negative cooperativity. It means

(a) Binding of substrate to any one site of multisubunit enzyme decreases affinity
for other substrate to other sub-units
(b) Binding of substrate to any one site of single unit enzyme decreases affinity for
other substrate
(c) Binding of substrate to any one site of multisubunit enzyme increases affinity
for other substrate to other sub-units
(d) Binding of substrate to any one site of multisubunit enzyme makes enzyme non-
funtional
61. In mitochondria succinyl CoA synthetase produces
(a) ATP (b) ADP
(c) GTP (d) AMP
62. l-phage insert their DNA into bacterial host. The site for recombination on host is
termed as-
(a) attP (b) attB
(c) Xis (d) Int
63. A person heterozygous for sickle cell anemia has advantage for both malaria and
sickle cell anemia. It illustrates
(a) Directional selection
(b) Heterozygote advantage
(c) Disruptive selection
(d) Directed mutation selection
64. Vibrio cholrae causes diahorrea by

(a) Opening ion channels
(b) Constitutive expression of adenylate cyclase
(c) Closing absorption of water from gut epithelium
(d) Destroys cells of intestinal lining
65. The fungus which is pathogenic to human is

(a) Candida albicans
(b) Saccromyces cervesae
(c) Penicillium
(d) Rhyzopus
66. The eukaryotic mitochondria is more similar to
(a) Bacteria (b) Virus
(c) protist (d) moulds
67. During photorespiration which organelle is involved in conversion of glycolate into

glyoxylate
(a) Mitochondria (b) Peroxisomes
(c) Chloroplast (d) Nucleus
68. Which pump is activated by light during closure of stomata

(a) H+-ATPase
(b) K+-ATPase
(c) Na+-H+-ATPase
(d) Na+-K+-ATPase
79. The steady state hypothesis for enzyme suggest that
(a) Rate of formation of ES complex by substrates is equal to rate of breakdown of
ES complex into products
(b) Rate of formation of ES complex is equal to rate of formation of products
(c) Rate of formation of ES complex and its dissociation into E and S are equal
(d) Enzyme are steadily consumed in the reaction
80. Which is correct for a-helix of a protein

(a) It has H-bonding in two or more parallel running chains
(b) There is interchain H-bonding in single helix
(c) No H- bonding is seen
(d) is tertiary structure
Answer Key
ANSWER KEY: Chapter 1 – Cell biology
Test Paper-I
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (d)
7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (b)
13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (d) 17. (b) 18. (a)
19. (b) 20. (c) 21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (d)
25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (a) 28. (a) 29. (c) 30. (d)
31. (b) 32. (a) 33. (a) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (d)
37. (b) 38. (c) 39. (c) 40. (b) 41. (b) 42. (d)
43. (a) 44. (c) 45. (c) 46. (c) 47. (c) 48. (b)
49. (a) 50. (b) 51. (b) 52. (d) 53. (b) 54. (d)
55. (b) 56. (d) 57. (d) 58. (c) 59. (a) 60. (d)
61. (d) 62. (b) 63. (d) 64. (d) 65. (a) 66. (d)
67. (c) 68. (b) 69. (c) 70. (c) 71. (b) 72. (c)
73. (a) 74. (d) 75. (c) 76. (d) 77. (d) 78. (a)
79. (a) 80. (b) 81. (d) 82. (c) 83. (b) 84. (c)
85. (d) 86. (a) 87. (c) 88. (b) 89. (d) 90. (a)
91. (d) 92. (a) 93. (b) 94. (d) 95. (a) 96. (b)
97. (d) 98. (a) 99. (d) 100. (c)
Test paper-II
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (d)
7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (d) 12. (d)
13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (d)
19. (c) 20. (a) 21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (d)
25. (c) 26. (c) 27. (d) 28. (c) 29. (d) 30. (d)
31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (c) 34. (b) 35. (b) 36. (d)
37. (d) 38. (a) 39. (d) 40. (d) 41. (c) 42. (d)
43. (c) 44. (d) 45. (d) 46. (c) 47. (c) 48. (d)
49. (d) 50. (b) 51. (b) 52. (a) 53. (d) 54. (b)
55. (d) 56. (d) 57. (b) 58. (d) 59. (c) 60. (d)
61. (d) 62. (d) 63. (d) 64. (d) 65. (d) 66. (d)
67. (c) 68. (c) 69. (b) 70. (d) 71. (c) 72. (c)
73. (d) 74. (a) 75. (d) 76. (c) 77. (b) 78. (b)
79. (d) 80. (d) 81. (d) 82. (c) 83. (d) 84. (d)
85. (c) 86. (d) 87. (c) 88. (a) 89. (d) 90. (d)
91. (a) 92. (d) 93. (d) 94. (a) 95. (d) 96. (b)
97. (a) 98. (d) 99. (b) 100. (c)
ANSWER KEY: Chapter 2 – Biochemistry

