UNIT 3 INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING

CONCEPT
Structure Page Nos.
3.0 Introduction 55
3.1 Objectives 56
3.2 Why Computer Networks? 56
3.3 The Topologies 57
3.4 Characteristics of the OSI Layers 59
3.5 OSI Model and Communication Between Systems 60
3.6 Interaction Between OSI Model Layers 60
3.7 Protocols 60
3.8 Types of Networks 61
3.8.1 Local Area Networks (LANs)
3.8.2 Metropolitan Networks (MANS)
3.8.3 Wide Area Networks (WANs)
3.9 Medium
3.10 Data Flow
3.11 Physical Connection
3.12 Transmission Media
3.13 Connecting Devices
3.13.1 Repeaters
3.13.2 Hubs
3.13.3 Bridges
3.13.4 Routers
3.13.5 Gateways
3.14 Summary 84
3.15 Solutions/Answers 84
3.16 Further Readings 86

i
3.0 INTRODUCTION
A network can consist of two computers connected together on a desk or it can
consist of many Local Area Networks (LANs) connected together to form a Wide
Area Network (WAN) across a continent. In simple terms it is an interconnected set
of some objects. For decades, we have been familiar with the Radio, Television,
Railways, Banks and various other types of networks. In recent years, the computer
network, a new form of network is becoming more and more visible in our day-to-day
life. A computer network is an interconnected set of autonomous computers.
Autonomous means each of them can function independent of others, i.e., each
computer has individual processors. Simply we can say each computer (terminal,
node) should not be a dump terminal. The key is that two or more computers are

. .

send and receive back information more quickly.

Networking
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
define what a network is?
understand what is the need of a computer network and the applications of networks;
list types of networks. topologies and mediums finally, and
how devices are connected though repeater, bridges, router, Gateway.

a) Communication medium: It offers a powerful communication medium among a

group of people widely separated on the earth.

b) Resource Sharing: Resources like files, printers, hard drives, or CPU can be
shared throu~ha com~uternetwork.

environment.

d) Higher flexibility: A heterogeneous system can be connected in a computer

network, by which users get better flexibility.

network.
Applications of computer network
a) Electronic Mail (e-mail or Email). The most widely used network application is
E-mail, which is forwarding of electronic files to an electronic post office for the
recipient to pick up.
b) Scheduling programs allow people across the network to schedule appointments
directly by calling up their fellow worker's schedule and selecting a time!
c) Videotext is the capability of having a two-way transmission of picture and sound.
Games like distance education lectures, etc. use videotext.
d) Groupware is the latest network application. It allows user groups to share
documents, schedules databases
e) Teleconferencingallows people in different regions to "attend" meetings using
telephone lines.

f) Automated Banking Machines allow banking transactions to be performed

everywhere: at grocery stores, drive-in machines etc.

h) Teleco~nmutingallows employees to perform office work at home by "Remote

Access" to the network.

i) Value Added Networks are common carriers such 'as ERNET, Satyam ,VSNL
etc. (they can be private or public companies) who provide additional leased line
 connections to their customers. These can be Frame Relay, ATM (Asynchronous
Transfer Mode), X.25, etc.

(i) Marketing and sales Marketing professionals use computer network to collect,
Introduction to
Networking Concept
I
exchange and analyse data relating to customer needs.

The topology is the geometric arrangement (either physically or logically) ofthe linking
devices (usually called nodes) and the links, connecting the individual computers or nodes
together. Five basic topologies:
I) Bus topology
2) Ring topology
3) Star topology
4) Mesh topology
5) Combined topologies.
1) The Bus Topology
1n the bus topology there is a single bus that carries all the data to the entire network.
A bus is a single continuous communication cable to which all the computers are
connected. A cable or bus runs throughout tlie office to which all the workstations are
connected. The bus topology is also kiiow~ias linear bus.
When one workstation wants to talk to another the message or signal travels down the
bus in both directions. Each one reads the message to see if it matches its address.
The bus topology is a passive topology. It means that the computers connected to the
bus amplify the signal on the bus.
The main advantage of bus topology is that it is quite easy to set up. Any workstation
can be easily moved to another location as bus runs throughout the office. Another
benefit of this layout is that if one computer on the bus fails, it does not affect the rest
of the traffic on the bus.
A network with bus topology cannot become too big as all the traffic is on a single bu;.
The entire network can be down only if the bus has a break. The open ends of bus
must be terminated to prevent signal bounce. If one or both ends of the bus are not
terminated, the whole network can be down.
Disadvantages include difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation I
2) The Ring Topology
In the ring topology all the workstations are connected in the shape of a ring. The ring
does not have an end. It is made up of short segments that' connect one PC to the next
and so on, until all the computers are joined in a circle. The signals travel only in one
direction and from one PC to tlie next until it reaches the appropriate node. It is also
difficult to move a workstation or to add more computers to an existing ring.
In ring topology the wiring for a ring could be arranged in a circle throughout a building
or a group of buildings. The signal travels in one direction only from one computer to
the next. The ring topology is an active topology. Each computer boosts the signal (like
a repeater) and passes to the next computer till it reaches the destination computer. A
drawback of this topology is that if one computer fails, tlie entire network is down.
Iiowever, now some ring networks are so designed that a faulty workstation is
automatically bypassed. Another drawback is that the traffic is in only one direction.
This topology is not used for a large number of nodes.
 --- -

Operating System 3) The Star Topology

Fundamentals &
Networking In tlie star topology all the stations are connected to a central computer or hub
creating a star configuration. The devices are not directly linked to each other
Messages pass from the nodes to the hub, where they are processed or passed along
to another node. The hub controls the traffic on tlie network. If the hub fails, the
entire network becomcs inoperative, but if a node fails it does not affect the rest of
the traffic on the network.
All clientlserver networks use this topology. But since cable from each node must
be connected to a central hub, tlie length of total wiring required increases very
much. A hub can be an active hub or a passive hub. A passive hub simply organizes
the wiring and works just like a wiring panel for various connections. It does not
need any power connection. An active hub does what a passive hub does, but
besides this it regenerate and retransmits the signals the way a repeater does. An
active hub needs a power connection.
4) Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every node has a dedicated point-to point link to every other
node. Simply dedicated means that the links carry traffic only between the two nodes.
So mesh topology does not have traffic congestion proble~nsevery node has n-1
link,for a fully connected mesh topology Iiaviug n nodes. So the total number of links
will be 11 (n-I).This also means that every node has (n-1) 110 ports.
Advantages of Mesh topology

1) Use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data
load. Thus eliminates the traffic problem.

