A TRAINING REPORT ON

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING AT DDK , IMPHAL

Submitted by

VISHWANATH RAJKUMAR
(T.E. E&C)

In partial fulfillment of the award of

Bachelor of Electronics and Communication Engineering

North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

SHRI SANT GADGE BABA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY,
BHUSAWAL
(2010-2011)
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled Industrial Training

at

DDK, IMPHAL

submitted by

VISHWANATH RAJKUMAR

As a part of Term work prescribed by North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon,

as record of his own carried out by his session of third year Electronics &

Communication Engineering 2010-2011

Prof. G. A. Kulkarni Dr. R. P. Singh

Head of the Department Principal

E&C Engineering S.S.G.B.C.O.E.T. Bhusawal

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Words often fail to express one’s feeling towards others, still I express my sincere
gratitude to Shri. N. Nandakumar Singh, Station Engineer DOORDARSHAN KENDRA,
IMPHAL for his valuable guidance, who help me a lot in understanding the various process
and concepts involved, without which it would have been difficult for me to complete my
training. It was really a great experience working in the DDK, IMPHAL and learning from
such experienced engineers with hands on experience on the subject.

I would also like to give my heartiest thanks to our Prof.G.A. KULKARNI,

HOD Electronics & Communication Engg. Department for giving his precious
time, incessant encouragement and guidance to make this training a success.

Vishwanath Rajkumar

(T.E. E&C)
INDEX

1. INTRODUCTION TO TELEVISION

2. HISTORY OF TELEVISION

3. ABOUT DOORDARSHAN

4. PICTURE TRANSMISSION

5. TELEVISION TRANSMITTER

6. TELEVISION RECEIVER

7. STANDARD TELEVISION SYSTEM

8. APPLICATION OF TELEVISION

9. TELEVISION VIA SATTELITE

10. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TELEVISION

11. CONCLUSION
ABSTRACT
The aim of a television system is to extend the sense of sight beyond its natural limits and to
transmit sound associated with the scene. The picture signal is generated by a TV camera
and sound signal by a microphone. In the 625 lines CCIR monochrome and PAL-B colour
TV systems adopted by India, the picture signal is amplitude modulated and sound signal is
frequency modulated before transmission. The two carrier frequencies are suitably spaced
and their modulation products radiated through a common antenna. As in radio
communication, each television station is allotted different carrier frequencies to
enable selection of desired station at the receiving end.
Doordarshan is the public television broadcaster of India and a division of Parsar Bharti a
public service broadcaster nominated by the Government of India. It is one of the largest
broadcasting organizations in the world in terms of the infrastructure of studios and
transmitters.
INTRODUCTION TO TELEVISION

The aim of a television system is to extend the sense of sight beyond its natural limits and to
transmit sound associated with the scene. The picture signal is generated by a TV camera
by a TV camera and sound signal by a microphone. In the 625 lines CCIR monochrome and
PAL-B colour TV systems adopted by India, the picture signal is amplitude modulated and
sound signal frequency modulated before transmission. The two carrier frequencies are
suitably spaced and their modulation products radiated through a common antenna. As in
radio communication, each television station is allotted different carrier frequencies to
enable selection of desired station at the receiving end.
The TV receiver has tuned circuits in its input section called ‘tuner’. It selects desired
channel signal out of the many picked up by the antenna. The selected RF band is converted
to a common fixed IF band for convenience of providing large amplification to it. The
amplified IF signals are detected to obtain video (picture) and audio (sound) signals. The
video signal after large amplification drives the picture tube to reconstruct the televised
picture on the receiver screen. Similarly, the audio signal is amplified and fed to the
loudspeaker to produce sound output associated with the scene

HISTORY OF TELEVISION

In its early stages of development , television employed a combination of optical,

mechanical and electronic technologies to capture , transmit and display a visual image.
By the late 1920s, however, those employing only optical and electronic technologies were
being explored. All modern television systems rely on the latter, although the knowledge
gained from the work on mechanical-dependent systems was crucial in the development of
fully electronic television The first time images were transmitted electrically were via early
mechanical fax machines, including the pantelegraph, developed in the late 1800s. The
concept of electrically-powered transmission of television images in motion, was first
sketched in 1878 as the telephonoscope, shortly after the invention of the telephone. At the
time, it was imagined by early science fiction authors, that someday that light could be
transmitted over wires, as sounds were.
The idea of using scanning to transmit images was put to actual practical use in 1881 in the
pantelegraph, through the use of a pendulum-based scanning mechanism. From this period
forward, scanning in one form or another, has been used in nearly every image transmission
technology to date, including television. This is the concept of "rasterization", the process of
converting a visual image into a stream of electrical pulses.

In 1884 Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, a 20-year old university student in Germany, patented the first
electromechanical television system which employed a scanning disk, a spinning disk with a
series of holes spiraling toward the center, for rasterization. The holes were spaced at equal
angular intervals such that in a single rotation the disk would allow light to pass through each
hole and onto a light-sensitive selenium sensor which produced the electrical pulses. As an
image was focused on the rotating disk, each hole captured a horizontal "slice" of the whole
image.

Nipkow's design would not be practical until advances in amplifier tube technology became
available. The device was only useful for transmitting still "halftone" images — represented
by equally spaced dots of varying size — over telegraph or telephone lines. Later designs
would use a rotating mirror-drum scanner to capture the image and a cathode ray tube (CRT)
as a display device, but moving images were still not possible, due to the poor sensitivity of
the selenium sensors. In 1907 Russian scientist Boris Rosing became the first inventor to use
a CRT in the receiver of an experimental television system

He used mirror-drum scanning to transmit simple geometric shapes to the CRT.

Scottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrated the transmission of moving silhouette
images in London in 1925, and of moving, monochromatic images in 1926. Baird's scanning
disk produced an image of 30 lines resolution, just enough to discern a human face, from a
double spiral of lenses. Remarkably, in 1927 Baird also invented the world's first video
recording system, "Phonovision" — by modulating the output signal of his TV camera down
to the audio range he was able to capture the signal on a 10-inch wax audio disc using
conventional audio recording technology. A handful of Baird's 'Phonovision' recordings
survive and these were finally decoded and rendered into viewable images in the 1990s using
modern digital signal-processing technology.

In 1926, Hungarian engineer Kálmán Tihanyi designed a television system utilizing fully
electronic scanning and display elements, and employing the principle of "charge storage"
within the scanning (or "camera") tube.

By 1927, Russian inventor Léon Theremin developed a mirror drum-based television system
which used interlacing to achieve an image resolution of 100 lines.

Also in 1927, Herbert E. Ives of Bell Labs transmitted moving images from a 50-aperture
disk producing 16 frames per minute over a cable from Washington, DC to New York City,
and via radio from Whippany, New Jersey. Ives used viewing screens as large as 24 by
30 inches (60 by 75 centimeters). His subjects included

In 1927, Philo Farnsworth made the world's first working television system with electronic
scanning of both the pickup and display devices, which he first demonstrated to the press on
1 September 1928.

HISTORY OF TELEVISION IN INDIA

Television in India has been in existence for nigh on four decades. For the first 17 years, it
spread haltingly and transmission was mainly in black & white. The thinkers and policy
makers of the country, which had just been liberated from centuries of colonial rule, frowned
upon television, looking on at it as a luxury Indians could do without. In 1955 a Cabinet
decision was taken disallowing any foreign investments in print media which has since been
followed religiously for nearly 45 years. Sales of TV sets, as reflected by licenses issued to
buyers were just 676,615 until 1977. Television has come to the forefront only in the past 21
years and more so in the past 13. There were initially two ignition points: the first in the
eighties when colour TV was introduced by state-owned broadcaster Doordarshan (DD)
timed with the 1982 Asian Games which India hosted. It then proceeded to install
transmitters nationwide rapidly for terrestrial broadcasting. In this period no private
enterprise was allowed to set up TV stations or to transmit TV signals. The second spark
came in the early nineties with the broadcast of satellite TV by foreign programmers like
CNN followed by Star TV and a little later by domestic channels such as Zee TV and Sun
TV into Indian homes. Prior to this, Indian viewers had to make do with DD's chosen fare
which was dull, non-commercial in nature, directed towards only education and socio-
economic development. Entertainment programmes were few and far between. And when the
solitary few soaps like Hum Log (1984), and mythological dramas: Ramayana (1987-88) and
Mahabharata (1988-89) were televised, millions of viewers stayed glued to their sets. When,
urban Indians learnt that it was possible to watch the Gulf War on television, they rushed out
and bought dishes for their homes. Others turned entrepreneurs and started offering the signal
to their neighbours by flinging cable over treetops and verandahs. From the

large metros satellite TV delivered via cable moved into smaller towns, spurring the purchase
of TV sets and even the up gradation from black & white to colour TVs.
 
DD responded to this satellite TV invasion by launching an entertainment and commercially
driven channel and introduced entertainment programming on its terrestrial network. This
again fuelled the purchase of sets in the hinterlands where cable TV was not available.
The initial success of the channels had a snowball effect: more foreign programmers and
Indian entrepreneurs flagged off their own versions. From two channels prior to 1991, Indian
viewers were exposed to more than 50 channels by 1996. Software producers emerged to
cater to the programming boom almost overnight. Some talent came from the film industry,
some from advertising and some from journalism.
 
More and more people set up networks until there was a time in 1995-96 when an estimated
60,000 cable operators existed in the country. Some of them had subscriber bases as low as
50 to as high as in the thousands. Most of the networks could relay just 6 to 14 channels as
higher channel relaying capacity required heavy investments, which cable operators were
loathes making. American and European cable networks evinced interest, as well as large
Indian business groups, who set up sophisticated head ends capable of delivering more than
30 channels. These multi-system operators (MSOs) started buying up local networks or
franchising cable TV feeds to the smaller operators for a fee. This phenomenon led to
resistance from smaller cable operators who joined forces and started functioning as MSOs.
The net outcome was that the number of cable operators in the country has fallen to 30,000.
 

The rash of players who rushed to set up satellite channels discovered that advertising
revenue was not large enough to support them. This led to a shakeout. At least half a dozen
either folded up or aborted the high-flying plans they had drawn up, and started operating in
a restricted manner. Some of them converted their channels into basic subscription services
charging cable operators a carriage fee.
Foreign cable TV MSOs discovered that the cable TV market was too disorganized for them
to operate in and at least three of them decided to postpone their plans and got out of the
market..

The government started taxing cable operators in a bid to generate revenue. The rates varied
in the 26 states that go to form India and ranged from 35 per cent upwards. The authorities
moved in to regulate the business and a Cable TV Act was passed in 1995. The apex court in
the country, the Supreme Court, passed a judgment that the air waves are not the property of
the Indian government and any Indian citizen wanting to use them should be allowed to do
so. The government reacted by making efforts to get some regulation in place by setting up
committees to suggest what the broadcasting law of India should be, as the sector was still
being governed by laws which were passed in 19th century India. A broadcasting bill was
drawn up in 1997 and introduced in parliament. But it was not passed into an Act. State-
owned telecaster Doordarshan and radio caster All India Radio were brought under a holding
company called the Prasar Bharati under an act that had been gathering dust for seven years,
the Prasar Bharati Act, 1990. The Act served to give autonomy to the broadcasters as their
management was left to a supervisory board consisting of retired professionals and
bureaucrats.
 
