Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction

The discovery of High Temperature Superconducting (HTS) materials has provided scope
towards utilization of superconductivity technology in power system. Superconductivity being
characterized by zero resistance (or resistivity), makes the superconductor an ideal conductor of
electricity. The critical parameters of a superconductor are critical temperature, critical magnetic
field and critical current density. In power system the important one is the critical current density
other two also have importance.

The demand is increasing this had led to congestion in the power system making it more
complex and less reliable. This growing demand at consumer end needs some advancement in
technology or adoption of new technology in the power system. The need of the present time is
to have a more reliable, higher efficiency cables. HTS cables technology is a major breakthrough
because it utilizes less wire and transmitting five times more electricity than currently used
conventional cables. The superconductivity technology will also have wide applications in
superconducting generator and superconducting energy storage system also. The use of
superconducting cables can reduce the size of machine by improving the overall efficiency of the
system.

The private companies have started investing into the HTS technology discovered long back by
Karl Müller and Johannes Bednorz in 1986. To accomplish this effort, the Department of Energy
(DOE), Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) and Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL)
established partnerships with various cable companies, utilities, state agencies and many
stakeholders to enact cable projects. They had been carrying out studies over practical models of
HTS since year 2000 which are set up in various parts in USA. The goal is to transform the way
power is generated, transmitted and used. The newly developing technology and devices for
power generators, underground transmission cables, transformers, fault-current limiters, motors,
and many other applications are the major concern. HTS wires show reduced electrical losses
compared to conventional copper and aluminum wires. HTs also have improved performance.
HTS wires developed in the recent offer power densities 30 times that of copper. However taking
advantage of this increased performance is a significant challenge. Superconducting cable
technology offers benefits to power transmission and distribution including reduced voltage
levels, simplification of networks, reduction or elimination of substations, increased power
densities, and electricity savings.

A large scale integrated use of HTS cables in countries having congestion problem can be used.
Scheme discussed later will help you understand the how the present system can be up graded to
a Superconducting system.

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1.1. Superconductivity

Superconductivity is a phenomenon observed when materials such as in several metals and

ceramic are cooled to temperatures ranging from near absolute zero i.e.-459 degrees Fahrenheit,
0 degrees Kelvin, -273 degrees Celsius to liquid nitrogen temperatures i.e. -321 F, 77 K, -196 C,
they show zero electrical resistance. The temperature at which superconductivity occurs is called
the critical temperature (Tc) and varies with the individual material. The critical temperatures are
achieved by cooling materials with either liquid helium or liquid nitrogen. The following table
1.1. shows the critical temperatures of various superconductors:

Material Type Tc(K)

Zinc metal 0.88
Aluminum metal 1.19
Tin metal 3.72
Mercury metal 4.15
YBa2Cu3O7 ceramic 90
TlBaCaCuO ceramic 125
Table. 1.1. Critical Temperature of various materials

These materials have no electrical resistance, which means electrons can travel through them
freely without collisions (root cause of resistance), they can carry large amounts of electrical
current with low energy loss for longer durations. Superconducting loops of wire have been
shown no measurable loss when they carry electrical currents for long periods. This makes
superconductivity technology fruitful for electrical power transmission. We have to use
superconducting ceramics in such case. Superconductor is characterized by Meissner effect i.e.
once the transition from the normal state to the superconducting state occurs, external magnetic
fields can't pass through it. This makes it suitable for making high speed, magnetically-levitated
trains. It is applicable in making powerful, small, superconducting magnets for magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI).

The atomic structure of most metals like a window screen called lattice structure, in which the
intersection of each set of perpendicular wires is an atom. The electrons are held quite loosely in
the metal lattice hence they can move freely. This results in good conductivity of heat and
electricity in metals. When potential difference is applied across the conductor the electrons start
flowing in one direction. They collide with each other. While in superconductor, the electrons
are paired up and move quickly between the atoms with less energy loss.

As a negatively-charged electron moves through the space between two rows of positively
charged atoms (like the wires in a window screen), it pulls inward on the atoms. This distortion
attracts a second electron to move in behind it. This second electron encounters less resistance,
much like a passenger car following a truck on the freeway encounters less air resistance. The
two electrons form a weak attraction, travel together in a pair and encounter less resistance

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overall. In a superconductor, electron pairs are constantly forming, breaking and reforming, but
the overall effect is that electrons flow with little or no resistance. The low temperature makes it
easier for the electrons to pair up.