Test Paper-I
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (a)
7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (d) 11. (d) 12. (a)
13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (d) 16. (d) 17. (a) 18. (c)
19. (c) 20. (b) 21. (b) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (a)
25. (b) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (d) 29. (d) 30. (a)
31. (d) 32. (b) 33. (b) 34. (d) 35. (d) 36. (d)
37. (c) 38. (d) 39. (d) 40. (b) 41. (c) 42. (a)
43. (c) 44. (a) 45. (b) 46. (d) 47. (b) 48. (a)
49. (b) 50. (c) 51. (c) 52. (c) 53. (d) 54. (d)
55. (a) 56. (b) 57. (a) 58. (a) 59. (d) 60. (a)
61. (a) 62. (c) 63. (d) 64. (c) 65. (b) 66. (b)
67. (a) 68. (a) 69. (d) 70. (c) 71. (a) 72. (c)
73. (d) 74. (d) 75. (a) 76. (c) 77. (d) 78. (c)
79. (d) 80. (d) 81. (a) 82. (d) 83. (a) 84. (a)
85. (b) 86. (d) 87. (a) 88. (b) 89. (a) 90. (b)
91. (c) 92. (b) 93. (c) 94. (b) 95. (a) 96. (b)
97. (d) 98. (a) 99. (b) 100. (d)
Test Paper-II
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (c)
7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (d)
13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (d)
19. (b) 20. (d) 21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (d) 24. (a)
25. (a) 26. (b) 27. (b) 28. (a) 29. (b) 30. (d)
31. (a) 32. (d) 33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (d) 36. (a)
37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (c) 41. (c) 42. (b)
43. (b) 44. (d) 45. (a) 46. (b) 47. (d) 48. (a)
49. (a) 50. (b) 51. (b) 52. (c) 53. (a) 54. (a)
55. (c) 56. (b) 57. (a) 58. (d) 59. (d) 60. (d)
61. (b) 62. (b) 63. (a) 64. (c) 65. (c) 66. (c)
67. (b) 68. (c) 69. (d) 70. (b) 71. (a) 72. (c)
73. (d) 74. (b) 75. (a) 76. (c) 77. (a) 78. (c)
79. (b) 80. (c) 81. (b) 82. (a) 83. (b) 84. (d)
85. (c) 86. (d) 87. (c) 88. (a) 89. (d) 90. (a)
91. (b) 92. (c) 93. (b) 94. (d) 95. (c) 96. (d)
97. (d) 98. (c) 99. (a) 100. (a)
Answer Key 635
ANSWER KEY: Chapter 3 – Physiology

Test Paper-I
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (c)
7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (b)
13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (b)
19. (d) 20. (a) 21. (a) 22. (d) 23. (c) 24. (b)
25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (b) 28. (d) 29. (b) 30. (c)
31. (a) 32. (d) 33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (b) 36. (c)
37. (d) 38. (c) 39. (c) 40. (d) 41. (c) 42. (c)
43. (c) 44. (d) 45. (b) 46. (a) 47. (b) 48. (b)
49. (d) 50. (d) 51. (a) 52. (b) 53. (a) 54. (b)
55. (d) 56. (a) 57. (b) 58. (a) 59. (d) 60. (c)
61. (b) 62. (a) 63. (a) 64. (d) 65. (a) 66. (c)
67. (d) 68. (b) 69. (c) 70. (c) 71. (a) 72. (d)
73. (b) 74. (b) 75. (c) 76. (d) 77. (d) 78. (c)
79. (d) 80. (d) 81. (c) 82. (a) 83. (c) 84. (a)
85. (c) 86. (b) 87. (b) 88. (d) 89. (c) 90. (d)
91. (c) 92. (c) 93. (c) 94. (b) 95. (b) 96. (d)
97. (d) 98. (d) 99. (d) 100. (c)
Test Paper-II
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (c)
7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (d) 11. (c) 12. (b)
13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (b)
19. (d) 20. (a) 21. (c) 22. (d) 23. (d) 24. (a)
25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (b) 29. (d) 30. (b)
31. (b) 32. (a) 33. (a) 34. (b) 35. (c) 36. (d)
37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (a) 40. (c) 41. (c) 42. (c)
43. (a) 44. (a) 45. (b) 46. (a) 47. (c) 48. (c)
49. (d) 50. (b) 51. (b) 52. (d) 53. (b) 54. (d)
55. (d) 56. (b) 57. (d) 58. (d) 59. (c) 60. (d)
61. (c) 62. (b) 63. (a) 64. (b) 65. (b) 66. (a)
67. (d) 68. (c) 69. (d) 70. (b) 71. (d) 72. (d)
73. (c) 74. (a) 75. (b) 76. (b) 77. (a) 78. (d)
79. (d) 80. (a) 81. (a) 82. (b) 83. (b) 84. (d)
85. (b) 86. (b) 87. (d) 88. (a) 89. (c) 90. (c)
91. (d) 92. (c) 93. (c) 94. (b) 95. (c) 96. (b)
97. (a) 98. (a) 99. (c) 100. (a)
ANSWER KEY: Chapter 4 – Genetics