2) If one link fails, it does not affect the rest of network. This means it is robust.
3) Point to point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.

4) Privacy or security is high, since the other link cannot gain access to the
dedicated link where the message is travelling.

Disadvantages of mesh topology

1) More cabling and I t 0 ports are required, because every node must be connected
to every other node.

2) Cost is very high, because more number of node and cabling required.

3) Installation and reco~lfigurationis difficult.

5) Combined Topologies
A network does not have to stick with one topology. Any two topologies or all the
topologies can be used in a network. For example, a hub may be connected to other
hubs using a bus and the workstations may be connected by a star.
Two maln hybrid topologies are:

1 ) The Star Bus Topology

The star bus topology is a cornbination of bus and star topologies. I11 this topology the
hubs of many star topology networks are linked together with a linear bus or trunk. or
example, we want to link three star topology ~etworkstogether. In each network, the
nodes are connected to its own hub. Thus we have three hubs. These three hubs are
connected by a bus topology.
2) The Star Ring Topology Introduction to

three hubs of the networks are connected to a fourth hub (main hub) in star pattern.

3.4 CHARACTERISTICSOF THE OSI LAYERS

There are primarily two architectural models for designing computer networks. OSI
model & TCPIIP model. In this section we shall discuss one such model.
The seven layers of the OSI reference model can be divided into two categories:
upper layers and lower layers.
The upper layers of the OSI model deal with application issues and generally are
implemented only in software. The highest layer, the application layer, is czosest to the
end user. Both users and application layer processes interact with software
applications that contain a communications component. The term upper layer is
sometimes used to refer to any layer above another layer in the OSI model.
The lower layers of the OSI model handle data transport issues. The physical layer
and the data link layer are implemented in hardware and software. The lowest layer,
the physical layer, is closest to the physical network medium (the network cabling, for
example) and is responsible for actually placing information on the medium.
Figure I illustrates the division between the upper and lower OSI layers.

Application Presentation

Figure 1: Two Sets of Layers Make Up the OSI Layers

Each layer bas well defined filnctionalities and standard protocols for implementing
thes fuoctionalities.

BETWEEN SYSTEMS
Information being transferred from a software application in one computer system to a
software application in another must pass through the OSI layers. For example, if a
software application in System A has information to transmit to a software application
Operating System ' in System B, the application program in System A will pass its information to the
Fundamentals & application layer (Layer 7) of System A. The application layer then passes the
information to the presentation layer (Layer 6), which relays the data to the session
layer (Layer 5 ) , and so on down to the physical layer (Layer 1). At the physical layer,
the information is placed on the physical network medium and is sent across the
medium to System B. The physical layer of System B removes the information from
the physical medium, and then its physical layer passes the information up to the data
link layer (Layer 2), which passes it to the network layer (Layer 3), and so on, until it
reaches the application layer (Layer 7) of System B. Finally, the application layer of
System B passes the information to the recipient application program to complete the
communication process.

3.6 INTERACTION BETWEEN OSI MODEL

LAYERS
A given layer in the OSI model generally communicates with three other OSI layers:
the layer directly above it, the layer directly below it, and its peer layer in other
networked computer systems. The data link layer in System A, for example,
communicates with the network layer of System A, the physical layer of System A,
and the data link layer in System B. Figure 2 illustrates this example.

Figure 2: OSI Model ~ a ~ e Communicate

r; with Other Layers

3.7 PROTOCOLS
Just like human beings need to have a common languages to speak to one another,
digital devices and computers also need to have common 'languages' to be able to
communicate with one another. The binding function of 'common language' in cirg~tal
communication is performed by communication protocols.

connected but not communicating,just as a person speaking Hindi cannot be

understood by a person who speaks only Tamil.
A protocol defines the following three aspects of communication.

1) Syntax: The'format of data being exchanged, character set used, type of error
correction used, type of encoding scheme (e.g., signal level) being used. For
'
example, a simple protocol may use first eight bit for address of sender, the
second eight bit for address of receiver and the rest of bit for message itself.

2) Semantics: Type and order of messages used to ensure reliable and error free
information transfer.
 3) Timing: Define data rate sejection and correct timing for various events during Introduction to
data transfer. Simply when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent. Networking Concept

It has been accepted that the complexity of writing cornrnunication software can be
reduced by adapting the principle of protocol layering. The idea here is to partition
communication functions into a vertical set of layers. Each layer performs a related
set of functions. Division of work between layers is done in such a way that they are
manageable and provide a logical interface and break point. Each communication
layer provides certain services to layers above it and relies on the next lower layer to
perform more primitive functions. Each layer hides internal details from other layers.
Thus dividing the communication problem into several layers reduces its complexity
and makes the work of developing cornrnunication software a lot easier and error

The differences among different types of computer networks are usually based on
perspective. For example, computer networks are frequently classified by the geographical
area (LAN, MAN, WAN), their topologies (e.g., point to point or broadcast),or the type
of communication path they use and the manner in which data are transmitted across
this path (e.g., circuit-switched and packet-switched).
Computer networks are classified by the geographical area are:
1) Local Area Networks (LANs)
2) Metropolitan Network (MANS)

, 3) Wide Area Networks (WANs)

3.8.1 Local Area Networks (LANs)

LANs (local area networks), as show11in Figure 3 are privately-owned networks that
connect computers and resources together in a building or buildings that are close
together. LAN plays an important part in everyday functioning of schools, businesses,
and government.