One final property of superconductors is that when two of them are joined by a thin, insulating
layer, it is easier for the electron pairs to pass from one superconductor to another without
resistance .This effect has implications for superfast electrical switches that can be used to make
small, high-speed computers.

The future of superconductivity research is to find materials that can become superconductors at
room temperature. Once this happens, the whole world of electronics, power and transportation
will be revolutionized.

1.1.1. Classification of Superconductors

The superconductors can be classified according to following parameters:

 Physical properties:

Type I (if their phase transition is of first order) or

Type II (if their phase transition is of second order).

 Theory to explain them:

Conventional: They are explained by the BCS theory or its derivatives.

Unconventional: They are not explained by the BCS theory or its derivatives.

 Critical temperature:

High temperature (generally considered if they reach the superconducting state just
cooling them with liquid nitrogen, that is, if Tc > 77 K),

Low temperature (generally if they need other techniques to be cooled under their critical
temperature).

 Material:

Chemical elements (as mercury or lead), alloys (as niobium-titanium or germanium-

niobium), ceramics (as YBCO or the magnesium diboride), or organic superconductors
(as fullerenes or carbon nanotubes, which technically might be included among the
chemical elements as they are made of carbon).

Chapter 2: SUPERCONDUCTING DEVICES

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2.1. Superconducting Generator

The difference between the basic design of a conventional and superconducting generator will be
better understood if we study the fundamentals of generation. The mechanical energy is
converted into electrical energy by rotating a conductor relative to magnetic field produced
usually by an electromagnet. The emf is induced and direction of current are given by Fleming’s
Right Hand Rule. The resulting flow of current in conductor generates its own magnetic field.
The final useful electrical output depends upon the interaction of these two magnetic fields. The
electrical and magnetic loadings (current density and flux density) determine the output from a
generator. Neither of these can be increased indefinitely due to certain limits. The electrical
loading limited by the rate at which the heat produced can be removed, so the temperature rise is
within the value that the insulation can withstand.

The magnetic loading is limited by magnetic saturation. Thus flux density cannot be increased
beyond this level, with using special steels. These limits can be significantly relaxed by the using
superconductors. Field winding will provide at least four to five times higher magnetic field with
negligible DC voltage. This is possible because superconductors have zero DC electrical
resistance and extremely high (100,000 times more than copper conduction of the same size)
current carrying capacity. Thus machines with very high rated capacity are possible with
superconductors.

Another very attractive feature of the Superconducting field windings is that due to very high
magneto motive force set up, it is not necessary to use magnetic iron in the machine. Due to
reduced rotor dimensions, the air gap in the machine can be expanded and greater machine
stability could result.

2.2. Superconducting Magnetic Storage Systems (SMES)

A wire carrying electric current generates a magnetic field. The higher the current, the stronger is
the generated field. The current carrying wire, wrapped as a coil is called the solenoid is
proportional to the current and the number of turns Superconducting solenoids made by
wrapping a Superconducting wire in the coil from are functionally superior to conventional
solenoids because of zero dc electrical resistance, no resistive losses.

2.3. Advantages of Superconducting devices

1. Compactness and High Capacity: Superconducting cable can transmit electric power at
an effective current density of over 100 A/mm2, which is more than 100 times that of
copper cable. This allows high-capacity power transmission over the cables with more
compact size than conventional cables, which makes it possible to greatly reduce
construction costs.
2. Low Transmission Loss and Environmental Friendliness: In superconducting cables, the
electrical resistance is zero at temperatures below the critical temperature, so its
transmission loss is very small.

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3. Low Impedance: A superconducting cable that uses a superconducting shield has no
electromagnetic field leakage and low reactance. Depending on the shape of the cable,
the reactance can be lowered to approximately one-third that of conventional cables.

4. They also improve the stability of the system.

5. The HTS cable technology can solve congestion issues and other weak spots in power
grids. HTS cables have enormous technical and environmental advantages.

6. No leakage of electro-magnetic field to the outside of the cable,

Chapter 3: HIGH TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

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3. High Temperature Superconductivity

High-temperature superconductors are materials which have a superconducting transition

temperature (Tc) above 30 K (−243.2 °C). During 1980s 30 K was thought to be the highest
theoretically possible Tc. The first HTS superconductor was discovered in 1986 by IBM
Researchers Karl Müller and Johannes Bednorz, for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1987. Fe-based superconductors were discovered in 2008. The term high-temperature
superconductor also implies cuprate superconductor for compounds such as bismuth strontium
calcium copper oxide and yttrium barium copper oxide.

High-temperature has three common definitions in the context of superconductivity:

1. The temperature above of 30 K that had historically been taken as the upper limit allowed
by BCS theory.
2. The transition temperature that is a equivalent to Fermi temperature for conventional
superconductors such as mercury or lead. This definition puts use in a wider variety of
unconventional superconductors in the context of theoretical models.
3. The temperature greater than the boiling point of liquid nitrogen (77 K or −196 °C). This
can be much acceptable because liquid nitrogen is relatively inexpensive.

Technological applications are benefited from higher critical temperature which is above the
boiling point of liquid nitrogen. In magnet applications the high critical magnetic field may be
more valuable than the high Tc itself. Some cuprates have an upper critical field around 100
teslas. However, cuprate materials are brittle ceramics which are expensive to manufacture and
not easily turned into wires or other useful shapes.

Two decades of intense experimental and theoretical research, with over 100,000 published
papers on the subject, have discovered many common features in the properties of high-
temperature superconductors, but as of 2009, there is no widely accepted theory to explain their
properties. Cuprate superconductors (and other unconventional superconductors) differ in many
important ways from conventional superconductors, such as elemental mercury or lead, which
are adequately explained by the BCS theory. There also has been much debate as to high-
temperature superconductivity coexisting with magnetic ordering in YBCO, iron-based
superconductors, several ruthenocuprates and other exotic superconductors, and the search
continues for other families of materials. HTS are Type-II superconductors, which allow
magnetic fields to penetrate their interior in quantized units of flux, meaning that much higher
magnetic fields are required to suppress superconductivity.

Chapter 4: SUPERCONDUCTING CABLE USED IN PROJECTS

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4. Superconducting Cable used in Projects

The HTS cables have widely used for carrying out practical studies over their feasibility.
Presently super conducting cables are used only for demonstration purpose they have not yet
been used at mass level. It will take 10-20 years for HTS technology to come in larger scale use.
The utilization of this technology has been done successfully in certain areas in USA. Important
projects are mentioned below:

4.1. Carrollton, GA
On January 6, 2000, Southwire energized the first superconducting cable system in a commercial
/industrial setting. The pioneering cable project, a partnership between DOE and Southwire, was
constructed and installed above ground with three, 100-foot, single-phase, HTS cables rated
12.4kV, 1,250 Amps. The cables delivered power to Southwire manufacturing plants. The
system operated continuously for 7 years at 100 percent load for over 40,000 hours. When taken
offline to perform an inspection of the system, it was concluded that there was little to no
significant degradation in the conductivity of the wire. This cable project enabled the
development of newer cable designs that carry twice the current of this original project.

4.2. Albany, NY
Albany’s cable project began development in 2001 with a partnership between the DOE, New
York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) and Superpower, Inc.
The team also included BOC (Germany), Sumitomo Electric Industries (Osaka Japan), and
National Grid (Westborough, MA). The first phase on the Albany project consisted of two
sections; a 320 meter long section connected to another 30 meter section of HTS cable made
with first generation HTS wires. The cable connected two substations from Riverside to
Menands and was energized July 19, 2006. It operated flawlessly as an integral part of the grid’s
35kV network in Albany and served an equivalent of 25,000 homes. On May 1, 2007, the system
was taken offline to execute phase II of the project which involved installing a 30m section of
cable made with second generation HTS wires (2G Wires). On January 8, 2008 the system was
reenergized. This milestone demonstrates the first use of 2G wires in HTS device of any kind in
a live grid application. All aspects of this program have been successfully demonstrated and
completed.

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Figure 4.2. First generation HTS wire (Source: Superconductivity News Update November
2008)

Figure 4.3. Second generation HTS wire ((Source: Superconductivity News Update
November 2008)

4.3. Columbus, OH

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This 200 meter cable project was awarded in late 2002. The cable was installed in the Bixby
substation and was energized August 8, 2006. The cable project serves residential and industrial
customers in parts of Columbus, Ohio. The cable is designed to operate at 13.2 kV and carries up
to 3,000 amps. A majority of the cable was pulled into its conduit underground, and a cable
splice was built in a man-hole to demonstrate joining multiple cable sections. Since being
energized, the cable system has worked flawlessly and has served power to 36,000 homes. Its
peak load has been charted at 2,700 A.

4.4. Long Island

On April 22, 2008 American Superconductor Corporation (AMSC) and its partners energized the
world’s first high temperature superconducting transmission-voltage power cable system in a
commercial power grid. AMSC’s partners included Long Island Power Authority (LIPA),
Nexans, Air liquide and the Department of Energy (DOE). The 138,000 volt (138kV) system
consists of three individual HTS power cable phases running in parallel. Since being energized,
the system has operated successfully. When operating at full capacity, the HTS cable system is
capable of transmitting up to 574 megawatts (MW) of electricity, enough to power 300,000
homes. Phase II of the project consists of an extension of the cable system by replacing one of
the existing cables with a 600-meter long cable made with AMSC’s proprietary 344
superconductors, also known generically as 2G HTS wire.

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 Chapter 5. APPLICATION OF HTS TECHNOLOGY

5. Long Island Transmission Level HTS Cable

Fig. 5.1. LIPA HTS Cable

5.1. Construction Details:

The Fig 5.1 shows the cross-sectional view. This cable was manufactured by Nexans. The cable
consists of five layers. Outer most is cryostat (thermostat which operates at very low
temperature) wall. LN2 (liquid nitrogen) is circulated between shield stabilization layer and
second layer of cryostat. There is one cable for single phase hence three cables in total are used.
The cable consists of a copper former, two HTS conductor layers, an insulation layer, an HTS
screen layer, a copper screen stabilizer and a cryogenic envelope. Liquid nitrogen is circulated
for cooling the conductors below critical temperature.

5.2. Testing Performed

5.2.1. Before Energization:

Several tests were performed before energizing the cable for power flow. Firstly the cable was
colled and the refrigeration system was operated for a period of time so that the dielectric gets

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completely impregnated with the liquid nitrogen used for refrigeration. This was to check
whether cable is ready for operation. The capacitance measurements were done for dielectric to
check its properties. The parameters for the refrigeration system were also examined and tested
so that its safety controls can be determined based on actual operational conditions. When the
completion of the saturation of the dielectric the cable was tested the system was ready to
connect. A voltage withstand test as well as an onsite partial discharge measurement test were
both performed successfully, no partial discharge was observed. Once the control and protection
system were adjusted, LIPA performed its operation on April 22, 2008 with the breakers at both
end of the cable.

5.3. Operational Experience

1. After testing results the cable was finally energized to take load. There were several
unexpected trips due to supply voltage issue. The control system was monitored to find
out the cause. There was no failure in mechanical parts of the cable. This was a
remarkable achievement.
2. There were some unexpected trips in the refrigeration building. It was resolved by
addition of and additional air conditioning system which would operate during hot
conditions automatically.
3. The operational parameters were found consistent with the expectations during the design
of the cable. The system is operating well.

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 Chapter 6: IMPLEMENTATION OF HTS TECHNOLOGY IN POWER SYSTEM

The superconductivity technology can be employed in the power system at distribution level.
This will help in reduction of copper losses, hence improving the efficiency and reduction in cost
of generation of power.

6.1. Conventional Scheme

EHV

HV

MV

Fig. 6.1. Diagram of Conventional Scheme

6.1.1. Features:

This scheme represents the conventional power system. Since the studies were carried out in Europe we
will use voltage levels accordingly at various levels of transmission and distribution. Taking them as
follows:
Extra High Voltage (EHV): 380kV

High Voltage (HV): 220kV or 110kV

Medium Voltage (MV): 10kV-30kV

Low Voltage (LV): less than 1kV

No HTS equipment is used in this scheme.

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6.2. Scheme 1

EHV

HTS MV

MV

Fig. 6.2. Diagram of Scheme 1

6.2.1. Features:

1. Scheme 1 includes HTS at MV level.

2. The MV part is directly connected to HV part.

3. Except HTS part rest all remains same.

4. This scheme can be easily be fitted in conventional scheme.

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6.3. Scheme 2

EHV

HTS MV

Fig. 6.3. Diagram of Scheme 2

6.3.1. Features:

1. In this scheme HV and MV parts of conventional scheme are replaced by HTS MV part.

2. The conventional scheme cannot be upgraded to scheme 3. Hence for new loads we can adopt this
particular scheme.

3. It has advantage over scheme 1 that it has greater current carrying capacity and lower voltage drop.

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6.4. Scheme 3

EHV

HTS MV

Fig. 6.4. Diagram of Scheme 3

6.4.1. Features:

1. In this scheme we increase cell size i.e. area to which distributer feeds is increased.

2. Since there are lower voltage drops in HTS technology this hence enhances the use of larger cell size at
distribution level (<1kV).

3. Greater line length reduces the number of LV transformer.

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6.5. Comparison of Scheme 1,2,3 and Conventional

6.5.1. Assumptions made for this comparison are:

1.Load density: 30 MW/square km

2.Medium voltage level: 30 kV
3. HTS cable ampacity: 2.5 kA
4. Cost of energy loss: 100 €/MWh.
And the charges for carbon dioxide emission or reduction have not been considered. However
this will provide with a positive effect if considered because there is least carbon dioxide
emission in HTS system.

Schemes Investment Operation Losses

(Mio. Euro/Annum) (Mio. Euro/Annum) (Mio.
Euro/Annum)
Scheme 1 50 2.5 2.5
Scheme 2 75 3 2
Scheme 3 57 2 2
Conventional 45 2.5 7

Table 6.1. (Source: Mathias Noe, Robert Bach, Werner Prusseit, Dag Willén, Wilfried Goldacker, Juri Poelchau , Christian Linke,
“Conceptual Study of Superconducting Urban Area Power Systems” 2009)

6.5.2. Components of investments

In this comparison break up of investment are shown.

Schemes LV Line LV MV Line HTS MV HV Line HV Substation

(Mio. Transformer (Mio. Line (Mio. Switchgear (Mio.
Euro/A) Station Euro/A) (Mio. Euro/A) (Mio. Euro/A)
(Mio. Euro/A) Euro/A) Euro/A)

Scheme 1 22 7.5 12.5 7.5 0.5 0 0.5

Scheme 2 22 7 0 45.5 0 0 0.0125

Scheme 3 39 1 0 16.5 0 0 0.0125

Conventional 22 7 11 0 4 0.5 0.5

Table 6.2. (Source: Mathias Noe, Robert Bach, Werner Prusseit, Dag Willén, Wilfried Goldacker, Juri Poelchau , Christian Linke,
“Conceptual Study of Superconducting Urban Area Power Systems” 2009)

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6.5.3. Inferences from Table 6.1.:

1. Scheme 1 and scheme 3 are acceptable because investment for both is close and losses
and operational cost are also comparable. Hence total annual cost is comparable.

6.5.4. Inferences from Table 6.2.:

1. In scheme 1 the investment for HV component is least. Scheme 3 do not requires MV

line.
2. In scheme 1 HTS required is least and total investment is also least.
3. Scheme 2 is not acceptable because HTS MV required is maximum hence increasing the
investment cost.
4. Scheme 3 is also acceptable because of low over all investment. Although its HTS MV
investment is twice that of Scheme 1.
5. Smaller cell size hence longer length will reduce the number of transformer at LV
distribution level hence there is reduction in cost.

6.6. Limitations of this study:

This study was conducted to show large how we can integrate superconducting equipment at large
scale and use them at distribution level power system. The length for HTS is not greater than 100km
since it focused over urban areas only. It is also limited to power transmission to 1 GW. In urban
areas power is transmitted in such a way that length is not more than 100km.

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Conclusion:

The superconductivity technology has an emerging tool which can be implemented easily into
present grids in power system. The studies of Long Island show that how the HTS cables can be
installed at high voltage level (138kV) of the grid. The studies conclude that the use of HTS
cable is reliable. Its analytical studies indicated that it will remain stable on long run. The system
can be put on long run, providing power to commercial loads without interruption and
maintaining proper efficiency when compared to conventional system. The High Voltage section
in present power system can be replaced with a new HTS MV section. Such a scheme reduces
overall costs and conventional system can be easily be upgraded to the Scheme 1. Besides a
single HTS MV section in Scheme 3 will be applicable to newly developing systems for loads
from upcoming townships and industries. A large scale integrated use of High Temperature
Superconductors (HTS) Cables in power system will be more efficient. Besides super conducting
generators have more benefits such as reduction in size, increased stability due to reduced
machine reactance. The studies had certain limitations such as line length was less than 100km a
total load less than 1GW. Also the costs for various equipments are assumed constant. Such a
system is considered only for urban areas having shorter line lengths. Keeping these constraints
in mind we can develop a new power system in developing country like India.

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References

1. Mathias Noe, Robert Bach, Werner Prusseit, Dag Willén, Wilfried Goldacker, Juri
Poelchau , Christian Linke, “Conceptual Study of Superconducting Urban Area Power Systems”
2009
2. J. Maguire, F. Schmidt, S. Bratt, T. Welsh, J. Yuan,”Installation and Testing Results of Long
“Island Transmission Level HTS Cable” IEEE Trans. on Applied Superconductivity 2009.

Bibliography

Website: http://www.superconductors.org/

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