Test Paper-I
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (b)
7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c) 11. (d) 12. (c)
13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (c)
19. (a) 20. (c) 21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (c) 24. (d)
25. (d) 26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (a)
31. (b) 32. (b) 33. (b) 34. (d) 35. (b) 36. (a)
37. (b) 38. (b) 39. (d) 40. (c) 41. (a) 42. (d)
43. (a) 44. (a) 45. (d) 46. (b) 47. (b) 48. (d)
49. (d) 50. (a) 51. (c) 52. (c) 53. (c) 54. (b)
55. (c) 56. (c) 57. (c) 58. (c) 59. (a) 60. (c)
61. (d) 62. (a) 63. (b) 64. (c) 65. (c) 66. (d)
67. (b) 68. (d) 69. (c) 70. (c) 71. (b) 72. (d)
73. (d) 74. (c) 75. (b) 76. (a) 77. (b) 78. (c)
79. (c) 80. (d) 81. (c) 82. (c) 83. (c) 84. (c)
85. (d) 86. (b) 87. (a) 88. (d) 89. (a) 90. (a)
91. (b) 92. (a) 93. (b) 94. (b) 95. (d) 96. (a)
97. (b) 98. (b) 99. (a) 100. (c)
Test Paper-II
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (b)
7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (a)
13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (d) 17. (a) 18. (d)
19. (c) 20. (b) 21. (b) 22. (a) 23. (b) 24. (c)
25. (b) 26. (a) 27. (b) 28. (b) 29. (a) 30. (d)
31. (d) 32. (c) 33. (c) 34. (c) 35. (d) 36. (b)
37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (d) 40. (a) 41. (b) 42. (b)
43. (a) 44. (d) 45. (b) 46. (b) 47. (a) 48. (c)
49. (c) 50. (c) 51. (d) 52. (a) 53. (a) 54. (c)
55. (a) 56. (d) 57. (c) 58. (c) 59. (b) 60. (d)
61. (b) 62. (a) 63. (c) 64. (a) 65. (b) 66. (c)
67. (a) 68. (c) 69. (b) 70. (b) 71. (a) 72. (c)
73. (b) 74. (b) 75. (b) 76. (d) 77. (d) 78. (b)
79. (d) 80. (b) 81. (d) 82. (c) 83. (c) 84. (a)
85. (b) 86. (b) 87. (d) 88. (d) 89. (b) 90. (b)
91. (a) 92. (c) 93. (a) 94. (b) 95. (d) 96. (c)
97. (c) 98. (c) 99. (a) 100. (d)
Answer Key 637
ANSWER KEY: Chapter 5 – Evolution

Test Paper-I
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c)
7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (b)
13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (d) 16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (b)
19. (c) 20. (a) 21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (a)
25. (d) 26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (c) 29. (d) 30. (d)
31. (d) 32. (b) 33. (b) 34. (d) 35. (a) 36. (c)
37. (d) 38. (a) 39. (b) 40. (b) 41. (d) 42. (c)
43. (a) 44. (d) 45. (a) 46. (b) 47. (b) 48. (b)
49. (b) 50. (b) 51. (d) 52. (d) 53. (b) 54. (b)
55. (d) 56. (c) 57. (d) 58. (b) 59. (a) 60. (d)
61. (a) 62. (b) 63. (d) 64. (a) 65. (a) 66. (b)
67. (b) 68. (a) 69. (b) 70. (d) 71. (a) 72. (a)
73. (c) 74. (c) 75. (c) 76. (c) 77. (a) 78. (b)
79. (c) 80. (b) 81. (a) 82. (d) 83. (a) 84. (b)
85. (a) 86. (a) 87. (a) 88. (b) 89. (b) 90. (b)
91. (c) 92. (b) 93. (a) 94. (a) 95. (b) 96. (c)
97. (b) 98. (a) 99. (c) 100. (b)
Test Paper-II
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (a)
7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (a) 12. (c)
13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (b)
19. (a) 20. (b) 21. (d) 22. (d) 23. (c) 24. (d)
25. (b) 26. (b) 27. (b) 28. (a) 29. (c) 30. (a)
31. (d) 32. (b) 33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (b)
37. (a) 38. (c) 39. (b) 40. (b) 41. (a) 42. (c)
43. (a) 44. (c) 45. (b) 46. (b) 47. (c) 48. (b)
49. (d) 50. (a) 51. (c) 52. (b) 53. (d) 54. (a)
55. (b) 56. (a) 57. (c) 58. (b) 59. (c) 60. (d)
61. (d) 62. (d) 63. (c) 64. (a) 65. (a) 66. (c)
67. (b) 68. (b) 69. (b) 70. (c) 71. (b) 72. (b)
73. (c) 74. (d) 75. (b) 76. (b) 77. (d) 78. (c)
79. (c) 80. (c) 81. (d) 82. (b) 83. (d) 84. (c)
85. (c) 86. (a) 87. (c) 88. (b) 89. (c) 90. (c)
91. (a) 92. (d) 93. (b) 94. (a) 95. (b) 96. (b)
97. (b) 98. (d) 99. (d) 100. (a)
ANSWER KEY: Chapte 6 – Environment Biology