Ethernet Bridge

Figure3: Local Area Network in a building

A LAN is a high-speed data network that covers a relatively small geographic area. It
typically connects workstations, personal computers, printers, servers, and other
devices, so that devices can communicate with each other to share resources. LANs
offer computer users many advantages, including shared access to devices and
applications, file exchange between collnected users, and communication between
users via electronic mail and other applications.
A Local Area Network is a system of computers that share resources such as disk
drives, printers, data, CPU power, fadmodem, applications, etc. They usually have
distributed processing, which means that there are many desktop computers
distributed around the network and that there is no central processor machine
(mainframe).
Operating System Location: In a building or individual rooms or floors of buildings or nearby buildings.
Fundamentals & Can be campus wide like a college or university.
LAN Characterisation
There are four key areas that characterise a local area network.
These are:
1) Transmission Medium a

2) Access Method
3) Topology
4) SignalingTechniques
LAN ~ e d i a - ~ c c e dMethods
s
Media contention occurs when two or more network devices have data to send at the
same time. Because multiple devices cannot talk on the network simultaneously, some
type of method must be used to allow one device access to the network media at a
time. This is done in two main ways: carrier senses multiple accesses collision detect
(CSMAICD) and token passing.
In networks using CSMAICD technology such as Ethernet, network devices contend
for the network media. When a device has data to send, it first listens to see if any
other device is currently using the network. If not, it starts sending its data. After
finishing its transmission, it listens again to see if a collision occurred.A collision occurs
when two devices send data simultaneously.When a collision happens, each device
waits a random length of time before resending its data. In most cases, a collision will
not occur again between the two devices. Because of this type of network contention,
the busier a network becomes, the more collisions occur. This is why performance of
Ethernet degrades rapidly as the number of devices on a single network increases.
In token-passing networks such as Token Ring and FDDI, a special network packet
called a token is passed around the network from device to device. When a device has
data to send, it must wait until it has the token and then send its data. When the data
transmission is complete, the token is released so that other devices may use the
network media. The main advantage of token-passing networks is that they are
deterministic. In other words, it is easy to calculate the maximum time that will pass
before a device bas the opportunity to send data. This explains the popularity of token-
passing networks in some real-time environments such as factories, where machinery
must be capable of communicating at determinable intervals.
For CSMAICD networks, switches segment the network into multiple collision
domains. This reduces the number of devices per network segment that must contend
for the media. By creating smaller collision domains, the performance of a network can
be increased significantly without requiring addressing changes.
Normally CSMAICD networks are half-duplex, meaning that while a device sends
information, it cannot receive at the same time. While that device is talking, it is
incapable of also listening for other traffic. This is much like a walkie-talkie. When one
person wants to talk, he presses the transmit button and begins speaking. While he is
talking, no one else on the same frequency can talk. When the sending person is
finished, he releases the transmit button and the frequency is available to others.
When switches are introduced, full-duplex operation is possible. Full-duplex works
much like a telephoneyou can listen as well as talk at the same time. When a
network device is attached directly to the port of a network switch, the two devices
may be capable of operating in full-duplex mode. In full-duplex mode, performance can
be increased, but not quite as much as some like to claiin.. However, full-duplex
operation does increase the throughput of most applications because the network
media is no longer shared. Two devices on a full-duplex connection can send data as Introduction to
soon as it is ready. Networking Concept

Token-passing networks such as Token Ring can also benefit from network switches.
In large networks, the delay between turns to transmit may be significant because the
token is passed around the network.
LAN Transmission Methods
For Transmission, LAN usually broadcast their message to all hosts on the LAN The
address in the packet or frame enables the destination to receive the packet, while the
rest of the hosts ignore the broadcast message.
LAN data transmissions fall into three classifications: unicast, multicast, and
broadcast. In each type of transmission, a single packet is sent to one or more nodes.
In a unicast transmission, a single packet is sent from the source to a destination on a
network. First, the source node addresses the packet by using the address of the
destination node. The package is then sent onto the network, and finally, the network
passes the packet to its destination.
A multicast transmission consists of a single data packet that is copied and sent to a
specific subset of nodes on the network. First, the source node addresses the packet
by using a multicast address. The packet is then sent into the network, which makes
copies of the packet and sends a copy to each node that is part of the multicast
address.
A broadcast transmission consists of a single data packet that is copied and sent to all
nodes on the network. In these types of transmissions, the source node addresses the
packet by using the broadcast address. The packet is then sent on to the network,
which makes copies of the packet and sends a copy to every node on the network
Topology: The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star.
3.8.2 Metropolitan Networks (MANs)
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs), as shown in Figure 4, are networks that
connect LANs together within a city.

Warehwse

Figure 4: MANS use Local Exchange Carriers

The main criterion for a MAN is that the connection between LANs is through a local
exchange carrier (the local phone company) . The protocols that are used for MANs
are quite different from those used for LANs (except for ATM, which can be used for
both under certain conditions). It has been distinguished as a separate type of
network; because of the specific standard known as Distributed Queue Double Bus
(DQDB) that has been adopted for MAN. The DQDB comprises two unidirectional
buses for connecting computers.

A Metropolitan Area Network is a system of LANs connected throughout a city

(Figure 5) or metropolitan area. MAN can be considered as a bigger version of a
I Operating System
Fundamentals &
Networking
LAN, typically covering a city. It can be either public or privately owned. MANS have
the requirement of using telecommunication media such as voice channels or data
channels. Branch offices are connected to head offices through MANs. Examples of
organizations that use MANs are universities and colleges, hotels, and banks.

Figure 5: Location: Separate buildings distributed throughout a city

3.8.3 Wide Area Networks (WANs)

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect LANs together between cities (Figure 6).

Communication is usually done through public communication systems such as

telephone line, fiber optic cable or wireless technology.

T ,T I Router Router

Figure 6: WANs use Long Distance Carriers

A Wide Area Network $ 1 .i tlctwork system connecting cities, countries, or continents

together Figure 7. WANs Jr c: c o n ~ i e cc d :wether using one of the telecommunications

L A
Figure 7: City to city, across a country or across a continent.
 The rnairi difference between a MAN and a WAN is that the WAN uses Long Distance Introduction to
Carriers. Otherwise the same protocols and equipment are used as in MAN. Networking Concept

Main differences between a LAN and a WAN are given in the following Tablel.
Tablel: Difference between LAN and MAN
-
Wide area Network Local Area Network

Distance up to thousands of Kilometer Within a local site

Typical data rates between 9.6k to High band widtli between 1- 16 M bps
1Mbps
Higher error rates (1 in lo5 )
Lower error rate (1 in 109)
Often use analog circuits from the
telephone systems Use digital signaling over private cables
Generally use bus or ring topology

Generally has point -to-point link with the same which

common topologies mesh and star owns the computers connected to LAN

May be managed by organizations LAN uses simple protocols and does not
independent of users employ any retransmission strategy for
lost frames
WAN uses complex protocols and
extej~siveerror recovery mechanisms Number of host on a LAN is limited
(usually up to 1024)
Number of node coinputers has no
theoretical limit and could be very large.
Tile practical limit comes from address-
ing schemes used to ide~itifjrindividual
system on the network and other
resource constrains.
1

Data communication system k made up of following components (Figure 8).