A committee headed by a senior Congress (I) politician Sharad Pawar and consisting of other
politicians and industrialist was set up to review the contents of the Broadcasting Bill. It held
discussions with industry, politicians, and consumers and a report was even drawn up. But
the United Front government fell and since then the report and the Bill have been consigned
to the dustbin. But before that it issued a ban on the sale of Ku-band dishes and on digital
direct-to-home Ku-band broadcasting, which the Rupert Murdoch-owned News Television
was threatening to start in India. ISkyB, the Murdoch DTH venture, has since been
wallowing in quicksand and in recent times has even shed a lot of employees.
The first practical use of television was in Germany. Regular television broadcasts began in
Germany in 1929 and in 1936 the Olympic Games in Berlin were broadcast to television
stations in Berlin and Leipzig where the public could view the games live.

ABOUT DOORDARSHAN
It is the public television broadcaster of India and a division of Parsar Bharti a public service
broadcaster nominated by the Government of India.

It is one of the largest broadcasting organizations in the world in terms of the infrastructure
of studios and transmitters.

Beginning

Doordarshan had a modest beginning with the experimental telecast starting in Delhi on 15

September 1959 with a small transmitter and a makeshift studio. The regular daily
transmission started in 1965 as a part of All India Radio. The television service was extended
to Bombay and Amritsar in 1972. Till 1975, seven Indian cities had television service and
Doordarshan remained the only television channel in India. Television services were
separated from radio in 1976. Each office of All India Radio and Doordarshan were placed
under the management of two separate Director Generals in New Delhi. Finally Doordarshan
as a National Broadcaster came into existence.

Nation Wide Telecast

National telecasts were introduced in 1982. In the same year, colour TV was introduced in
the Indian market with the live telecast of the Independence Day speech by then Prime
minister Indira Gandhi

on 15 August 1982, followed by the 1982 Asian Games being held in

Delhi. Now more than 90 percent of the Indian population can receive Doordarshan (DD
National) programmes through a network of nearly 1400 terrestrial transmitters and about 46
Doordarshan studios produce TV programs today.

International Broadcasting

DD-India is being broadcasted internationally through Satellite. It is available in 146

countries worldwide, however the information on picking up this channel in other countries
is not easily available. In the UK, DD-India was available through the Eurobird Satellite on
the Sky system on Channel 833 (the logo is shown as Rayat TV). The timing and
programming of DD-India international is different from that of India. Transmissions for Sky
Digital U.K. stopped in June 2008 and DirecTV U.S stopped in July 2008.

Commercial Viability

Once private television channels were allowed in the 1991, Doordarshan has seen a steep
decline in viewership in homes with Cable and Satellite Television which in 2002 was just at
2.38% for DD National. While it earns significant advertising revenue due to the compulsory
feed given to it by the highest bidder to national events including cricket tournaments, there
has been a proposal to give it funds by imposing a license fee to own a television in India like
the BBC. However this is unlikely to be imposed keeping in view the financial constraints of
the average Indian viewer.
Channels

Presently, Doordarshan operates 19 channels – two All India channels-DD National and DD
News, 11 Regional languages Satellite Channels (RLSC), four State Networks (SN), an
International channel, a Sports Channel and two channels (DD-RS & DD-LS) for live
broadcast of parliamentary proceedings.(DD-1), Regional programmes and Local
Programmes are carried on time-sharing basis. DD-News channel, launched on 3
November 2003, which replaced the DD-Metro Entertainment channel, provides 24-Hour
news service.
The Regional Languages Satellite channels have two components – The Regional service for
the particular state relayed by all terrestrial transmitters in the state and additional
programmes in the Regional Language in prime time and non-prime time available only
through cable operators. DD-Sports Channel is exclusively devoted to the broadcasting of
sporting events of national and international importance. This is the only Sports Channels
which telecasts rural sports like Kho-Kho, Kabbadi etc. something which private
broadcasters will not attempt to telecast as it will not attract any revenues.

Active Doordarshan

It is an Interactive Service of Tata Sky to show 4 TV Channels of Doordarshan which are not
available on Tata sky as normal channels. Active Doordarshan channels are Rajyasabha TV,
GyanDarshan,DDUrduandDDBharati.

Regional Language Satellite Service

 
All Doordarshan Kendras generate programmes in their respective regional languages. 
The Regional Language Satellite Services and Regional State Networks broadcast wide
spectrum of programmes covering developmental news, serials, documentaries, news and
current affairs programmes to communicate with the people in their own language.  
Programmes in regional languages are available in the respective states, terrestrially during
the regional window of DD National and round the clock on the Regional Language Satellite
Channels across the country.
 
DD North East
 
DD North East Channel is a composite satellite television service for the North Eastern
states broadcasting programmes in Assamese, English and other languages and dialects of the
North East. The programme mix includes entertainment serials, informative programmes,
social programmes, news and current affairs, art and culture.  The programmes are produced
at Doordarshan studios in Guwahati, Agartala, Kohima, Imphal, Silchar, Dibrugarh, Tura,
Aizawl, Itanagar and Shillong.

DD Oriya

DD Oriya is a leading round the clock satellite channel broadcasting in Oriya language.
Launched in 1994 DD Oriya broadcasts serials, cultural programmes, infotainment
programmes, news and current affairs etc.  Most of its programmes are produced at
Doordarshan Kendras of Bhubaneshwar, Sambalpur and Bhawanipatna.

 DD Podhigai

 DD Podhigai is the Tamil language channel launched in 1993.  Tamil films shown on DD
Podhigai attract a large number of viewers within as well as outside Tamil Nadu.  Serials,
films, infotainment programmes, news and current affairs are the prominent programme
genres.  DD – Podhigai is the only regional language satellite channel, that has eight hours of
terrestrial transmission.  In the terrestrial mode, from 3 p.m. to 11 p.m., DD Podhigai reaches
94% population of Tamil Nadu.  The channel originates its programmes in Chennai.

DD Punjabi

  DD Punjabi Channel was launched in 1998 which became a 24 hour service within two
years. The cultural programmes broadcast on DD Punjabi are watched with interest across
the state and by lakhs of Punjabi viewers residing in different parts of India.  In its terrestrial
mode DD Punjabi has near 100 per cent reach in the State of Punjab.  Doordarshan Kendra,
Jalandhar is the hub of DD Punjabi productions.