Test Paper-I
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (b)
7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (c) 12. (d)
13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (d)
19. (a) 20. (b) 21. (c) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (b)
25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (a) 29. (a) 30. (c)
31. (d) 32. (d) 33. (d) 34. (a) 35. (c) 36. (a)
37. (a) 38. (d) 39. (a) 40. (a) 41. (c) 42. (a)
43. (b) 44. (c) 45. (d) 46. (b) 47. (a) 48. (b)
49. (c) 50. (b) 51. (b) 52. (c) 53. (d) 54. (b)
55. (c) 56. (d) 57. (a) 58. (c) 59. (d) 60. (c)
61. (c) 62. (b) 63. (a) 64. (d) 65. (d) 66. (d)
67. (d) 68. (d) 69. (d) 70. (c) 71. (b) 72. (b)
73. (d) 74. (d) 75. (d) 76. (d) 77. (c) 78. (b)
79. (b) 80. (d) 81. (c) 82. (c) 83. (c) 84. (b)
85. (a) 86. (d) 87. (a) 88. (d) 89. (c) 90. (d)
91. (d) 92. (b) 93. (d) 94. (b) 95. (d) 96. (d)
97. (a) 98. (a) 99. (c) 100. (b)
Test Paper-II
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (b)
7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (d) 11. (c) 12. (a)
13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (b)
19. (b) 20. (b) 21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (c)
25. (a) 26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (c) 29. (d) 30. (a)
31. (d) 32. (d) 33. (d) 34. (c) 35. (c) 36. (b)
37. (b) 38. (c) 39. (c) 40. (a) 41. (b) 42. (a)
43. (c) 44. (c) 45. (c) 46. (d) 47. (a) 48. (a)
49. (c) 50. (a) 51. (c) 52. (a) 53. (c) 54. (c)
55. (a) 56. (d) 57. (a) 58. (d) 59. (a) 60. (b)
61. (a) 62. (a) 63. (d) 64. (d) 65. (a) 66. (c)
67. (a) 68. (b) 69. (b) 70. (a) 71. (a) 72. (a)
73. (c) 74. (d) 75. (a) 76. (c) 77. (b) 78. (b)
79. (c) 80. (b) 81. (c) 82. (b) 83. (a) 84. (d)
85. (a) 86. (c) 87. (d) 88. (c) 89. (b) 90. (c)
91. (c) 92. (d) 93. (d) 94. (c) 95. (b) 96. (d)
97. (c) 98. (d) 99. (c) 100. (a)
Answer Key 639
ANSWER KEY: Chapter 7 – Biodiversity

Test Paper- I
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (d)
7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (a)
13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (d) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (b)
19. (c) 20. (d) 21. (a) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (d)
25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (d) 29. (a) 30. (c)
31. (d) 32. (a) 33. (a) 34. (c) 35. (a) 36. (b)
37. (d) 38. (b) 39. (b) 40. (c) 41. (c) 42. (b)
43. (b) 44. (d) 45. (b) 46. (d) 47. (d) 48. (b)
49. (b) 50. (d) 51. (c) 52. (a) 53. (d) 54. (a)
55. (c) 56. (d) 57. (a) 58. (a) 59. (a) 60. (a)
61. (b) 62. (c) 63. (a) 64. (a) 65. (a) 66. (b)
67. (a) 68. (d) 69. (a) 70. (b) 71. (d) 72. (b)
73. (d) 74. (d) 75. (c) 76. (d) 77. (d) 78. (c)
79. (d) 80. (a) 81. (a) 82. (d) 83. (a) 84. (b)
85. (a) 86. (d) 87. (b) 88. (b) 89. (b) 90. (c)
91. (d) 92. (b) 93. (d) 94. (d) 95. (d) 96. (a)
97. (c) 98. (d) 99. (c) 100. (a)
Test Paper-II
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (c)
7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (d)
13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (d)
19. (d) 20. (b) 21. (a) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (c)
25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (a) 29. (b) 30. (b)
31. (a) 32. (d) 33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (c) 36. (b)
37. (b) 38. (b) 39. (b) 40. (b) 41. (d) 42. (a)
43. (b) 44. (b) 45. (a) 46. (d) 47. (c) 48. (a)
49. (c) 50. (a) 51. (c) 52. (d) 53. (c) 54. (d)
55. (b) 56. (c) 57. (a) 58. (b) 59. (a) 60. (c)
61. (a) 62. (b) 63. (c) 64. (b) 65. (d) 66. (a)
67. (b) 68. (d) 69. (b) 70. (a) 71. (d) 72. (a)
73. (d) 74. (a) 75. (d) 76. (d) 77. (a) 78. (b)
79. (d) 80. (a) 81. (d) 82. (a) 83. (c) 84. (a)
85. (a) 86. (b) 87. (d) 88. (a) 89. (c) 90. (a)
91. (d) 92. (d) 93. (d) 94. (d) 95. (b) 96. (a)
97. (a) 98. (c) 99. (d) 100. (a)
ANSWER KEY: Model Test Paper – 1
Part – A
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c)
5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (a)
9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (d)
13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (a)
17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (d)
21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (b)
25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (b)
29. (b) 30. (b)
Part – B
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b)
5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (a)
9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (a) 12. (d)
13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (b) 16. (a)
17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (a)
25. (a) 26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (d)
29. (d) 30. (d) 31. (b) 32. (c)
33. (d) 34. (b) 35. (d) 36. (a)
37. (a) 38. (a) 39. (a) 40. (a)
41. (a) 42. (a) 43. (c) 44. (c)
45. (c) 46. (d) 47. (d) 48. (c)
49. (a) 50. (b) 51. (a) 52. (c)
53. (b) 54. (b) 55. (c) 56. (b)
57. (d) 58. (c) 59. (a) 60. (d)
61. (a) 62. (c) 63. (b) 64. (c)
65. (b) 66. (c) 67. (a) 68. (c)
69. (b) 70. (b)
Answer Key 641
PART – A
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (b)