Source1 Host1
Sender Receiver

..

Figure 81 O r t r Communication-1

I
t

Source Sender: Sender can be Terniinals, Computers, Mainframes, workstation,

teleohone hand set. video camera. Main function of sender is to send data (message)

The com~nunicationsstream through which the data is being transmitted. Examples I

are: 65
Operating System Cables
Fundamentals &
Networking Microwave Link
Fiber optic Link
Radio Frequencies (RF)
Infrared Wireless
Receiver: The receiver receives the message (data) from sender. Receiver can be
Terminals, Computers, Mainframes, workstation, telephone hand set, printer, television
and so on.
Protocol: .A con~municationprotocol is a set of conventions or rules that must be
adhered to by both communicating parties to ensure that information being exchanged
between two parties is received and interpreted correctly.
Message: Message consists of text, numbers, pictures, sound, or video-or any
combination of these to be transmitted from sender to receiver.

DTE 1 DCE I Medium I DCE I DTE

1I I I
Source/ I I Host,
Sender 1 I Receiver
I I I I

I I I I
I I I I

Figure 9 : Data Communication-I1

DCE: The interface between the Source and the Medium, and the Medium and the
Receiver is called the DCE (Data Communication Equipment) (Figure 9) and is a
physical piece ofequipment.
DTE: Data Terminal Equipment is the telecommunications name given to the source
and receiver's equipment. Tt is any device that is a source of or destination for binary
digital data.
The DTE generates the data and passes them, through DCE. The DCE takes the generated
data by DTE and converts them to an appropriate signal. Then this signal is introduced to
telecommunication link. Most commonly used DCE is a modem, discussed in the section.

Data flow (transir7ission mode) is the flow of data between two points.
There are three types of dataflow (Figure 10): simplex, half duplex and full duplex.
 Simplex: data flows in only one direction (Figure 11) on the data communication line
(medium). Examples are radio and television broadcasts. They go from the TV station Netw
to your home television.

'
TV

rransmitter
station 1 One direction

SIMPLEX

Figure 11: Simplex

-
Home
Television

Half-Duplex: Data flows in both directions but only one direction at a time (Figure 12)
on the data communication line. Each of the stations can both transmit and receive. For
example; a conversation on walkie-talkie is a half-duplex data flow. Each person takes
turns talking. If both talk at once - nothing occurs!

Figure 12: Half-Duplex

Bi-directional but only one direction at a time!

HALF-DUPLEX
Full-Duplex: data flows in both directions at thc same time (Figure 13).The system is
configured to flow data in bath directions.

Figure 13: Full Duplex

 Bi-directional both directions simultal~eously!
Networking Another example of full duplex is two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions.
at the same time.

Modems

A modem (MOdulator/DEModulator) connects a terminal/computer (DTE) to the

Voice Channel (dial-up line).

Voice Channel
(Phclne Line)

Figure 14: Modems

Basic Definition

The modem (DCE - Data Communication Equipment) is connected between the

terminal/computer (DTE - Data Terminal Equipment) and the phone line (voice
channel). Amodem converts the DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) digital signal to an
analog signal (or vice versa) that the voice channel can use.

Amodem is connected to the terminal/computer's RS-232 serial port ( 2 5 pin male D

connector) and the outgoing phone line with an RJI I cable connector (the same as on
a telephone extension cord). Male connectors have pins, female connectors have
sockets.

Digital Connection

The connection between the modem and terminal/computer is a digital connection. A

basic connection consists of a Transmit Data (TXD) line, a Receive Data (RXD) line
and many hardware handshaking control lines (Figure 15).

T@XD(2) T'xD O
RXD (3).

Contrd Lines Modem

The control lines determine whose turn it is to talk (modem or terminal), ifthe terminal1 Introduction to
Networking Concept
cbmputer is turned on, if the modem is turned on, if there is a connection to another
modem, etc.
Analog Connection
The connection between the modem and the outside world (the phone line) is an analog
connection (Figure 16).The voice channel has a bandwidth of 0-4 kHz but only 300 -
3400 Hz is usable for data communications.

0-4kHzBW

Analog
Voice Band
Modem

Figure 16: Analog Connection

The modem converts digital information into tones (frequencies) for transmitting
through the phone lines.
ExternalIInternal Modems
There are 2 basic physical types of mode'ms: Internal & External modems. External
modems (Figure 17) sit next to the computer i~ndconnect to the serial port using a
straight-through serial cable.

Serial Cable
External
Modem

Figure 17: Exter~~al

Modems

Internal modems (Figure 18) are a plug-in circuit board that sits inside the computer. It
incorporates the serial port on-board. They are less expensive than external modems
because they do not require a case, power supply and serial cable. They appear to the
communication programs as if they were an external modem for all practical purposes.
------- a if~ it
Internal ~ ~ d Ie *n ~~ p as
were an External

Figure 18: Internal Modems

Operating System Modem Types
Fundamentals &
Netwnrkin~ There are many types of modems, the most common of which are:

called a media adapter or transceiver).

(2) Short Haul Modem: A modem used to transmit data over 30 km or less. Modems
we use at home or to connect computers together among different offices in the
same building are short haul modems.

(3) Acoustic Modem: A modem that couples to the telephone handset with what looks
like suction cups that contain a speaker and microphones. Used by travelling sales
people to connect to hotel phones.

(4) Smart Modem: A modem with a CPU (microprocessor) on board that uses the
Hayes AT command set. This allows auto-answer & dial capability rather than
manuallv dialine & answering.

for transmission. (Also called a media adapter or transceiver).

(6) V.32 Modem: A milestone modem that uses a 2400-baud modem with 4 bit
encoding. This results in a 9600 bps (bits per second) transfer rate.

Baud (Figure 19) is the speed at which the analog data is changing on the voice
channel and bps is the speed at which the decoded digital data is being transferred.

Features of Modems

(1) Speed: The speed at which the modem can send data in bps (bits per second).

bps.

(2) Auto DialIRe Dial: Smart modems can dial the phone number and auto re dial if a
busy signal is received.

(3) Auto Answer: Most modems have Ring Detect capability and can automatically
answer the telephone when an incoming call comes in.