DD Sahyadri

DD Sahyadri is the Marathi language channel, launched in 1994.  Supported by Doordarshan

studios in Mumbai, Pune and Nagpur, DD Sahyadri is a household name in Maharashtra,
largely because of its programmes with high production values. Despite stiff competition
from private satellite channels, DD Sahyadri holds its own with acclaimed serials,
informative programmes, public debates and film based programmes.

DD Saptagiri

DD Saptagiri is the Telugu language satellite channel supported by Doordarshan studios in

Hyderabad and Vijaywada.  Launched in 1993 DD Saptagiri has entertainment serials,
infotainment programmes, news & current affairs, social programmes and film programmes
as its major content. In terrestrial mode, DD Saptagiri is available to 90% of the population
of Andhra Pradesh. 

DD Bangla
 DD Bangla is the Bengali language satellite channel supported by Doordarshan studios in
Kolkata, Shantiniketan and Jalpaiguri.  Launched in 2001 DD Bangla has entertainment
serials, infotainment programmes, news & current affairs, social programmes and film
programmes as its major content. In terrestrial mode, DD Bangla is available to 97.1 % of the
population of West Bengal. 

DD Gujarati
  DD Gujarati is the Gujarati language satellite channel supported by Doordarshan studios in
Ahmedabad and Rajkot.  Launched in 1992 DD Gujarati has entertainment serials,
infotainment programmes, news & current affairs, social programmes and film programmes
as its major content. In terrestrial mode, DD Gujarati is available to 84.8% of the population
of Gujarat. 
 
DD Chandana
  DD Chandana is the Kannada language satellite channel supported by Doordarshan studios
in Bangalore and Gulbarga.  Launched in 1994 DD Chandana has entertainment serials,
infotainment programmes, news & current affairs, social programmes and film programmes
as its major content. In terrestrial mode, DD Chandana is available to 81.7% of the
population of Karnataka. 
 
DD Kashir
  DD Kashir is the Kashmiri language satellite channel supported by Doordarshan studios in
Srinagar, Jammu and Leh.  Launched in 2003 DD Kashir has entertainment serials,
infotainment programmes, news & current affairs, social programmes and film
programmes as its major content. In terrestrial mode, DD Kashiris available to 96 % of the
population of the valley 
 

DD Malayalam
 DD Malayalam is the Malayalam language satellite channel supported by Doordarshan
studios in Thiruvanthapuram and Thrissur.  Launched in 1994 DD Malayalam has
entertainment serials, infotainment programmes, news & current affairs, social programmes
and film programmes as its major content. In terrestrial mode, DD Malayalam is available to
99.2 % of the population of Kerala. 
 
Satellite Transponder D/L D/L FE Sym. B/W
Freq Pol C Rate
DD-NE INSAT-4B C-04 3840.5 H ¾ 6.25 9.0
DD-Bangla INSAT-3A C-01 3731.5 V ¾ 6.25 9.0
DD-Oriya INSAT-3A C-02 3771.5 V ¾ 6.25 9.0
DD-Sapthagiri INSAT-3A C-03 3820.5 V ¾ 6.25 9.0
DD-Podhigai INSAT-3A C-03 3831.0 V ¾ 8.60 12
DD-Malyalam INSAT-3A C-03 3811.5 V ¾ 6.25 9.0
 DD-Chandana INSAT-3A C-01 3758.5 V ¾ 6.25 9.0
DD-Sahayadri INSAT-3A C-02 3791.0 V ¾ 8.60 12
DD-Girnar INSAT-3A C-01 3749.5 V ¾ 6.25 9.0
DD-Panjabi INSAT-3A C-01 3740.5 V ¾ 6.25 9.0
DD-Kashir INSAT-3A C-02 3780.5 V ¾ 6.25 9.0

PICTURE TRANSMISSION

The picture information is optical in character and may be thought of as an assemblage of a

large number of tiny areas representing picture details. These elementary areas into which
picture details may be broken up are known as ‘picture elements’ or ‘pixels’, which when
viewed together represent visual information of the scene. Thus, at any instant there are
almost an infinite number of pieces of information that need to be picked up simultaneously
for transmitting picture details. However, simultaneous pick-up is not practicable because it
is not feasible to provide a separate signal path(channel) for the signal obtained from each
picture element. In practice, this problem is solved by a method known as ‘scanning’ where
conversion of optical information to electrical form is carried out element by element, one at
a time and in a sequential manner to cover the entire picture. Besides, scanning is done at a
very fast rate and repeated a large number of times per second to create an
illusion(impression at the eye) of simultaneous reception from all the elements, though using
only one Signal path.

Black And White Pictures

In a monochrome (black and white) picture, each element is either bright, some shade of grey
or dark. A TV camera, the heart of which is a camera tube, is used to convert this optical
information into corresponding electrical signal, the amplitude of which varies in accordance
with variations of brightness. Fig. 1.1 shows very elementary details of one type of camera
tube (vidicon) and associated components to illustrate the principle. An optical image of the
scene to be transmitted is focused by a lens assembly on the rectangular glass face-plate of
the camera tube. The inner side of the glass face-plate has a transparent conductive coating
on which is laid a very thin layer of photoconductive material.
The photolayer has very high resistance when no light falls on it, but decreases depending on
the intensity of light falling on it. Thus depending on light intensity variations in the focused
optical image, the conductivity of each element of photolayer changes accordingly. An
electron beam is used to pick-up picture information now available on the target plate in
terms of varying resistance at each point.

FIG1.1: Simplified Version of A Cross Sectional View Of A Vidicon Camera Tube And
Associated Component

The beam is formed by an electron gun in the TV camera tube. On its way to the inner side of
glass face-plate, it is deflected by a pair of deflecting coils mounted on the glass envelope
and kept mutually perpendicular to each other to achieve scanning of the entire target area.
Scanning is done in the same way as one reads a written page to cover all the words in one
line and all the lines on the page see (Fig. 1.2). To achieve this, the deflecting coils are fed
separately from two sweep oscillators which continuously generate suitable waveform
voltages, each operating at a different desired frequency.Magnetic deflection caused by the
current in one coil gives horizontal motion to the beam from left to right at uniform rate and
then brings it quickly to the left side to commence trace of the next line. The other coil is
used to deflect the beam from top to bottom at a uniform rate and for its quick retrace back to
the top of the plate to start this process over again.

.
Fig 1.2: Path of Scanning Beam In Covering Picture Area
Two simultaneous motions are thus given to the beam, one from left to right across the target
plate and the other from top to bottom thereby covering entire area on which electrical image
of the picture is available. As the beam moves from element to element, it encounters a
different resistance across the target-plate, depending on the resistance of photoconductive
coating. The result is a flow of current which varies in magnitude as the elements are
scanned. This current passes through a load resistance RL, connected to the conductive
coating on one side and to a dc supply source on the other. Depending on the magnitude of
current, a varying voltage appears across resistance RL and this corresponds to optical
information of the picture.

Fig1.3: Simplified Block Diagram of A Colour Camera

If the scanning beam moves at such a rate that any portion of the scene content does not have
time to change perceptibly in the time required for one complete scan of the image, the
resultant electrical signal contains true information existing in the picture during the time of
scan. The desired information is now in the form of a signal varying with time and scanning
may thus be identified as a particular process which permits conversion of information
existing in space and time co-ordinates into time variations only. The electrical information
thus obtained from the TV camera tube is generally referred to as video signal (video is Latin
for ‘see’).

Colour Pictures

It is possible to create any colour including white by additive mixing of red, green and blue
colour lights in suitable proportions. For example, yellow can be obtained by mixing red and
green colour lights in intensity ratio of 30 : 59. Similarly, light reflected from any colour
picture element can be synthesised (broken up) into red, green and blue colour light
constituents. This forms the basis of colour television where Red (R), Green (G) and Blue
(B) colours are called primary colours and those formed by mixing any two of the three
primaries as complementary colours. A colour camera, the elements of which are shown in
Fig. 1.3, is used to develop signal voltages proportional to the intensity of each primary
colour light. It contains three camera tubes (vidicons) where each pick-up tube receives light
of only one primary colour. Light from the scene falls on the focus lens and through that on
special mirrors. Colour filters that receive reflected light via relay lenses split it into R, G and
B colour lights.

Thus, each vidicon receives a single colour light and develops a voltage proportional to the
intensity of one of the primary colours. If any primary colour is not present in any part of the
picture, the corresponding vidicon does not develop any output when that picture area is
scanned. The electron beams of all the three camera tubes are kept in step (synchronism) by
deflecting them horizontally and vertically from common driving sources.
Any colour light has a certain intensity of brightness. Therefore, light reflected from any
colour element of a picture also carries information about its brightness called luminance. A
signal voltage(Y) proportional to luminance at various parts of the picture is obtained by
adding definite proportions of VR, VG and VB (30:59:11). This then is the same as would be
developed by a monochrome (black and white) camera when made to scan the same colour
scene. This i.e., the luminance (Y) signal is also transmitted alongwith colour information
and used at picture tube in the receiver for reconstructing the colour picture with brightness
levels as in the televised picture.
TELEVISION TRANSMITTER

An oversimplified block diagram of a monochrome TV transmitter is shown in Fig. 1.4. The

luminance signal from the camera is amplified and synchronizing pulses added before
feeding it to the modulating amplifier. Synchronizing pulses are transmitted to keep the
camera and picture tube beams in step.The allotted picture carrier frequency is generated by a
crystal controlled oscillator. The continuous wave (CW) sine wave output is given large
amplification before feeding to the power amplifier where its amplitude is made to vary
(AM) in accordance with the modulating signal received from the modulating amplifier. The
modulated output is combined (see Fig. 1.4) with the frequency modulated (FM) sound
signal in the combining network and then fed to the transmitting antenna for radiation.
Fig1.4: Elementary Block Diagram of A Monochrome Television Transmitter

COLOUR TRANSMISSION:

A colour TV transmitter is essentially the same as the monochrome transmitter except for the
additional need that colour (chroma) information is also to be transmitted. Any colour system
is made compatible with the corresponding monochrome system. Compatibility means that
the colour TV signal must produce a normal black and white picture on a monochrome
receiver and a colour receiver must be able to produce a normal black and white picture from
a monochrome TV signal. For this, the luminance (brightness) signal is transmitted in a
colour system in the same way as in the monochrome system and with the same bandwidth.
However, to ensure compatibility, the colour camera outputs are modified to obtain (B-Y)
and (R-Y) signals. These are modulated on the colour sub-carrier, the value of which is so
chosen that on combining with the luminance signal, the sidebands of the two do not interfere
with each other i.e., the luminance and colour signals are correctly interleaved. A colour sync
signal called ‘colour burst’ is also transmitted for correct reproduction of colours.

SOUND TRANSMISSION
There is no difference in sound transmission between monochrome and colour TV systems.
The microphone converts the sound associated with the picture being televised into
proportionate electrical signal, which is normally a voltage. This electrical output, regardless
of the complexity of its waveform, is a single valued function of time and so needs a single
channel for its transmission. The audio signal from the microphone after amplification is
frequency modulated, employing the assigned carrier frequency. In FM, the amplitude of
carrier signal is held constant, whereas its frequency is varied in accordance with amplitude
variations of the modulating signal. As shown in Fig. 1.4, output of the sound FM transmitter
is finally combined with the AM picture transmitter output, through a combining network,
and fed to a common antenna for radiation of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.

TELEVISION RECEIVER
A simplified block diagram of a black and white TV receiver is shown in Fig. 1.5. The
receiving antenna intercepts radiated RF signals and the tuner selects desired channel’s
frequency band and converts it to the common IF band of frequencies. The receiver employs
two or three stages of intermediate frequency (IF) amplifiers. The output from the last IF
stage is demodulated to recover the video signal. This signal that carries picture information
is amplified and coupled to the picture tube which converts the electrical signal back into
picture elements of the same degree of black and white. The picture tube shown in Fig. 1.6 is
very similar to the cathode-ray tube used in an oscilloscope. The glass envelope contains an
electron-gun structure that produces a beam of electrons aimed at the fluorescent screen.
When the electron beam strikes the screen, light is emitted. The beam is deflected by a pair
of deflecting coils mounted on the neck of picture tube in the same way as the beam of
camera tube scans the target plate. The amplitudes of currents in the horizontal and vertical
deflecting coils are so adjusted that the entire screen, called raster, gets illuminated because
of the fast rate of scanning.

Fig 1.5: Simplified Block Diagram of A Black And White TV Receiver

The video signal is fed to the grid or cathode of picture tube. When the varying signal voltage
makes the control grid less negative, the beam current is increased, making the spot of light
on the screen brighter. More negative grid voltage reduces brightness. If the grid voltage is
negative enough to cut-off the electron beam current at the picture tube, there will be no
light. This state corresponds to black. Thus the video signal illuminates the fluorescent screen
from white to black through various shades of grey depending on its amplitude at any instant.
This corresponds to brightness changes encountered by the electron beam of the camera tube
while scanning picture details element by element. The rate at which the spot of light moves
is so fast that the eye is unable to follow it and so a complete picture is seen because of
storage capability of the human eye.

.
Fig 1.6: Elements of A Picture Tube

SOUND RECEPTION

The path of sound signal is common with the picture signal from antenna to video detector
section of the receiver. Here the two signals are separated and fed to their respective
channels. The frequency modulated audio signal is demodulated after at least one stage of
amplification. The audio output from the FM detector is given due amplification before
feeding it to the loudspeaker.

COLOUR RECEIVER
A colour receiver is similar to the black and white receiver as shown in Fig. 1.7. The main
difference between the two is the need of a colour or chroma subsystem. It accepts only the
colour signal and processes it to recover (B-Y) and (R-Y) signals. These are combined with
the Y signal to obtain VR, VG and VB signals as developed by the camera at the transmitting
end. VG becomes available as it is contained in the Y signal. The three colour signals are fed
after sufficient amplification to the colour picture tube to produce a colour picture on its
screen.

Fig 1.7 : Simplified Block Diagram Of A Colour Receiver

As shown in Fig. 1.7, the colour picture tube has three guns corresponding to the three pick-
up tubes in the colour camera. The screen of this tube has red, green and blue phosphors
arranged in alternate stripes. Each gun produces an electron beam to illuminate
corresponding colour phosphor separately on the fluorescent screen. The eye then integrates
the red, green and blue colour informations and their luminance to perceive actual colour and
brightness of the picture being televised. The sound signal is decoded in the same way as in a
monochrome receiver

SYNCHRONIZATION

It is essential that the same co-ordinates be scanned at any instant both at the camera tube
target plate and at the raster of picture tube, otherwise, the picture details would split and get
distorted. To ensure perfect synchronization between the scene being televised and the
picture produced on the raster, synchronizing pulses are transmitted during the retrace, i.e.,
fly-back intervals of horizontal and vertical motions of the camera scanning beam. Thus, in
addition to carrying picture details, the radiated signal at the transmitter also contains
synchronizing pulses. These pulses which are distinct for horizontal and vertical motion
control, are processed at the receiver and fed to the picture tube sweep circuitry thus ensuring
that the receiver picture tube beam is in step with the transmitter camera tube beam. As stated
earlier, in a colour TV system additional sync pulses called colour burst are transmitted along
with horizontal sync pulses. These are separated at the input of chroma section and used to
synchronize the colour demodulator carrier generator. This ensures correct reproduction of
colours in the otherwise black and white picture.

RECEIVER CONTROL
Most black and white receivers have on their front panel (i) channel selector, (ii) fine tuning,
(iii) brightness, (iv) contrast, (v) horizontal hold and (vi) volume controls besides an ON-
OFF switch. Some receivers also provide a tone control. The channel selector switch is used
for selecting the desired channel. The fine tuning control is provided for obtaining best
picture details in the selected channel. The hold control is used to get a steady picture in case
it rolls up or down. The brightness control varies beam intensity of the picture tube and is set
for optimum average brightness of the picture. The contrast control is actually gain control of
the video amplifier. This can be varied to obtain desired contrast between white and black
contents of the reproduced picture. The volume and tone controls form part of the audio
amplifier in sound section, and are used for setting volume and tonal quality of the sound
output from the loudspeaker. In colour receivers there is an additional control called ‘colour’
or ‘saturation’ control. It is used to vary intensity or amount of colours in the reproduced
picture. In modern colour receivers that employ integrated circuits in most sections of the
receiver, the hold control is not necessary and hence usually not provided.
STANDARD TELEVISION SYSTEMS

Some of the standard television systems used around the world are:

1. NTSC SYSTEM

NSTC, named for the National Television System Committee, is the analog television system
used in most of North America, South America, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Burma, and
some Pacific island nations and territories (see map). NTSC is also the name of the U.S.
standardization body that developed the broadcast standard. The first NTSC standard was
developed in 1941 and had no provision for color TV.

NTSC color encoding is used with the system M television signal, which consists of 29.97
interlaced frames of video per second, or the nearly identical system J in Japan. Each frame
consists of a total of 525 scanlines, of which 486 make up the visible raster. The remainder
(the vertical blanking interval) are used for synchronization and vertical retrace. This
blanking interval was originally designed to simply blank the receiver's CRT to allow for the
simple analog circuits and slow vertical retrace of early TV receivers. However, some of
these lines now can contain other data such as closed captioning and vertical interval time
code (VITC). In the complete raster (ignoring half-lines), the even-numbered or 'lower"
scanlines (Every other line that would be even if counted in the video signal, eg. {2, 4, 6,
524}) Are drawn in the first field, and the odd-numbered or "upper" (Every other line that
would be odd if counted in the video signal, eg. {1, 3, 5, 525}) Are drawn in the second field,
to yield a flicker-free image at the field refresh frequency of approximately 59.94 Hertz
(actually 60 Hz/1.001). For comparison, 576i systems such as PAL-B/G and SECAM uses
625 lines (576 visible), and so have a higher vertical resolution, but a lower temporal
resolution of 25 frames or 50 fields per second.
The NTSC field refresh frequency in the black-and-white system originally exactly matched
the nominal 60 Hz frequency of alternating current power used in the United States.
Matching the field refresh rate to the power source avoided inter modulation (also called
beating), which produces rolling bars on the screen. When color was later added to the
system, the refresh frequency was shifted slightly downward to 59.94 Hz to eliminate
stationary dot patterns in the difference frequency between the sound and color carriers, as
explained below in ”Colour encoding”. Synchronization of the refresh rate to the power
incidentally helped kinescope cameras record early live television broadcasts, as it was very
simple to synchronize a film camera to capture one frame of video on each film frame by
using the alternating current frequency to set the speed of the synchronous AC motor-drive
camera. By the time the frame rate changed to 29.97 Hz for color, it was nearly as easy to
trigger the camera shutter from the video signal itself.

The figure of 525 lines was chosen as a consequence of the limitations of the vacuum-tube-
based technologies of the day. In early TV systems, a master voltage-controlled oscillator
was run at twice the horizontal line frequency, and this frequency was divided down by the
number of lines used (in this case 525) to give the field frequency (60 Hz in this case). This
frequency was then compared with the 60 Hz power-line frequency and any discrepancy
corrected by adjusting the frequency of the master oscillator. For interlaced scanning, an odd
number of lines per frame was required in order to make the vertical retrace distance
identical for the odd and even fields; an extra odd line means that the same distance is
covered in retracing from the final odd line to the first even line as from the final even line to
the first odd line, so simplifying the retrace circuitry. The closest practical sequence to 500
was 3 × 5 × 5 × 7 = 525. Similarly, 625-line PAL-B/G and SECAM uses 5 × 5 × 5 × 5. The
British 405-line system used 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 5, the French 819-line system used 3 × 3 × 7 ×
13.

2. PAL AND SECAM TELEVISION SYSTEM

PAL, short for phase alternate line, is an analogue television encoding system used in
broadcast television systems in large parts of the world. In the 1950s, when the Western
European countries were planning to establish colour television, they were faced with the
problem that the NTSC standard demonstrated several weaknesses, including colour tone
shifting under poor transmission conditions, earning it a comically maligned backronym
"Never Twice the Same Color". For these reasons the development of the SECAM and PAL
standards began. The goal was to provide a colour TV standard for the European picture
frequency of 50 fields per second (50 hertz), and finding a way to eliminate the problems
with NTSC.

PAL was developed by Walter Bruch at Telefunken in Germany. The format was first
unveiled in 1963, with the first broadcasts beginning in the United Kingdom in 1964 and
Germany in 1967, though the one BBC channel initially using the broadcast standard only
began to broadcast in colour from 1967.

Telefunken was later bought by the French electronics manufacturer Thomson. Henri de
France developed SECAM, historically the first European colour television standard.
Thomson also co-owns the RCA brand for consumer electronics products, which created the
NTSC colour TV standard before Thomson became involved.

The term PAL is often used informally to refer to a 625-line/50 Hz (576i), television system,
and to differentiate from a 525-line/60 Hz (480i) NTSC system. Accordingly, DVDs are
labelled as either PAL or NTSC (referring informally to the line count and frame rate) even
though technically the discs do not have either PAL or NTSC composite colour. The line
count and frame rate are defined as EIA 525/60 or CCIR 625/50. PAL and NTSC are only
the method of the colour transmission used. The basics of PAL and the NTSC system are
very similar; a quadrature amplitude modulated subcarrier carrying the chrominance
information is added to the luminance video signal to form a composite video baseband
signal. The frequency of this subcarrier is 4.43361875 MHz for PAL, compared to
3.579545 MHz for NTSC. The SECAM system, on the other hand, uses a frequency
modulation scheme on its two line alternate colour subcarriers 4.25000 and 4.40625 MHz.

The name "Phase Alternating Line" describes the way that the phase of part of the colour
information on the video signal is reversed with each line, which automatically corrects
phase errors in the transmission of the signal by cancelling them out, at the expense of
vertical frame colour resolution. Lines where the colour phase is reversed compared to NTSC
are often called PAL or phase-alternation lines, which justifies one of the expansions of the
acronym, while the other lines are called NTSC lines. Early PAL receivers relied on the
imperfections of the human eye to do that cancelling; however this resulted in a comb like
effect known as Hanover bars on larger phase errors. Thus, most receivers now use a
chrominance delay line, which stores the received colour information on each line of display;
an average of the colour information from the previous line and the current line is then used
to drive the picture tube. The effect is that phase errors result in saturation changes, which are
less objectionable than the equivalent hue changes of NTSC. A minor drawback is that the
vertical colour resolution is poorer than the NTSC system's, but since the human eye also has
a colour resolution that is much lower than its brightness resolution, this effect is not visible.
In any case, NTSC, PAL and SECAM all have chrominance bandwidth (horizontal colour
detail) reduced greatly compared to the luminance signal The 4.43361875 MHz frequency of
the colour carrier is a result of 283.75 colour clock cycles per line plus a 25 Hz offset to
avoid interferences. Since the line frequency is 15625 Hz, the colour carrier frequency
calculates as follows: 4.43361875 MHz = 283.75 * 15625 Hz + 25 Hz.

The original colour carrier is required by the colour decoder to recreate the colour difference
signals. Since the carrier is not transmitted with the video information it has to be generated
locally in the receiver. In order that the phase of this locally generated signal can match the
transmitted information, a 10 cycle burst of colour subcarrier is added to the video signal
shortly after the line sync pulse but before the picture information (the back porch). This
colour burst is not actually in phase with the original colour subcarrier but leads it by
45 degrees on the odd lines and lags it by 45 degrees on the even lines. This 'swinging burst'
(as it is known) enables the colour decoder circuitry to distinguish the phase of the R-Y
vector inch reverses every line.

PAL vs. NTSC

NTSC receivers have a tint control to perform colour correction manually. If this is not
adjusted correctly, the colours may be faulty. The PAL standard automatically removes hue
errors by utilizing phase alternation of the colour signal (see technical details), so a tint
control is unnecessary. Chrominance phase errors in the PAL system are cancelled out using
a 1H delay line resulting in lower saturation, which is much less noticeable to the eye than
NTSC hue errors.

However, the alternation of colour information — Hanover bars— can lead to picture grain
on pictures with extreme phase errors even in PAL systems, if decoder circuits are
misaligned or use the simplified decoders of early designs (typically to overcome royalty
restrictions). In most cases such extreme phase shifts do not occur. This effect will usually be
observed when the transmission path is poor, typically in built up areas or where the terrain is
unfavourable. The effect is more noticeable on UHF than VHF signals as VHF signals tend
to be more robust.

In the early 1970s some Japanese set manufacturers developed decoding systems to avoid
paying royalties to Telefunken. The Telefunken licence covered any decoding method that
relied on the alternating subcarrier phase to reduce phase errors. This included very basic
PAL decoders that relied on the human eye to average out the odd/even line phase errors.
One solution was to use a 1H delay line to allow decoding of only the odd or even lines. For
example the chrominance on odd lines would be switched directly through to the decoder and
also be stored in the delay line. Then on even lines the stored odd line would be decoded
again. This method effectively converted PAL to NTSC. Such systems suffered hue errors
and other problems inherent in NTSC and required the addition of a manual hue control.

PAL and NTSC have slightly divergent colour spaces, but the colour decoder differences
here are ignored.PAL supports SMPTE 498.3 while NTSC is compliant with EBU
Recommendation 14.The issue of frame rates and colour subcarriers is ignored in this
technical explanation. These technical details play no direct role (except as subsystems and
physical parameters) to the decoding of the signal.
PAL vs. SECAM

SECAM is an earlier attempt at compatible colour television which also tries to resolve the
NTSC hue problem. It does so by applying a different method to colour transmission, namely
alternate transmission of the U and V vectors and frequency modulation, while PAL attempts
to improve on the NTSC method.

SECAM transmissions are more robust over longer distances than NTSC or PAL. However,
owing to their FM nature, the colour signal remains present, although at reduced amplitude,
even in monochrome portions of the image, thus being subject to stronger cross colour. Like
PAL, a SECAM receiver needs a delay line

APPLICATION OF TELEVISION
Television by its use in broadcasting has opened broad new avenues in the field of
entertainment and dissemination of information. The not so well known applications are in
the field of science, industry and education, where the television camera has contributed
immeasureably to man’s knowledge of his environment and himself. The television camera is
probably best described as an extension of the human eye because of its ability to relay
information instanstaneously. Its capability to view events occurring in extremely hazardous
locations has led to its use in atomic radiation, underwater environment and outer space.
Some of the application are as follows:

1. TELEVISION BROADCASTING

2. CABLE TELEVISION

3. CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION

4. THEATRE TELEVISION

5. PICTURE PHONE AND FACSIMILE

6. VIDEO TAPE RECORDING

TELEVISION VIA SATELLITE

There are a number of ‘INTELSAT’ satellites over the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans
operating as relay stations to some 40 ground stations around the world. The international
system of satellite communication caters to the continental 625/50 and the American 525/60
systems. Frequency modulation is used for both ‘up channel’ and ‘down channel’
transmission.FM though it needs a larger bandwidth offers good immunity from the
interference and requires less power in the satellite transmitter.

Frequency Allocation

The frequency bands recommended for satellite broadcasting are 620 to 790 MHz, 2.5 to
2.69GHz and 11.7 to 12.2 GHz on a shared bias with other fixed and mobile services. The
satellite antenna size and the RF power naturally depend upon the frequency of operation.
Space erectable antennas are used for the 620-790 MHz band, with the size limited to about
15 meters, while the rigid antennas are used both for 2.5 and 20 GHz bands the size being
limited to about 3 meters. For the ground terminal, the maximum diameter of the antenna is
restricted by the allowable beamwidth and frequency. The cost and complexity of the
receiver increases with the increase in frequency.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TELEVISION

Advantages of Television:
 There are several advantages of television like we all know that we can have a clear idea that
what is happening in the world, we can have live information about the several events like
sports and any other good or bad events happening on the globe. One can have a weather
forecast and accordingly plan several things before time. It is also a good source of
entertainment which is very cheap and within the access of every one. Television has shrunk
the distance of the world you can watch what is happening several thousand miles away from
you. So in totality it is information from all over the world, and it is fun and enjoyment with
convenience.

Disadvantages of Television:
However along with some positive sides it has its disadvantages as well like watching too
much of television also affects your eye and nerves. Television creates such a spell on
children and in some cases it also effects the elders that they actually lose their own opinion
they feel whatever is being shown on television is correct and should be practised as such. In
such situation it is the responsibility of the broad caster to show what is safe to be shown on
the television. But still several irresponsible television channels show content which is not be
shown for every one like contents of violence.
CONCLUSION

The aim of a television system is to extend the sense of sight beyond its natural limits and to
transmit sound associated with the scene. As in radio communication, each television station
is allotted different carrier frequencies to enable selection of desired station at the receiving
end. Television by its use in broadcasting has opened broad new avenues in the field of
entertainment and dissemination of information. There are several advantages of television.
However along with some positive sides it has its disadvantages as well.