5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c)
9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (d) 12. (b)
13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (d) 16. (b)
17. (d) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (a)
21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (d)
25. (a) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (c)
29. (c) 30. (a)
Part – B
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a)
5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (c)
9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (b)
13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (a)
17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (d)
21. (c) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (b)
25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (b)
29. (a) 30. (a) 31. (a) 32. (a)
33. (c) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (a)
37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (c) 40. (b)
41. (b) 42. (d) 43. (c) 44. (a)
45. (a) 46. (b) 47. (b) 48. (b)
49. (d) 50. (c) 51. (b) 52. (a)
53. (d) 54. (b) 55. (b) 56. (b)
57. (c) 58. (a) 59. (b) 60. (d)
61. (c) 62. (c) 63. (a) 64. (c)
65. (c) 66. (c) 67. (b) 68. (c)
69. (c) 70. (a)
Part – A
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b)
5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (b)
9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (a) 12. (c)
13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (d)
17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (a)
25. (a) 26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (c)
29. (d) 30. (c)
Part – B
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c)
5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (d)
9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (d) 12. (c)
13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (d) 16. (b)
17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21. (d) 22. (d) 23. (c) 24. (b)
25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (b)
29. (a) 30. (d) 31. (c) 32. (b)
33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (c) 36. (a)
37. (d) 38. (c) 39. (c) 40. (b)
41. (a) 42. (b) 43. (b) 44. (d)
45. (c) 46. (c) 47. (c) 48. (c)
49. (c) 50. (a) 51. (c) 52. (a)
53. (d) 54. (c) 55. (d) 56. (d)
57. (d) 58. (a) 59. (b) 60. (a)
61. (d) 62. (b) 63. (d) 64. (d)
65. (a) 66. (c) 67. (c) 68. (d)
69. (d) 70. (c)
Answer Key 643
PART – A
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c)