(4) Self-Testing: Newer modems have self-testing features. They can test the digital
connectio~~ to the terminallcomputer and the analog connection to a remote
modem. Thcv call also check the modem's internal electronics.
(5) Voice Over Data: Voice Over Data modems allow a voice conversation to take
place while data is being transmitted. This requires both the source and
destination modems to have this feature.
Introduction to
Networking Concept I
(6) Synchronousor Asynchronous Transmission: Newer modems allow a choice of
synchronous or asynchronous transmission of data. Normally, modem
transmission is asynchronous (we send individual characters with just start and
stop bits). Synchronous transmission or packet transmission is used in specific

The physical connection determines how many bits (1's or 0's) can be transmitted in
a single instance of time. If only 1 bit of information can be transmitted over the
data transmission medium at a time then it is considered a serial communication

Receives

I ~ i arr a rime
1 bit at a time

If more than 1 bit of information is transmitted over the data transmission medium at a
time then it is considered a parallel communication (Figure 21). By grouping, we can
send data n bits at a time instead of one, through n wires.

Data Traosm~ssionMedium - 8 W i n s
0- 0-
Sends ~n ~n Receives
Parallel Data 0- 0- Parallel Data
8bitsatarime 0- 0- 8 bits at a tin
Byte: OlM 1010 ~n
0-
1J l Byte: 0100 1010
Separate wire D- Separate w i r ~
L
n
for each bit! 0- for each bit!
0-

Communications Advantages Disadvantages

Parallel Fast Transfer Rates Short distances only More cost

due to more number of lines
Serial Long Distances Slow transfer rates Less cost due
to only one line required for
serialtransmission.
Operating System
Fundamentals & TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Networking
The transmission media provide the physical path for communication among the nodes.
I11 a computer network, where all the nodes are geometrically interconnected, it is
known as its topology.
Transmission media can be broadly categorised in to two types: guided and unguided
(Figure 22).

Trans~nissionMedia

Unguided

Figure 22: Type of Transmission Media

Guided transmission uses a cabling system that guides the data signals along a specific
path. The data signals are bound by the cabling system. Guided media is also known as
bound media. "Cabling" is meant in a generic sense, and is not meant to be interpreted
as copper wire cabling only. Guided media are commonly used for point-to-point
connection. The cllaracteristics of the medium mainly decide the nature and quality of
transmission. Guided media are commonly used for LAN application.

Unguided transrr~issionmedia also called wireless communication consists of a means

for the data signals to travel but nothing to guide them along a specific path. The data
signals, not bound to a cabling media transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor and are therefore often called unbound media. Unguided media are
commonly used for broadcast type communication. Some examples of unguided media
are sea water, free space and air. Unguided media are commonly used for WAN
application.

Transmission Media Guided

There are 4 basic types of guided media:

a) Open Wire

b) Twisted Pair

C) Coaxial Cable

d) Optical Fiber

Open Wire

Open wire 1s (Figure 23) traditionally used to describe the electrical wire strung along
power poles. There is a single wire strung between poles. No shielding or protection
from noise interference IS used. We are going to extend the traditional definition of
open wire to include any data signal path without shieldingor protection from noise
' interference. This can include multi conductor cables or single wires. This medium is
susceptible to a large degree of noise and interference and consequently is not
acceptable for data transmission except for short distalices of less than 20 ft.

Figure 23: Open Wire

Twisted Pair

The wires in twisted pair (Figure 24) cabling are twisted together in pairs. Each pair
consists of a wire used for the +ve data signal and a wire used for the -ve data signal.
Each pair is twisted together to minimize electromagnetic interference between the
pairs.Ar1y noise that appears on 1 wire of the pair will also occur on the other wire.
Because the wires are opposite pojarities, they are 180 degrees out of phase (180
degrees - phasor definition of opposite polarity). When the noise appears on both
wires, it cancels or nulls itself out at the receiving end.

Jacket Twisted Pair Bare wice

Figure 24: Unshielded Twisted Pair

The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined specifically by the number

of turns per foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot reduces the noise
interference. To further improve noise rejection, a foil or wire braid "shield" is woven
around the twisted pairs. This shield (Figure 2.5) can be woven around individual pairs
or around a multi-pair conductor (several pairs).

Jacket Shield Twisted Pair

Figure 25: Shielded Twisted Pair

Operating System Shielded Twisted Pair
Fundamentals &
Networking The twisted-paircan be shielded (Figure 25) with metallic braid, to reduce the
interference Cables with a shield are called shielded twisted pair and are commonly
abbreviated STP. Cables without a shield are called unshielded twisted pair or UTK
Twisting the wires together results in characteristic impedance for the cable. Typical
impedance for UTP is 100 ohm for Ethernet 10BaseT cable.
UTP or unshielded twisted pair cable is used on Ethernet 1OBaseT and can also be
used with Token Ring. It uses the RJ line of connectors (RJ45, RJ11, etc.)
Use Twisted pair can be used for both analog and digital communication. Twisted pair
cables are most effectively used in systems that use a balanced line method oftransmission:
polar line coding (Manchester Encoding) as opposed to unipolar line coding (TTL logic).
Most popular use of twisted pair is in our oldest telephone system. It is also used in LAN
for point-to point short distance communication

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable (Figure 26) consists of two conduotors. The inner conductor is held I

inside an insulator with the other conductor woven around it providing a shield. An
insulating protective coating called a jacket covers the outer conductor.

Jacket Shield Insulator Center

The outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside electrical signals. The
distance between the outer conductor (shield) and inner conductor plus the type of
material used for insulating the inner conductor determine the cable properties or
impedance. Typical impedances for coaxial cables are 75 ohms for Cable TV, 50 ohms
for Ethernet Thinnet and Thicknet. The excellent control ofthe impedance
characteristics of the cable allow higher data rates to be transferred than with twisted
pair cable.
Optical fiber
Optical fiber consists of thin glass fibers that can carry information at frequeit-ies in
the visible light spectrum and beyond. The typical optical fiber consists of a very

Typically Cladding has a diameter of 125 microns. Coating the cladding is a protective
coating consisting of plastic, it is called the Jacket.
Optical fibers work on the principle that the core refracts the light and the cladding.
reflects the light. The core refracts the light and guides the light along its path. The

Advantages of Optical Fiber

Noise immunity: RFI and EM1 immune (RFI - Radio Frequency Interference,
EM1 -Electromagnetic Interference) because fiber -optic transmission uses light
rather than electricity, noise is not a factor.

74 Security: cannot tap into cable.

 Large Capacity due to BW (bandwidth). Introduction to
Networking Concept
No corrosion.
Longer distances than copper wire.
Smaller and lighter than copper wire.
Faster transmission rate.
Disadvantages of optical fiber
Physical vibration will show up as signal noise!
Limited physical arc of 'cable. Bend it too much and it will break!
Difficult to splice.
The cost of optical fiber is a trade-off between capacity and cost. At higher
transmission capacity, it is cheaper than copper. At lower transmission capacity, it is
more expensive.
Infrared
Infrared (IR) transmission is another line of sight medium .Infrared technology uses
electromagneticradiation of wave lengths between radio waves and visible light, operation
between 1OOGHZ and 1OOTHZ (terahertz). Tliese frequencies are very high offering
nice data transfer rates. We are used to seeing infrared technology utilised for our television
or VCR remotes. IR is generally restricted to LAN within or between buildings
Advantages

I) Higher bandwidth means superior throughput to radio

2) Inexpensive to produce

3) No longer limited to tight interroom line-of-sight restrictions

Disadvantage
1) Limited in distance

2) Cannot penetrate physical barriers like walls, ceilings, floors, etc.

3.13 CONNECTING DEVICES

As companies grow, so do their networks. When a network outgrows its original
design, the network becomes slow and print jobs take longer to be completed. In such
cases it is a better idea to segment the existing LAN so thqt each segment becomes a
separated LAN.
We can connect two or more networks together to create larger networks. A LAN
(local area network) can be connected to another LAN. A LAN (local area network)
can be connected to another WAN (wide area network). The components or devices
that are employed to connect two or more networks together are:
1) Repeaters
2) Hubs
3) Bridges
4) Routers
I
5) Gateways I
Operating System 3.13.1 Repeaters
Fundamentals &
Networking Repeaters, also called regenerator, are physical hardware devices. They connect two
network segments and broadcast packets between them, thus extending your network
beyond the maximum length of your cable segment. They have the primary function to
regenerate the electrical signal (shown below):
Reshaping the waveform
AmplifLing the waveform
Retiming the signal, to avoid collision on the network
As signal travels along a cable, its strength or amplitude decreases. This is called
attenuation. In other words, the signal attenuates as it travels along a cable. This limits
tlie length of a cable used to connect the computers together.
Since signal is a factor in the maximum length of a segment, repeater can
regenerate (or amplify) the weak sig~ialsso that they can travel additional cable
lengths. A repeater has intellige~ice,so that it takes a weak signal from one cable
segment, regenerates it and passes it on to the next segment. Simply we can say that
it recreates the bit pattern of the original signal . No more than four repeaters are
used to join segments together to keep collision detection working properly. We
should not confi~se repeater with amplifiers. As the amplifier uses analog signal, it
cannot differentiate between original signal and noise, therefore it amplifies both
original signal and noise. The repeater does not amplify the original signal, it
regenerates the original bit pattern.
Purpose of a Repeater
The purpose of a repeater (Figure 27) is to extend the LAN Segment beyond its
physical limits (as defined by the Physical Layer's Standards: e.g. Ethernet is
5OOm for 10Base5). A LAN Segment is a logical path, such as the logical bus
used by all 802.3 Ethernet types. A LAN Segment is given an identification
number, called a Segment Number or Network Number, to differentiate it from
other segments.

100 100
John Ware I
Building I I Building
I I

Figure 27: Repeater

Typically, repeaters are used to connect two physically close buildings together (when
they are too far apart to just extend the segment). They can be used to connect floors
of a building that would normally surpass the maximum allowable segment length.
Note: for large extensions, as in the above example, two Repeaters are required. For
shorter extensions, only one Repeater may be required.

Repeater's OSI Operating Layer

Repeaters operate at the OSI Model Physical Layer (Figure 28).

 Introduction to
Networking Concept
Network
Repeater
Datalink Datalid

Physical Physical
100

Figure 28: Repeater's Segment-to-Segment Characteristics

A repeater cannot join two cable segments using different access methods. A repeater
is not used to connect a segment using CSMAJCD access method to a segment using
token passing access. Repeaters can join two different physical media, but they must
use the same access method. Thus a repeater can have physical connections to join a
coaxial cables segment to a fiber optic segment.
Repeaters do not "de-segment" a network. All traffic that appears on one side of the
repeater appears on both sides. Repeaters handle only the electrical and physical
characteristics of the signal.
Repeaters work only on the same type of Physical Layer: Ethernet-to-Ethernet, or
Token Ring-tc-Token Ring. They can connect 10BaseS to 10BaseT because they both
use the same 802.3 MAC layer.
You can run into problems with the transfer rate (1 Mbps vs. 10 Mbps) when you
connect 1Base5 to 10BaseT. A repeater cannot connect Token Ring to Ethernet
because the Physical Layer is different for each network topology.
Repeater Addressing: MAC Layer and Network Segment
The MAC Layer Address is used to identify the Network Card to the Network. The
Repeater is transparent to both sides of the segment and both sides can "see" all the
Mac Addresses (regardless of which side they are on). This means that any network
traffic on Floor 1 will also appear on Floor 5, and vice versa (Figure29).

I
A B C Rep-er I 13 E F
1

100
1, ,I rTP7,
I loo
I
Floor 5 I Floor 1

Figure 29: Repeater Addressing

Nodes A & B could be furiously are exchanging files; this network traffic would also
appear on Floor 1. Repeaters don't provide isolation between segments (there is only
one collision domain).
Because Repeaters provide no isolation between segments, and the repeater is
transparent to both sides of the segment, both sides of the repeater appear as one long
segment. The Network Number, or Segment Number, is the same on both sides of the
Repeater.
3.13.2 Hubs
Hubs can also be called either Multi port Repeaters or Concentrators. They expand
one Ethernet connection into many. They are physical hardware devices. A hub is
Operating System similar to a repeater, except that it broadcasts data received by any port to all other
Fundamentals & ports on the hub.
Networking
Some hubs are basic hubs with minimum intelligence (i.e. no microprocessors),
Intelligent Hubs can perform basic diagnostics, and test the nodes to see if they are
operating correctly. Kf they are not, the Smart Hubs (or Intelligent Hubs) will remove
the node from the network. Some Smart Hubs can be polled and managed remotely.
Purpose of Hubs
Hubs are used to provide a Physical Star Topology (Figure 30). The Logical Topology
is dependent on the Medium Access Control Protocol. At the center of the star is the
Hub, with the network nodes located on the tips of the star.

Network Node

Figure 30: Position of Hub

Star Topology
The Hub is installed in a central wiring closet (Figure 3 1) with all the cables extending
out to the network nodes. The advantage of having a central wiring location is that it is
easier to maintain and troubleshoot large networks. All of the network cables come to
the central hub. This way, it is especially easy to detect and fix cable problems. You
can easily move a workstation in-a star topology- by changing the connection to the
hub at the central wiring closet.
Wice #1 Office #2 mice #3 Office #4 Office #5

Mfice #6 Office #7 Office #8 Office #9 Office#lo

Figure 31: Example of Hub

Hub's OSI Operating Layer Introduction to
Networking Concept
Hubs are multi port repeaters, and as such they obey the same rules as repeaters
(See previous section OS1 Operating Layer). 'They operate at the OSI Model Physical
Operating System IfA wanted to communicate with B, a dedicated 10 Mbps connection would be established
Fundamentals & between the two. If C wanted to communicate with D, another dedicated 10 Mbps
Networking
connection would be established.

3.13.3 Bridges
Bridges have all the features of the repeater. Besides regenerating the signals, a bridge
can segment (or divide) a network to isolate traffic related problems. A bridge sends
the data frames only to the concerned segment, thus preventing excess traff~c.A
bridge can split an overloaded network into two separate networks, reducing the
amount of traffic on each segment and thus making each network more efficient. Just
like repeaters, the bridges can be used to link different physical media. Bridges can
also be used to connect dissimilar networks like Ethernet system to a Token Ring
system. Thus bridges can be used to join networks using CSMAtCD access and token
passing access.
Bridges are both hardware and software devices. They can be standalone devices -
separate boxes specifically designed for bridging applications- or they can be
dedicated PCs (with 2 NlCs and bridging software). Most server software will
automatically act as a bridge when a second NIC card is installed.
Bridge OSI Operating Layer
Bridges (Figure 34) operate on the OS1 Model Data Link Layer, while repeaters work
at the physical layer. Since bridges work on a higher layer than repeaters, they are
more complex than repeaters and cost more than repeaters. They look at the MAC
addresses for Ethernet and Token Ring, and determine whether or not to forward--or
ignore-a packet.
Router

Network Nawodi Nttwmk

Dadink Datalink Datalink

Physical Physical Physiml Physical

*
L I
Figure 34: Bridge OSI Operating Layer

Bridges have their own routing tables. Initially the bridge's routing table is empty. As
nodes send packets, the source address is copied to the routing table. With this address
information, the bridge learns where the computers are situated. When any packet is
received by a bridge it reads its source and destination address. If the bridge knows the
location of the destination node it forwards the packet to the segment on which the
destination node is situated. If it does not know the destination, it forwards the packet
to all the segments.
Purposes of a Bridge
The purposes of a Bridge are the following:
Isolates networks by MAC addresses
Manages network traffic by filtering packets
Translates from one protocol to another
Isolates networks by MAC addresses Introduction to '
Networking Concept
For example, you have one segment called Segment 100: it has 50 users (in several
departments) using this network segment. The Engineering Dept. is CAD (Computer
Aided Design) -oriented, while the Accounting Dept. is into heavy number crunching
(vear end reports, month end statements, etc.).

Accounting I ~eneric 1 CAD

100 100
Accounting I "Other" I Engineering
I ~ P L
Dept I I D~P

Figure 35: Bridge Example 1

On this network, any traffic between Clients A, B or C and the Accou~ltingFile Server
(in the Accounting Dept.) will be heard across the Segment 100. Likewise, any traffic
between the Engineering Dept. clients G, H or I (to the CAD File Server) will be
heard throughout the Network Segment. The result is that "Other" Department
accesses to the Generic File Server are incredibly slow: this is because of the
unnecessary traffic that is being generated from other departments (Engineering &
Accounting).
The solution is to use one Bridge (Figure 36) to isolate the Accounting Dept., and
another bridge to isolate the Engineering Department. The Bridges will only allow
packets to pass through that are not on the local segment. The bridge will first check
its "routing" table to see ifthe packet is on the local segment. If it is, it will ignore the
packet, and not forward it to the remote segment. If Client A sent a packet to the
Accounting File Server then Bridge # I will check its routing table (to see if the
Accounting File Server is on the local port). If it is on the local port, then Bridge #1
will not forward the packet to the other segments.

I I
Accounting I Generic I CAD
, File Server I ,, ,File Server1 Fileserver , .. .

100
Accounting
ha1 ~anotc
II "Other" iaaa Engineering 100 I

Figure 36: Bridge Example 2

If Client A sent a packet to the Generic File Server, Bridge #1 will again check its
routing table to see if the Generic File Server is on the local port. If it is not, then
Bridge #1 will forward the packet to the remote port.
Note: The terms local and remote ports are arbitrarily chosen to distinguish between
the two network ports available on a bridge. R1 I
Operating System In this manner, the network is segmented, and the local department traffic is isolated
Fundamentals & from the rest of the network. Overall network bandwidth increases because the
Networking
Accounting Dept. does not have to fight with the Engineering Dept. (for access to the
segment). Each segment has reduced the amount of traffic on it and the result is faster
access. Each department still has complete access to the other segments, but only
when required.

3.13.4 Routers
A router is a special -purpose computer having a processor (CPU) and memory like
any other computer. But unlike any other computer, it has more than one 110 interface
that allows it to connect to multiple computer networks.
Routers are both hardware and software devices. Just like bridges, Router can connect
network segments and filter and isolate traffic. Unlike a bridge, a router can connect
networks that use different technologies, addressing methods, media types, frame
formats, and speeds. Routers are used in complex network situations because they
provide better traffic management than bridges. A router keeps track of the address of
all the segment of a network and can even determine the best path for sending data.
Routers do not pass broadcast traffic.
Like bridges, the routers also maintain routing tables in their memories to store
information about physical connections on the network. The router examines each
packet of data, checks the routing table , and then forwards the packet if necessary.
Routers are more inelegant than bridges, as routers can share status and routing
information with one another and use this information to bypass slow or malfunctioning
connections. Routers do not maintain any state information about the packets; they
simply move them along the network. Routers are usually employed by wide area
networks using dissimilar addressing schemes and different communication protocols.
Routers do not allow bad data to get passed on to the network. Thus they save
networks from broadcast storms.
There are two types of routers - static routers and dynamic routers.
Static routers require an administrator to manually set up and configure the routing
table and to specify each route.
Dynamic routers maintain a routing table automatically and require minimal set up and
configuration.
Router OSI Operating Layer
Routers operate on the OSI Model's Network Layer as shown in Figure 37. The
Internet work must use the same Network Layer protocol. Routers allow the
transportation of the Network Layer PDU through the Internetwork, even though the
Physical and Data Link Frame size and addressing scheme may change.

Bridge

Daralink Daralink

Physical Physical

82 Figure 37: Router Segment-to-Segment Characteristics

Routers that only know Novel1 IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange) will not forward Introduction to
Unix's IP (Internetwork Packet) PDUs, and vice versa. Routers only see the Network Networking Concept
Layer protocol that they have been configured for. This means that a network-can have
multiple protocols running on it (e.g. SPXAPX, TCPIIP, Appletalk, XNS, etc.).
Router Addressing
Routers know the address of all known networks. They maintain a table of pathways
between networks and can select an optimal route over which to send data. Routers
look only at network address and not at destination node address. Routers talk to other
routers, but not to remote computers.
Routers combine the Network Number and the Node Address to make Source and
Destination addresses (in routing Network Layer PDUs across a network). Routers
have to know the name of the segment that they are on, and the segment name or
number where the PDU is going. They also have to know the Node Address: MAC
Address for Novell, and the IP address for TCP/IP.
3.13.5 Gateways
A Gateway is the Hardware/Software device that is used to interconnect LANs &
WANs
Gateways are much more complex and powerful than a router. They are slower than a
router and are expensive. A Gateway incorporates the functions of routers and
bridges, but it can translate instruction set on sending network into corresponding
instruction set of the receiving network. Gateways make communication possible
between different architectures and environments.
Often, the router that is used to connect a LAN to the Internet will be called a
gateway. It will have added capability to direct and filter higher layer protocols (layer 4
and up) to specific devices (such as Web servers, ftp servers and e-mail servers).
A Gateway links two systems that do not use the same communication protocols, data
formatting structures, languages and architecture, which can not be done by a router.
Gateways perform protocol and data conversion.
Gateway's OSI Operating Layer
A Gateway operates at the Transport Layer and above and it typically translates eqch
source layer protocol into the appropriate destination layer protocol. Gateways use all
the seven layers of the OSI model A mainframe gateway may translate all OSI Model
layers. For example, IBM's SNA (System Network Architecture) does not readily
conform to the OSI Model, and requires a gateway to translate between the two
architectures.
Check Your Progress 1
1) Compare the advantage of fiber over copper wire.

2) Discuss the advanthges and d~sadvantagesof Bus & Mesh Topologies.

3) What are the roles of protocols in a computer network?

 Operating System
Fundamentals & 3.14 SUMMARY
Networking

1 a A network allows one to share access to information devices.

a Communication protocol is a set of convelltions or rules that must be adhered

to by both communicating parties to ensure that information being exchanged
between the two parties is received and interpreted correctly.

a The major criteria to judge a data communicatio~~

network are: performance
Consistency, Reliability, Recovery, Security.

a The topology is the geometric arrangement (either physically or logically) of

the linking devices (usually called nodes) and the links, connecting the
individual computers or nodes together. Different topologies are mesh, star,
ring or combined topology.

a Communication between two devices can occur in three transmission modes:

simplex, half-duplex or full duplex.

a Computer network is classified into three types: LAN, MAN and WAN.

The network of networks is called the Internet.

a The most familiar type of DCE is the modem that modulates and demodulates
signals.

Guided transmission media use a cabling system that guides the data signals
along a specific path.

Unguided transmission media consist of a means for the data signals to travel
but nothing to guide them along a specific path.

Repeater is a device that operates at the physical layer, bridge at the data link
layer, router at the network layer and Gateway at all seven layers of the OSI
model.

3.15 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1

Noise immunity: RFI and EM1 immune (RFI - Radio Frequency Interference,
EM1 -Electromagnetic Interference) Because fiber -optic transmission uses
light rather than electricity, noise is not a factor.

Security: cannot tap into cable.

Large Capacity due to BW (bandwidth).

No corrosion.

Longer distances than copper wire.

Smaller and lighter than copper wire.

Faster transmission rate.

The cost of optical fiber is a trade-off between capacity and cost. At higher Introduction to
transmission capacity, it is cheaper than copper. At lower transmission capacity, it is Networking Concept
more expensive.

2) The Bus Topology

The main advantage of bus topology is that it is quite easy to set up. Any
workstation can be easily moved to another location as bus runs throughout the
office. Another benefit of this layout is that if one computer on the bus fails, it does
not affect the rest of the traffic on the bus.

A network with bus topoiogy cannot become too big as all the traffic is on a single
bus. The entire network can be down only if the bus has a break. The open ends of
the bus must be terminated to prevent signal bounce. If one or both ends of the bus
are not terminated, the whole network can be down.

Disadvantages include difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation

Mesh Topologies

In a mesh topology, every node has a dedicated point-to point link to every other
node. Simply dedicated means that the links carry traffic only between the two
nodes. So mesh topology ddes not have traffic congestion problems. Every node
has n-1 link, for a fully connected mesh topology having n nodes. So total number of
links will be n (n-l).This also means that every node has (n-1) I10 ports

Advantages of Mesh topology

1) Use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data
load. This eliminates the traffic problem.

2) If one link fails, it does not affect the rest of network. This means it is robust.

3) Point to point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.

4) Privacy or security is high; as any other link cannot gain access to dedicated link
where the message is travailing.

Disadvantages of mesh topology

1) More cabling and I10 ports are required, because every node must be connected
to every other node.

2) Cost is very high, because more number of nodes and cabling required.

3) Installation and reconfiguration is difficult.

4) The complexity of writing communication software can be reduced by

adopting the principle of protocol layering. The idea here is to partition
communication functions into a vertical set of layers. Each layer performs a
related set of functions. Division of work between layers is done in such a
way that they are manageable and provide a logical interface and break
point. Each communication layer provides certain services to layers above it
and relies on the next lower layer to perform more primitive functions. Each
layer hides internal details from other layers. Thus dividing the
communication problem into several layers reduces its complexity and
makes the workof developing communication soit~\area lot casier and
error free.