5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c)
9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (b)
13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (b)
17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (b)
25. (b) 26. (d) 27. (a) 28. (d)
29. (c) 30. (c)
Part – B
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (b)
5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b)
9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (d) 12. (c)
13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (b) 16. (a)
17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (b)
25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (a) 28. (c)
29. (a) 30. (c) 31. (c) 32. (c)
33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (d) 36. (c)
37. (a) 38. (c) 39. (b) 40. (a)
41. (b) 42. (c) 43. (d) 44. (a)
45. (c) 46. (b) 47. (c) 48. (a)
49. (a) 50. (a) 51. (b) 52. (a)
53. (d) 54. (c) 55. (b) 56. (b)
57. (a) 58. (d) 59. (a) 60. (c)
61. (d) 62. (b) 63. (b) 64. (a)
65. (b) 66. (c) 67. (d) 68. (a)
69. (b) 70. (b)
Part – A
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b)
5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (d)
9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (d) 12. (b)
13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (d) 16. (b)
17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (c)
21. (c) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (c)
25. (a) 26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (a)
29. (c) 30. (b)
Part – B
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b)
5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (a)
9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (d) 12. (a)
13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (d)
17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (d)
21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (a)
25. (d) 26. (c) 27. (a) 28. (d)
29. (b) 30. (a) 31. (a) 32. (c)
33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (d) 36. (a)
37. (c) 38. (c) 39. (a) 40. (a)
41. (a) 42. (a) 43. (c) 44. (a)
45. (d) 46. (b) 47. (a) 48. (c)
49. (d) 50. (d) 51. (a) 52. (a)
53. (a) 54. (b) 55. (a) 56. (b)
57. (d) 58. (c) 59. (a) 60. (c)
61. (a) 62. (b) 63. (b) 64. (d)
65. (b) 66. (d) 67. (d) 68. (c)
69. (b) 70. (a)
Answer Key 645
Part – A
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d)
5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (a)
9. (d) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (d)
13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (b) 16. (a)
17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (a)
21. (c) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (c)
25. (a) 26. (b) 27. (b) 28. (a)
29. (d) 30. (d)
Part – B
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (c)
5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (c)
9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (c) 12. (c)
13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (d) 16. (d)
17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (a)
25. (d) 26. (a) 27. (b) 28. (a)
29. (c) 30. (d) 31. (a) 32. (c)
33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (a) 36. (c)
37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (a) 40. (a)
41. (b) 42. (a) 43. (a) 44. (a)
45. (a) 46. (d) 47. (b) 48. (c)
49. (d) 50. (c) 51. (a) 52. (a)
53. (b) 54. (b) 55. (d) 56. (c)
57. (c) 58. (a) 59. (c) 60. (b)
61. (c) 62. (c) 63. (d) 64. (a)
65. (c) 66. (b) 67. (c) 68. (b)
69. (a) 70. (a)
Part – A
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b)
5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (b)
9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (a) 12. (c)
13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (c)
17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (a)
21. (d) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (c)
25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (d)
29. (d) 30. (c)
Part – B
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (d)
5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (b)
9. (d) 10. (b) 11. (a) 12. (a)
13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (d)
17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (a)
25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (b) 28. (b)
29. (d) 30. (c) 31. (c) 32. (d)
33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (b)
37. (c) 38. (c) 39. (c) 40. (b)
41. (a) 42. (c) 43. (b) 44. (d)
45. (b) 46. (b) 47. (a) 48. (c)
49. (c) 50. (c) 51. (d) 52. (c)
53. (c) 54. (b) 55. (b) 56. (c)
57. (d) 58. (a) 59. (d) 60. (b)
61. (d) 62. (c) 63. (b) 64. (a)
65. (d) 66. (a) 67. (c) 68. (c)
69. (a) 70. (b)
Answer Key 647
Part – A
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c)
5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (a)
9. (b) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (b)
13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (c)
17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (c)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (c)
25. (b) 26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (b)
29. (b) 30. (d)
Part – B
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c)
5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (b)
9. (b) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (b)
13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (d)
17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (d)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (a)
25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (a)
29. (d) 30. (a) 31. (c) 32. (d)
33. (c) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (d)
37. (a) 38. (d) 39. (d) 40. (d)
41. (a) 42. (c) 43. (d) 44. (a)
45. (b) 46. (c) 47. (d) 48. (c)
49. (c) 50. (c) 51. (b) 52. (a)
53. (a) 54. (a) 55. (a) 56. (d)
57. (d) 58. (b) 59. (c) 60. (c)
61. (a) 62. (a) 63. (b) 64. (c)
65. (b) 66. (a) 67. (a) 68. (c)
69. (a) 70. (c)
Part – A
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d)
5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (d)
9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (d)
13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (b)
17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (a)
21. (b) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (c)
25. (d) 26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (a)
29. (a) 30. (d)
Part – B
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (b)
5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b)
9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (c) 12. (d)
13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (a)
17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (d) 24. (b)
25. (d) 26. (c) 27. (d) 28. (b)
29. (b) 30. (a) 31. (c) 32. (c)
33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (d) 36. (a)
37. (a) 38. (c) 39. (b) 40. (b)
41. (c) 42. (c) 43. (a) 44. (d)
45. (b) 46. (c) 47. (b) 48. (c)
49. (b) 50. (c) 51. (c) 52. (b)
53. (a) 54. (c) 55. (b) 56. (d)
57. (d) 58. (c) 59. (b) 60. (c)
61. (d) 62. (c) 63. (a) 64. (a)
65. (a) 66. (c) 67. (a) 68. (c)
69. (a) 70. (a)
Answer Key 649
PART – A
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d)

5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (b)
9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (d) 12. (a)
13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (d) 16. (c)
17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (a)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (c)
25. (c) 26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (d)
29. (d) 30. (c)
Part – B
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c)
5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (d)
9. (c) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (b)
13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (d) 16. (a)
17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (a)
21. (c) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (a)
25. (a) 26. (b) 27. (b) 28. (b)
29. (b) 30. (d) 31. (c) 32. (c)
33. (d) 34. (c) 35. (c) 36. (d)
37. (c) 38. (a) 39. (a) 40. (a)
41. (c) 42. (a) 43. (d) 44. (c)
45. (a) 46. (c) 47. (b) 48. (a)
49. (d) 50. (d) 51. (d) 52. (c)
53. (c) 54. (c) 55. (b) 56. (b)
57. (c) 58. (b) 59. (c) 60. (a)
61. (d) 62. (c) 63. (b) 64. (d)
65. (a) 66. (a) 67. (a) 68. (d)
69. (a) 70. (a)
ANSWER KEY: CSIR UGC NET, Dec., 2003
PART – A
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (b)

5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (a)
9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (b)
13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (a)
17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (b)
21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (b)
25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (d) 28. (b)
29. (b) 30. (c)
Part – B
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (d)
5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (a)
9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (a) 12. (d)
13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (c)
17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (c)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (c)
25. (c) 26. (c) 27. (b) 28. (c)
29. (c) 30. (a) 31. (c) 32. (c)
33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (a) 36. (a)
37. (b) 38. (c) 39. (a) 40. (b)
41. (b) 42. (a) 43. (d) 44. (a)
45. (c) 46. (c) 47. (d) 48. (c)
49. (c) 50. (b) 51. (b) 52. (a)
53. (b) 54. (a) 55. (b) 56. (c)
57. (a) 58. (b) 59. (a) 60. (a)
61. (a) 62. (b) 63. (c) 64. (a)
65. (a) 66. (b) 67. (c) 68. (a)
69. (d) 70. (d)
Answer Key 651
ANSWER KEY: CSIR UGC NET, June, 2004
PART – A
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d)

5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b)
9. (c) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (c)
13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (d)
17. (b) 18. (d) 19. (a) 20. (b)
21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (b)
25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (b)
29. (a) 30. (c)
Part – B
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d)
5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c)
9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (d) 12. (d)
13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (c)
17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (a)
21. (b) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (a)
25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (b)
29. (b) 30. (b) 31. (a) 32. (a)
33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (a)
37. (c) 38. (a) 39. (b) 40. (d)
41. (a) 42. (a) 43. (a) 44. (a)
45. (c) 46. (a) 47. (a) 48. (b)
49. (b) 50. (b) 51. (d) 52. (a)
53. (a) 54. (b) 55. (d) 56. (a)
57. (b) 58. (a) 59. (c) 60. (c)
61. (b) 62. (a) 63. (a) 64. (a)
65. (d) 66. (a) 67. (a) 68. (a)
69. (a) 70. (d)
PART – A
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b)

5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c)
9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (c) 12. (c)
13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (a)
17. (c) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (c) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (d)
25. (c) 26. (c) 27. (a) 28. (d)
29. (b) 30. (d)
Part – B
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c)
5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (a)
9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (a)
13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (c)
17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (b)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (c)
25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (a)
29. (b) 30. (a) 31. (a) 32. (c)
33. (d) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (a)
37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (b) 40. (a)
41. (b) 42. (c) 43. (b) 44. (b)
45. (b) 46. (c) 47. (b) 48. (a)
49. (a) 50. (b) 51. (a) 52. (c)
53. (a) 54. (c) 55. (c) 56. (b)
57. (c) 58. (b) 59. (b) 60. (a)
61. (b) 62. (c) 63. (c) 64. (a)
65. (b) 66. (b) 67. (a) 68. (b)
69. (d) 70. (c)
Answer Key 653
PART – A
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (c)

5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (a)
9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (d) 12. (c)
13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (a)
17. (d) 18. (d) 19. (a) 20. (c)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (b)
25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (d) 28. (c)
29. (b) 30. (a)
Part – B
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a)
5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (a)
9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (d)
13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (d) 16. (a)
17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (a)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (d)
25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (b)
29. (b) 30. (c) 31. (b) 32. (b)
33. (a) 34. (c) 35. (c) 36. (c)
37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (a) 40. (b)
41. (c) 42. (a) 43. (c) 44. (a)
45. (a) 46. (a) 47. (c) 48. (b)
49. (b) 50. (b) 51. (a) 52. (b)
53. (c) 54. (c) 55. (a) 56. (b)
57. (b) 58. (b) 59. (b) 60. (b)
61. (b) 62. (b) 63. (a) 64. (a)
65. (a) 66. (b) 67. (d) 68. (b)
69. (a) 70. (c)
PART – A
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c)

5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (a)
9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (d)
13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (b)
17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (a)
25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (b)
29. (b) 30. (b)
Part – B
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (a)
5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (d)
9. (d) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (b)
13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (b) 16. (b)
17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (a) 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (a)
25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (a) 28. (d)
29. (b) 30. (c) 31. (d) 32. (b)
33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (c) 36. (d)
37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (a)
41. (c) 42. (c) 43. (b) 44. (b)
45. (a) 46. (c) 47. (a) 48. (a)
49. (c) 50. (a) 51. (d) 52. (a)
53. (b) 54. (b) 55. (c) 56. (d)
57. (c) 58. (a) 59. (d) 60. (b)
61. (b) 62. (a) 63. (a) 64. (a)
65. (a) 66. (b) 67. (a) 68. (b)
69. (b) 70. (b)
Answer Key 655
PART – A
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a)

5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a)
9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (c)
13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (a)
17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (c)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (a)
25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (a)
29. (a) 30. (a)
Part – B
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a)
5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a)
9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (a)
13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (a)
17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (a)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (a)
25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (a)
29. (a) 30. (a) 31. (a) 32. (a)
33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (a) 36. (a)
37. (a) 38. (a) 39. (a) 40. (a)
41. (a) 42. (a) 43. (a) 44. (a)
45. (a) 46. (a) 47. (a) 48. (a)
49. (a) 50. (a) 51. (a) 52. (a)
53. (a) 54. (a) 55. (a) 56. (a)
57. (a) 58. (a) 59. (a) 60. (a)
61. (a) 62. (a) 63. (a) 64. (a)
65. (a) 66. (a) 67. (a) 68. (a)
69. (a) 70. (b)
Part – A
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c)
5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (c)
9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (d) 12. (c)
13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (c)
17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (c) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (a)
25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (a)
29. (d) 30. (b)
Part – B
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c)
5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (d)
9. (d) 10. (d) 11. (c) 12. (d)
13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (a)
17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (b)
25. (d) 26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (a)
29. (c) 30. (b) 31. (d) 32. (a)
33. (c) 34. (d) 35. (b) 36. (a)
37. (a) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (b)
41. (a) 42. (d) 43. (a) 44. (a)
45. (a) 46. (a) 47. (a) 48. (a)
49. (b) 50. (c) 51. (a) 52. (d)
53. (d) 54. (a) 55. (a) 56. (d)
57. (c) 58. (d) 59. (b) 60. (a)
61. (c) 62. (b) 63. (b) 64. (b)
65. (a) 66. (a) 67. (b) 68. (a)
69. (a) 70. (b)

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ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2520-8

PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD

Preface ............................................................................................................... (v)

• Gametoenesis ..................................................................................................... 159

Chapter 5 Evolutionary Biology .............................................................................. 249–308

Chapter 6 Environmental Biology .......................................................................... 309–374

– Biological nomenclature ........................................................................... 391

Answer Key ......................................................................................................... 633–656

STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION OF A CELL

(ii) Circulation (movement in different direction around different vacuoles e.g.,

thylakoids. Inner membrane of thylakoid bears quantasomes (functional unit of

(d) Peroxisomes (uricosomes) are microbodies containing enzymes for peroxide

(c) Gas vacuoles (= pseudovacuoles): Gas or air vacuoles occur in some

Mineral crystals are:

I. Interphase and the Control of Cell Division

III. Growth factors can stimulate cells to divide

IV. Regulation of the Cell Cycle

CELL REPRODUCTION & CELL DIVISION

I. Systems of Cell Reproduction

II. Prokaryotes divide by fission

III. Eukaryotic cells divide by mitosis or meiosis

IV. Mitosis: Distributing Exact Copies of Genetic Information

The spindle forms during prophase

• Additional distance is gained by the separating of the mitotic centers. This

V. Cytokinesis: The Division of the Cytoplasm

VI. Reproduction: Sexual and Asexual

VII. Meiosis: A Pair of Nuclear Divisions

EXTRA CONCEPTS: Cell Reproduction or Cell Division

CELL DIFFERENTIATION AND CELL-CELL INTERACTION:

2. Stereocilia. Nonmotile elongated evaginations of plasma membrane, secretory or

CANCER AND MALIGNANT GROWTH

Characteristics of Cancer Cells

Proto-Oncogenes and Tumor-Suppressor Genes

Some of the characteristics of Oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes can be

Innate (or natural) immunity: This is made up of several components.

Antibodies work in three ways

1. Agglutination: Antibodies bind to antigens to produce large insoluble complexes,

1. Antibodies: Immunoglycoproteins secreted by B-lymphocytes in response to antigens.

Molecular weight 150,000 160,000 900,000 180,000 190,000

Serum concentration (mg / ml) 12 2 1.2 0.03 0.00004

Half life (days) 23 6 10 2.8 2.3

Present in breast milk + + – – –

HUMORAL AND CELL MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSES

3. Antibodies to these types of antigens are synthesized by B- lymphocytes and then

The principle of vaccination is to induce a “primed” state in the vaccinated subject so

B. Killed (inactivated) vaccines

E. Vaccines in general use

Dosage Compensation by X-inactivation in female mammals

Dosage Compensation by X-hyper activation in Male of Drossophila

1. Chromosomal Basis of Sex determination:

AA + XXX 3/2 = 1.50 Super

AA + XX 2/2 = 1.00 Normal

AAA + XXY 2/3 = 0.67 Intersex

AA + XY 1/2 = 0.50 Normal

AA + X 1/2 = 0.50 Normal

AAA + XY 1/3 = 0.33 Super

1. In a cell if acidity of Lysome is lost, then loss of: