Apeirostikìc Logismìc II

Prìqeirec Shmei¸seic

Tm ma Majhmatik¸n
Panepist mio Ajhn¸n
2010-11
Perieqìmena
1 UpakoloujÐec kai basikèc akoloujÐec 1
1.1 UpakoloujÐec 1
1.2 Je¸rhma Bolzano-Weierstrass 2
1.2aþ Apìdeixh me qr sh thc arq c tou kibwtismoÔ 3
1.3 An¸tero kai kat¸tero ìrio akoloujÐac 4
1.4 AkoloujÐec Cauchy 8
1.5 *Parˆrthma: suz thsh gia to axÐwma thc plhrìthtac 10
1.6 Ask seic 12

2 Seirèc pragmatik¸n arijm¸n 15

2.1 SÔgklish seirˆc 15
2.2 Seirèc me mh arnhtikoÔc ìrouc 19
2.2aþ Seirèc me fjÐnontec mh arnhtikoÔc ìrouc 20
2.2bþ O arijmìc e 22
2.3 Genikˆ krit ria 24
2.3aþ Apìluth sÔgklish seirˆc 24
2.3bþ Krit ria sÔgkrishc 25
2.3gþ Krit rio lìgou kai krit rio rÐzac 27
2.3dþ To krit rio tou Dirichlet 29
2.3eþ *Dekadik  parˆstash pragmatik¸n arijm¸n 31
2.4 Dunamoseirèc 35
2.5 Ask seic 37

3 Omoiìmorfh sunèqeia 43
3.1 Omoiìmorfh sunèqeia 43
3.2 Qarakthrismìc thc omoiìmorfhc sunèqeiac mèsw akolouji¸n 46
3.3 SuneqeÐc sunart seic se kleistˆ diast mata 48
3.4 Sustolèc je¸rhma stajeroÔ shmeÐou 51
3.5 Ask seic 52

4 Olokl rwma Riemann 55
4.1 O orismìc tou Darboux 55
4.2 To krit rio oloklhrwsimìthtac tou Riemann 58
4.3 DÔo klˆseic Riemann oloklhr¸simwn sunart sewn 63
4.4 Idiìthtec tou oloklhr¸matoc Riemann 65
4.5 O orismìc tou Riemann* 72
4.6 Ask seic 75
iv · Perieqìmena

5 To jemeli¸dec je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ 81

5.1 To je¸rhma mèshc tou OloklhrwtikoÔ LogismoÔ 81
5.2 Ta jemeli¸dh jewr mata tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ 82
5.3 Mèjodoi olokl rwshc 86
5.4 Genikeumèna oloklhr¸mata 88
5.4aþ To krit rio tou oloklhr¸matoc 91
5.5 Ask seic 92

6 Teqnikèc olokl rwshc 95
6.1 Olokl rwsh me antikatˆstash 95
6.1aþ PÐnakac stoiqeiwd¸n
R oloklhrwmˆtwn 95
6.1bþ Upologismìc tou f (φ(x))φ0 (x) dx 95
6.1gþ Trigwnometrikˆ oloklhr¸mata 96
6.1dþ Upologismìc tou f (x) dx me thn antikatˆstash x = φ(t)
R

98
6.2 Olokl rwsh katˆ mèrh 99
6.3 Olokl rwsh rht¸n sunart sewn 100
6.4 Kˆpoiec qr simec antikatastˆseic 104
6.4aþ Rhtèc sunart seic twn cos x kai sin x 104
6.4bþ Oloklhr¸mata algebrik¸n sunart sewn eidik c morf c 105
6.5 Ask seic 107

7 Je¸rhma Taylor 111

7.1 Je¸rhma Taylor 111
7.2 Dunamoseirèc kai anaptÔgmata Taylor 116
7.2aþ H ekjetik  sunˆrthsh f (x) = ex 116
7.2bþ H sunˆrthsh f (x) = cos x 116
7.2gþ H sunˆrthsh f (x) = sin x 117
7.2dþ H sunˆrthsh f (x) = ln(1 + x), x ∈ (−1, 1] 118
7.2eþ H diwnumik  sunˆrthsh f (x) = (1 + x)a , x > −1 119
7.2þ H sunˆrthsh f (x) = arctan x, |x| ≤ 1 121
7.3 Sunart seic parastˆsimec se dunamoseirˆ 121
7.4 Ask seic 125

8 Kurtèc kai koÐlec sunart seic 127

8.1 Orismìc 127
8.2 Kurtèc sunart seic orismènec se anoiktì diˆsthma 128
8.3 ParagwgÐsimec kurtèc sunart seic 130
8.4 Anisìthta tou Jensen 132
8.5 Ask seic 134
Kefˆlaio 1

UpakoloujÐec kai basikèc

akoloujÐec
1.1 UpakoloujÐec
Orismìc 1.1.1. 'Estw (an ) mia akoloujÐa pragmatik¸n arijm¸n. H akoloujÐa
(bn ) lègetai upakoloujÐa thc (an ) an upˆrqei gnhsÐwc aÔxousa akoloujÐa fusik¸n
arijm¸n k1 < k2 < · · · < kn < kn+1 < · · · ¸ste

(1.1.1) bn = akn gia kˆje n ∈ N.

Me ˆlla lìgia, oi ìroi thc (bn ) eÐnai oi ak1 , ak2 , . . . , akn , . . ., ìpou k1 < k2 < · · · <
kn < kn+1 < · · · . Genikˆ, mia akoloujÐa èqei pollèc (sun jwc ˆpeirec to pl joc)
diaforetikèc upakoloujÐec.

ParadeÐgmata 1.1.2. 'Estw (an ) mia akoloujÐa pragmatik¸n arijm¸n.

(a) H upakoloujÐa (a2n ) twn {ˆrtiwn ìrwn} thc (an ) èqei ìrouc touc

a2 , a4 , a6 , . . . .

Ed¸, kn = 2n.
(b) H upakoloujÐa (a2n−1 ) twn {peritt¸n ìrwn} thc (an ) èqei ìrouc touc

a1 , a3 , a5 , . . . .

Ed¸, kn = 2n − 1.
(g) H upakoloujÐa (an2 ) thc (an ) èqei ìrouc touc

a1 , a4 , a9 , . . . .

Ed¸, kn = n2 .
(d) Kˆje telikì tm ma (am , am+1 , am+2 , . . .) thc (an ) eÐnai upakoloujÐa thc (an ).
Ed¸, kn = m + n − 1.

Parat rhsh 1.1.3. 'Estw (kn ) mia gnhsÐwc aÔxousa akoloujÐa fusik¸n arijm¸n.
Tìte, kn ≥ n gia kˆje n ∈ N.
2 · UpakoloujÐes kai basikès akoloujÐes

Apìdeixh . Me epagwg : afoÔ o k1 eÐnai fusikìc arijmìc, eÐnai fanerì ìti k1 ≥ 1.

Gia to epagwgikì b ma upojètoume ìti km ≥ m. AfoÔ h (kn ) eÐnai gnhsÐwc aÔxousa,
èqoume km+1 > km , ˆra km+1 > m. AfoÔ oi km+1 kai m eÐnai fusikoÐ arijmoÐ,
èpetai ìti km+1 ≥ m + 1 (jumhjeÐte ìti anˆmesa ston m kai ston m + 1 den upˆrqei
ˆlloc fusikìc). 2
H epìmenh Prìtash deÐqnei ìti an mia akoloujÐa sugklÐnei se pragmatikì ar-
ijmì tìte ìlec oi upakoloujÐec thc eÐnai sugklÐnousec kai sugklÐnoun ston Ðdio
pragmatikì arijmì.
Prìtash 1.1.4. An an → a tìte gia kˆje upakoloujÐa (akn ) thc (an ) isqÔei

akn → a .

Apìdeixh . 'Estw ε > 0. AfoÔ an → a, upˆrqei n0 = n0 (ε) ∈ N me thn ex c idiìthta:

Gia kˆje m ≥ n0 isqÔei |am − a| < ε.
Apì thn Parat rhsh 1.1.3 gia kˆje n ≥ n0 èqoume kn ≥ n ≥ n0 . Jètontac loipìn
m = kn sthn prohgoÔmenh sqèsh, paÐrnoume:
Gia kˆje n ≥ n0 isqÔei |akn − a| < ε.
Autì apodeiknÔei ìti akn → a: gia to tuqìn ε > 0 br kame n0 ∈ N ¸ste ìloi oi
ìroi akn0 , akn0 +1 , . . . thc (akn ) na an koun sto (a − ε, a + ε). 2
Parat rhsh 1.1.5. H prohgoÔmenh Prìtash eÐnai polÔ qr simh an jèloume na
deÐxoume ìti mia akoloujÐa (an ) den sugklÐnei se kanènan pragmatikì arijmì. ArkeÐ
na broÔme dÔo upakoloujÐec thc (an ) oi opoÐec na èqoun diaforetikˆ ìria.
Gia parˆdeigma, ac jewr soume thn (an ) = (−1)n . Tìte, a2n = (−1)2n = 1 → 1
kai a2n−1 = (−1)2n−1 = −1 → −1.
Ac upojèsoume ìti an → a. Oi (a2n ) kai (a2n−1 ) eÐnai upakoloujÐec thc (an ),
prèpei loipìn na isqÔei a2n → a kai a2n−1 → a. Apì th monadikìthta tou orÐou
thc (a2n ) paÐrnoume a = 1 kai apì th monadikìthta tou orÐou thc (a2n−1 ) paÐrnoume
a = −1. Dhlad , 1 = −1. Katal xame se ˆtopo, ˆra h (an ) den sugklÐnei.

1.2 Je¸rhma Bolzano-Weierstrass

Je¸rhma 1.2.1 (Bolzano-Weierstrass). Kˆje fragmènh akoloujÐa èqei toulˆqis-

ton mÐa upakoloujÐa pou sugklÐnei se pragmatikì arijmì.

Ja d¸soume dÔo apodeÐxeic autoÔ tou Jewr matoc. H pr¸th basÐzetai sto

gegonìc ìti kˆje monìtonh kai fragmènh akoloujÐa sugklÐnei. Gia na broÔme sug-
klÐnousa upakoloujÐa miac fragmènhc akoloujÐac arkeÐ na broÔme mia monìtonh
upakoloujÐa thc. To teleutaÐo isqÔei entel¸c genikˆ, ìpwc deÐqnei to epìmeno
Je¸rhma:
Je¸rhma 1.2.2. Kˆje akoloujÐa èqei toulˆqiston mÐa monìtonh upakoloujÐa.

Apìdeixh . Ja qreiastoÔme thn ènnoia tou shmeÐou koruf c miac akoloujÐac.

Orismìc 1.2.3. 'Estw (an ) mia akoloujÐa pragmatik¸n arijm¸n. Lème ìti o am
eÐnai shmeÐo koruf c thc (an ) an am ≥ an gia kˆje n ≥ m.
[Gia na exoikeiwjeÐte me ton orismì elègxte ta ex c. An h (an ) eÐnai fjÐnousa tìte
kˆje ìroc thc eÐnai shmeÐo koruf c thc. An h (an ) eÐnai gnhsÐwc aÔxousa tìte den
èqei kanèna shmeÐo koruf c.]
 1.2 Je¸rhma Bolzano-Weierstrass · 3

'Estw (an ) mia akoloujÐa pragmatik¸n arijm¸n. DiakrÐnoume dÔo peript¸seic:

(a) (an )
H èqei ˆpeira to pl joc shmeÐa . Tìte, upˆrqoun fusikoÐ arijmoÐ
koruf c

k1 < k2 < · · · < kn < kn+1 < · · · ¸ste ìloi oi ìroi ak1 , . . . , akn , . . . na eÐnai shmeÐa
koruf c thc (an ) (exhg ste giatÐ). AfoÔ kn < kn+1 gia kˆje n ∈ N, h (akn ) eÐnai
upakoloujÐa thc (an ). Apì ton orismì tou shmeÐou koruf c blèpoume ìti gia kˆje
n ∈ N isqÔei akn ≥ akn+1 (èqoume kn+1 > kn kai o akn eÐnai shmeÐo koruf c thc
(an )). Dhlad ,

(1.2.1) ak1 ≥ ak2 ≥ · · · ≥ akn ≥ akn+1 ≥ · · · .

'Ara, h upakoloujÐa (akn ) eÐnai fjÐnousa.

(b) H (an ) èqei peperasmèna to pl joc . Tìte, upˆrqei N ∈ N me
shmeÐa koruf c

thn ex c idiìthta: an m ≥ N tìte o am den eÐnai shmeÐo koruf c thc (an ) (pˆrte
N = k + 1 ìpou ak to teleutaÐo shmeÐo koruf c thc (an )   N = 1 an den upˆrqoun
shmeÐa koruf c).
Me bˆsh ton orismì tou shmeÐou koruf c autì shmaÐnei ìti: an m ≥ N tìte
upˆrqei n > m ¸ste an > am .
Efarmìzoume diadoqikˆ to parapˆnw. Jètoume k1 = N kai brÐskoume k2 > k1
¸ste ak2 > ak1 . Katìpin brÐskoume k3 > k2 ¸ste ak3 > ak2 kai oÔtw kajex c.
Upˆrqoun dhlad  k1 < k2 < · · · < kn < kn+1 < · · · ¸ste

(1.2.2) ak1 < ak2 < · · · < akn < akn+1 < · · · .

Tìte, h (akn ) eÐnai gnhsÐwc aÔxousa upakoloujÐa thc (an ). 2

MporoÔme t¸ra na apodeÐxoume to Je¸rhma Bolzano-Weierstrass.
Apìdeixh tou Jewr matoc 1.2.1. 'Estw (an ) fragmènh akoloujÐa. Apì to Je¸rhma
1.2.2 h (an ) èqei monìtonh upakoloujÐa (akn ). H (akn ) eÐnai monìtonh kai fragmènh,
sunep¸c sugklÐnei se pragmatikì arijmì. 2

1.2aþ Apìdeixh me qr sh thc arq c tou kibwtismoÔ

H deÔterh apìdeixh tou Jewr matoc Bolzano-Weierstrass qrhsimopoieÐ thn arq 
twn kibwtismènwn diasthmˆtwn. 'Estw (an ) mia fragmènh akoloujÐa pragmatik¸n
arijm¸n. Tìte, upˆrqei kleistì diˆsthma [b1 , c1 ] sto opoÐo an koun ìloi oi ìroi an .
2 :
QwrÐzoume to [b1 , c1 ] se dÔo diadoqikˆ diast mata pou èqoun to Ðdio m koc c1 −b 1

ta b1 , 2 kai 2 , c1 . Kˆpoio apì autˆ ta dÔo diast mata perièqei ˆpeirouc

 b1 +c1   b1 +c1 

to pl joc ìrouc thc (an ). PaÐrnontac san [b2 , c2 ] autì to upodiˆsthma tou [b1 , c1 ]
èqoume deÐxei to ex c.

Upˆrqei kleistì diˆsthma [b2 , c2 ] ⊂ [b1 , c1 ] to opoÐo perièqei ˆpeirouc

ìrouc thc (an ) kai èqei m koc

c1 − b1
(1.2.3) c2 − b2 = .
2

SuneqÐzoume me  ton Ðdiotrìpo:

 b2qwrÐzoume  to [b2 , c2 ] se dÔo diadoqikˆ diast mata
m kouc c2 −b
2
2
: ta b 2 , b2 +c2
2 kai +c2
2 , c 2 . AfoÔ to [b2 , c2 ] perièqei ˆpeirouc ìrouc
thc (an ), kˆpoio apì autˆ ta dÔo diast mata perièqei ˆpeirouc to pl joc ìrouc thc
(an ). PaÐrnontac san [b3 , c3 ] autì to upodiˆsthma tou [b2 , c2 ] èqoume deÐxei to ex c.
4 · UpakoloujÐes kai basikès akoloujÐes

Upˆrqei kleistì diˆsthma [b3 , c3 ] ⊂ [b2 , c2 ] to opoÐo perièqei ˆpeirouc

ìrouc thc (an ) kai èqei m koc

c2 − b2 c1 − b1
(1.2.4) c3 − b3 = = .
2 22

SuneqÐzontac me ton Ðdio trìpo orÐzoume akoloujÐa [bm , cm ] m∈N kleist¸n di-

asthmˆtwn pou ikanopoieÐ ta ex c:

(i) Gia kˆje m ∈ N isqÔei [bm+1 , cm+1 ] ⊂ [bm , cm ].
(ii) Gia kˆje m ∈ N isqÔei cm − bm = (c1 − b1 )/2m−1 .
(iii) Gia kˆje m ∈ N upˆrqoun ˆpeiroi ìroi thc (an ) sto [bm , cm ].
Qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn trÐth sunj kh, mporoÔme na broÔme upakoloujÐa (akm )
thc (an ) me thn idiìthta: gia kˆje m ∈ N isqÔei akm ∈ [bm , cm ]. Prˆgmati, upˆrqei
k1 ∈ N ¸ste ak1 ∈ [b1 , c1 ] gia thn akrÐbeia, ìloi oi ìroi thc (an ) brÐskontai sto
[b1 , c1 ]. T¸ra, afoÔ to [b2 , c2 ] perièqei ˆpeirouc ìrouc thc (an ), kˆpoioc apì autoÔc
èqei deÐkth megalÔtero apì k1 . Dhlad , upˆrqei k2 > k1 ¸ste ak2 ∈ [b2 , c2 ]. Me ton
Ðdio trìpo, an èqoun oristeÐ k1 < · · · < km ¸ste aks ∈ [bs , cs ] gia kˆje s = 1, . . . , m,
mporoÔme na broÔme km+1 > km ¸ste akm+1 ∈ [bm+1 , cm+1 ] (diìti, to [bm+1 , cm+1 ]
perièqei ˆpeirouc ìrouc thc (an )). 'Etsi, orÐzetai mia upakoloujÐa (akm ) thc (an )
pou ikanopoieÐ to zhtoÔmeno.
Ja deÐxoume ìti h (akm ) sugklÐnei. Apì thn arq  twn kibwtismènwn diasthmˆtwn
(kai lìgw thc (ii)) upˆrqei monadikìc a ∈ R o opoÐoc an kei se ìla ta kleistˆ
diast mata [bm , cm ]. JumhjeÐte ìti

lim bm = a = lim cm .
m→∞ m→∞

AfoÔ bm ≤ akm ≤ cm gia kˆje m, to krit rio twn isosugklinous¸n akolouji¸n

deÐqnei ìti akm → a. 2

1.3 An¸tero kai kat¸tero ìrio akoloujÐac

Skopìc mac se aut n thn Parˆgrafo eÐnai na melet soume pio prosektikˆ tic up-
akoloujÐec miac fragmènhc akoloujÐac. JumhjeÐte ìti an h akoloujÐa (an ) sugklÐnei
se kˆpoion pragmatikì arijmì a tìte h katˆstash eÐnai polÔ apl . An (akn ) eÐnai
tuqoÔsa upakoloujÐa thc (an ), tìte akn → a. Dhlad , ìlec oi upakoloujÐec miac
sugklÐnousac akoloujÐac sugklÐnoun kai mˆlista sto ìrio thc akoloujÐac.

Orismìc 1.3.1. 'Estw (an ) mia akoloujÐa. Lème ìti o x ∈ R eÐnai oriakì shmeÐo
(  upakoloujiakì ìrio) thc (an ) an upˆrqei upakoloujÐa (akn ) thc (an ) ¸ste
akn → x.

Ta oriakˆ shmeÐa miac akoloujÐac qarakthrÐzontai apì to epìmeno L mma.

L mma 1.3.2. O x eÐnai oriakì shmeÐo thc (an ) an kai mìno an gia kˆje ε>0 kai

gia kˆje m∈N upˆrqei n≥m ¸ste |an − x| < ε.

Apìdeixh. Upojètoume pr¸ta ìti o x eÐnai oriakì shmeÐo thc (an ). Upˆrqei loipìn
upakoloujÐa (akn ) thc (an ) ¸ste akn → x.
 1.3 An¸tero kai kat¸tero ìrio akoloujÐas · 5

'Estw ε > 0 kai m ∈ N. Upˆrqei n0 ∈ N ¸ste |akn − x| < ε gia kˆje n ≥ n0 .

JewroÔme ton n1 = max{m, n0 }. Tìte kn1 ≥ n1 ≥ m kai n1 ≥ n0 , ˆra |akn1 − x| <
ε.
AntÐstrofa: PaÐrnoume ε = 1 kai m = 1. Apì thn upìjesh upˆrqei k1 ≥ 1 ¸ste
|ak1 − x| < 1. Sth sunèqeia paÐrnoume ε = 21 kai m = k1 + 1. Efarmìzontac thn
upìjesh brÐskoume k2 ≥ k1 + 1 > k1 ¸ste |ak2 − x| < 21 .
Epagwgikˆ brÐskoume k1 < k2 < · · · < kn < · · · ¸ste
1
|akn − x| <
n
(kˆnete mìnoi sac to epagwgikì b ma). EÐnai fanerì ìti akn → x. 2
'Estw (an ) mia fragmènh akoloujÐa. Dhlad , upˆrqei M > 0 ¸ste |an | ≤ M
gia kˆje n ∈ N. JewroÔme to sÔnolo

(1.3.1) K = {x ∈ R : x eÐnai oriakì shmeÐo thc (an )}.

1. To K eÐnai mh . Apì to Je¸rhma Bolzano-Weierstrass upˆrqei toulˆqiston

kenì

mÐa upakoloujÐa (akn ) thc (an ) pou sugklÐnei se pragmatikì arijmì. To ìrio thc
(akn ) eÐnai ex orismoÔ stoiqeÐo tou K .
2.To K eÐnai fragmèno. An x ∈ K , upˆrqei akn → x kai afoÔ −M ≤ akn ≤ M gia
kˆje n, èpetai ìti −M ≤ x ≤ M .
Apì to axÐwma thc plhrìthtac prokÔptei ìti upˆrqoun ta sup K kai inf K . To
epìmeno L mma deÐqnei ìti to K èqei mègisto kai elˆqisto stoiqeÐo.

L mma 1.3.3. 'Estw (an ) fragmènh akoloujÐa kai

K = {x ∈ R : x eÐnai oriakì shmeÐo thc (an )}.

Tìte, sup K ∈ K kai inf K ∈ K .

Apìdeixh . 'Estw a = sup K . Jèloume na deÐxoume ìti o a eÐnai oriakì shmeÐo thc
(an ), kai sÔmfwna me to L mma 1.3.2 arkeÐ na doÔme ìti gia kˆje ε > 0 kai gia kˆje
m ∈ N upˆrqei n ≥ m ¸ste |an − a| < ε.
'Estw ε > 0 kai m ∈ N. AfoÔ a = sup K , upˆrqei x ∈ K ¸ste a − 2ε < x ≤ a.
O x eÐnai oriakì shmeÐo thc (an ), ˆra upˆrqei n ≥ m ¸ste |an − x| < 2ε . Tìte,
ε ε
(1.3.2) |an − a| ≤ |an − x| + |x − a| < + = ε.
2 2
Me anˆlogo trìpo deÐqnoume ìti inf K ∈ K . 2

Orismìc 1.3.4. 'Estw (an ) mia fragmènh akoloujÐa. An

K = {x ∈ R : x eÐnai oriakì shmeÐo thc (an )},

orÐzoume
(i) lim sup an = sup K to an¸tero ìrio thc (an )
, ,

(ii) lim inf an = inf K to kat¸tero ìrio thc (an ) .

SÔmfwna me to L mma 1.3.3, to lim sup an eÐnai to mègisto stoiqeÐo kai to

lim inf an eÐnai to elˆqisto stoiqeÐo tou K antÐstoiqa:
6 · UpakoloujÐes kai basikès akoloujÐes

Je¸rhma 1.3.5. 'Estw (an ) fragmènh akoloujÐa. To lim sup an eÐnai o megalÔteroc

pragmatikìc arijmìc x gia ton opoÐo upˆrqei upakoloujÐa (akn ) thc (an ) me akn → x .

To lim inf an eÐnai o mikrìteroc pragmatikìc arijmìc y gia ton opoÐo upˆrqei up-

akoloujÐa (aln ) thc (an ) me aln → y . 2

To an¸tero kai to kat¸tero ìrio miac fragmènhc akoloujÐac perigrˆfontai
mèsw twn perioq¸n touc wc ex c:
Je¸rhma 1.3.6. 'Estw (an ) fragmènh akoloujÐa pragmatik¸n arijm¸n kai èstw

x∈R . Tìte,

(1) x ≤ lim sup an an kai mìno an: gia kˆje ε>0 to sÔnolo {n ∈ N : x − ε < an }
eÐnai ˆpeiro.

(2) x ≥ lim sup an an kai mìno an: gia kˆje ε>0 to sÔnolo {n ∈ N : x + ε < an }
eÐnai peperasmèno.

(3) x ≥ lim inf an an kai mìno an: gia kˆje ε>0 to sÔnolo {n ∈ N : an < x + ε}
eÐnai ˆpeiro.

(4) x ≤ lim inf an an kai mìno an: gia kˆje ε>0 to sÔnolo {n ∈ N : an < x − ε}
eÐnai peperasmèno.

(5) x = lim sup an an kai mìno an: gia kˆje ε>0 to {n ∈ N : x − ε < an } eÐnai

ˆpeiro {n ∈ N : x + ε < an }
kai to eÐnai peperasmèno.

(6) x = lim inf an an kai mìno an: gia kˆje ε>0 to {n ∈ N : an < x + ε} eÐnai

ˆpeiro {n ∈ N : an < x − ε}
kai to eÐnai peperasmèno.

Apìdeixh . (1:⇒) 'Estw ε > 0. Upˆrqei upakoloujÐa (akn ) thc (an ) me akn →
lim sup an , ˆra upˆrqei n0 ¸ste gia kˆje n ≥ n0
(1.3.3) akn > lim sup an − ε ≥ x − ε.
'Epetai ìti to {n : an > x − ε} eÐnai ˆpeiro.
(2:⇒) 'Estw ε > 0. Ac upojèsoume ìti upˆrqoun k1 < k2 < · · · < kn < · · ·
me akn > x + ε. Tìte, h upakoloujÐa (akn ) thc (an ) èqei ìlouc touc ìrouc thc
megalÔterouc apì x + ε. MporoÔme na broÔme sugklÐnousa upakoloujÐa (aksn ) thc
(akn ) (apì to Je¸rhma Bolzano-Weierstrass) kai tìte aksn → y ≥ x + ε. 'Omwc
tìte, h (aksn ) eÐnai upakoloujÐa thc (an ) (exhg ste giatÐ), opìte
(1.3.4) lim sup an ≥ y ≥ x + ε ≥ lim sup an + ε.
Autì eÐnai ˆtopo. 'Ara, to {n : an > x + ε} eÐnai peperasmèno.
(1: ⇐) 'Estw ìti x > lim sup an . Tìte upˆrqei ε > 0 ¸ste an y = x − ε na èqoume
x > y > lim sup an . Apì thn upìjes  mac, to {n ∈ N : y < an } eÐnai ˆpeiro. 'Omwc
y > lim sup an opìte apì thn (2: ⇒) to sÔnolo {n ∈ N : y < an } eÐnai peperasmèno
(grˆyte y = lim sup an + ε1 gia kˆpoio ε1 > 0). Oi dÔo isqurismoÐ èrqontai se
antÐfash.
(2:⇐) 'Omoia, upojètoume ìti x < lim sup an kai brÐskoume y ¸ste x < y <
lim sup an . AfoÔ y > x, sumperaÐnoume ìti to {n ∈ N : y < an } eÐnai peperas-
mèno (aut  eÐnai h upìjes  mac) kai afoÔ y < lim sup an sumperaÐnoume ìti to
{n ∈ N : y < an } eÐnai ˆpeiro (apì thn (1:⇒).) 'Etsi katal goume se ˆtopo.
H (5) eÐnai ˆmesh sunèpeia twn (1) kai (2).
Gia tic (3), (4) kai (6) ergazìmaste ìmoia. 2
Mia enallaktik  perigraf  twn lim sup an kai lim inf an dÐnetai apì to epìmeno
je¸rhma:
 1.3 An¸tero kai kat¸tero ìrio akoloujÐas · 7

Je¸rhma 1.3.7. 'Estw (an ) fragmènh akoloujÐa.

(a) Jètoume bn = sup{ak : k ≥ n} . Tìte, lim sup an = inf{bn : n ∈ N} .

(b) Jètoume γn = inf{ak : k ≥ n} . Tìte, lim inf an = sup{γn : n ∈ N} .

Apìdeixh . DeÐqnoume pr¸ta ìti oi arijmoÐ inf{bn : n ∈ N} kai sup{γn : n ∈ N}

orÐzontai kalˆ:
Gia kˆje n ∈ N, isqÔei γn ≤ an ≤ bn (exhg ste giatÐ). EpÐshc, h (bn ) eÐnai
fjÐnousa, en¸ h (an ) eÐnai aÔxousa (exhg ste giatÐ). AfoÔ h (an ) eÐnai fragmènh,
èpetai ìti h (bn ) eÐnai fjÐnousa kai kˆtw fragmènh, en¸ h (γn ) eÐnai aÔxousa kai
ˆnw fragmènh. Apì to je¸rhma sÔgklishc monìtonwn akolouji¸n sumperaÐnoume
ìti bn → inf{bn : n ∈ N} := b kai γn → sup{γn : n ∈ N} := γ .
Ja deÐxoume ìti lim sup an = b. Apì to L mma 1.3.3 upˆrqei upakoloujÐa (akn )
thc (an ) me akn → lim sup an . 'Omwc, akn ≤ bkn kai bkn → b (exhg ste giatÐ). 'Ara,

(1.3.5) lim sup an = lim akn ≤ lim bkn = b.

Gia thn antÐstrofh anisìthta deÐqnoume ìti o b eÐnai oriakì shmeÐo thc (an ). 'Estw
ε > 0 kai èstw m ∈ N. AfoÔ bn → b, upˆrqei n ≥ m ¸ste |b − bn | < 2ε . Allˆ,
bn = sup{ak : k ≥ n}, ˆra upˆrqei k ≥ n ≥ m ¸ste bn ≥ ak > bn − 2ε dhlad 
|bn − ak | < 2ε . 'Epetai ìti
ε ε
(1.3.6) |b − ak | ≤ |b − bn | + |bn − ak | < + = ε.
2 2
Apì to L mma 1.3.2 o b eÐnai oriakì shmeÐo thc (an ), kai sunep¸c, b ≤ lim sup an .
Me anˆlogo trìpo deÐqnoume ìti lim inf an = γ . 2
KleÐnoume me ènan qarakthrismì thc sÔgklishc gia fragmènec akoloujÐec.

Je¸rhma 1.3.8. 'Estw (an ) fragmènh akoloujÐa. H (an ) sugklÐnei an kai mìno an

lim sup an = lim inf an .

. An an → a tìte gia kˆje upakoloujÐa (akn ) thc (an ) èqoume akn → a.

Apìdeixh

Epomènwc, o a eÐnai to monadikì oriakì shmeÐo thc (an ). 'Eqoume K = {a}, ˆra

lim sup an = lim inf an = a.

AntÐstrofa: èstw ε > 0. Apì to Je¸rhma 1.3.6 o arijmìc a = lim sup an =

lim inf an èqei thn ex c idiìthta:
Ta sÔnola {n ∈ N : an < a − ε} kai {n ∈ N : an > a + ε} eÐnai
peperasmèna.
Dhlad , to sÔnolo

(1.3.7) {n ∈ N : |an − a| > ε}

eÐnai peperasmèno. IsodÔnama, upˆrqei n0 ∈ N me thn idiìthta: gia kˆje n ≥ n0 ,

|an − a| ≤ ε.

AfoÔ to ε > 0  tan tuqìn, èpetai ìti an → a. 2

8 · UpakoloujÐes kai basikès akoloujÐes

Parat rhsh 1.3.9. Ac upojèsoume ìti h akoloujÐa (an ) den eÐnai fragmènh. An h

(an ) den eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh, tìte upˆrqei upakoloujÐa (akn ) thc (an ) ¸ste akn →
+∞ (ˆskhsh). Me ˆlla lìgia, o +∞ eÐnai {oriakì shmeÐo} thc (an ). Se aut n
thn perÐptwsh eÐnai logikì na orÐsoume lim sup an = +∞. Entel¸c anˆloga, an
h (an ) den eÐnai kˆtw fragmènh, tìte upˆrqei upakoloujÐa (akn ) thc (an ) ¸ste
akn → −∞ (ˆskhsh). Dhlad , o −∞ eÐnai {oriakì shmeÐo} thc (an ). Tìte, orÐzoume
lim inf an = −∞.

1.4 AkoloujÐec Cauchy

O orismìc thc akoloujÐac Cauchy èqei san afethrÐa thn ex c parat rhsh: ac up-
ojèsoume ìti an → a. Tìte, oi ìroi thc (an ) eÐnai telikˆ {kontˆ} sto a, ˆra eÐnai
telikˆ kai {metaxÔ touc kontˆ}. Gia na ekfrˆsoume austhrˆ aut  thn parat rhsh,
ac jewr soume tuqìn ε > 0. Upˆrqei n0 = n0 (ε) ∈ N ¸ste gia kˆje n ≥ n0 na
isqÔei |an − a| < 2ε . Tìte, gia kˆje n, m ≥ n0 èqoume
ε ε
(1.4.1) |an − am | ≤ |an − a| + |a − am | < + = ε.
2 2
Orismìc 1.4.1. Mia akoloujÐa (an ) lègetai akoloujÐa Cauchy (  basik  akolou-
jÐa) an gia kˆje ε > 0 upˆrqei n0 = n0 (ε) ∈ N ¸ste:
(1.4.2) an m, n ≥ n0 (ε), tìte |an − am | < ε.

Parat rhsh 1.4.2. An h (an ) eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy, tìte gia kˆje ε > 0 upˆrqei
n0 = n0 (ε) ∈ N ¸ste

(1.4.3) an n ≥ n0 (ε), tìte |an − an+1 | < ε.

To antÐstrofo den isqÔei: an, apì kˆpoion deÐkth kai pèra, diadoqikoÐ ìroi eÐnai kon-
tˆ, den èpetai anagkastikˆ ìti h akoloujÐa eÐnai Cauchy. Gia parˆdeigma, jewr ste
thn
1 1
(1.4.4) an = 1 + √ + · · · + √ .
2 n
Tìte,
1
(1.4.5) |an+1 − an | = √ →0
n+1
ìtan n → ∞, ìmwc
√
1 1 n n
(1.4.6) |a2n − an | = √ + · · · + √ ≥ √ = √ → +∞
n+1 2n 2n 2
ìtan n → ∞, ap ìpou blèpoume ìti h (an ) den eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy. Prˆgmati,
an h (an )  tan akoloujÐa Cauchy, ja èprepe (efarmìzontac ton orismì me ε = 1)
gia megˆla n, m = 2n na isqÔei
√
n
(1.4.7) |a2n − an | < 1 dhlad  √ < 1,
2
to opoÐo odhgeÐ se ˆtopo.
 1.4 AkoloujÐes Cauchy · 9

Skopìc mac eÐnai na deÐxoume ìti mia akoloujÐa pragmatik¸n arijm¸n eÐnai sug-
klÐnousa an kai mìno an eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy. H apìdeixh gÐnetai se trÐa b mata.

Prìtash 1.4.3. Kˆje akoloujÐa Cauchy eÐnai fragmènh.

Apìdeixh . 'Estw (an ) akoloujÐa Cauchy. Pˆrte ε = 1 > 0 ston orismì: upˆrqei
n0 ∈ N ¸ste |an − am | < 1 gia kˆje n, m ≥ n0 . Eidikìtera, |an − an0 | < 1 gia kˆje
n > n0 . Dhlad ,

(1.4.8) |an | < 1 + |an0 | gia kˆje n > n0 .

Jètoume M = max{|a1 |, . . . , |an0 |, 1 + |an0 |} kai eÔkola epalhjeÔoume ìti

|an | ≤ M

gia kˆje n ∈ N. 2

Prìtash 1.4.4. An mia akoloujÐa Cauchy (an ) èqei sugklÐnousa upakoloujÐa, tìte

h (an ) sugklÐnei.

Apìdeixh . Upojètoume ìti h (an ) eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy kai ìti h upakoloujÐa
(akn ) sugklÐnei sto a ∈ R. Ja deÐxoume ìti an → a.
'Estw ε > 0. AfoÔ akn → a, upˆrqei n1 ∈ N ¸ste: gia kˆje n ≥ n1 ,
ε
(1.4.9) |akn − a| < .
2
AfoÔ h (an ) eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy, upˆrqei n2 ∈ N ¸ste: gia kˆje n, m ≥ n2
ε
(1.4.10) |an − am | < .
2
Jètoume n0 = max{n1 , n2 }. 'Estw n ≥ n0 . Tìte kn ≥ n ≥ n0 ≥ n1 , ˆra
ε
(1.4.11) |akn − a| < .
2
EpÐshc kn , n ≥ n0 ≥ n2 , ˆra
ε
(1.4.12) |akn − an | < .
2
'Epetai ìti
ε ε
(1.4.13) |an − a| ≤ |an − akn | + |akn − a| < + = ε.
2 2
Dhlad , |an − a| < ε gia kˆje n ≥ n0 . Autì shmaÐnei ìti an → a. 2

Je¸rhma 1.4.5. Mia akoloujÐa (an ) sugklÐnei an kai mìno an eÐnai akoloujÐa

Cauchy .

Apìdeixh. H mÐa kateÔjunsh apodeÐqthke sthn eisagwg  aut c thc paragrˆfou: an

upojèsoume ìti an → a kai an jewr soume tuqìn ε > 0, upˆrqei n0 = n0 (ε) ∈ N
¸ste gia kˆje n ≥ n0 na isqÔei |an − a| < 2ε . Tìte, gia kˆje n, m ≥ n0 èqoume
ε ε
(1.4.14) |an − am | ≤ |an − a| + |a − am | < + = ε.
2 2
10 · UpakoloujÐes kai basikès akoloujÐes

'Ara, h (an ) eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy.

Gia thn antÐstrofh kateÔjunsh: èstw (an ) akoloujÐa Cauchy. Apì thn Prìtash
1.4.3, h (an ) eÐnai fragmènh. Apì to Je¸rhma Bolzano-Weierstrass, h (an ) èqei
sugklÐnousa upakoloujÐa. Tèloc, apì thn Prìtash 1.4.4 èpetai ìti h (an ) sugklÐnei.
2
Autì to krit rio sÔgklishc eÐnai polÔ qr simo. Pollèc forèc jèloume na ex-
asfalÐsoume thn Ôparxh orÐou gia mia akoloujÐa qwrÐc na mac endiafèrei h tim  tou
orÐou. ArkeÐ na deÐxoume ìti h akoloujÐa eÐnai Cauchy, dhlad  ìti oi ìroi thc eÐnai
{kontˆ} gia megˆlouc deÐktec, kˆti pou den apaiteÐ na mantèyoume ek twn protèrwn
poiì eÐnai to ìrio. AntÐjeta, gia na doulèyoume me ton orismì tou orÐou, prèpei  dh
na xèroume poiì eÐnai to upoy fio ìrio (sugkrÐnete touc dÔo orismoÔc: {an → a}
kai {(an ) akoloujÐa Cauchy}.)

1.5 *Parˆrthma: suz thsh gia to axÐwma thc plhrìthtac

'Olh mac h douleiˆ xekinˆei me thn {paradoq } ìti to R eÐnai èna diatetagmèno s¸ma
pou ikanopoieÐ to axÐwma thc plhrìthtac: kˆje mh kenì, ˆnw fragmèno uposÔnolì
tou èqei elˆqisto ˆnw frˆgma. Qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn Ôparxh supremum deÐxame thn
Arqim deia idiìthta:

(∗) An a ∈ R kai ε > 0, upˆrqei n ∈ N ¸ste nε > a.

Qrhsimopoi¸ntac kai pˆli to axÐwma thc plhrìthtac, deÐxame ìti kˆje monìtonh
kai fragmènh akoloujÐa sugklÐnei. San sunèpeia p rame to Je¸rhma Bolzano-
Weierstrass: kˆje fragmènh akoloujÐa èqei sugklÐnousa upakoloujÐa. Autì me th
seirˆ tou mac epètreye na deÐxoume thn {idiìthta Cauchy} twn pragmatik¸n arijm¸n:

(∗∗) Kˆje akoloujÐa Cauchy pragmatik¸n arijm¸n sugklÐnei se prag-

matikì arijmì.

Se aut n thn parˆgrafo ja deÐxoume ìti to axÐwma thc plhrìthtac eÐnai logik 
sunèpeia twn (∗) kai (∗∗). An dhlad  deqtoÔme to R san èna diatetagmèno s¸ma pou
èqei thn Arqim deia idiìthta kai thn idiìthta Cauchy, tìte mporoÔme na apodeÐxoume
to {axÐwma thc plhrìthtac} san je¸rhma:

Je¸rhma 1.5.1. 'Estw R∗ èna diatetagmèno s¸ma pou perièqei to Q kai èqei, epi-

plèon, tic akìloujec idiìthtec:

1. An a ∈ R∗ kai ε ∈ R∗ ε > 0
, , tìte upˆrqei n∈N ¸ste nε > a .

∗
2. Kˆje akoloujÐa Cauchy stoiqeÐwn tou R sugklÐnei se stoiqeÐo tou R∗ .

∗
Tìte, kˆje mh kenì kai ˆnw fragmèno A⊂R èqei elˆqisto ˆnw frˆgma.

Apìdeixh. 'Estw A mh kenì kai ˆnw fragmèno uposÔnolo tou R∗ .

Xekinˆme me tuqìn stoiqeÐo a0 ∈ A (upˆrqei afoÔ A 6= ∅). 'Estw b ˆnw frˆgma tou
A. Apì thn Sunj kh 1, upˆrqei k ∈ N gia ton opoÐo a0 + k > b. Dhlad , upˆrqei
fusikìc k me thn idiìthta

(1.5.1) gia kˆje a ∈ A, a < a0 + k.

Apì thn arq  tou elaqÐstou èpetai ìti upˆrqei elˆqistoc tètoioc fusikìc. Ac ton
poÔme k1 . Tìte,
 1.5 *Parˆrthma: suz thsh gia to axÐwma ths plhrìthtas · 11

• Gia kˆje a ∈ A isqÔei a < a0 + k1 .

• Upˆrqei a1 ∈ A ¸ste a0 + (k1 − 1) ≤ a1 .
Epagwgikˆ ja broÔme a0 ≤ a1 ≤ . . . ≤ an ≤ . . . sto A kai kn ∈ N pou
ikanopoioÔn ta ex c:
• Gia kˆje a ∈ A isqÔei a < an−1 + 2n−1 .
kn

• an−1 + kn −1
2n−1 ≤ an .

Apìdeixh tou epagwgikoÔ 'Eqoume an ∈ A kai apì thn Sunj kh 1 upˆrqei

b matoc:

elˆqistoc fusikìc kn+1 me thn idiìthta: gia kˆje a ∈ A,

kn+1
(1.5.2) a < an + .
2n
Autì shmaÐnei ìti upˆrqei an+1 me
kn+1 − 1
(1.5.3) an + ≤ an+1 .
2n
Isqurismìc 1: H (an ) eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy.
Prˆgmati, èqoume
kn − 1 kn
(1.5.4) an−1 + ≤ an < an−1 + n−1 ,
2n−1 2
ˆra
1
(1.5.5) |an − an−1 | < .
2n−1
An loipìn n, m ∈ N kai n < m, tìte
|am − an | ≤ |am − am−1 | + |am−1 − am−2 | + · · · + |an+1 − an |
1 1 1 1
< m−1
+ m−2 + · · · + n < n−1 .
2 2 2 2
An ta n, m eÐnai arketˆ megˆla, autì gÐnetai ìso jèloume mikrì. Pio sugkekrimèna,
an mac d¸soun ε > 0, upˆrqei n0 ∈ N t.w 1/2n0 −1 < ε, opìte gia kˆje n, m ≥ n0
èqoume |am − an | < ε. 2
AfoÔ to R èqei thn idiìthta Cauchy, upˆrqei o a = lim an .
∗ ∗

Isqurismìc 2: O a∗ eÐnai to elˆqisto ˆnw frˆgma tou A.

(a) O a∗ eÐnai ˆnw frˆgma tou A: ac upojèsoume ìti upˆrqei a ∈ A me a > a∗ .
MporoÔme na broÔme ε > 0 ¸ste a > a∗ + ε. 'Omwc,
kn 1
(1.5.6) a < an−1 + ≤ an + n−1
2n−1 2
gia kˆje n ∈ N. 'Ara,
1
a∗ + ε < an + n−1
 2 
∗ 1
=⇒ a + ε ≤ lim an +
2n−1
=⇒ a∗ + ε ≤ a∗ ,
12 · UpakoloujÐes kai basikès akoloujÐes

to opoÐo eÐnai ˆtopo.

(b) An a∗∗ eÐnai ˆnw frˆgma tou A, tìte a∗∗ ≥ a∗ : èqoume a∗∗ ≥ an gia kˆje n ∈ N,
ˆra

(1.5.7) a∗∗ ≥ lim an = a∗ .

Apì ta (a) kai (b) eÐnai safèc ìti a∗ = sup A. 2

1.6 Ask seic
Omˆda A'. Erwt seic katanìhshc

Exetˆste an oi parakˆtw protˆseic eÐnai alhjeÐc   yeudeÐc (aitiolog ste pl rwc

thn apˆnthsh sac).

1. an → +∞ an kai mìno an gia kˆje M > 0 upˆrqoun ˆpeiroi ìroi thc (an ) pou
eÐnai megalÔteroi apì M .
2. H (an ) den eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh an kai mìno an upˆrqei upakoloujÐa (akn ) thc
(an ) ¸ste akn → +∞.
3. Kˆje upakoloujÐa miac sugklÐnousac akoloujÐac sugklÐnei.
4. An mia akoloujÐa den èqei fjÐnousa upakoloujÐa tìte èqei mia gnhsÐwc aÔxousa
upakoloujÐa.
5. An h (an ) eÐnai fragmènh kai an 6→ a tìte upˆrqoun b 6= a kai upakoloujÐa (akn )
thc (an ) ¸ste akn → b.
6. Upˆrqei fragmènh akoloujÐa pou den èqei sugklÐnousa upakoloujÐa.
7. An h (an ) den eÐnai fragmènh, tìte den èqei fragmènh upakoloujÐa.
8. 'Estw (an ) aÔxousa akoloujÐa. Kˆje upakoloujÐa thc (an ) eÐnai aÔxousa.
9. An h (an ) eÐnai aÔxousa kai gia kˆpoia upakoloujÐa (akn ) thc (an ) èqoume
akn → a, tìte an → a.
10. An an → 0 tìte upˆrqei upakoloujÐa (akn ) thc (an ) ¸ste n2 akn → 0.

Omˆda B'

11. 'Estw (an ) mia akoloujÐa. DeÐxte ìti an → a an kai mìno an oi upakoloujÐec
(a2k ) kai (a2k−1 ) sugklÐnoun sto a.
12. 'Estw (an ) mia akoloujÐa. Upojètoume ìti oi upakoloujÐec (a2k ), (a2k−1 ) kai
(a3k ) sugklÐnoun. DeÐxte ìti:
(a) lim a2k = lim a2k−1 = lim a3k .
k→∞ k→∞ k→∞
(b) H (an ) sugklÐnei.
13. 'Estw (an ) mia akoloujÐa. Upojètoume ìti a2n ≤ a2n+2 ≤ a2n+1 ≤ a2n−1
gia kˆje n ∈ N kai ìti lim (a2n−1 − a2n ) = 0. Tìte h (an ) sugklÐnei se kˆpoion
n→∞
pragmatikì arijmì a pou ikanopoieÐ thn a2n ≤ a ≤ a2n−1 gia kˆje n ∈ N.
 1.6 Ask seis · 13

14. 'Estw (an ) mia akoloujÐa kai èstw (xk ) akoloujÐa oriak¸n shmeÐwn thc (an ).
Upojètoume oti xk → x. DeÐxte oti o x eÐnai oriakì shmeÐo thc (an ).
15. DeÐxte ìti h akoloujÐa (an ) den sugklÐnei ston pragmatikì arijmì a, an kai
mìno an upˆrqoun ε > 0 kai upakoloujÐa (akn ) thc (an ) ¸ste |akn − a| ≥ ε gia kˆje
n ∈ N.
16. 'Estw (an ) akoloujÐa pragmatik¸n arijm¸n kai èstw a ∈ R. DeÐxte ìti an → a
an kai mìno an kˆje upakoloujÐa thc (an ) èqei upakoloujÐa pou sugklÐnei sto a.
17. OrÐzoume mia akoloujÐa (an ) me a1 > 0 kai
2
an+1 = 1 + .
1 + an
DeÐxte ìti oi upakoloujÐec (a2k ) kai (a2k−1 ) eÐnai monìtonec kai fragmènec. BreÐte,
an upˆrqei, to lim an .
n→∞

18. BreÐte to an¸tero kai to kat¸tero ìrio twn akolouji¸n

 
1
an = (−1)n+1 1 + ,
n
 πn  1
bn = cos + ,
3 n+1
n2 ((−1)n + 1) + 2n + 1
γn = .
n+1

19. 'Estw (an ), (bn ) fragmènec akoloujÐec. DeÐxte oti

lim inf an + lim inf bn ≤ lim inf(an + bn )
≤ lim sup(an + bn ) ≤ lim sup an + lim sup bn .

20. 'Estw an > 0, n ∈ N.

(a) DeÐxte oti
an+1 √ √ an+1
lim inf ≤ lim inf n an ≤ lim sup n an ≤ lim sup .
an an
√
(b) An lim aan+1
n
= x, tìte n an → x.
21. 'Estw (an ) fragmènh akoloujÐa. DeÐxte oti
lim sup(−an ) = − lim inf an kai lim inf(−an ) = − lim sup an .

22. 'Estw (an ) fragmènh akoloujÐa. An

X = {x ∈ R : x ≤ an gia ˆpeirouc n ∈ N},

deÐxte ìti sup X = lim sup an .

23. Qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn anisìthta
1 1 1 1
+ + ··· + ≥ ,
n+1 n+2 2n 2
14 · UpakoloujÐes kai basikès akoloujÐes

deÐxte ìti h akoloujÐa an = 1+ 12 +· · ·+ n1 den eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy. Sumperˆnate

ìti an → +∞.
24. 'Estw 0 < µ < 1 kai akoloujÐa (an ) gia thn opoÐa isqÔei
|an+1 − an | ≤ µ|an − an−1 |, n ≥ 2.

DeÐxte ìti h (an ) eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy.

25. OrÐzoume a1 = a, a2 = b kai an+1 = an +an−1
2 , n ≥ 2. Exetˆste an h (an ) eÐnai
akoloujÐa Cauchy.

Omˆda G'

26. 'Estw m ∈ N. BreÐte mia akoloujÐa (an ) h opoÐa na èqei akrib¸c m diaforetikèc
upakoloujÐec.
27. 'Estw (an ) mia akoloujÐa. An sup{an : n ∈ N} = 1 kai an 6= 1 gia kˆje n ∈ N,
tìte upˆrqei gnhsÐwc aÔxousa upakoloujÐa (akn ) thc (an ) ¸ste akn → 1.
28. 'Estw (an ) akoloujÐa jetik¸n arijm¸n. JewroÔme to sÔnolo A = {an : n ∈ N}.
An inf A = 0, deÐxte ìti h (an ) èqei fjÐnousa upakoloujÐa pou sugklÐnei sto 0.
29. OrÐzoume mia akoloujÐa wc ex c:
1 a2n−1
a0 = 0, a2n+1 = + a2n , a2n = .
2 2
BreÐte ìla ta oriakˆ shmeÐa thc (an ). [ Upìdeixh: Grˆyte touc dèka pr¸touc ìrouc
thc akoloujÐac.]
30. 'Estw (xn ) akoloujÐa me thn idiìthta xn+1 − xn → 0. An a < b eÐnai dÔo oriakˆ
shmeÐa thc (xn ), deÐxte ìti kˆje y ∈ [a, b] eÐnai oriakì shmeÐo thc (xn ). [ Upìdeixh:

Apagwg  se ˆtopo.]
31. (a) 'Estw A arijm simo uposÔnolo tou R. DeÐxte ìti upˆrqei akoloujÐa (an )
¸ste kˆje x ∈ A na eÐnai oriakì shmeÐo thc (an ).
(b) DeÐxte ìti upˆrqei akoloujÐa (xn ) ¸ste kˆje x ∈ R na eÐnai oriakì shmeÐo thc
(xn ).
32. 'Estw (an ) mia akoloujÐa. OrÐzoume
bn = sup{|an+k − an | : k ∈ N}.

DeÐxte ìti h (an ) sugklÐnei an kai mìno an bn → 0.

33. 'Estw a, b > 0. OrÐzoume akoloujÐa (an ) me a1 = a, a2 = b kai
4an+1 − an
an+2 = , n = 1, 2, . . .
3
Exetˆste an h (an ) sugklÐnei kai an nai, breÐte to ìriì thc.
Kefˆlaio 2

Seirèc pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

2.1 SÔgklish seirˆc
Orismìc 2.1.1. 'Estw (ak ) mia akoloujÐa pragmatik¸n arijm¸n. JewroÔme thn
akoloujÐa

(2.1.1) sn = a1 + · · · + an .

Dhlad ,

(2.1.2) s1 = a1 , s2 = a1 + a2 , s3 = a1 + a2 + a3 , ...
∞ n
To sÔmbolo ak eÐnai h me k -ostì ìro ton ak . To ˆjroisma sn =
P P
seirˆ ak
k=1 k=1
∞
eÐnai to n thc seirˆc ak kai h (sn ) eÐnai h
P
-ostì merikì ˆjroisma akoloujÐa twn

k=1
∞
thc seirˆc ak .
P
merik¸n ajroismˆtwn

k=1
An h (sn ) sugklÐnei se kˆpoion pragmatikì arijmì s, tìte grˆfoume
∞
X
(2.1.3) s = a1 + a2 + · · · + an + · · ·   s= ak
k=1

kai lème ìti h seirˆ sugklÐnei (sto s), to de ìrio s = lim sn eÐnai to ˆjroisma thc
n→∞
seirˆc.
∞ ∞
An sn → +∞   an sn → −∞, tìte grˆfoume ak = +∞   ak = −∞ kai
P P
k=1 k=1
∞
lème ìti −∞ antÐstoiqa.
P
h seirˆ ak apoklÐnei sto +∞   sto

k=1
∞
An h (sn ) den sugklÐnei se pragmatikì arijmì, tìte lème ìti
P
h seirˆ ak
k=1
apoklÐnei .

Parathr seic 2.1.2. (a) Pollèc forèc exetˆzoume th sÔgklish seir¸n thc morf c
∞ ∞
ak   ak ìpou m ≥ 2. Se aut n thn perÐptwsh jètoume sn+1 = a0 + a1 +
P P
k=0 k=m
16 · Seirès pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

· · · + an   sn−m+1 = am + am+1 + · · · + an (gia n ≥ m) antÐstoiqa, kai exetˆzoume

th sÔgklish thc akoloujÐac (sn ).
(b) Apì touc orismoÔc pou d¸same eÐnai fanerì ìti gia na exetˆsoume th sÔgklish
  apìklish miac seirˆc, apl¸c exetˆzoume th sÔgklish   apìklish miac akoloujÐac
(thc akoloujÐac (sn ) twn merik¸n ajroismˆtwn thc seirˆc). O n-ostìc ìmwc ìroc
thc akoloujÐac (sn ) eÐnai èna {ˆjroisma me oloèna auxanìmeno m koc}, to opoÐo
adunatoÔme (sun jwc) na grˆyoume se kleist  morf . Sunep¸c, h eÔresh tou orÐou
s = lim sn (ìtan autì upˆrqei) eÐnai polÔ suqnˆ anèfikth. Skopìc mac eÐnai loipìn
n→∞
na anaptÔxoume kˆpoia krit ria ta opoÐa na mac epitrèpoun (toulˆqiston) na poÔme
an h (sn ) sugklÐnei se pragmatikì arijmì   ìqi.
Prin proqwr soume se paradeÐgmata, ja doÔme kˆpoiec aplèc protˆseic pou ja
qrhsimopoioÔme eleÔjera sth sunèqeia.
∞ ∞
An èqoume dÔo seirèc ak , bk , mporoÔme na sqhmatÐsoume ton grammikì
P P
k=1 k=1
∞
sunduasmì touc (λak + µbk ), ìpou λ, µ ∈ R.
P
k=1
∞ ∞
Prìtash 2.1.3.
P P
An ak = s kai bk = t , tìte

k=1 k=1

∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
(2.1.4) (λak + µbk ) = λs + µt = λ ak + µ bk .
k=1 k=1 k=1

n n n
. An sn = ak , tn = bk kai un = (λak + µbk ) eÐnai ta n-ostˆ
P P P
Apìdeixh

k=1 k=1 k=1

merikˆ ajroÐsmata twn seir¸n, tìte un = λsn + µtn . Autì prokÔptei eÔkola apì
tic idiìthtec thc prìsjeshc kai tou pollaplasiasmoÔ, afoÔ èqoume ajroÐsmata me
peperasmènouc to pl joc ìrouc. 'Omwc, sn → s kai tn → t, ˆra un → λs + µt. Apì
ton orismì tou ajroÐsmatoc seirˆc èpetai h (2.1.4). 2
Prìtash 2.1.4. (a) An apaleÐyoume peperasmèno pl joc {arqik¸n} ìrwn miac

seirˆc, den ephreˆzetai h sÔgklish   apìklis  thc.

(b) An allˆxoume peperasmènouc to pl joc ìrouc miac seirˆc, den ephreˆzetai h

sÔgklish   apìklish thc.

∞
. (a) JewroÔme th seirˆ ak . Me th frˆsh {apaleÐfoume touc arqikoÔc
P
Apìdeixh

k=1
∞
ìrouc a1 , a2 , . . . , am−1 } ennooÔme ìti jewroÔme thn kainoÔrgia seirˆ ak . An
P
k=m
sumbolÐsoume me sn kai tn ta n-ostˆ merikˆ ajroÐsmata twn dÔo seir¸n antistoÐqwc,
tìte gia kˆje n ≥ m èqoume

(2.1.5) sn = a1 + a2 + · · · + am−1 + am + · · · + an = a1 + · · · + am−1 + tn−m+1 .

'Ara h (sn ) sugklÐnei an kai mìnon an h (tn−m+1 ) sugklÐnei, dhlad  an kai mìnon an
h (tn ) sugklÐnei. EpÐshc, an sn → s kai tn → t, tìte s = a1 + a2 + · · · + am−1 + t.
Dhlad ,
∞
X ∞
X
(2.1.6) ak = a1 + · · · + am−1 + ak .
k=1 k=m
 2.1 SÔgklish seirˆs · 17

∞
(b) JewroÔme th seirˆ ak . Allˆzoume peperasmènouc to pl joc ìrouc thc (ak ).
P
k=1
∞
JewroÔme dhlad  mia nèa seirˆ bk pou ìmwc èqei thn ex c idiìthta: upˆrqei
P
k=1
m ∈ N ¸ste ak = bk gia kˆje k ≥ m. An apaleÐyoume touc pr¸touc m − 1 ìrouc
∞
twn dÔo seir¸n, prokÔptei h Ðdia seirˆ ak . T¸ra, efarmìzoume to (a). 2
P
k=m

∞
Prìtash 2.1.5. (a)
P
An ak = s, tìte an → 0 .

k=1
∞
(b)
P
An h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei, tìte gia kˆje ε>0 upˆrqei N = N (ε) ∈ N ¸ste:

k=1
gia kˆje n≥N ,

 ∞ 
 X 
(2.1.7) ak  < ε.
 

 
k=n+1

n
. (a) An sn = ak , tìte sn → s kai sn−1 → s. 'Ara,
P
Apìdeixh

k=1

(2.1.8) an = sn − sn−1 → s − s = 0.

Sthn pragmatikìthta, autì pou kˆnoume ed¸ eÐnai na jewr soume mia deÔterh akolou-
jÐa (tn ) h opoÐa orÐzetai wc ex c: dÐnoume aujaÐreth tim  ston t1 gia parˆdeigma,
t1 = 0 kai gia kˆje n ≥ 2 jètoume tn = sn−1 . Tìte, tn → s (ˆskhsh) kai gia
kˆje n ≥ 2 èqoume an = sn − tn → s − s = 0 (exhg ste thn pr¸th isìthta).
'Enac ˆlloc trìpoc gia na apodeÐxoume ìti an → 0 eÐnai me ton orismì. 'Estw
ε > 0. AfoÔ sn → s, upˆrqei n1 ∈ N ¸ste |sn − s| < 2ε gia kˆje n ≥ n1 . Jètoume
n0 = n1 + 1. Tìte, gia kˆje n ≥ n0 èqoume n ≥ n1 kai n − 1 ≥ n1 . Sunep¸c,
|s − sn | < 2ε kai |s − sn−1 | < 2ε , ap ìpou èpetai ìti
ε ε
|an | = |sn − sn−1 | ≤ |sn − s| + |s − sn−1 | < + =ε
2 2
gia kˆje n ≥ n0 . Me bˆsh ton orismì, an → 0.
∞
(b) An ak = s, tìte apì thn (2.1.6) èqoume
P
k=1

∞
X
(2.1.9) βn := ak = s − sn → 0
k=n+1

kaj¸c to n → ∞. Apì ton orismì tou orÐou akoloujÐac, gia kˆje ε > 0 upˆrqei
N = N (ε) ∈ N ¸ste: gia kˆje n ≥ N , |βn | < ε. 2
ShmeÐwsh. To mèroc (a) thc Prìtashc 2.1.5 qrhsimopoieÐtai san krit rio apìk-

∞
: An h akoloujÐa (ak ) den sugklÐnei sto 0 tìte h seirˆ ak anagkastikˆ
P
lishc

k=1
apoklÐnei.
18 · Seirès pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

ParadeÐgmata
(a) H gewmetrik  seirˆ me lìgo x ∈ R eÐnai h seirˆ
∞
X
(2.1.10) xk .
k=0

Dhlad  ak = xk , k = 0, 1, 2, . . .. An x = 1 tìte sn = n + 1, en¸ an x 6= 1 èqoume

xn+1 − 1
(2.1.11) sn = 1 + x + x2 + · · · + xn = .
x−1
DiakrÐnoume dÔo peript¸seic:
(i) An |x| ≥ 1 tìte |ak | = |x|k ≥ 1, dhlad  ak 6→ 0. Apì thn Prìtash 2.1.5(a)
blèpoume ìti h seirˆ (2.1.10) apoklÐnei.
(ii) An |x| < 1 tìte xn+1 → 0, opìte h (2.1.11) deÐqnei ìti sn → 1−x .
1
Dhlad ,
∞
X 1
(2.1.12) xk = .
1−x
k=0

(b) Thleskopikèc seirèc. Upojètoume ìti h akoloujÐa (ak ) ikanopoieÐ thn

(2.1.13) ak = bk − bk+1
∞
gia kˆje k ∈ N, ìpou (bk ) mia ˆllh akoloujÐa. Tìte, h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei an
P
k=1
kai mìnon an h akoloujÐa (bk ) sugklÐnei. Prˆgmati, èqoume

(2.1.14) sn = a1 + · · · + an = (b1 − b2 ) + (b2 − b3 ) + · · · + (bn − bn+1 ) = b1 − bn+1 ,

opìte bn → b an kai mìnon an sn → b1 − b.

∞
San parˆdeigma jewroÔme th seirˆ k(k+1) .
1
Tìte,
P
k=1

1 1 1
(2.1.15) ak = = − = bk − bk+1 ,
k(k + 1) k k+1

ìpou bk = k1 . 'Ara,

sn = a1 + · · · + an
     
1 1 1 1 1
= 1− + − + ··· + −
2 2 3 n n+1
1
= 1− → 1.
n+1
Dhlad ,
∞
X 1
(2.1.16) = 1.
k(k + 1)
k=1
 2.2 Seirès me mh arnhtikoÔs ìrous · 19

∞
Je¸rhma 2.1.6 (krit rio Cauchy).
P
H seirˆ ak sugklÐnei an kai mìno an

k=1
isqÔei to ex c: gia kˆje ε>0 N = N () ∈ N
upˆrqei ¸ste: an N ≤m<n tìte

 n 
 X 
(2.1.17) ak  = |am+1 + · · · + an | < ε.
 

 
k=m+1

Apìdeixh . An sn = a1 + a2 + · · · + an eÐnai to n-ostì merikì ˆjroisma thc seirˆc,

h seirˆ sugklÐnei an kai mìnon an h (sn ) sugklÐnei. Dhlad , an kai mìnon an h (sn )
eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy. Autì ìmwc eÐnai (apì ton orismì thc akoloujÐac Cauchy)
isodÔnamo me to ex c: gia kˆje ε > 0 upˆrqei N = N () ∈ N ¸ste gia kˆje
N ≤ m < n,
(2.1.18) |am+1 + · · · + an | = |(a1 + · · · + an ) − (a1 + · · · + am )| = |sn − sm | < ε. 2
∞
Parˆdeigma: H k.
1
P
armonik  seirˆ

k=1
'Eqoume ak = 1
k gia kˆje k ∈ N. ParathroÔme ìti: an n > m tìte
1 1 1 n−m
(2.1.19) am+1 + · · · + an = + + ··· + ≥ .
m+1 m+2 n n
Efarmìzoume to krit rio tou Cauchy. An h armonik  seirˆ sugklÐnei, tìte, gia
ε = 14 , prèpei na upˆrqei N ∈ N ¸ste: an N ≤ m < n tìte
1
(2.1.20) |am+1 + · · · + an | < .
4
Epilègoume m = N kai n = 2N . Tìte, sunduˆzontac tic (2.1.19) kai (2.1.20)
paÐrnoume
1 2N − N 1
(2.1.21) > aN +1 + · · · + a2N ≥ = ,
4 2N 2
pou eÐnai ˆtopo. 'Ara, h armonik  seirˆ apoklÐnei.
ShmeÐwsh: To parˆdeigma thc armonik c seirˆc deÐqnei ìti to antÐstrofo thc Pro-
∞
tashc 2.1.5(a) den isqÔei. An ak → 0 den eÐnai aparaÐthta swstì ìti h seirˆ
P
ak
k=1
sugklÐnei.

2.2 Seirèc me mh arnhtikoÔc ìrouc

Se aut  thn parˆgrafo suzhtˆme th sÔgklish   apìklish seir¸n me mh arnhtikoÔc
ìrouc. H basik  parat rhsh eÐnai ìti an gia thn akoloujÐa (ak ) èqoume ak ≥ 0
gia kˆje k ∈ N, tìte h akoloujÐa (sn ) twn merik¸n ajroismˆtwn eÐnai aÔxousa:
prˆgmati, gia kˆje n ∈ N èqoume
(2.2.1) sn+1 − sn = (a1 + · · · + an + an+1 ) − (a1 + · · · + an ) = an+1 ≥ 0.
∞
Je¸rhma 2.2.1.
P
'Estw (ak ) akoloujÐa me ak ≥ 0 gia kˆje k∈N . H seirˆ ak
k=1
sugklÐnei an kai mìnon an h akoloujÐa (sn ) twn merik¸n ajroismˆtwn eÐnai ˆnw

∞
P
fragmènh. An h (sn ) den eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh, tìte ak = +∞ .

k=1
20 · Seirès pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

Apìdeixh . H (sn ) eÐnai aÔxousa akoloujÐa. An eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh tìte sugklÐnei
se pragmatikì arijmì, ˆra h seirˆ sugklÐnei. An h (sn ) den eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh
tìte, afoÔ eÐnai aÔxousa, èqoume sn → +∞. 2

ShmeÐwsh. EÐdame ìti mia seirˆ me mh arnhtikoÔc ìrouc sugklÐnei   apoklÐnei sto
∞
+∞. Epistrèfontac sto parˆdeigma thc armonik c seirˆc k , blèpoume ìti, afoÔ
1
P
k=1
den sugklÐnei, apoklÐnei sto +∞:
∞
X 1
(2.2.2) = +∞.
k
k=1

Ja d¸soume mia apeujeÐac apìdeixh gia to gegonìc ìti h akoloujÐa sn = 1 + 1

2 +
· · · + n1 teÐnei sto +∞. Pio sugkekrimèna, ja deÐxoume me epagwg  ìti
n
(∗) s2n ≥ 1 + gia kˆje n ∈ N.
2
Gia n = 1 h anisìthta isqÔei wc isìthta: s2 = 1 + 12 . Upojètoume ìti h (∗) isqÔei
gia kˆpoion fusikì n. Tìte,
1 1 1
s2n+1 = s2n + + n + · · · + n+1 .
2n +1 2 +2 2
Parathr ste ìti o s2n+1 − s2n eÐnai èna ˆjroisma 2n to pl joc arijm¸n kai ìti o
mikrìteroc apì autoÔc eÐnai o 2n+1
1
. Sunep¸c,
1 1 n 1 n+1
s2n+1 ≥ s2n + 2n · = s2n + ≥ 1 + + = 1 + .
2n+1 2 2 2 2
'Ara, h (∗) isqÔei gia ton fusikì n + 1. 'Epetai ìti s2n → +∞. AfoÔ h (sn ) eÐnai
aÔxousa kai èqei upakoloujÐa pou teÐnei sto +∞, sumperaÐnoume ìti sn → +∞.

2.2aþ Seirèc me fjÐnontec mh arnhtikoÔc ìrouc

∞
Pollèc forèc sunantˆme seirèc ak twn opoÐwn oi ìroi ak proc to 0:
P
fjÐnoun

k=1
ak+1 ≤ ak gia kˆje k ∈ N kai 0. 'Ena krit rio sÔgklishc pou efarmìzetai
ak →
suqnˆ se tètoiec peript¸seic eÐnai to .
krit rio sumpÔknwshc

Prìtash 2.2.2 (Krit rio sumpÔknwshc - Cauchy). 'Estw (ak ) mia fjÐnousa

∞
P
akoloujÐa me ak > 0 kai ak → 0 . H seirˆ ak sugklÐnei an kai mìno an h seirˆ

k=1
∞
2k a2k
P
sugklÐnei.

k=0
∞
. Upojètoume pr¸ta ìti h 2k a2k sugklÐnei. Tìte, h akoloujÐa twn
P
Apìdeixh

k=0
merik¸n ajroismˆtwn

(2.2.3) tn = a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + · · · + 2n a2n

eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh. 'Estw M èna ˆnw frˆgma thc (tn ). Ja deÐxoume ìti o M eÐnai
∞
ˆnw frˆgma gia ta merikˆ ajroÐsmata thc ak . 'Estw sm = a1 + · · · + am . O
P
k=1
 2.2 Seirès me mh arnhtikoÔs ìrous · 21

arijmìc m brÐsketai anˆmesa se dÔo diadoqikèc dunˆmeic tou 2: Ôpˆrqei n ∈ N ¸ste

2n ≤ m < 2n+1 . Tìte, qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn upìjesh ìti h (ak ) eÐnai fjÐnousa,
èqoume

sm = a1 + (a2 + a3 ) + (a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 ) + · · · + (a2n−1 + · · · + a2n −1 )

+(a2n + · · · + am )
= a1 + (a2 + a3 ) + (a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 ) + · · · + (a2n−1 + · · · + a2n −1 )
+(a2n + · · · + am + · · · + a2n+1 −1 )
≤ a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + · · · + 2n−1 a2n−1 + 2n a2n
≤ M.
∞
AfoÔ h ak èqei mh arnhtikoÔc ìrouc kai h akoloujÐa twn merik¸n ajroismˆtwn
P
k=1
∞
thc eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh, to Je¸rhma 2.2.1 deÐqnei ìti h ak sugklÐnei.
P
k=1
∞
AntÐstrofa: upojètoume ìti h ak sugklÐnei, dhlad  ìti h (sm ) eÐnai ˆnw
P
k=1
fragmènh: upˆrqei M ∈ R ¸ste sm ≤ M gia kˆje m ∈ N. Tìte, gia to tuqìn
∞
merikì ˆjroisma (tn ) thc seirˆc k
2 a2k èqoume
P
k=1

tn = a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + · · · + 2n a2n

≤ 2a1 + 2a2 + 2(a3 + a4 ) + · · · + 2(a2n−1 +1 + · · · + a2n )
= 2s2n ≤ 2M.
∞
AfoÔ h (tn ) eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh, to Je¸rhma 2.2.1 deÐqnei ìti h 2k a2k sugklÐnei.
P
k=0
2

ParadeÐgmata
∞
(a) kp ,
1
ìpou p > 0. 'Eqoume ak = kp .
1
AfoÔ p > 0, h (ak ) fjÐnei proc to 0.
P
k=1
JewroÔme thn
∞ ∞ ∞
X  1 k
X X 1
(2.2.4) 2k a2k = 2k p = .
(2k ) 2p−1
k=0 k=0 k=0

H teleutaÐa seirˆ eÐnai gewmetrik  seirˆ me lìgo xp = 2p−1

1
EÐdame ìti sugklÐnei an
xp = 2p−1 < 1, dhlad  an p > 1 kai apoklÐnei an xp = 2p−1 ≥ 1, dhlad  an p ≤ 1.
1 1
∞
Apì to krit rio sumpÔknwshc, h seirˆ kp sugklÐnei an p > 1 kai apoklÐnei
1
P
k=1
sto +∞ an 0 < p ≤ 1.
∞
(b) k(log k)p , ìpou p > 0. 'Eqoume ak =
1
k(log k)p .
1
AfoÔ p > 0, h (ak ) fjÐnei proc
P
k=2
to 0. JewroÔme thn
∞ ∞ ∞
X X 1 1 X 1
(2.2.5) 2k a2k = 2k p = p .
k k
2 (log(2 )) (log 2) kp
k=1 k=1 k=1
22 · Seirès pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

Apì to prohgoÔmeno parˆdeigma, aut  sugklÐnei an p > 1 kai apoklÐnei an p ≤ 1.

∞
Apì to krit rio sumpÔknwshc, h seirˆ k(log k)p sugklÐnei an p > 1 kai apoklÐnei
1
P
k=2
sto +∞ an 0 < p ≤ 1.

2.2bþ O arijmìc e
'Eqoume orÐsei ton arijmì
e wc to ìrio thc gnhsÐwc aÔxousac kai ˆnw fragmènhc
n
akoloujÐac αn := 1 + n1 kaj¸c to n → ∞.

Prìtash 2.2.3. O arijmìc e ikanopoieÐ thn

∞
X 1
(2.2.6) e= .
k!
k=0

Apìdeixh . JumhjeÐte ìti 0! = 1. Grˆfoume sn gia to n-ostì merikì ˆjroisma thc

seirˆc sto dexiì mèloc:
1 1 1
(2.2.7) sn = 1 + + + ··· + .
1! 2! n!
Apì to diwnumikì anˆptugma, èqoume
 n      
1 n 1 n 1 n 1
1+ = 1+ + + ··· +
n 1 n 2 n2 n nn
n1 n(n − 1) 1 n(n − 1) · · · (n − k + 1) 1
= 1+ + + ··· +
1! n 2! n2 k! nk
n(n − 1) · · · 2 · 1 1
+··· + n
 n!  n    
1 1 1 1 1 n−1
= 1+ + 1− + ··· + 1− ··· 1 −
1! 2! n n! n n
1 1 1
≤ 1 + + + ··· + ,
1! 2! n!
dhlad ,

(2.2.8) αn ≤ sn .

'Estw n ∈ N. O prohgoÔmenoc upologismìc deÐqnei ìti an k > n tìte

 k      
1 1 1 1 1 1 n−1
1+ = 1+ + 1− + ··· + 1− ··· 1 −
k 1! 2! k n! k k
   
1 1 k−1
+··· + 1− ··· 1 −
k! k k
     
1 1 1 1 1 n−1
≥ 1+ + 1− + ··· + 1− ··· 1 − .
1! 2! k n! k k

Krat¸ntac to n stajerì kai af nontac to k → ∞, blèpoume ìti

 k
1 1 1 1
(2.2.9) e = lim 1+ ≥1+ + + ··· + = sn .
k→∞ k 1! 2! n!
 2.2 Seirès me mh arnhtikoÔs ìrous · 23

AfoÔ h aÔxousa akoloujÐa (sn ) eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh apì ton e, èpetai ìti h (sn )
sugklÐnei kai lim sn ≤ e. Apì thn ˆllh pleurˆ, h (2.2.8) deÐqnei ìti e = lim αn ≤
n→∞ n→∞
lim sn . 'Ara,
n→∞
∞
X 1
(2.2.10) e = lim sn = ,
n→∞ k!
k=0

ìpwc isqurÐzetai h Prìtash. 2

Qrhsimopoi¸ntac aut n thn anaparˆstash tou e, ja deÐxoume ìti eÐnai ˆrrhtoc
arijmìc.
Prìtash 2.2.4. O e eÐnai ˆrrhtoc.

Apìdeixh . Upojètoume ìti o e eÐnai rhtìc. Tìte, upˆrqoun m, n ∈ N ¸ste

∞
m X 1
(2.2.11) e= = .
n k!
k=0

Dhlad ,
   
m 1 1 1 1
(2.2.12) = 1+ + ··· + + + ··· + + ··· .
n 1! n! (n + 1)! (n + s)!
Pollaplasiˆzontac ta dÔo mèlh thc (2.2.12) me n!, mporoÔme na grˆyoume
  
m 1 1
0 < A = n! − 1 + + ··· +
n 1! n!
1 1 1
= + + ··· + + ··· .
n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1) · · · (n + s)
Parathr ste ìti, apì ton trìpo orismoÔ tou, o
  
m 1 1
(2.2.13) A = n! − 1 + + ··· +
n 1! n!
eÐnai fusikìc arijmìc. 'Omwc, gia kˆje s ∈ N èqoume
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + ··· + ≤ + + + ··· + s
n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1) · · · (n + s) 2 6 23 2
∞
2 1X 1
< +
3 8 2k
k=0
2 1 11
= + = .
3 4 12
'Ara,
1 1 1 11
(2.2.14) + + ··· + + ··· ≤ .
n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1) · · · (n + s) 12
'Epetai ìti o fusikìc arijmìc A ikanopoieÐ thn
11
(2.2.15) 0<A≤
12
kai èqoume katal xei se ˆtopo. 2
24 · Seirès pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

2.3 Genikˆ krit ria

2.3aþ Apìluth sÔgklish seirˆc
∞ ∞
Orismìc 2.3.1.
P P
Lème ìti h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei apolÔtwc an h seirˆ |ak |
k=1 k=1
∞
P
sugklÐnei. Lème ìti h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei upì sunj kh an sugklÐnei allˆ den

k=1
sugklÐnei apolÔtwc.

H epìmenh prìtash deÐqnei ìti h apìluth sÔgklish eÐnai isqurìterh apì thn (apl )
sÔgklish.
∞ ∞
Prìtash 2.3.2.
P P
An h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei apolÔtwc, tìte h seirˆ ak sugk-

k=1 k=1
lÐnei.

Apìdeixh. Ja deÐxoume ìti ikanopoieÐtai to krit rio Cauchy (Je¸rhma 2.1.6). 'Estw

∞
ε > 0. AfoÔ h seirˆ |ak | sugklÐnei, upˆrqei N ∈ N ¸ste: gia kˆje N ≤ m < n,
P
k=1

n
X
(2.3.1) |ak | < ε.
k=m+1

Tìte, gia kˆje N ≤ m < n èqoume

 
 Xn  n
X
(2.3.2) ak  ≤ |ak | < ε.
 

 
k=m+1 k=m+1

∞
'Ara h seirˆ ak ikanopoieÐ to krit rio Cauchy. Apì to Je¸rhma 2.1.6, sugklÐnei.
P
k=1
2

ParadeÐgmata
∞
(−1)k−1
(a) H seirˆ sugklÐnei. MporoÔme na elègxoume ìti sugklÐnei apolÔtwc:
P
k2
k=1
èqoume
 
∞  k−1  ∞
X  (−1)  X 1
(2.3.3) =
 k2  k2
 
k=1 k=1

∞
kai h teleutaÐa seirˆ sugklÐnei (eÐnai thc morf c 1
me p = 2 > 1).
P
kp
k=1
∞
(−1)k−1
(b) H seirˆ den sugklÐnei apolÔtwc, afoÔ
P
k
k=1

∞ 
 ∞
k−1 
X  (−1)  X1
(2.3.4) =
k k

 
k=1 k=1
 2.3 Genikˆ krit ria · 25

(armonik  seirˆ). MporoÔme ìmwc na deÐxoume ìti h seirˆ sugklÐnei upì sunj kh.
JewroÔme pr¸ta to merikì ˆjroisma
2m k−1
X (−1)
s2m =
k
k=1
1 1 1 1 1
= 1− + − + ··· + −
2 3 4 2m − 1 2m
1 1 1 1
= + + + ··· + .
1·2 3·4 5·6 (2m − 1)2m
'Epetai ìti
1
(2.3.5) s2m+2 = s2m + > s2m ,
(2m + 1)(2m + 2)
dhlad , h upakoloujÐa (s2m ) eÐnai gnhsÐwc aÔxousa. ParathroÔme epÐshc ìti h
(s2m ) eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh, afoÔ
1 1 1 1
(2.3.6) s2m < + 2 + 2 + ··· + 2,
12 3 5 (2m − 1)
kai to dexiì mèloc thc (2.3.6) frˆssetai apì to (2m − 1)-ostì merikì ˆjroisma thc
∞
seirˆc k2 h opoÐa sugklÐnei. 'Ara h upakoloujÐa (s2m ) sugklÐnei se kˆpoion
1
P
k=1
pragmatikì arijmì s. Tìte,
1
(2.3.7) s2m−1 = s2m + → s + 0 = s.
2m
AfoÔ oi upakoloujÐec (s2m ) kai (s2m−1 ) twn ˆrtiwn kai twn peritt¸n ìrwn thc (sm )
sugklÐnoun ston s, sumperaÐnoume ìti sn → s.

2.3bþ Krit ria sÔgkrishc

∞ ∞
Je¸rhma 2.3.3 (krit rio sÔgkrishc).
P P
JewroÔme tic seirèc ak kai bk ,

k=1 k=1
ìpou bk > 0 gia kˆje k∈N . Upojètoume ìti upˆrqei M >0 ¸ste

(2.3.8) |ak | ≤ M · bk
∞
P ∞
P
gia kˆje k ∈ N kai ìti h seirˆ bk sugklÐnei. Tìte, h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei

k=1 k=1
apolÔtwc.

n n
. Jètoume sn = |ak | kai tn = bk . Apì thn (2.3.8) èpetai ìti
P P
Apìdeixh

k=1 k=1

(2.3.9) sn ≤ M · tn
∞
gia kˆje n ∈ N. AfoÔ h seirˆ bk sugklÐnei, h akoloujÐa (tn ) eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh.
P
k=1
∞
Apì thn (2.3.9) sumperaÐnoume ìti kai h (sn ) eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh. 'Ara, h
P
|ak |
k=1
sugklÐnei. 2
26 · Seirès pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

∞
Je¸rhma 2.3.4 (oriakì krit rio sÔgkrishc).
P
JewroÔme tic seirèc ak kai

k=1
∞
P
bk , ìpou bk > 0 gia kˆje k∈N . Upojètoume ìti

k=1

ak
(2.3.10) lim =`∈R
k→∞ bk
∞
P ∞
P
kai ìti h seirˆ bk sugklÐnei. Tìte, h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei apolÔtwc.

k=1 k=1
 
. H akoloujÐa
Apìdeixh
ak
bk sugklÐnei, ˆra eÐnai fragmènh. Dhlad , upˆrqei
M > 0 ¸ste
 
 ak 
(2.3.11)  ≤M
 bk 

gia kˆje k ∈ N. Tìte, ikanopoieÐtai h (2.3.8) kai mporoÔme na efarmìsoume to

Je¸rhma 2.3.3. 2
∞ ∞
Je¸rhma 2.3.5 (isodÔnamh sumperiforˆ).
P P
JewroÔme tic seirèc ak kai bk ,

k=1 k=1
ìpou ak , bk > 0 gia kˆje k∈N . Upojètoume ìti

ak
(2.3.10) lim = ` > 0.
k→∞ bk

∞
P ∞
P
Tìte, h seirˆ bk sugklÐnei an kai mìno an h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei.

k=1 k=1
P∞ P∞
Apìdeixh . An h k=1 bk sugklÐnei, tìte
P∞ h k=1 ak sugklÐnei apì to Je¸rhma 2.3.4.
AntÐstrofa, ac upojèsoume ìti h k=1 ak sugklÐnei. AfoÔ abkk → ` > 0, èqoume
P∞
ak → ` . Enallˆssontac touc rìlouc twn (ak ) kai (bk ), blèpoume ìti h
bk 1
k=1 bk
sugklÐnei, qrhsimopoi¸ntac xanˆ to Je¸rhma 2.3.4. 2

ParadeÐgmata
∞
sin(kx)
(a) Exetˆzoume th sÔgklish thc seirˆc k2 , ìpou x ∈ R. ParathroÔme ìti
P
k=1
 
 sin(kx)  1
(2.3.12)  k2  ≤ k2 .
 

∞
AfoÔ h 1
sugklÐnei, sumperaÐnoume (apì to krit rio sÔgkrishc) ìti h seirˆ
P
k2
k=1
∞
sin(kx)
sugklÐnei apolÔtwc.
P
k2
k=1
∞
(b) Exetˆzoume th sÔgklish thc seirˆc k4 +k2 +3 .
k+1
ParathroÔme ìti an ak =
P
k=1
k+1
k4 +k2 +3 kai bk = k3 ,
1
tìte

ak k4 + k3
(2.3.13) = 4 → 1.
bk k + k2 + 3
 2.3 Genikˆ krit ria · 27

∞
AfoÔ h 1
sugklÐnei, sumperaÐnoume (apì to oriakì krit rio sÔgkrishc) ìti h
P
k3
k=1
∞
k+1
sugklÐnei.
P
k4 +k2 +3
k=1
∞
(g) Tèloc, exetˆzoume th sÔgklish thc seirˆc k2 +2 . 'Opwc sto prohgoÔmeno
k+1
P
k=1
parˆdeigma, an jewr soume tic akoloujÐec 2 +2 kai ak = k , tìte
bk = kk+1 1

ak k2 + 2
(2.3.14) = 2 → 1 > 0.
bk k +k
∞ ∞
Apì to Je¸rhma 2.3.5 èpetai ìti h k+1
èqei thn Ðdia sumperiforˆ me thn k,
1
P P
k2 +2
k=1 k=1
dhlad  apoklÐnei.

2.3gþ Krit rio lìgou kai krit rio rÐzac

∞
Je¸rhma 2.3.6 (Krit rio lìgou - D’ Alembert).
P
'Estw ak mia seirˆ me

k=1
mh mhdenikoÔc ìrouc.

  ∞
(a) lim  aak+1
P
<1 ak
 
An , tìte h sugklÐnei apolÔtwc.
k→∞ k
k=1
  ∞
(b) lim  aak+1
P
>1 ak
 
An , tìte h apoklÐnei.
k→∞ k
k=1
 
. (a) Upojètoume ìti lim  aak+1  = ` < 1. 'Estw x > 0 me ` < x < 1.
 
Apìdeixh
kk→∞
Tìte, upˆrqei N ∈ N ¸ste: | aak+1
k
| ≤ x giˆ kˆje k ≥ N . Dhlad ,

(2.3.15) |aN +1 | ≤ x|aN |, |aN +2 | ≤ x|aN +1 | ≤ x2 |aN | klp.

Epagwgikˆ deÐqnoume ìti

|aN | k
(2.3.16) |ak | ≤ xk−N |aN | = ·x
xN
giˆ kˆje k ≥ N .
∞ ∞
SugkrÐnoume tic seirèc |ak | kai xk . Apì thn (2.3.16) blèpoume ìti
P P
k=N k=N

(2.3.17) |ak | ≤ M · xk
∞
|aN |
gia kˆje k ≥ N , ìpou M = . H seirˆ xk sugklÐnei, diìti proèrqetai apì
P
xN
k=N
∞
thn gewmetrik  seirˆ xk (me apaloif  twn pr¸twn ìrwn thc) kai 0 < x < 1.
P
k=0
∞ ∞
'Ara, h |ak | sugklÐnei. 'Epetai ìti h |ak | sugklÐnei ki aut .
P P
k=N k=1
   
(b) AfoÔ lim  aak+1
 ak+1 
> 1, upˆrqei N ∈ ¸ste  ≥ 1 gia kˆje k ≥ N . Dhlad ,
 
k
 N  ak
k→∞

(2.3.18) |ak | ≥ |ak−1 | ≥ · · · ≥ |aN | > 0

28 · Seirès pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

∞
gia kˆje k ≥ N . Tìte, ak 6→ 0 kai, apì thn Prìtash 2.1.5(a), h ak apoklÐnei.
P
k=1
2
 
. An lim  aak+1  = 1, prèpei na exetˆsoume alli¸c th sÔgklish   apìklish
 
ShmeÐwsh
k→∞ k
∞ ∞   ∞
 ak+1 
thc ak . Parathr ste ìti h 1
apoklÐnei kai ak  = k+1 → 1, en¸ h
k 1
P P P
k  k2
k=1   k=1 k=1
k2
sugklÐnei kai  aak+1 = 2 → 1.
 
(k+1)
k


Parˆdeigma
∞
Exetˆzoume th sÔgklish thc seirˆc k! .
1
'Eqoume
P
k=0
 
 ak+1  k! 1
(2.3.19)  ak  = (k + 1)! = k + 1 → 0 < 1.
 

'Ara, h seirˆ sugklÐnei.

Parat rhsh. H apìdeixh tou Jewr matoc 2.3.6, qwrÐc ousiastik  metatrop , dÐnei

∞
to ex c isqurìtero apotèlesma: 'Estw ak mia seirˆ me mhdenikoÔc ìrouc.
P
k=1
  ∞
(a) An lim sup  aak+1  < 1, tìte h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei apolÔtwc. Prˆgmati, an
  P
k
k→∞ k=1
jewr soume x > 0 me ` < x < 1, tìte apì ton qarakthrismì tou lim sup, upˆrqei
N ∈ N ¸ste  aak+1  ≤ x gia kˆje k ≥ N . SuneqÐzoume thn apìdeixh ìpwc prin.
 
k
  ∞
(b) An lim inf  aak+1 , tìte h seirˆ ak apoklÐnei. Prˆgmati, an jewr soume
P
> 1
 
k

k→∞ k=1
 > 0 me ` > x > 1, tìte apì ton qarakthrismì tou lim inf , upˆrqei N ∈ N ¸ste
x
 ak+1 
 ak  ≥ x > 1 gia kˆje k ≥ N . SuneqÐzoume thn apìdeixh ìpwc prin.
∞
Je¸rhma 2.3.7 (krit rio rÐzac - Cauchy).
P
'Estw ak mia seirˆ pragmatik¸n

k=1
arijm¸n.

(a)
p
An lim k
|ak | < 1, tìte h seirˆ sugklÐnei apolÔtwc.
k→∞
(b)
p
An lim k
|ak | > 1 , tìte h seirˆ apoklÐnei.
k→∞

(a) Epilègoume x > 0 me thn idiìthta lim k |ak | < x < 1. Tìte, upˆrqei
p
Apìdeixh
k→∞
N ∈ N ¸ste k |ak | ≤ x gia kˆje k ≥ N . IsodÔnama,
p

(2.3.21) |ak | ≤ xk
∞ ∞
gia kˆje k ≥ n. SugkrÐnoume tic seirèc |ak | kai xk . AfoÔ x < 1, h deÔterh
P P
k=N k=N
∞ ∞
seirˆ sugklÐnei. 'Ara h |ak | sugklÐnei. 'Epetai ìti h ak sugklÐnei apolÔtwc.
P P
k=N k=1
(b) AfoÔ lim k |ak | > 1, upˆrqei N ∈ N ¸ste k |ak | ≥ 1 gia kˆje k ≥ N .
p p
k→∞
∞
Dhlad , |ak | ≥ 1 telikˆ. 'Ara ak 6→ 0 kai h ak apoklÐnei. 2
P
k=1
 2.3 Genikˆ krit ria · 29

. An lim |ak | = 1, prèpei na exetˆsoume alli¸c th sÔgklish   apìklish

p
k
ShmeÐwsh
k→∞
∞ ∞ ∞
thc ak . Gia tic k, k2 èqoume |ak | → 1. H pr¸th apoklÐnei en¸ h
P P 1
P 1
p
k

k=1 k=1 k=1

deÔterh sugklÐnei.

ParadeÐgmata
∞
xk
(a) Exetˆzoume th sÔgklish thc seirˆc k , ìpou x ∈ R. 'Eqoume
P p
k
|ak | =
k=1
|x|
→ |x|. An |x| < 1, tìte lim k |ak | = |x| < 1 kai h seirˆ sugklÐnei apolÔtwc.
p
√
k
k
p k→∞
An |x| > 1, tote lim k |ak | = |x| > 1 kai h seirˆ apoklÐnei. An |x| = 1, to
k→∞
∞
krit rio rÐzac den dÐnei sumpèrasma. Gia x = 1 paÐrnoume thn armonik  seirˆ 1
P
k
k=1
∞
(−1)k
h opoÐa apoklÐnei. Gia x = −1 paÐrnoume thn {enallˆssousa seirˆ} h
P
k
k=1
opoÐa sugklÐnei. 'Ara, h seirˆ sugklÐnei an kai mìno an −1 ≤ x < 1.
∞
x2k
(b) Exetˆzoume th sÔgklish thc seirˆc k2 , ìpou x ∈ R. 'Eqoume
P p
k
|ak | =
k=1
x2
k 2 → x . 'Ara, lim |ak | = x2 . An |x| > 1 h seirˆ apoklÐnei. An |x| < 1 h
2
pk
√
k k→∞
seirˆ sugklÐnei apolÔtwc. An |x| = 1 to krit rio rÐzac den dÐnei sumpèrasma. Sthn
∞
perÐptwsh x = ±1 h seirˆ paÐrnei th morf  k2 , dhlad  sugklÐnei. 'Ara, h seirˆ
1
P
k=1
sugklÐnei apolÔtwc ìtan |x| ≤ 1.

Parat rhsh. H apìdeixh tou Jewr matoc 2.3.7, qwrÐc ousiastik  metatrop , dÐnei

∞
to ex c isqurìtero apotèlesma: 'Estw ak mia seirˆ me mhdenikoÔc ìrouc.
P
k=1
∞
(a) An lim sup |ak | < 1, tìte h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei apolÔtwc. Prˆgmati, an
p
k
P
k→∞ k=1
jewr soume x > 0 me ` < x < 1, tìte apì ton qarakthrismì tou lim sup, upˆrqei
N ∈ N ¸ste |ak | ≤ xk gia kˆje k ≥ N . SuneqÐzoume thn apìdeixh ìpwc prin.
∞
(b) An lim sup k |ak | > 1, tìte h seirˆ ak apoklÐnei. Prˆgmati, an jewr soume
p P
k→∞ k=1
x > 0 me ` > x > 1, tìte apì ton qarakthrismì tou lim sup, upˆrqoun ˆpeiroi
deÐktec k1 < k2 < · · · < kn < kn+1 < · · · ¸ste |akn | ≥ xkn > 1 gia kˆje n ∈ N.
'Ara, an 6→ 0 kai efarmìzetai to krit rio apìklishc.

2.3dþ To krit rio tou Dirichlet

To krit rio tou Dirichlet exasfalÐzei (merikèc forèc) th sÔgklish miac seirˆc h
opoÐa den sugklÐnei apolÔtwc (sugklÐnei upì sunj kh).

L mma 2.3.8 (ˆjroish katˆ mèrh - Abel). (ak )

'Estw kai (bk ) dÔo akoloujÐec.

OrÐzoume sn = a1 + · · · + an s0 = 0
, . Gia kˆje 1≤m<n , isqÔei h isìthta

n
X n−1
X
(2.3.22) ak bk = sk (bk − bk+1 ) + sn bn − sm−1 bm .
k=m k=m
30 · Seirès pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

Apìdeixh . Grˆfoume
n
X n
X
ak bk = (sk − sk−1 )bk
k=m k=m
Xn n
X
= sk bk − sk−1 bk
k=m k=m
n
X n−1
X
= sk bk − sk bk+1
k=m k=m−1
n−1
X
= sk (bk − bk+1 ) + sn bn − sm−1 bm ,
k=m

pou eÐnai to zhtoÔmeno. 2

Je¸rhma 2.3.9 (krit rio Dirichlet). 'Estw (ak ) kai (bk ) dÔo akoloujÐec me tic

ex c idiìthtec:

(a) H (bk ) èqei jetikoÔc ìrouc kai fjÐnei proc to 0 .

(b) H akoloujÐa twn merik¸n ajroismˆtwn sn = a1 +· · ·+an thc (ak ) eÐnai fragmènh:

upˆrqei M >0 ¸ste

(2.3.23) |sn | ≤ M
∞
P
gia kˆje n∈N . Tìte, h seirˆ ak bk sugklÐnei.

k=1

Apìdeixh. Ja qrhsimopoi soume to krit rio tou Cauchy. 'Estw ε > 0. Qrhsi-

mopoi¸ntac thn upìjesh (a), brÐskoume N ∈ N ¸ste
ε
(2.3.24) > bN ≥ bN +1 ≥ bN +2 ≥ · · · > 0.
2M
'An N ≤ m < n, tìte
   
Xn   n−1 
X
ak bk  =  sk (bk − bk+1 ) + sn bn − sm−1 bm 
  

   
k=m k=m
n−1
X
≤ |sk ||bk − bk+1 | + |sn ||bn | + |sm−1 ||bm |
k=m
n−1
X
≤ M (bk − bk+1 ) + M bn + M bm
k=m
ε
= 2M bm < 2M
2M
= ε.
∞
Apì to krit rio tou Cauchy, h seirˆ ak bk sugklÐnei. 2
P
k=1
 2.3 Genikˆ krit ria · 31

Parˆdeigma (krit rio Leibniz)

∞
k−1
bk , ìpou
P
Seirèc me enallassìmena prìshma (−1) h {bk } fjÐnei proc to 0
.

k=1
Ta merikˆ ajroÐsmata thc ((−1) ) eÐnai fragmèna, afoÔ sn = 0 an o n eÐ-
k−1

nai ˆrtioc kai sn = 1 an o n eÐnai perittìc. 'Ara, kˆje tètoia seirˆ sugklÐnei.
∞
(−1)k−1
Parˆdeigma, h seirˆ .
P
k
k=1

2.3eþ *Dekadik  parˆstash pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

Skopìc mac se aut n thn parˆgrafo eÐnai na deÐxoume ìti kˆje pragmatikìc arijmìc
èqei dekadik  parˆstash: eÐnai dhlad  ˆjroisma seirˆc thc morf c
∞
X ak a1 a2
(2.3.25) = a0 + + + ··· ,
10k 10 102
k=0

ìpou a0 ∈ Z kai ak ∈ {0, 1, . . . , 9} gia kˆje k ≥ 1.

Parathr ste ìti kˆje seirˆ aut c thc morf c sugklÐnei kai orÐzei ènan prag-
∞ ∞
matikì arijmì x = ak
. Prˆgmati, h gewmetrik  seirˆ 1
sugklÐnei kai
P P
10k 10k
k=0 k=0
∞
epeid  0 ≤ ak 9
gia kˆje k ≥ 1, h seirˆ ak
sugklÐnei sÔmfwna me to
P
10k
≤ 10k 10k
k=0
krit rio sÔgkrishc seir¸n.

L mma 2.3.10. An N ≥1 kai ak ∈ {0, 1, . . . , 9} gia kˆje k≥N , tìte

∞
X ak 1
(2.3.26) 0≤ k
≤ N −1 .
10 10
k=N

H arister  anisìthta isqÔei san isìthta an kai mìnon an ak = 0 gia kˆje k≥N ,

en¸ h dexiˆ anisìthta isqÔei san isìthta an kai mìnon an ak = 9 gia kˆje k≥N .

Apìdeixh . 'Eqoume
∞ ∞
X ak X 0
(2.3.27) ≥ = 0.
10k 10k
k=N k=N

∞
An ak = 0 gia kˆje k ≥ N , tìte ak
= 0. AntÐstrofa, an am ≥ 1 gia kˆpoion
P
10k
k=N
m ≥ N , tìte
∞ ∞
X ak am X ak
= +
10k 10 m 10k
k=N k=N
k6=m
∞
1 X 0
≥ +
10m k=N
10 k
k6=m

1
= > 0.
10m
32 · Seirès pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

Apì thn ˆllh pleurˆ,

∞ ∞  
X ak X 9 9 1 1 1
(2.3.28) ≤ = N 1+ + + · · · = N −1 .
10k 10k 10 10 102 10
k=N k=N

An ak = 9 gia kˆje k ≥ N , tìte

∞ ∞
X ak X 9 1
(2.3.29) = = N −1 .
10k 10k 10
k=N k=N

AntÐstrofa, an am ≤ 8 gia kˆpoion m ≥ N , tìte

∞ ∞
X ak am X ak
= +
10k 10m 10k
k=N k=N
k6=m
∞ ∞
8 X 9 9 1 X 9
≤ + = m− m+
10m k=N
10 k 10 10 k=N
10 k
k6=m k6=m
∞
1 X 9
= − m+
10 10k
k=N
1 1
= − m + N −1
10 10
1
< ,
10N −1
ki autì sumplhr¸nei thn apìdeixh tou L mmatoc. 2

L mma 2.3.11. 'Estw n mh arnhtikìc akèraioc kai N ≥0

èstw . Tìte upˆrqoun

akèraioi p0 , p1 , . . . pn ¸ste: pk ∈ {0, 1, . . . , 9} gia 0 ≤ k ≤ N − 1 pN ≥ 0

, kai

(2.3.30) n = 10N pN + 10N −1 pN −1 + · · · + 10p1 + p0 .

Apìdeixh . Diair¸ntac diadoqikˆ me 10 paÐrnoume

n = 10q1 + p0 , ìpou 0 ≤ p0 ≤ 9 kai q1 ≥ 0

q1 = 10q2 + p1 , ìpou 0 ≤ p1 ≤ 9 kai q2 ≥ 0
q2 = 10q3 + p2 , ìpou 0 ≤ p2 ≤ 9 kai q3 ≥ 0
.. ..
. .
qN −1 = 10pN + pN −1 , ìpou 0 ≤ pN −1 ≤ 9 kai qN ≥ 0.

Epagwgikˆ, èqoume:

n = 10q1 + p0 = 102 q2 + 10p1 + p0 = 103 q3 + 102 p2 + 10p1 + p0 = · · ·

= 10N qN + 10N −1 pN −1 + 10p1 + p0 .

Jètontac pN = qN èqoume to zhtoÔmeno. 2

Qrhsimopoi¸ntac ta L mmata 2.3.10 kai 2.3.11 ja deÐxoume ìti kˆje pragmatikìc
arijmìc èqei dekadik  parˆstash.
 2.3 Genikˆ krit ria · 33

Je¸rhma 2.3.12. (a) Kˆje pragmatikìc arijmìc x ≥ 0 grˆfetai san ˆjroisma

{dekadik c seirˆc}:

∞
X ak a1 a2
(2.3.31) x= = a0 + + + ··· ,
10k 10 102
k=0

ìpou a0 ∈ N ∪ {0} kaiak ∈ {0, 1, . . . , 9} gia kˆje k≥1 . Tìte, lème ìti o x èqei th

dekadik  parˆstash x = a0 .a1 a2 a3 · · · .

(b) Oi arijmoÐ thc morf c x = 10mN ìpou m ∈ N kai N ≥ 0 èqoun akrib¸c dÔo

dekadikèc parastˆseic:

(2.3.32) x = a0 .a1 a2 · · · aN 9999 · · · = a0 .a1 a2 · · · aN −1 (aN + 1)000 · · ·

'Oloi oi ˆlloi mh arnhtikoÐ pragmatikoÐ arijmoÐ èqoun monadik  dekadik  parˆstash.

Apìdeixh. (a) 'Estw x ≥ 0. Upˆrqei mh arnhtikìc akèraioc a0 , to akèraio mèroc

tou x, ¸ste:

(2.3.33) a0 ≤ x < a0 + 1.

QwrÐzoume to diˆsthma [a0 , a0 + 1) se 10 Ðsa upodiast mata m kouc 10 .

1
O x an kei
se èna apì autˆ. 'Ara, upˆrqei a1 ∈ {0, 1, . . . , 9} ¸ste
a1 a1 + 1
(2.3.34) a0 + ≤ x < a0 + .
10 10
QwrÐzoume to nèo autì diˆsthma (pou èqei m koc 101
) se 10 Ðsa upodiast mata m kouc
1
10 2 . O x an kei se èna apì autˆ, ˆra upˆrqei a2 ∈ {0, 1, . . . , 9} ¸ste

a1 a2 a1 a2 + 1
(2.3.35) a0 + + ≤ x < a0 + + .
10 102 10 102
SuneqÐzontac epagwgikˆ, gia kˆje k ≥ 1 brÐskoume ak ∈ {0, 1, . . . , 9} ¸ste
a1 ak a1 ak + 1
(2.3.36) a0 + + · · · + k ≤ x < a0 + + ··· + .
10 10 10 10k
∞
Apì thn kataskeu , ta merikˆ ajroÐsmata sn thc seirˆc ak
h opoÐa dhmiourgeÐ-
P
10k
k=0
tai, ikanopoioÔn thn sn ≤ x < sn + 10n .
1
'Ara,

1
(2.3.37) 0 ≤ x − sn < .
10n
'Epetai ìti sn → x, dhlad 
∞
X ak
(2.3.38) x= .
10k
k=0

(b) Ac upojèsoume ìti kˆpoioc x ≥ 0 èqei toulˆqiston dÔo diaforetikèc dekadikèc

parastˆseic. Dhlad ,

(2.3.39) x = a0 .a1 a2 · · · = b0 .b1 b2 · · · ,

34 · Seirès pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

ìpou a0 , b0 ∈ N ∪ {0}, ak , bk ∈ {0, 1, . . . , 9} gia kˆje k ≥ 1, kai upˆrqei m ≥ 0 me

thn idiìthta am 6= bm .
'Estw N ≥ 0 o elˆqistoc m gia ton opoÐo am 6= bm . Dhlad ,

(2.3.40) a0 = b0 , a1 = b1 , . . . , aN −1 = bN −1 , aN 6= bN .

QwrÐc periorismì thc genikìthtac upojètoume ìti aN < bN . Apì thn

∞ ∞
X ak X bk
(2.3.41) k
=
10 10k
k=N k=N

kai apì to L mma 2.3.10 èpetai ìti

1 bN − aN
≤
10N 10N
∞ ∞
X ak X bk
= −
10k 10k
k=N +1 k=N +1
1
≤ −0
10N
1
= .
10N
'Ara, ìlec oi anisìthtec eÐnai isìthtec. Dhlad ,

(2.3.42) bN − aN = 1

kai
∞ ∞
X ak 1 X bk
(2.3.43) = N, = 0.
10k 10 10k
k=N +1 k=N +1

Apì to L mma 2.3.10,

bN = aN + 1,
ak = 9, an k ≥ N + 1,
bk = 0, an k ≥ N + 1.
'Ara, an o x èqei perissìterec apì mÐa dekadikèc parastˆseic, tìte èqei akrib¸c dÔo
parastˆseic, tic akìloujec:

(2.3.44) x = a0 .a1 a2 · · · aN 999 · · · = a0 .a1 a2 · · · aN −1 (aN + 1) 00 · · ·

Tìte, o x isoÔtai me

a1 a2 aN −1 aN + 1
x = a0 + + + · · · + N −1 +
10 102 10 10N
N N −1
10 a0 + 10 a1 + · · · + 10aN −1 + aN + 1
=
10N
m
=
10N
gia kˆpoiouc m ∈ N kai N ≥ 0.
 2.4 Dunamoseirès · 35

AntÐstrofa, èstw ìti x = m

10N
, ìpou m ∈ N kai N ≥ 0. Apì to L mma 2.3.11
mporoÔme na grˆyoume

(2.3.45) m = 10N pN + 10N −1 pN −1 + · · · + 10p1 + p0 ,

ìpou pN ∈ N ∪ {0} kai pk ∈ {0, 1, . . . , 9} gia 0 ≤ k ≤ N − 1. An pm eÐnai o pr¸toc

mh mhdenikìc ìroc thc akoloujÐac p0 , p1 , . . . , pN −1 , pN , tìte

10N pN + · · · + 10m pm
x =
10N
pN −1 pm
= pN + + · · · + N −m
10 10
= pN .pN −1 · · · pm 000 · · · = pN .pN −1 · · · (pm − 1) 99 · · · .

Autì oloklhr¸nei thn apìdeixh tou (b). 2

2.4 Dunamoseirèc
Orismìc 2.4.1. 'Estw (ak ) mia akoloujÐa pragmatik¸n arijm¸n. H seirˆ
∞
X
(2.4.1) ak xk
k=0

lègetai dunamoseirˆ me suntelestèc ak .

O x eÐnai mia parˆmetroc apì to R. To prìblhma pou ja suzht soume ed¸

eÐnai: gia dojeÐsa akoloujÐa suntelest¸n (ak ) na brejoÔn oi timèc tou x gia tic
opoÐec h antÐstoiqh dunamoseirˆ sugklÐnei. Gia kˆje tètoio x lème ìti h dunamoseirˆ

sugklÐnei sto x.
∞
Prìtash 2.4.2. ak xk
P
'Estw mia dunamoseirˆ me suntelestèc ak .

k=0
(a) An h dunamoseirˆ sugklÐnei sto y 6= 0 kai an |x| < |y| , tìte h dunamoseirˆ

sugklÐnei apolÔtwc sto x.

(b) An h dunamoseirˆ apoklÐnei sto y kai an |x| > |y| , tìte h dunamoseirˆ apoklÐnei

sto x.

∞
. (a) AfoÔ h ak y k sugklÐnei, èqoume ak y k → 0. 'Ara, upˆrqei N ∈ N
P
Apìdeixh

k=0
¸ste

(2.4.2) |ak y k | ≤ 1 gia kˆje k ≥ N.

'Estw x ∈ R me |x| < |y|. Gia kˆje k ≥ N èqoume

 k  k
k
xk
x
(2.4.3) |ak x | = |ak y | ·   ≤   .
y y
∞  k  
H gewmetrik  seirˆ  y  sugklÐnei, diìti  xy  < 1. Apì to krit rio sÔgkrishc
P x  
k=N
èpetai to sumpèrasma.
36 · Seirès pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

(b) An h dunamoseirˆ sunèkline sto x, apì to (a) ja sunèkline apolÔtwc sto y ,

ˆtopo. 2
∞
'Estw ak xk mia dunamoseirˆ me suntelestèc ak . Me bˆsh thn Prìtash 2.4.2
P
k=0
mporoÔme na deÐxoume ìti to sÔnolo twn shmeÐwn sta opoÐa sugklÐnei h dunamoseirˆ
eÐnai {ousiastikˆ} èna diˆsthma summetrikì wc proc to 0 ( , endeqomènwc, to {0}  
to R). Autì faÐnetai wc ex c: orÐzoume

(2.4.4) R := sup{|x| : h dunamoseirˆ sugklÐnei sto x}.

To sÔnolo sto dexiì mèloc eÐnai mh kenì, afoÔ h dunamoseirˆ sugklÐnei sto 0. H
Prìtash 2.4.2 deÐqnei ìti an |x| < R tìte h dunamoseirˆ sugklÐnei apolÔtwc sto x.
Prˆgmati, apì ton orismì tou R upˆrqei y me R ≥ |y| > |x| ¸ste h dunamoseirˆ
na sugklÐnei sto y , opìte efarmìzetai h Prìtash 2.4.2(a) sto x. Apì ton orismì
tou R eÐnai fanerì ìti an |x| > R tìte h dunamoseirˆ apoklÐnei sto x. 'Ara, h
dunamoseirˆ sugklÐnei se kˆje x ∈ (−R, R) kai apoklÐnei se kˆje x me |x| > R.
To diˆsthma (−R, R) onomˆzetai thc dunamoseirˆc. H
diˆsthma sÔgklishc

suz thsh pou kˆname deÐqnei ìti to thc dunamoseirˆc, dhlad 

sÔnolo sÔgklishc

to sÔnolo ìlwn twn shmeÐwn sta opoÐa sugklÐnei, prokÔptei apì to (−R, R) me thn
prosj kh (Ðswc) tou R   tou −R   twn ±R. Sthn perÐptwsh pou R = +∞, h
dunamoseirˆ sugklÐnei se kˆje x ∈ R. Sthn perÐptwsh pou R = 0, h dunamoseirˆ
sugklÐnei mìno sto shmeÐo x = 0.
To prìblhma eÐnai loipìn t¸ra to ex c: p¸c mporoÔme na prosdiorÐsoume thn ak-

tÐna sÔgklishc miac dunamoseirˆc sunart sei twn suntelest¸n thc. Mia apˆnthsh
mac dÐnei to krit rio thc rÐzac gia th sÔgklish seir¸n.
∞
Je¸rhma 2.4.3. ak xk
P
'Estw mia dunamoseirˆ me suntelestèc ak . Upojètoume

p k=0
1 1
ìti upˆrqei to lim k |ak | = a kai jètoume R= a me th sÔmbash ìti
0 = +∞ kai
k→∞
1
+∞ =0 .

(a) x ∈ (−R, R)
An h dunamoseirˆ sugklÐnei apolÔtwc sto x.

(b) x∈/ [−R, R]

An h dunamoseirˆ apoklÐnei sto x.

Apìdeixh . Efarmìzoume to krit rio thc rÐzac gia th sÔgklish seir¸n. Exetˆzoume

mìno thn perÐptwsh 0 < a < +∞ (oi peript¸seic a = 0 kai a = +∞ af nontai san
ˆskhsh).
(a) An |x| < R tìte

|x|
q p
(2.4.5) lim k |ak xk | = |x| lim k |ak | = |x|a = < 1.
k→∞ k→∞ R
∞
Apì to krit rio thc rÐzac, h ak xk sugklÐnei apolÔtwc.
P
k=0
(b) An |x| > R tìte

|x|
q
k
(2.4.6) lim |ak xk | = > 1.
k→∞ R
∞
Apì to krit rio thc rÐzac, h ak xk apoklÐnei. 2
P
k=0
 2.5 Ask seis · 37

Parat rhsh 2.4.4. To Je¸rhma 2.4.3 den mac epitrèpei na sumperˆnoume amèswc

tic sumbaÐnei sta {ˆkra ±R tou diast matoc sÔgklishc}. 'Opwc deÐqnoun ta epìmena
paradeÐgmata, mporeÐ h dunamoseirˆ na sugklÐnei se èna, se kanèna   kai sta dÔo
ˆkra.
∞
1. Gia thn xk elègqoume ìti R = 1. Gia x = ±1 èqoume tic seirèc
P
k=0

∞
X ∞
X
1k kai (−1)k
k=0 k=0

oi opoÐec apoklÐnoun.
∞
xk
2. Gia thn (k+1)2 elègqoume ìti R = 1. Gia x = ±1 èqoume tic seirèc
P
k=0

∞ ∞
X 1 X (−1)k
kai
(k + 1)2 (k + 1)2
k=0 k=0

oi opoÐec sugklÐnoun.
∞
xk
3. Gia thn k+1 elègqoume ìti R = 1. Gia x = ±1 èqoume tic seirèc
P
k=0

∞ ∞
X 1 X (−1)k
kai .
k+1 k+1
k=0 k=0

H pr¸th apoklÐnei, en¸ h deÔterh sugklÐnei.

AntÐstoiqo apotèlesma prokÔptei an qrhsimopoi soume to krit rio tou lìgou
sth jèsh tou krithrÐou thc rÐzac.
∞
Je¸rhma 2.4.5. ak xk mia dunamoseirˆ me suntelestèc
P
'Estw ak 6= 0 . Upojè-

k=0
 
lim  aak+1  = a kai jètoume R = a1 .
 
toume ìti upˆrqei to
k→∞ k

(a) An x ∈ (−R, R) h dunamoseirˆ sugklÐnei apolÔtwc sto x

.

(b) An x∈/ [−R, R] h dunamoseirˆ apoklÐnei sto x.

Apìdeixh . Efarmìste to krit rio tou lìgou gia th sÔgklish seir¸n. 2

2.5 Ask seic
A' Omˆda. Erwt seic katanìhshc

'Estw (ak ) mia akoloujÐa pragmatik¸n arijm¸n. Exetˆste an oi parakˆtw protˆseic

eÐnai alhjeÐc   yeudeÐc (aitiolog ste pl rwc thn apˆnthsh sac).

1. An ak → 0 tìte h akoloujÐa sn = a1 + · · · + an eÐnai fragmènh.

∞
2. An h akoloujÐa sn = a1 + · · · + an eÐnai fragmènh tìte h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei.
P
k=1
38 · Seirès pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

∞
3. An |ak | → 0, tìte h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei apolÔtwc.
P
k=1

∞ ∞
4. An h seirˆ |ak | sugklÐnei, tìte h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei.
P P
k=1 k=1

5. An ak > 0 gia kˆje k ∈ N kai an 0 < ak+1

ak < 1 gia kˆje k ∈ N, tìte h seirˆ
∞
ak sugklÐnei.
P
k=1

∞
6. An ak > 0 gia kˆje k ∈ N kai an lim ak+1
= 1, tìte h seirˆ ak apoklÐnei.
P
k→∞ ak k=1

∞
7. An ak > 0 gia kˆje k ∈ N kai an ak+1
→ +∞, tìte h h seirˆ ak apoklÐnei.
P
ak
k=1

∞
8. An ak → 0, tìte h seirˆ (−1)k ak sugklÐnei.
P
k=1

∞ ∞ √
9. An ak > 0 gia kˆje k ∈ N kai an h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei, tìte h seirˆ
P P
ak
k=1 k=1
sugklÐnei.

∞ ∞
10. An h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei, tìte h seirˆ a2k sugklÐnei.
P P
k=1 k=1

∞
11. An h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei kai an (akn ) eÐnai mia upakoloujÐa thc (an ), tìte h
P
k=1
∞
seirˆ akn sugklÐnei.
P
k=1

∞ ∞
12. An ak > 0 gia kˆje k ∈ N kai an h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei, tìte h seirˆ a2k
P P
k=1 k=1
sugklÐnei.

∞
13. H seirˆ 2·4·6···(2k)
sugklÐnei.
P
k!
k=1

14. H seirˆ
P∞
k=1 k(1 + k 2 )p sugklÐnei an kai mìno an p < −1.

B' Omˆda
∞
15. DeÐxte ìti an lim bk = b tìte (bk − bk+1 ) = b1 − b.
P
k→∞ k=1

16. DeÐxte ìti

∞ ∞ ∞ √ √
2k +3k
(a) 1 1
(b) 3
(g) k+1− k
= 1.
P P P
(2k−1)(2k+1) = 2 6k
= 2
√
2
k +k
k=1 k=1 k=1
 2.5 Ask seis · 39

∞
17. UpologÐste to ˆjroisma thc seirˆc k(k+1)(k+2) .
1
P
k=1

∞
18. Exetˆste gia poièc timèc tou pragmatikoÔ arijmoÔ x sugklÐnei h seirˆ 1
.
P
1+xk
k=1

19. Efarmìste ta krit ria lìgou kai rÐzac stic akìloujec seirèc:

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
xk xk
(a) k k xk (b) (g) (d) k 3 xk
P P P P
k! k2
k=1 k=0 k=1 k=0
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
2k k 2k xk k3 k k10 xk
(e) (st) (z) (h) k! .
P P P P
k! x k2 3k
x
k=0 k=1 k=0 k=1

An gia kˆpoiec timèc tou x ∈ R kanèna apì autˆ ta dÔo krit ria den dÐnei apˆnthsh,
exetˆste th sÔgklish   apìklish thc seirˆc me ˆllo trìpo.

20. Exetˆste an sugklÐnoun   apoklÐnoun oi seirèc

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + 2 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 4 + ···
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
kai
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+1+ + + + + + + ··· .
2 8 4 32 16 128 64

21. Na brejeÐ ikan  kai anagkaÐa sunj kh gia thn akoloujÐa (an ) ¸ste na
sugklÐnei h seirˆ
a1 − a1 + a2 − a2 + a3 − a3 + · · · .

∞
22. Exetˆste an sugklÐnei   apoklÐnei h seirˆ ak stic parakˆtw peript¸seic:
P
n=1
√ √ √
(a) ak = k+1− k (b) ak = 1 + k 2 − k
√ √ √
(g) ak = k+1− k
k (d) ak = ( k k − 1)k .

23. Exetˆste an sugklÐnoun   apoklÐnoun oi seirèc

∞ √ ∞ √ ∞ ∞
X k+ k X k
X cos2 k X k!
, ( k − 1), , .
2k 3 − 1 k2 kk
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1

24. Exetˆste wc proc th sÔgklish tic parakˆtw seirèc. 'Opou emfanÐzontai oi

parˆmetroi p, q, x ∈ R na brejoÔn oi timèc touc gia tic opoÐec oi antÐstoiqec seirèc
sugklÐnoun.
∞
−k2 ∞ ∞
(a) 1 + k1 (b) pk k p (0 < p) (g) 1
P P P
kp −kq (0 < q < p)
k=1 k=1 k=2
∞ ∞ ∞
2+(−1)k
(d) 1
(e) 1
(st)
P P P
1 pk −q k
(0 < q < p) 2k
k=1 k1+ k k=1 k=1
∞   ∞ √ √ √ 
(z) kp √1 √1 (h) kp k−1 .
P P
k
− k+1
k+1−2 k+
k=1 k=1
40 · Seirès pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

∞
25. 'Estw ìti ak ≥ 0 gia kˆje k ∈ N. DeÐxte ìti h seirˆ ak
sugklÐnei.
P
1+k2 ak
k=1

26. OrÐzoume mia akoloujÐa (ak ) wc ex c: an o k eÐnai tetrˆgwno fusikoÔ arijmoÔ
jètoume ak = k1 kai an o k den eÐnai tetrˆgwno fusikoÔ arijmoÔ jètoume ak = k12 .
∞
Exetˆste an sugklÐnei h seirˆ ak .
P
k=1

∞
27. Exetˆste an sugklÐnei   apoklÐnei h seirˆ (−1)k k1p , ìpou p ∈ R.
P
k=1

28. 'Estw {ak } fjÐnousa akoloujÐa pou sugklÐnei sto 0. OrÐzoume

∞
X
s= (−1)k−1 ak .
k=1

DeÐxte ìti 0 ≤ (−1)n (s − sn ) ≤ an+1 .

∞
29. 'Estw (ak ) fjÐnousa akoloujÐa jetik¸n arijm¸n. DeÐxte ìti: an h
P
ak
k=1
sugklÐnei tìte kak → 0.
∞
30. 'Estw ìti ak > 0 gia kˆje k ∈ N. An h ak sugklÐnei, deÐxte ìti oi
P
k=1

∞ ∞ ∞
X X ak X a2k
a2k , ,
1 + ak 1 + a2k
k=1 k=1 k=1

sugklÐnoun epÐshc.
∞
31. Upojètoume ìti ak ≥ 0 gia kˆje k ∈ N kai ìti h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei. DeÐxte
P
k=1
∞ √
ìti h seirˆ ak ak+1 sugklÐnei. DeÐxte ìti, an h {ak } eÐnai fjÐnousa, tìte isqÔei
P
k=1
kai to antÐstrofo.
∞
32. Upojètoume ìti ak ≥ 0 gia kˆje k ∈ N kai ìti h seirˆ ak sugklÐnei. DeÐxte
P
k=1
∞ √
ak
ìti h seirˆ sugklÐnei.
P
k
k=1

∞
33. Upojètoume ìti ak ≥ 0 gia kˆje k ∈ N kai ìti h seirˆ ak apoklÐnei. DeÐxte
P
k=1
ìti
∞
X ak
= 1.
(1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) · · · (1 + ak )
k=1
 2.5 Ask seis · 41

G' Omˆda

34. 'Estw (ak ) fjÐnousa akoloujÐa jetik¸n arijm¸n me ak → 0. DeÐxte ìti: an h

∞
ak apoklÐnei tìte
P
k=1
∞  
X 1
min ak , = +∞.
k
k=1

∞
35. Upojètoume ìti ak > 0 gia kˆje k ∈ N kai ìti h ak apoklÐnei. Jètoume
P
k=1
sn = a1 + a2 + · · · + an .
∞
(a) DeÐxte ìti h ak
apoklÐnei.
P
1+ak
k=1

(b) DeÐxte ìti: gia 1 ≤ m < n,

am+1 an sm
+ ··· + ≥1−
sm+1 sn sn
∞
kai sumperˆnate ìti h ak
apoklÐnei.
P
sk
k=1
∞
(g) DeÐxte ìti an 1 1
kai sumperˆnate ìti h ak
sugklÐnei.
P
s2n ≤ sn−1 − sn s2k
k=1

∞
36. Upojètoume ìti ak > 0 gia kˆje k ∈ N kai ìti h ak sugklÐnei. Jètoume
P
k=1
∞
ak .
P
rn =
k=n

(a) DeÐxte ìti: gia 1 ≤ m < n,

am an rn+1
+ ··· + ≥1−
rm rn rm
∞
kai sumperˆnate ìti h ak
apoklÐnei.
P
rk
k=1

√ √ ∞
(b) DeÐxte ìti an
rn+1 kai sumperˆnate ìti h ak
sugklÐnei.

P
√
rn <2 rn − √
rk
k=1

∞
37. 'Estw (ak ) akoloujÐa pragmatik¸n arijm¸n. DeÐxte ìti an h seirˆ
P
ak
k=1
∞
apoklÐnei tìte kai h seirˆ kak apoklÐnei.
P
k=1

38. 'Estw (ak ) akoloujÐa jetik¸n pragmatik¸n arijm¸n. DeÐxte ìti an h seirˆ
∞ ∞ k
ak sugklÐnei, tìte kai h akk+1 sugklÐnei.
P P
k=1 k=1
42 · Seirès pragmatik¸n arijm¸n

39. 'Estw (ak ) h akoloujÐa pou orÐzetai apì tic

1 1
a2k−1 = kai a2k = .
k 2k
∞
Exetˆste an h seirˆ (−1)k−1 ak sugklÐnei.
P
k=1

40. Upojètoume ìti ak ≥ 0 gia kˆje k ∈ N. OrÐzoume

2k
1 X
bk = am .
k
m=k+1

∞ ∞
DeÐxte ìti h ak sugklÐnei an kai mìno an h bk sugklÐnei. [ An sn
P P
Upìdeixh:

k=1 k=1
kai tn eÐnai ta merikˆ ajroÐsmata twn dÔo seir¸n, dokimˆste na sugkrÐnete ta s2n
kai tn .]

41. 'Estw (ak ) akoloujÐa jetik¸n pragmatik¸n arijm¸n. JewroÔme thn akoloujÐa
a1 + 2a2 + · · · + kak
bk = .
k(k + 1)
∞ ∞
DeÐxte ìti: an h ak sugklÐnei, tìte h seirˆ bk sugklÐnei kai ta ajroÐsmata
P P
k=1 k=1
twn dÔo seir¸n eÐnai Ðsa.
∞
42. 'Estw (ak ) akoloujÐa jetik¸n arijm¸n ¸ste ak = +∞ kai ak → 0. DeÐxte
P
k=1
ìti an 0 ≤ α < β tìte upˆrqoun fusikoÐ m ≤ n ¸ste
n
X
α< ak < β.
k=m

43. DeÐxte ìti an 0 ≤ α < β tìte upˆrqoun fusikoÐ m ≤ n ¸ste

1 1 1
α< + + · · · + < β.
m m+1 n
Kefˆlaio 3

Omoiìmorfh sunèqeia
3.1 Omoiìmorfh sunèqeia
Prin d¸soume ton orismì thc omoiìmorfhc sunèqeiac, ja exetˆsoume pio pros-
ektikˆ dÔo aplˆ paradeÐgmata suneq¸n sunart sewn.
(a) JewroÔme th sunˆrthsh f (x) = x, x ∈ R. GnwrÐzoume ìti h f eÐnai suneq c
sto R, kˆti pou eÔkola epibebai¸noume austhrˆ qrhsimopoi¸ntac ton orismì thc
sunèqeiac:
'Estw x0 ∈ R kai èstw ε > 0. Zhtˆme δ > 0 ¸ste

(3.1.1) |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (x0 )| < ε, dhlad  |x − x0 | < ε.

H epilog  tou δ eÐnai profan c: arkeÐ na pˆroume δ = ε. Parathr ste ìti to δ pou

br kame exartˆtai mìno apì to ε pou dìjhke kai ìqi apì to sugkekrimèno shmeÐo
x0 . H sunˆrthsh f metabˆlletai me ton {Ðdio rujmì} se olìklhro to pedÐo orismoÔ
thc: an x, y ∈ R kai |x − y| < ε, tìte |f (x) − f (y)| < ε.
(b) JewroÔme t¸ra th sunˆrthsh g(x) = x2 , x ∈ R. EÐnai pˆli gnwstì ìti h g
eÐnai suneq c sto R (afoÔ g = f · f ). An jel soume na to epibebai¸soume me ton
eyilontikì orismì, jewroÔme x0 ∈ R kai ε > 0, kai zhtˆme δ > 0 me thn idiìthta

(3.1.2) |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |x2 − x20 | < ε.

'Enac trìpoc gia na epilèxoume katˆllhlo δ eÐnai o ex c. SumfwnoÔme apì thn arq 
ìti ja pˆroume 0 < δ ≤ 1, opìte

|x2 − x20 | = |x − x0 | · |x + x0 | ≤ (|x| + |x0 |) · |x − x0 |

≤ (2|x0 | + 1)|x − x0 |.

An loipìn epilèxoume
 
ε
(3.1.3) δ = min 1, ,
2|x0 | + 1
tìte

(3.1.4) |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |x2 − x20 | < (2|x0 | + 1)δ ≤ ε.

44 · Omoiìmorfh sunèqeia

'Ara, h g eÐnai suneq c sto x0 . Parathr ste ìmwc ìti to δ pou epilèxame den
exartˆtai mìno apì to ε pou mac dìjhke, allˆ kai apì to shmeÐo x0 sto opoÐo
elègqoume thn sunèqeia thc g . H epilog  pou kˆname sthn (3.1.3) deÐqnei ìti ìso
pio makriˆ brÐsketai to x0 apì to 0, tìso pio mikrì prèpei na epilèxoume to δ .
Ja mporoÔse bèbaia na pei kaneÐc ìti Ðswc upˆrqei kalÔteroc trìpoc epilog c
tou δ , akìma kai anexˆrthtoc apì to shmeÐo x0 . Ac doÔme to Ðdio prìblhma me
ènan deÔtero trìpo. JewroÔme x0 > 0 kai ε > 0. MporoÔme na upojèsoume
ìti ε < x20 , afoÔ ta mikrˆ ε eÐnai autˆ pou parousiˆzoun endiafèron. MporoÔme
epÐshc na koitˆme mìno x > 0, afoÔ mac endiafèrei ti gÐnetai kontˆ sto x0 to
opoÐo èqei upotejeÐ jetikì. H anisìthta |x2 − x20 | < ε ikanopoieÐtai an kai mìno an
x20 − ε < x2 < x20 + ε, dhlad  an kai mìno an
q q
(3.1.5) x20 − ε < x < x20 + ε.

IsodÔnama, an
 q  q
(3.1.6) − x0 − x20 − ε < x − x0 < x20 + ε − x0 .

Autì sumbaÐnei an kai mìno an

 q q 
|x − x0 | < min x0 − x20 − ε, x20 + ε − x0
( )
ε ε
= min p 2 ,p 2
x0 − ε + x0 x0 + ε + x0
ε
= p 2 .
x0 + ε + x0

Upojèsame ìti x20 > ε. 'Ara,

ε x20 x20
(3.1.7) p <p < = x0 .
x20 + ε + x0 x20 + ε + x0 x0

An loipìn |x − x0 | < √ ε
, tìte |x − x0 | < x0 ⇒ x > 0 kai o prohgoÔmenoc
x20 +ε+x0
upologismìc deÐqnei ìti |x2 − x20 | < ε. Dhlad , an 0 < ε < x20 tìte h kalÔterh
epilog  tou δ sto shmeÐo x0 eÐnai
ε
(3.1.8) δ = δ(ε, x0 ) = p .
x20 + ε + x0

Den mporoÔme na exasfalÐsoume thn (3.1.2) an epilèxoume megalÔtero δ .

An ta prohgoÔmena dÔo epiqeir mata den eÐnai apolÔtwc peistikˆ, dÐnoume ki èna
trÐto.
Isqurismìc. JewroÔme thn g(x) = x2 , x ∈ R. 'Estw ε > 0. Den upˆrqei δ > 0 me
thn idiìthta: an x, y ∈ R kai |y − x| < δ tìte |g(y) − g(x)| < ε.
Parathr ste ìti o isqurismìc eÐnai isodÔnamoc me to ex c: gia dojèn ε > 0 den
upˆrqei kˆpoia omoiìmorfh tou δ pou na mac epitrèpei na elègqoume thn
epilog 

(3.1.2) sekˆje x0 ∈ R.
 3.1 Omoiìmorfh sunèqeia · 45

Apìdeixh tou . Ac upojèsoume ìti upˆrqei δ > 0 ¸ste:

isqurismoÔ an x,y ∈ R kai
|y −x| < δ tìte |g(y)−g(x)| < ε. AfoÔ gia kˆje x ∈ R èqoume x + 2δ − x = 2δ < δ ,


prèpei, gia kˆje x ∈ R na isqÔei h

 2 
 δ 
2
(3.1.9)  x+ − x  < ε.

 2 

Eidikìtera, gia kˆje x > 0 prèpei na isqÔei h

 2 
δ2  δ 
2
(3.1.10) δx < δx + = x+ − x  < ε.

4  2 

'Omwc tìte, gia kˆje x > 0 ja eÐqame

ε
(3.1.11) x< .
δ
Autì eÐnai ˆtopo: to R ja  tan ˆnw fragmèno. 2
Ta paradeÐgmata pou d¸same deÐqnoun mia {parˆleiy } mac ston orismì thc
sunèqeiac. 'Enac pio prosektikìc orismìc ja  tan o ex c:

H f : A → R eÐnai suneq c sto x0 ∈ A an gia kˆje ε > 0 upˆrqei

δ(ε, x0 ) > 0 ¸ste: an x ∈ A kai |x − x0 | < δ , tìte |f (x) − f (x0 )| < ε.

O sumbolismìc δ(ε, x0 ) ja èdeiqne ìti to δ exartˆtai tìso apì to ε ìso kai apì to
shmeÐo x0 . Oi sunart seic (ìpwc h f (x) = x) pou mac epitrèpoun na epilègoume to
δ anexˆrthta apì to x0 lègontai :
omoiìmorfa suneqeÐc

Orismìc 3.1.1. 'Estw f : A → R mia sunˆrthsh. Lème ìti h f eÐnai omoiìmorfa

suneq c sto A an gia kˆje ε > 0 mporoÔme na broÔme δ = δ(ε) > 0 ¸ste
(3.1.12) an x, y ∈ A kai |x − y| < δ tìte |f (x) − f (y)| < ε.

ParadeÐgmata
(a) H f (x) = x eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto R.
(b) H g(x) = x2 den eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto R.
(g) JewroÔme th sunˆrthsh g(x) = x2 tou (b), periorismènh ìmwc sto kleistì
diˆsthma [−M, M ], ìpou M > 0. Tìte, gia kˆje x, y ∈ [−M, M ] èqoume

(3.1.13) |g(y) − g(x)| = |y 2 − x2 | = |x + y| · |y − x| ≤ 2M · |y − x|.

DÐnetai ε > 0. An epilèxoume δ(ε) = ε

2M tìte h (3.1.13) deÐqnei ìti an x, y ∈
[−M, M ] kai |x − y| < δ èqoume

(3.1.14) |g(y) − g(x)| ≤ 2M · |y − x| < 2M δ = ε.

Dhlad , h g eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto [−M, M ].

To parˆdeigma (g) odhgeÐ ston ex c orismì.
Orismìc 3.1.2. 'Estw f : A → R mia sunˆrthsh. Lème ìti h f eÐnai Lipschitz
suneq c an upˆrqei M > 0 ¸ste: gia kˆje x, y ∈ A

(3.1.15) |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ M |x − y|.

46 · Omoiìmorfh sunèqeia

Prìtash 3.1.3. Kˆje Lipschitz suneq c sunˆrthsh eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c.

Apìdeixh . 'Estw f : A → R kai M > 0 ¸ste |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ M |x − y| gia kˆje

x, y ∈ A. An mac d¸soun ε > 0, epilègoume δ = Mε
. Tìte, gia kˆje x, y ∈ A me
|x − y| < δ èqoume

(3.1.16) |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ M |x − y| < M δ = ε.

'Epetai ìti h f eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto A. 2

H epìmenh Prìtash mac dÐnei èna qr simo krit rio gia na exasfalÐzoume ìti mia
sunˆrthsh eÐnai Lipschitz suneq c (ˆra, omoiìmorfa suneq c).

Prìtash 3.1.4. 'Estw I èna diˆsthma kai èstw f :I→R paragwgÐsimh sunˆrthsh.

Upojètoume ìti h f0 eÐnai fragmènh: upˆrqei stajerˆ M >0 ¸ste: |f 0 (x)| ≤ Mgia

kˆje eswterikì shmeÐo x tou I . Tìte, h f eÐnai Lipschitz suneq c me stajerˆ M .

Apìdeixh . 'Estw x < y sto I . Apì to je¸rhma mèshc tim c upˆrqei ξ ∈ (x, y) ¸ste

(3.1.17) f (y) − f (x) = f 0 (ξ)(y − x).

Tìte,

(3.1.18) |f (y) − f (x)| = |f 0 (ξ)| · |y − x| ≤ M |y − x|.

SÔmfwna me ton Orismì 3.1.2, h f eÐnai Lipschitz suneq c me stajerˆ M . 2

Apì th suz thsh pou prohg jhke tou orismoÔ thc omoiìmorfhc sunèqeiac, eÐnai
logikì na perimènoume ìti oi omoiìmorfa suneqeÐc sunart seic eÐnai suneqeÐc. Autì
apodeiknÔetai me apl  sÔgkrish twn dÔo orism¸n:

Prìtash 3.1.5. An h f :A→R eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c, tìte eÐnai suneq c.

Apìdeixh . Prˆgmati: èstw x0 ∈ A kai ε > 0. Apì ton orismì thc omoiìmorfhc
sunèqeiac, upˆrqei δ > 0 ¸ste an x, y ∈ A kai |x − y| < δ tìte |f (x) − f (y)| < ε.
Epilègoume autì to δ . An x ∈ A kai |x − x0 | < δ , tìte |f (x) − f (x0 )| < ε (pˆrte
y = x0 ). AfoÔ to ε > 0  tan tuqìn, h f eÐnai suneq c sto x0 . 2

3.2 Qarakthrismìc thc omoiìmorfhc sunèqeiac mèsw akolou-

ji¸n
JumhjeÐte ton qarakthrismì thc sunèqeiac mèsw akolouji¸n: an f : A → R, tìte
h f eÐnai suneq c sto x0 ∈ A an kai mìno an gia kˆje akoloujÐa (xn ) me xn ∈ A
kai xn → x0 , isqÔei f (xn ) → f (x0 ).
O antÐstoiqoc qarakthrismìc thc omoiìmorfhc sunèqeiac èqei wc ex c:

Je¸rhma 3.2.1. 'Estw f :A→R mia sunˆrthsh. H f eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c

sto A an kai mìno an gia kˆje zeugˆri akolouji¸n (xn ) (yn )

, sto A me xn − yn → 0
isqÔei

(3.2.1) f (xn ) − f (yn ) → 0.

3.2 Qarakthrismìs ths omoiìmorfhs sunèqeias mèsw akolouji¸n · 47

Apìdeixh . Upojètoume pr¸ta ìti h f eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto A. 'Estw (xn ),
(yn ) dÔo akoloujÐec sto A me xn − yn → 0. Ja deÐxoume ìti f (xn ) − f (yn ) → 0:
'Estw ε > 0. Apì ton orismì thc omoiìmorfhc sunèqeiac, upˆrqei δ > 0 ¸ste

(3.2.2) an x, y ∈ A kai |x − y| < δ tìte |f (x) − f (y)| < ε.

AfoÔ xn − yn → 0, upˆrqei n0 (δ) ∈ N ¸ste: an n ≥ n0 tìte |xn − yn | < δ . 'Estw

n ≥ n0 . Tìte, |xn − yn | < δ kai xn , yn ∈ A, opìte h (3.2.2) dÐnei

(3.2.3) |f (xn ) − f (yn )| < ε.

AfoÔ to ε > 0  tan tuqìn, sumperaÐnoume ìti f (xn ) − f (yn ) → 0.

AntÐstrofa: ac upojèsoume ìti

(3.2.4) an xn , yn ∈ A kai xn − yn → 0 tìte f (xn ) − f (yn ) → 0.

Ja deÐxoume ìti h f eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto A. 'Estw ìti den eÐnai. Tìte,
upˆrqei ε > 0 me thn ex c idiìthta:
Gia kˆje δ > 0 upˆrqoun xδ , yδ ∈ A me |xδ − yδ | < δ allˆ |f (xδ ) −
f (yδ )| ≥ ε.
Epilègontac diadoqikˆ δ = 1, 12 , . . . , n1 , . . ., brÐskoume zeugˆria xn , yn ∈ A ¸ste
1
(3.2.5) |xn − yn | < allˆ |f (xn ) − f (yn )| ≥ ε.
n
JewroÔme tic akoloujÐec (xn ), (yn ). Apì thn kataskeu  èqoume xn − yn → 0, allˆ
apì thn |f (xn ) − f (yn )| ≥ ε gia kˆje n ∈ N blèpoume ìti den mporeÐ na isqÔei h
f (xn ) − f (yn ) → 0 (exhg ste giatÐ). Autì eÐnai ˆtopo, ˆra h f eÐnai omoiìmorfa
suneq c sto A. 2
ParadeÐgmata
(a) JewroÔme th sunˆrthsh f (x) = x1 sto (0, 1]. H f eÐnai suneq c allˆ eÐnai den

omoiìmorfa suneq c. Gia na to doÔme, arkeÐ na broÔme dÔo akoloujÐec (xn ), (yn ) sto
(0, 1] pou na ikanopoioÔn thn xn −yn → 0 allˆ na mhn ikanopoioÔn thn x1n − y1n → 0.
PaÐrnoume xn = n1 kai yn = 2n1
. Tìte, xn , yn ∈ (0, 1] kai
1 1 1
(3.2.6) xn − yn = − = →0
n 2n 2n
allˆ
1 1
(3.2.7) f (xn ) − f (yn ) = − = n − 2n = −n → −∞.
xn yn

(b) JewroÔme th sunˆrthsh g(x) = x2 sto R. OrÐzoume xn = n + 1

n kai yn = n.
Tìte,
1
(3.2.8) xn − yn = →0
n
allˆ
 2
1 1
(3.2.9) g(xn ) − g(yn ) = n+ − n2 = 2 + → 2 6= 0.
n n2
48 · Omoiìmorfh sunèqeia

'Ara, h g den eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto R.

(g) OrÐzoume f (x) = cos(x2 ), x ∈ R. H f eÐnai suneq c sto R kai |f (x)| ≤ 1 gia
kˆje x ∈ R. Dhlad , h f eÐnai epiplèon fragmènh. 'Omwc h f eÐnai omoiìmorfa
den

suneq c: gia na to deÐte, jewr ste tic akoloujÐec

√
xn = (n + 1)π kai yn = nπ.
p
(3.2.10)

Tìte,
(3.2.11)
p √ (n + 1)π − nπ π
xn − yn = (n + 1)π − nπ = p √ =p √ → 0,
(n + 1)π + nπ (n + 1)π + nπ
allˆ

(3.2.12) |f (xn ) − f (yn )| = | cos((n + 1)π) − cos(nπ)| = 2

gia kˆje n ∈ N. Apì to Je¸rhma 3.2.1 èpetai to sumpèrasma. Upˆrqoun loipìn

fragmènec suneqeÐc sunart seic pou den eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneqeÐc (sqediˆste th
grafik  parˆstash thc cos(x2 ) gia na deÐte to lìgo: gia megˆla x, h f anebaÐnei
apì thn tim  −1 sthn tim  1 kai katebaÐnei apì thn tim  1 sthn tim  −1 ìlo kai pio
gr gora - o rujmìc metabol c thc gÐnetai polÔ megˆloc).

3.3 SuneqeÐc sunart seic se kleistˆ diast mata

Sthn parˆgrafo §3.1 eÐdame ìti h sunˆrthsh g(x) = x2 den eÐnai omoiìmorfa
suneq c sto I = R allˆ eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c se kˆje diˆsthma thc morf c
I = [−M, M ], M > 0 (osod pote megˆlo ki an eÐnai to M ). Autì pou isqÔei genikˆ
eÐnai ìti kˆje suneq c sunˆrthsh f : [a, b] → R eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c:
Je¸rhma 3.3.1. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R suneq c sunˆrthsh. Tìte, h f eÐnai omoiì-

morfa suneq c sto [a, b]

.

Apìdeixh . Ac upojèsoume ìti h f den eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c. Tìte, ìpwc sthn
apìdeixh tou Jewr matoc 3.2.1, mporoÔme na broÔme ε > 0 kai dÔo akoloujÐec (xn ),
(yn ) sto [a, b] me xn − yn → 0 kai |f (xn ) − f (yn )| ≥ ε gia kˆje n ∈ N.
AfoÔ a ≤ xn , yn ≤ b gia kˆje n ∈ N, oi (xn ) kai (yn ) eÐnai fragmènec akolou-
jÐec. Apì to Je¸rhma Bolzano-Weierstrass, upˆrqei upakoloujÐa (xkn ) thc (xn ) h
opoÐa sugklÐnei se kˆpoio x ∈ R. AfoÔ a ≤ xkn ≤ b gia kˆje n, sumperaÐnoume ìti
a ≤ x ≤ b. Dhlad ,

(3.3.1) xkn → x ∈ [a, b].

Parathr ste ìti xkn − ykn → 0, ˆra

(3.3.2) ykn = xkn − (xkn − ykn ) → x − 0 = x.

Apì th sunèqeia thc f sto x èpetai ìti

(3.3.3) f (xkn ) → f (x) kai f (ykn ) → f (x).

Dhlad ,

(3.3.4) f (xkn ) − f (ykn ) → x − x = 0.

 3.3 SuneqeÐs sunart seis se kleistˆ diast mata · 49

Autì eÐnai ˆtopo, afoÔ |f (xkn ) − f (ykn )| ≥ ε gia kˆje n ∈ N. 'Ara, h f eÐnai
omoiìmorfa suneq c sto [a, b]. 2
Parat rhsh . To gegonìc ìti h f  tan orismènh sto kleistì diˆsthma [a, b]
qrhsimopoi jhke me dÔo trìpouc. Pr¸ton, mporèsame na broÔme sugklÐnousec up-
akoloujÐec twn (xn ), (yn ) (je¸rhma Bolzano-Weierstrass). DeÔteron, mporoÔsame
na poÔme ìti to koinì ìrio x aut¸n twn upakolouji¸n exakoloujeÐ na brÐsketai sto
pedÐo orismoÔ [a, b] thc f . Qrhsimopoi same dhlad  to ex c:

(3.3.5) an a ≤ zn ≤ b kai zn → z, tìte a ≤ z ≤ b.

To epìmeno je¸rhma apodeiknÔei ìti oi omoiìmorfa suneqeÐc sunart seic èqoun thn

ex c {kal  idiìthta}: apeikonÐzoun akoloujÐec Cauchy se akoloujÐec Cauchy. Autì
den isqÔei gia ìlec tic suneqeÐc sunart seic: jewr ste thn f (x) = x1 sto (0, 1]. H
xn = n1 eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy sto (0, 1], ìmwc h f (xn ) = n den eÐnai akoloujÐa
Cauchy.

Je¸rhma 3.3.2. 'Estw f :A→R omoiìmorfa suneq c sunˆrthsh kai èstw (xn )
akoloujÐa Cauchy sto A . Tìte,(f (xn ))
h eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy .

Apìdeixh. 'Estw ε > 0. Upˆrqei δ > 0 ¸ste: an x, y ∈ A kai |x − y| < δ tìte

|f (x) − f (y)| < ε. H (xn ) eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy, ˆra upˆrqei n0 (δ) ¸ste

(3.3.6) an m, n ≥ n0 (δ), tìte |xn − xm | < δ.

'Omwc tìte,

(3.3.7) |f (xn ) − f (xm )| < ε.

Br kame n0 ∈ N me thn idiìthta

(3.3.8) an m, n ≥ n0 (δ) tìte |f (xn ) − f (xm )| < ε.

AfoÔ to ε > 0  tan tuqìn, h (f (xn )) eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy. 2

EÐdame ìti kˆje suneq c sunˆrthsh f orismènh se kleistì diˆsthma eÐnai omoiì-
morfa suneq c. Ja exetˆsoume to ex c er¸thma: 'Estw f : (a, b) → R suneq c
sunˆrthsh. P¸c mporoÔme na elègxoume an h f eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto (a, b)?

Je¸rhma 3.3.3. 'Estw f : (a, b) → R suneq c sunˆrthsh. H f eÐnai omoiìmorfa

suneq c sto (a, b) an kai mìno an upˆrqoun ta lim+ f (x) kai lim− f (x) .

x→a x→b

Apìdeixh . Upojètoume pr¸ta ìti upˆrqoun ta lim f (x) kai lim f (x). OrÐzoume
x→a+ x→b−
mia {epèktash} g thc f sto [a, b], jètontac: g(a) = lim f (x), g(b) = lim f (x)
x→a+ x→b−
kai g(x) = f (x) an x ∈ (a, b).
H g eÐnai suneq c sto kleistì diˆsthma [a, b] (exhg ste giatÐ), ˆra omoiìmorfa
suneq c. Ja deÐxoume ìti h f eÐnai ki aut  omoiìmorfa suneq c sto (a, b). 'Estw
ε > 0. AfoÔ h g eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c, upˆrqei δ > 0 ¸ste: an x, y ∈ [a, b] kai
|x − y| < δ tìte |g(x) − g(y)| < ε.
JewroÔme x, y ∈ (a, b) me |x − y| < δ . Tìte, apì ton orismì thc g èqoume

(3.3.9) |f (x) − f (y)| = |g(x) − g(y)| < ε.

50 · Omoiìmorfh sunèqeia

AntÐstrofa, upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto (a, b) kai deÐqnoume
ìti upˆrqei to limx→a+ f (x) (h Ôparxh tou ˆllou pleurikoÔ orÐou apodeiknÔetai me
ton Ðdio trìpo).
Ja deÐxoume ìti an (xn ) eÐnai akoloujÐa sto (a, b) me xn → a, tìte h (f (xn ))
sugklÐnei. Autì eÐnai ˆmeso apì to Je¸rhma 3.3.2: h (xn ) sugklÐnei, ˆra h (xn ) eÐnai
akoloujÐa Cauchy, ˆra h (f (xn )) eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy, ˆra h (f (xn )) sugklÐnei
se kˆpoion pragmatikì arijmì `.
EpÐshc, to ìrio thc (f (xn )) eÐnai anexˆrthto apì thn epilog  thc (xn ): èstw
(yn ) mia ˆllh akoloujÐa sto (a, b) me yn → a. Tìte, xn − yn → 0. Apì to Je¸rhma
3.2.1,

(3.3.10) f (xn ) − f (yn ) → 0.

Xèroume  dh ìti lim f (xn ) = `, ˆra

n→∞

(3.3.11) f (yn ) = f (xn ) − (f (xn ) − f (yn )) → ` + 0 = `.

Apì thn arq  thc metaforˆc (gia to ìrio sunˆrthshc) èpetai ìti lim f (x) = `. 2
x→a+

ParadeÐgmata
√
(a) JewroÔme th sunˆrthsh f (x) = x sto [0, 1]. H f eÐnai suneq c sto [0, 1],
epomènwc eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c. 'Omwc, h f den eÐnai Lipschitz suneq c sto
[0, 1].
An  tan, ja up rqe M > 0 ¸ste

(3.3.12) |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ M |x − y|

gia kˆje x, y ∈ [0, 1]. Eidikìtera, gia kˆje n ∈ N ja eÐqame

       
f 1 − f (0) = 1 = n ·  1 − 0 ≤ M
    1 
(3.3.13) 2 2
·  2 − 0 .
 n  n  n  n

Dhlad , n ≤ M gia kˆje n ∈ N. Autì eÐnai ˆtopo: to N ja  tan ˆnw fragmèno.

√
(b) H sunˆrthsh f (x) = x eÐnai Lipschitz suneq c sto [1, +∞), ˆra omoiìmorfa
suneq c. Prˆgmati, an x ≥ 1 tìte
1 1
(3.3.14) |f 0 (x)| = √ ≤ ,
2 x 2

dhlad  h f èqei fragmènh parˆgwgo sto [1, +∞). Apì thn Prìtash 3.1.4 eÐnai
Lipschitz suneq c me stajerˆ 1/2.
√
(g) Ac doÔme t¸ra thn Ðdia sunˆrthsh f (x) = x sto [0, +∞). H f den eÐnai
Lipschitz suneq c sto [0, +∞) oÔte mporoÔme na efarmìsoume to Je¸rhma 3.3.1.
EÐdame ìmwc ìti h f eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto [0, 1] kai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto
[1, +∞). Autì ftˆnei gia na deÐxoume ìti eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto [0, +∞):
'Estw ε > 0. Upˆrqei δ1 > 0 ¸ste: an x, y ∈ [0, 1] kai |x − y| < δ1 tìte
|f (x) − f (y)| < 2ε (apì thn omoiìmorfh sunèqeia thc f sto [0, 1]).
EpÐshc, upˆrqei δ2 > 0 ¸ste: an x, y ∈ [1, +∞) kai |x − y| < δ2 tìte |f (x) −
f (y)| < 2ε (apì thn omoiìmorfh sunèqeia thc f sto [1, +∞)).
Jètoume δ = min{δ1 , δ2 } > 0. 'Estw x < y ∈ [0, +∞) me |x − y| < δ . DiakrÐ-
noume treÐc peript¸seic:
 3.4 Sustolès je¸rhma stajeroÔ shmeÐou · 51

(i) An 0 ≤ x < y ≤ 1 kai |x − y| < δ , tìte |x − y| < δ1 ˆra |f (x) − f (y)| < ε
2 < ε.
(ii) An 1 ≤ x < y kai |x − y| < δ , tìte |x − y| < δ2 ˆra |f (x) − f (y)| < ε
2 < ε.
(iii) An x < 1 < y kai |x − y| < δ , parathroÔme ìti |x − 1| < δ kai |1 − y| < δ .
'Omwc, x, 1 ∈ [0, 1] kai 1, y ∈ [1, +∞). MporoÔme loipìn na grˆyoume
ε ε
|f (x) − f (y)| ≤ |f (x) − f (1)| + |f (1) − f (y)| < + = ε.
2 2

3.4 Sustolèc je¸rhma stajeroÔ shmeÐou

Orismìc 3.4.1. Mia sunˆrthsh f : A → R lègetai sustol  an upˆrqei 0 < M < 1
¸ste: gia kˆje x, y ∈ A
(3.4.1) |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ M |x − y|.
Profan¸c, kˆje sustol  eÐnai Lipschitz suneq c.
Je¸rhma 3.4.2 (je¸rhma stajeroÔ shmeÐou). 'Estw f : R → R sustol .

Upˆrqei monadikì y∈R me thn idiìthta

(3.4.2) f (y) = y.
Apìdeixh . Apì thn upìjesh upˆrqei 0 < M < 1 ¸ste |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ M |x − y| gia
kˆje x, y ∈ R. H f eÐnai Lipschitz suneq c, ˆra omoiìmorfa suneq c. Epilègoume
tuqìn x1 ∈ R. OrÐzoume mia akoloujÐa (xn ) mèsw thc
(3.4.3) xn+1 = f (xn ), n ∈ N.
Tìte,
(3.4.4) |xn+1 − xn | = |f (xn ) − f (xn−1 )| ≤ M |xn − xn−1 |
gia kˆje n ≥ 2. Epagwgikˆ apodeiknÔoume ìti
(3.4.5) |xn+1 − xn | ≤ M n−1 |x2 − x1 |
gia kˆje n ≥ 2. 'Epetai ìti an n > m sto N, tìte
|xn − xm | ≤ |xn − xn−1 | + · · · + |xm+1 − xm |
≤ (M n−2 + · · · + M m−1 )|x2 − x1 |
1 − M n−m m−1
= M |x2 − x1 |
1−M
M m−1
≤ |x2 − x1 |.
1−M
AfoÔ 0 < M < 1, èqoume M m → 0. 'Ara, gia dojèn ε > 0 mporoÔme na broÔme
m−1
n0 (ε) ¸ste: an n > m ≥ n0 tìte M 1−M |x2 − x1 | < ε, kai sunep¸c, |xn − xm | < ε.
Epomènwc, h (xn ) eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy kai autì shmaÐnei ìti sugklÐnei: upˆr-
qei y ∈ R ¸ste xn → y . Ja deÐxoume ìti f (y) = y : apì thn xn → y kai th sunèqeia
thc f sto y blèpoume ìti f (xn ) → f (y). 'Omwc xn+1 = f (xn ) kai xn+1 → y , ˆra
f (xn ) → y . Apì th monadikìthta tou orÐou akoloujÐac prokÔptei h f (y) = y .
To y eÐnai to monadikì stajerì shmeÐo thc f . 'Estw z 6= y me f (z) = z . Tìte,
(3.4.6) 0 < |z − y| = |f (z) − f (y)| ≤ M |z − y|,
dhlad  1 ≤ M , to opoÐo eÐnai ˆtopo. 2
52 · Omoiìmorfh sunèqeia

3.5 Ask seic
Omˆda A'
1. DeÐxte to je¸rhma mègisthc kai elˆqisthc tim c gia mia suneq  sunˆrthsh f :
[a, b] → R qrhsimopoi¸ntac to je¸rhma Bolzano–Weiertstrass:
(a) DeÐxte pr¸ta ìti upˆrqei M > 0 ¸ste |f (x)| ≤ M gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b], me apag-
wg  se ˆtopo. An autì den isqÔei, mporoÔme na broÔme xn ∈ [a, b] ¸ste |f (xn )| > n,
n = 1, 2, . . .. H (xn ) èqei upakoloujÐa (xkn ) ¸ste xkn → x0 ∈ [a, b]. Qrhsimopoi -
ste thn arq  thc metaforˆc (h f eÐnai suneq c sto x0 ) gia na katal xete se ˆtopo.
(b) Apì to (a) èqoume M := sup{f (x) : x ∈ [a, b]} < ∞. Tìte, mporoÔme na broÔme
xn ∈ [a, b] ¸ste f (xn ) → M (exhg ste giatÐ). H (xn ) èqei upakoloujÐa (xkn ) ¸ste
xkn → x0 ∈ [a, b]. Qrhsimopoi ste thn arq  thc metaforˆc (h f eÐnai suneq c sto
x0 ) gia na sumperˆnete ìti f (x0 ) = M . Autì apodeiknÔei ìti h f paÐrnei mègisth
tim  (sto x0 ).
(g) Ergazìmenoi ìmoia, deÐxte ìti h f paÐrnei elˆqisth tim .

2. 'Estw X ⊆ R. Lème ìti mia sunˆrthsh f : X → R ikanopoieÐ sunj kh Lipschitz

an upˆrqei M ≥ 0 ¸ste: gia kˆje x, y ∈ X ,
|f (x) − f (y)| ≤ M · |x − y|.
DeÐxte ìti an h f : X → R ikanopoieÐ sunj kh Lipschitz tìte eÐnai omoiìmorfa
suneq c. IsqÔei to antÐstrofo?

3. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R suneq c, paragwgÐsimh sto (a, b). DeÐxte ìti h f ikanopoieÐ
sunj kh Lipschitz an kai mìno an h f 0 eÐnai fragmènh.

4. 'Estw n ∈ N, n ≥ 2 kai f (x) = x1/n , x ∈ [0, 1]. DeÐxte ìti h sunˆrthsh f den
ikanopoieÐ sunj kh Lipschitz. EÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c?

5. Exetˆste an oi parakˆtw sunart seic ikanopoioÔn sunj kh Lipschitz:

(a) f : [0, 1] → R me f (x) = x sin x1 an x 6= 0 kai f (0) = 0.
(b) g : [0, 1] → R me g(x) = x2 sin x1 an x 6= 0 kai g(0) = 0.

6. 'Estw f : [a, b] → [m, M ] kai g : [m, M ] → R omoiìmorfa suneqeÐc sunart seic.

DeÐxte ìti h g ◦ f eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c.

7. 'Estw f, g : I → R omoiìmorfa suneqeÐc sunart seic. DeÐxte ìti

(a) h f + g eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto I .
(b) h f ·g den eÐnai anagkastikˆ omoiìmorfa suneq c sto I , an ìmwc oi f, g upotejoÔn
kai fragmènec tìte h f · g eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto I .

8. 'Estw f : R → R suneq c sunˆrthsh me thn ex c idiìthta: gia kˆje ε > 0

upˆrqei M = M (ε) > 0 ¸ste an |x| ≥ M tìte |f (x)| < ε. DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai
omoiìmorfa suneq c.

9. 'Estw a ∈ R kai f : [a, +∞) → R suneq c sunˆrthsh me thn ex c idiìthta:

upˆrqei to lim f (x) kai eÐnai pragmatikìc arijmìc. DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai omoiìmorfa
x→+∞
suneq c.
 3.5 Ask seis · 53

10. 'Estw f : R → R omoiìmorfa suneq c sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti upˆrqoun A, B >

0 ¸ste |f (x)| ≤ A|x| + B gia kˆje x ∈ R.

11. 'Estw n ∈ N, n > 1. Qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn prohgoÔmenh 'Askhsh deÐxte ìti h

sunˆrthsh f (x) = xn , x ∈ R den eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c.

12. (a) 'Estw f : [0, +∞) → R suneq c sunˆrthsh. Upojètoume ìti upˆrqei a > 0
¸ste h f na eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto [a, +∞). DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai omoiìmorfa
suneq c sto [0, +∞).
√
(b) DeÐxte ìti h f (x) = x eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto [0, +∞).

13. 'Estw f : (a, b) → R omoiìmorfa suneq c sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti upˆrqei

suneq c sunˆrthsh fˆ : [a, b] → R ¸ste fˆ(x) = f (x) gia kˆje x ∈ (a, b).

14. Exetˆste an oi parakˆtw sunart seic eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneqeÐc.

(i) f : R → R me f (x) = 3x + 1.
(ii) f : [2, +∞) → R me f (x) = x1 .
(iii) f : (0, π] → R me f (x) = 1
x sin2 x.
(iv) f : (0, ∞) → R me f (x) = sin x1 .
(v) f : (0, ∞) → R me f (x) = x sin x1 .
(vi) f : (0, ∞) → R me f (x) = x .
sin x

cos(x3 )
(vii) f : (1, ∞) → R me f (x) = x .
(viii) f : R → R me f (x) = x2 +4 .
1

(ix) f : R → R me f (x) = 1+|x| .

x

(x) f : [−2, 0] → R me f (x) = x2 +1 .

x

(xi) f : R → R me f (x) = x sin x.

cos(x2 )
(xii) f : [0, +∞) → R me f (x) = x+1 .

Omˆda B'. Erwt seic katanìhshc

Exetˆste an oi parakˆtw protˆseic eÐnai alhjeÐc   yeudeÐc (aitiolog ste pl rwc

thn apˆnths  sac).

15. H sunˆrthsh f (x) = x2 + x1 eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto (0, 1).

16. H sunˆrthsh f (x) = 1

x−1 eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto (0, 1).

17. An h sunˆrthsh f den eÐnai fragmènh sto (0, 1), tìte h f den eÐnai omoiìmorfa
suneq c sto (0, 1).

18. An h (xn ) eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy kai h f eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto R,
tìte h (f (xn )) eÐnai akoloujÐa Cauchy.
54 · Omoiìmorfh sunèqeia

19. An h f eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto (0, 1), tìte to lim f 1

upˆrqei.


n→∞ n

20. JewroÔme tic f (x) = x kai g(x) = sin x. Oi f kai g eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneqeÐc
sto R, ìmwc h f g den eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c sto R.

21. H sunˆrthsh f : R → R me f (x) = x an x > 0 kai f (x) = 2x an x ≤ 0, eÐnai

omoiìmorfa suneq c sto R.

22. Kˆje fragmènh kai suneq c sunˆrthsh f : R → R eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c.

Omˆda G'
23. DeÐxte ìti h sunˆrthsh f : (0, 1) ∪ (1, 2) → R me f (x) = 0 an x ∈ (0, 1) kai
f (x) = 1 an x ∈ (1, 2) eÐnai suneq c allˆ den eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c.

24. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R suneq c sunˆrthsh kai èstw ε > 0. DeÐxte ìti mporoÔme
na qwrÐsoume to [a, b] se peperasmèna to pl joc diadoqikˆ upodiast mata tou idÐou
m kouc ètsi ¸ste: an ta x, y an koun sto Ðdio upodiˆsthma, tìte |f (x) − f (y)| < ε.

25. 'Estw f : R → R suneq c, fragmènh kai monìtonh sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti h f

eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c.

26. 'Estw f : R → R suneq c kai periodik  sunˆrthsh. Dhlad , upˆrqei T > 0

¸ste f (x + T ) = f (x) gia kˆje x ∈ R. DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c.

27. 'Estw X ⊂ R fragmèno sÔnolo kai f : X → R omoiìmorfa suneq c sunˆrthsh.

DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai fragmènh: upˆrqei M > 0 ¸ste |f (x)| ≤ M gia kˆje x ∈ X .

28. 'Estw A mh kenì uposÔnolo tou R. OrÐzoume f : R → R me

f (x) = inf{|x − a| : a ∈ A}

(f (x) eÐnai h {apìstash} tou x apì to A). DeÐxte ìti

(a) |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ |x − y| gia kˆje x, y ∈ R.
(b) h f eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c.
Kefˆlaio 4

Olokl rwma Riemann
4.1 O orismìc tou Darboux
Se aut n thn parˆgrafo dÐnoume ton orismì tou oloklhr¸matoc Riemann gia frag-
mènec sunart seic pou orÐzontai se èna kleistì diˆsthma. Gia mia fragmènh sunˆrthsh
f : [a, b] → R me mh arnhtikèc timèc, ja jèlame to olokl rwma na dÐnei to embadìn
tou qwrÐou pou perikleÐetai anˆmesa sto grˆfhma thc sunˆrthshc, ton orizìntio
ˆxona y = 0 kai tic katakìrufec eujeÐec x = a kai x = b.
Orismìc 4.1.1. (a) 'Estw [a, b] èna kleistì diˆsthma. Diamèrish tou [a, b] ja
lème kˆje peperasmèno uposÔnolo

(4.1.1) P = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn }

tou [a, b] me x0 = a kai xn = b. Ja upojètoume pˆnta ìti ta xk ∈ P eÐnai diatetag-

mèna wc ex c:

(4.1.2) a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xk < xk+1 < · · · < xn = b.

Ja grˆfoume

(4.1.3) P = {a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b}

gia na tonÐsoume aut n akrib¸c th diˆtaxh. Parathr ste ìti apì ton orismì, kˆje
diamèrish P tou [a, b] perièqei toulˆqiston dÔo shmeÐa: to a kai to b (ta ˆkra tou
[a, b]).
(b) Kˆje diamèrish P = {a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b} qwrÐzei to [a, b] se n
upodiast mata [xk , xk+1 ], k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1. Onomˆzoume plˆtoc thc diamèrishc
P to megalÔtero apì ta m kh aut¸n twn upodiasthmˆtwn. Dhlad , to plˆtoc thc
diamèrishc isoÔtai me

(4.1.4) kP k := max{x1 − x0 , x2 − x1 , . . . , xn − xn−1 }.

Parathr ste ìti den apaitoÔme na isapèqoun ta xk (ta n upodiast mata den èqoun

aparaÐthta to Ðdio m koc).
(g) H diamèrish P1 lègetai eklèptunsh thc P an P ⊆ P1 , dhlad  an h P1 prokÔptei
apì thn P me thn prosj kh kˆpoiwn (peperasmènwn to pl joc) shmeÐwn. Se aut n
thn perÐptwsh lème epÐshc ìti h P1 eÐnai apì thn P .
leptìterh
56 · Olokl rwma Riemann

(d) 'Estw P1 , P2 dÔo diamerÐseic tou [a, b]. H koin  eklèptunsh twn P1 , P2 eÐnai h
diamèrish P = P1 ∪ P2 . EÔkola blèpoume ìti h P eÐnai diamèrish tou [a, b] kai ìti an
P 0 eÐnai mia diamèrish leptìterh tìso apì thn P1 ìso kai apì thn P2 tìte P 0 ⊇ P
(dhlad , h P = P1 ∪ P2 eÐnai h mikrìterh dunat  diamèrish tou [a, b] pou ekleptÔnei
tautìqrona thn P1 kai thn P2 ).

JewroÔme t¸ra mia fragmènh sunˆrthsh f : [a, b] → R kai mia diamèrish P =

{a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b} tou [a, b]. H P diamerÐzei to [a, b] sta upodiast mata
[x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], . . . , [xk , xk+1 ], . . . , [xn−1 , xn ]. Gia kˆje k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 orÐzoume
touc pragmatikoÔc arijmoÔc

(4.1.5) mk (f, P ) = mk = inf{f (x) : xk ≤ x ≤ xk+1 }

kai

(4.1.6) Mk (f, P ) = Mk = sup{f (x) : xk ≤ x ≤ xk+1 }.

'Oloi autoÐ oi arijmoÐ orÐzontai kalˆ: h f eÐnai fragmènh sto [a, b], ˆra eÐnai frag-
mènh se kˆje upodiˆsthma [xk , xk+1 ]. Gia kˆje k , to sÔnolo {f (x) : xk ≤ x ≤ xk+1 }
eÐnai mh kenì kai fragmèno uposÔnolo tou R, ˆra èqei supremum kai infimum.
Gia kˆje diamèrish P tou [a, b] orÐzoume t¸ra to ˆnw kai to kˆtw ˆjroisma thc
f wc proc thn P me ton ex c trìpo:
n−1
X
(4.1.7) U (f, P ) = Mk (xk+1 − xk )
k=0

eÐnai to ˆnw ˆjroisma thc f wc proc P , kai

n−1
X
(4.1.8) L(f, P ) = mk (xk+1 − xk )
k=0

eÐnai to kˆtw ˆjroisma thc f wc proc P .

Apì tic (4.1.7) kai (4.1.8) blèpoume ìti gia kˆje diamèrish P isqÔei

(4.1.9) L(f, P ) ≤ U (f, P )

afoÔ mk ≤ Mk kai xk+1 − xk > 0, k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1. Se sqèsh me to {embadìn}

pou prospajoÔme na orÐsoume, prèpei na skeftìmaste to kˆtw ˆjroisma L(f, P )
san mia kai to ˆnw ˆjroisma U (f, P ) san mia
prosèggish apì kˆtw prosèggish apì

pˆnw.
Ja deÐxoume ìti isqÔei mia polÔ pio isqur  anisìthta apì thn (4.1.9):

Prìtash 4.1.2. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R fragmènh sunˆrthsh kai èstw P1 , P2 dÔo

diamerÐseic tou [a, b]

. Tìte,

(4.1.10) L(f, P1 ) ≤ U (f, P2 ).

Parathr ste ìti h (4.1.9) eÐnai eidik  perÐptwsh thc (4.1.10): arkeÐ na pˆroume
P = P1 = P2 sthn Prìtash 4.1.2.
H apìdeixh thc Prìtashc 4.1.2 ja basisteÐ sto ex c L mma.
 4.1 O orismìs tou Darboux · 57

L mma 4.1.3. 'EstwP = {a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xk < xk+1 < · · · < xn = b} kai

xk < y < xk+1 gia k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1

kˆpoio P1 = P ∪ {y} = {a = x0 < x1 <
. An

· · · < xk < y < xk+1 < · · · < xn = b} , tìte

(4.1.11) L(f, P ) ≤ L(f, P1 ) ≤ U (f, P1 ) ≤ U (f, P ).

Dhlad , me thn prosj kh enìc shmeÐou y sthn diamèrish P , to ˆnw ˆjroisma thc f
{mikraÐnei} en¸ to kˆtw ˆjroisma thc f {megal¸nei}.
Apìdeixh tou L mmatoc 4.1.3 . Jètoume
(1)
(4.1.12) mk = inf{f (x) : xk ≤ x ≤ y}

kai
(2)
(4.1.13) mk = inf{f (x) : y ≤ x ≤ xk+1 }.
(1) (2)
Tìte, mk ≤ mk kai mk ≤ mk (ˆskhsh: an A ⊆ B tìte inf B ≤ inf A). Grˆfoume
(1) (2)
L(f, P1 ) = [m0 (x1 − x0 ) + · · · + mk (y − xk ) + mk (xk+1 − y) + · · ·
+mn−1 (xn − xn−1 )]
≥ [m0 (x1 − x0 ) + · · · + mk (y − xk ) + mk (xk+1 − y) + · · ·
+mn−1 (xn − xn−1 )]
= [m0 (x1 − x0 ) + · · · + mk (xk+1 − xk ) + · · · + mn−1 (xn − xn−1 )]
= L(f, P ).

'Omoia deÐqnoume ìti U (f, P1 ) ≤ U (f, P ). 2

Apìdeixh thc Prìtashc . Gia na apodeÐxoume thn (4.1.10) jewroÔme thn koin 
4.1.2

eklèptunsh P = P1 ∪ P2 twn P1 kai P2 . H P prokÔptei apì thn P1 me diado-

qik  prosj kh peperasmènwn to pl joc shmeÐwn. An efarmìsoume to L mma 4.1.3
peperasmènec to pl joc forèc, paÐrnoume L(f, P1 ) ≤ L(f, P ).
'Omoia blèpoume ìti U (f, P ) ≤ U (f, P2 ). Apì thn ˆllh pleurˆ, L(f, P ) ≤
U (f, P ). Sunduˆzontac ta parapˆnw, èqoume

(4.1.14) L(f, P1 ) ≤ L(f, P ) ≤ U (f, P ) ≤ U (f, P2 ). 2

JewroÔme t¸ra ta uposÔnola tou R

 
(4.1.15) A(f ) = L(f, P ) : P diamèrish tou [a, b]

kai
 
(4.1.16) B(f ) = U (f, Q) : Q diamèrish tou [a, b] .

Apì thn Prìtash 4.1.2 èqoume: gia kˆje a ∈ A(f ) kai kˆje b ∈ B(f ) isqÔei a ≤ b
(exhg ste giatÐ). 'Ara, sup A(f ) ≤ inf B(f ) (ˆskhsh). An loipìn orÐsoume san
kˆtw olokl rwma thc f sto [a, b] to
Z b  
(4.1.17) f (x)dx = sup L(f, P ) : P diamèrish tou [a, b]
a
58 · Olokl rwma Riemann

kai san ˆnw olokl rwma thc f sto [a, b] to

Z b  
(4.1.18) f (x)dx = inf U (f, Q) : Q diamèrish tou [a, b] ,
a

èqoume
Z b Z b
(4.1.19) f (x)dx ≤ f (x)dx.
a a

Orismìc 4.1.4. Mia fragmènh sunˆrthsh f : [a, b] → R lègetai Riemann oloklhr¸simh

an
Z b Z b
(4.1.20) f (x)dx = I = f (x)dx.
a a

O arijmìc I (h koin  tim  tou kˆtw kai tou ˆnw oloklhr¸matoc thc f sto [a, b])
lègetai olokl rwma Riemann thc f sto [a, b] kai sumbolÐzetai me
Z b Z b
(4.1.21) f (x)dx f.  

a a

4.2 To krit rio oloklhrwsimìthtac tou Riemann

O orismìc tou oloklhr¸matoc pou d¸same sthn prohgoÔmenh parˆgrafo eÐnai dÔsqrhstoc:
den eÐnai eÔkolo na ton qrhsimopoi sei kaneÐc gia na dei an mia fragmènh sunˆrthsh
eÐnai oloklhr¸simh   ìqi. Sun jwc, qrhsimopoioÔme to akìloujo krit rio oloklhrwsimìth-
tac.
Je¸rhma 4.2.1 (krit rio tou Riemann). 'Estw f : [a, b] → R fragmènh

sunˆrthsh. H f eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh an kai mìno an gia kˆje ε > 0

mporoÔme na broÔme diamèrish Pε tou [a, b] ¸ste

(4.2.1) U (f, Pε ) − L(f, Pε ) < ε.

Apìdeixh . Upojètoume pr¸ta ìti h f eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh. Dhlad ,

Z b Z b Z b
(4.2.2) f (x)dx = f (x)dx = f (x)dx.
a a a

'Estw ε > 0. Apì ton orismì tou kˆtw oloklhr¸matoc wc supremum tou A(f )
kai apì ton ε-qarakthrismì tou supremum, upˆrqei diamèrish P1 = P1 (ε) tou [a, b]
¸ste
Z b
ε
(4.2.3) f (x)dx < L(f, P1 ) + .
a 2

OmoÐwc, apì ton orismì tou ˆnw oloklhr¸matoc, upˆrqei diamèrish P2 = P2 (ε) tou
[a, b] ¸ste
Z b
ε
(4.2.4) f (x)dx > U (f, P2 ) − .
a 2
 4.2 To krit rio oloklhrwsimìthtas tou Riemann · 59

JewroÔme thn koin  eklèptunsh Pε = P1 ∪ P2 . Tìte, apì thn Prìtash 4.1.2 èqoume
ε ε
U (f, Pε ) − ≤ U (f, P2 ) −
2 2
Z b Z b
< f (x)dx = f (x)dx
a a
ε ε
< L(f, P1 ) + ≤ L(f, Pε ) + ,
2 2
ap ìpou èpetai ìti
(4.2.5) 0 ≤ U (f, Pε ) − L(f, Pε ) < ε.
AntÐstrofa: upojètoume ìti gia kˆje ε > 0 upˆrqei diamèrish Pε tou [a, b] ¸ste
(4.2.6) U (f, Pε ) < L(f, Pε ) + ε.
Tìte, gia kˆje ε > 0 èqoume
Z b Z b
f (x)dx ≤ U (f, Pε ) < L(f, Pε ) + ε ≤ f (x)dx + ε.
a a

Epeid  to ε > 0  tan tuqìn, èpetai ìti

Z b Z b
(4.2.7) f (x)dx ≤ f (x)dx,
a a

kai afoÔ h antÐstrofh anisìthta isqÔei pˆnta, h f eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh. 2

To krit rio tou Riemann diatup¸netai isodÔnama wc ex c (exhg ste giatÐ).
Je¸rhma 4.2.2 (krit rio tou Riemann). 'Estw f : [a, b] → R fragmènh

sunˆrthsh. H f eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh an kai mìno an upˆrqei akoloujÐa

{Pn : n ∈ N} diamerÐsewn tou [a, b] ¸ste

(4.2.8) lim U (f, Pn ) − L(f, Pn ) = 0.
n→∞

ParadeÐgmata. Ja qrhsimopoi soume to krit rio tou Riemann gia na exetˆsoume

an oi parakˆtw sunart seic eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simec:
(a) H sunˆrthsh f : [0, 1] → R me f (x) = x2 . Gia kˆje n ∈ N jewroÔme th diamèrish
Pn tou [0, 1] se n Ðsa upodiast mata m kouc 1/n:
 
1 2 n−1 n
(4.2.9) Pn = 0 < < < · · · < < =1 .
n n n n
H sunˆrthsh f (x) = x2 eÐnai aÔxousa sto [0, 1], epomènwc
   
1 1 1 n−1 1
L(f, Pn ) = f (0) + f + ··· + f
n n n n n
12 22 (n − 1)2
 
1
= 0 + 2 + 2 + ··· +
n n n n2
2 2 2
1 + 2 + · · · + (n − 1) (n − 1)n(2n − 1)
= 3
=
n 6n3
2
2n − 3n + 1 1 1 1
= = − +
6n2 3 2n 6n2
60 · Olokl rwma Riemann

kai
   
1 1 2 1 n 1
U (f, Pn ) = f +f + ··· + f
n n n n n n
 2 2 2

1 1 2 n
= + 2 + ··· + 2
n n2 n n
2 2 2
1 + 2 + ··· + n n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= 3
=
n 6n3
2
2n + 3n + 1 1 1 1
= = + + .
6n2 3 2n 6n2
'Epetai ìti
1
(4.2.10) U (f, Pn ) − L(f, Pn ) = → 0.
n
Apì to Je¸rhma 4.2.2 sumperaÐnoume ìti h f eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh. M-
poroÔme mˆlista na broÔme thn tim  tou oloklhr¸matoc. Gia kˆje n ∈ N,
1 1 1
− + = L(f, Pn )
3 2n 6n2
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
2 2
≤ x dx = x dx = x2 dx
0 0 0
≤ U (f, Pn )
1 1 1
= + + 2.
3 2n 6n
AfoÔ
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(4.2.11) − + → kai + + → ,
3 2n 6n2 3 3 2n 6n2 3
èpetai ìti
Z 1
1 1
(4.2.12) ≤ x2 dx ≤ .
3 0 3
Dhlad ,
Z 1
1
(4.2.13) x2 dx = .
0 3
√
(b) H sunˆrthsh u : [0, 1] → R me u(x) = x. MporeÐte na qrhsimopoi sete thn
akoloujÐa diamerÐsewn tou prohgoÔmenou paradeÐgmatoc gia na deÐxete ìti ikanopoieÐ-
tai to krit rio tou Riemann.
Sto Ðdio sumpèrasma katal goume an qrhsimopoi soume mia diaforetik  akolou-
jÐa diamerÐsewn. Gia kˆje n ∈ N jewroÔme th diamèrish
22 (n − 1)2 n2
 
1
(4.2.14) Pn = 0 < 2 < 2 < · · · < < = 1 .
n n n2 n2
H u eÐnai aÔxousa sto [0, 1], epomènwc
n−1
(k + 1)2 k2
 
X k
(4.2.15) L(u, Pn ) = −
n n2 n2
k=0
 4.2 To krit rio oloklhrwsimìthtas tou Riemann · 61

kai
n−1
(k + 1)2 k2
 
X k+1
(4.2.16) U (u, Pn ) = 2
− 2 .
n n n
k=0

'Epetai ìti
n−1
X (k + 1)2 k2
 
k+1 k
U (u, Pn ) − L(u, Pn ) = − −
n n n2 n2
k=0
n−1 
1 X (k + 1)2 k2

= − 2
n n2 n
k=0
1
= → 0.
n
Apì to Je¸rhma 4.2.2 sumperaÐnoume ìti h u eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh. Af -
noume san ˆskhsh na deÐxete ìti
2
(4.2.17) lim L(u, Pn ) = lim U (u, Pn ) = .
n→∞ n→∞ 3
H sugkekrimènh epilog  diamerÐsewn pou kˆname èqei to pleonèkthma ìti mporeÐte
eÔkola na grˆyete ta L(u, Pn ) kai U (u, Pn ) se kleist  morf . Apì thn (4.2.17)
èpetai ìti
Z 1
√ 2
(4.2.18) x dx = .
0 3

(g) H sunˆrthsh tou Dirichlet g : [0, 1] → R me

1 an x rhtìc

g(x) =
0 an x ˆrrhtoc

den eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh. 'Estw P = {0 = x0 < x1 < · · · < xk < xk+1 <
· · · < xn = 1} tuqoÔsa diamèrish tou [0, 1]. UpologÐzoume to kˆtw kai to ˆnw
ˆjroisma thc g wc proc thn P . Gia kˆje k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 upˆrqoun rhtìc qk
kai ˆrrhtoc αk sto (xk , xk+1 ). AfoÔ g(qk ) = 1, g(αk ) = 0 kai 0 ≤ g(x) ≤ 1 sto
[xk , xk+1 ], sumperaÐnoume ìti mk = 0 kai Mk = 1. Sunep¸c,
n−1
X n−1
X
(4.2.19) L(g, P ) = mk (xk+1 − xk ) = 0 · (xk+1 − xk ) = 0
k=0 k=0

kai
n−1
X n−1
X
(4.2.20) U (g, P ) = Mk (xk+1 − xk ) = 1 · (xk+1 − xk ) = 1.
k=0 k=0

AfoÔ h P  tan tuqoÔsa diamèrish tou [0, 1], paÐrnoume

Z 1 Z 1
(4.2.21) g(x)dx = 0 kai g(x)dx = 1.
0 0
62 · Olokl rwma Riemann

'Ara, h g den eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh.

(d) H sunˆrthsh h : [0, 1] → R me

x an x rhtìc

h(x) =
0 an x ˆrrhtoc

den eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh. 'Estw P = {0 = x0 < x1 < · · · < xk < xk+1 <
· · · < xn = 1} tuqoÔsa diamèrish tou [0, 1]. Gia kˆje k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 upˆrqei
ˆrrhtoc αk sto (xk , xk+1 ). AfoÔ h(αk ) = 0 kai 0 ≤ h(x) ≤ 1 sto [xk , xk+1 ],
sumperaÐnoume ìti mk = 0. Sunep¸c,

(4.2.22) L(h, P ) = 0.

EpÐshc, upˆrqei rhtìc qk > (xk + xk+1 )/2 sto (xk , xk+1 ), ˆra Mk ≥ h(qk ) >
(xk + xk+1 )/2. 'Epetai ìti

n−1 n−1
X xk + xk+1 1X 2
U (h, P ) > (xk+1 − xk ) = (xk+1 − x2k )
2 2
k=0 k=0
x2n − x20 1
= = .
2 2

AfoÔ

1
(4.2.23) U (h, P ) − L(h, P ) >
2

gia kˆje diamèrish P tou [0, 1], to krit rio tou Riemann den ikanopoieÐtai (pˆrte
ε = 1/3). 'Ara, h h den eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh.

(e) H sunˆrthsh w : [0, 1] → R me

an x ∈
/Q x=0

0
w(x) = 1
q an x = pq , p, q ∈ N, MKD(p, q) = 1

eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh. EÔkola elègqoume ìti L(w, P ) = 0 gia kˆje diamèrish
P tou [0, 1].
'Estw ε > 0. ParathroÔme ìti to sÔnolo A = {x ∈ [0, 1] : w(x) ≥ ε} eÐnai
peperasmèno. [Prˆgmati, an w(x) ≥ ε tìte x = p/q kai w(x) = 1/q ≥ ε dhlad 
q ≤ 1/ε. Oi rhtoÐ tou [0, 1] pou grˆfontai san anˆgwga klˆsmata me paronomast 
to polÔ Ðso me [1/ε] eÐnai peperasmènoi to pl joc (èna ˆnw frˆgma gia to pl joc
touc eÐnai o arijmìc 1 + 2 + · · · + [1/ε] exhg ste giatÐ)].
'Estw z1 < z2 < · · · < zN mÐa arÐjmhsh twn stoiqeÐwn tou A. MporoÔme
na broÔme xèna upodiast mata [ai , bi ] tou [0, 1] pou èqoun m kh bi − ai < ε/N kai
ikanopoioÔn ta ex c: a1 > 0, ai < zi < bi an i < N kai aN < zN ≤ bN (parathr ste
ìti an ε ≤ 1 tìte zN = 1 opìte prèpei na epilèxoume bN = 1). An jewr soume th
diamèrish

(4.2.24) Pε = {0 < a1 < b1 < a2 < b2 < · · · < aN < bN ≤ 1},

 4.3 DÔo klˆseis Riemann oloklhr¸simwn sunart sewn · 63

èqoume

U (w, Pε ) ≤ ε · (a1 − 0) + 1 · (b1 − a1 ) + ε · (a2 − b1 ) + · · · + 1 · (bN −1 − aN −1 )

+ε · (aN − bN −1 ) + 1 · (bN − aN ) + ε · (1 − bN )
 
≤ ε · a1 + (a2 − b1 ) + · · · + (aN − bN −1 ) + (1 − bN )
N
X
+ (bi − ai )
i=1
< 2ε.

Gia to tuqìn ε > 0 br kame diamèrish Pε tou [0, 1] me thn idiìthta

(4.2.25) U (w, Pε ) − L(w, Pε ) < 2ε.

Apì to Je¸rhma 4.2.1, h w eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh.

4.3 DÔo klˆseic Riemann oloklhr¸simwn sunart sewn

Qrhsimopoi¸ntac to krit rio tou Riemann (Je¸rhma 4.2.1) ja deÐxoume ìti oi monì-
tonec kai oi suneqeÐc sunart seic f : [a, b] → R eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simec.

Je¸rhma 4.3.1. Kˆje monìtonh sunˆrthsh f : [a, b] → R eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh.

Apìdeixh . QwrÐc periorismì thc genikìthtac upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai aÔxousa. H

f eÐnai profan¸c fragmènh: gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b] èqoume

(4.3.1) f (a) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (b).

'Ara, èqei nìhma na exetˆsoume thn Ôparxh oloklhr¸matoc gia thn f .

'Estw ε > 0. Ja broÔme n ∈ N arketˆ megˆlo ¸ste gia th diamèrish
 
b−a 2(b − a) n(b − a)
(4.3.2) Pn = a, a + ,a + ,...,a + =b
n n n

tou [a, b] se n Ðsa upodiast mata na isqÔei

(4.3.3) U (f, Pn ) − L(f, Pn ) < ε.

Jètoume

k(b − a)
(4.3.4) xk = a + , k = 0, 1, . . . , n.
n
Tìte, afoÔ h f eÐnai aÔxousa èqoume
n−1 n−1
X X b−a
U (f, Pn ) = Mk (xk+1 − xk ) = f (xk+1 )
n
k=0 k=0
b−a
= · (f (x1 ) + · · · + f (xn )) ,
n
64 · Olokl rwma Riemann

en¸
n−1 n−1
X X b−a
L(f, Pn ) = mk (xk+1 − xk ) = f (xk )
n
k=0 k=0
b−a
= · (f (x0 ) + · · · + f (xn−1 )) .
n
'Ara,

[f (xn ) − f (x0 )](b − a) [f (b) − f (a)](b − a)

(4.3.5) U (f, Pn ) − L(f, Pn ) = = ,
n n
to opoÐo gÐnetai mikrìtero apì to ε > 0 pou mac dìjhke, arkeÐ to n na eÐnai arketˆ
megˆlo. Apì to Je¸rhma 4.2.1, h f eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh. 2

Je¸rhma 4.3.2. Kˆje suneq c sunˆrthsh f : [a, b] → R eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh.

Apìdeixh. 'Estw ε > 0. H f eÐnai suneq c sto kleistì diˆsthma [a, b], ˆra eÐnai
omoiìmorfa suneq c. MporoÔme loipìn na broÔme δ > 0 me thn ex c idiìthta:

An x, y ∈ [a, b] kai |x − y| < δ , tìte |f (x) − f (y)| < b−a .

ε

MporoÔme epÐshc na broÔme n ∈ N ¸ste

b−a
(4.3.6) < δ.
n

QwrÐzoume to [a, b] se n upodiast mata tou idÐou m kouc n .

b−a
JewroÔme dhlad  th
diamèrish
 
b−a 2(b − a) n(b − a)
(4.3.7) Pn = a, a + ,a + ,...,a + =b .
n n n

OrÐzoume

k(b − a)
(4.3.8) xk = a + , k = 0, 1, . . . , n.
n
'Estw k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1. H f eÐnai suneq c sto kleistì diˆsthma [xk , xk+1 ], ˆra
paÐrnei mègisth kai elˆqisth tim  se autì. Upˆrqoun dhlad  yk0 , yk00 ∈ [xk , xk+1 ]
¸ste

(4.3.9) Mk = f (yk0 ) kai mk = f (yk00 ).

Epiplèon, to m koc tou [xk , xk+1 ] eÐnai Ðso me b−a

n < δ , ˆra

(4.3.10) |yk0 − yk00 | < δ.

Apì thn epilog  tou δ paÐrnoume

ε
(4.3.11) Mk − mk = f (yk0 ) − f (yk00 ) = |f (yk0 ) − f (yk00 )| < .
b−a
 4.4 Idiìthtes tou oloklhr¸matos Riemann · 65

'Epetai ìti
n−1
X
U (f, Pn ) − L(f, Pn ) = (Mk − mk )(xk+1 − xk )
k=0
n−1
X ε
< (xk+1 − xk )
b−a
k=0
ε
(b − a) = ε.
=
b−a
Apì to Je¸rhma 4.2.1, h f eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh. 2

4.4 Idiìthtec tou oloklhr¸matoc Riemann

Se aut n thn parˆgrafo apodeiknÔoume austhrˆ merikèc apì tic pio basikèc idiìthtec
tou oloklhr¸matoc Riemann. Oi apodeÐxeic twn upoloÐpwn eÐnai mia kal  ˆskhsh
pou ja sac bohj sei na exoikeiwjeÐte me tic diamerÐseic, ta ˆnw kai kˆtw ajroÐsmata
klp.
Je¸rhma 4.4.1. An f (x) = c gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b] , tìte

Z b
(4.4.1) f (x)dx = c(b − a).
a
Apìdeixh: 'Estw P = {a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b} mia diamèrish tou [a, b]. Gia
kˆje k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 èqoume mk = Mk = c. 'Ara,
n−1
X
(4.4.2) L(f, P ) = U (f, P ) = c(xk+1 − xk ) = c(b − a).
k=0

'Epetai ìti
Z b Z b
(4.4.3) f (x)dx = c(b − a) = f (x)dx.
a a

'Ara,
Z b
(4.4.4) f (x)dx = c(b − a). 2
a
Je¸rhma 4.4.2. 'Estw f, g : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simec sunart seic. Tìte, h f +g
eÐnai oloklhr¸simh kai

Z b Z b Z b
(4.4.5) [f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx.
a a a
Apìdeixh . 'Estw P = {a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b} diamèrish tou [a, b]. Gia kˆje
k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 orÐzoume
mk = inf{(f + g)(x) : xk ≤ x ≤ xk+1 }
Mk = sup{(f + g)(x) : xk ≤ x ≤ xk+1 }
m0k = inf{f (x) : xk ≤ x ≤ xk+1 }
Mk0 = sup{f (x) : xk ≤ x ≤ xk+1 }
m00k = inf{g(x) : xk ≤ x ≤ xk+1 }
Mk00 = sup{g(x) : xk ≤ x ≤ xk+1 }.
66 · Olokl rwma Riemann

Gia kˆje x ∈ [xk , xk+1 ] èqoume m0k + m00k ≤ f (x) + g(x). 'Ara,

(4.4.6) m0k + m00k ≤ mk .

OmoÐwc, gia kˆje x ∈ [xk , xk+1 ] èqoume Mk0 + Mk00 ≥ f (x) + g(x). 'Ara,

(4.4.7) Mk0 + Mk00 ≥ Mk .

'Epetai ìti

(4.4.8) L(f, P ) + L(g, P ) ≤ L(f + g, P ) ≤ U (f + g, P ) ≤ U (f, P ) + U (g, P ).

'Estw ε > 0. Upˆrqoun diamerÐseic P1 , P2 tou [a, b] ¸ste

Z b
ε ε
(4.4.9) U (f, P1 ) − < f (x)dx < L(f, P1 ) +
2 a 2
kai
Z b
ε ε
(4.4.10) U (g, P2 ) − < g(x)dx < L(g, P2 ) + .
2 a 2
An jewr soume thn koin  touc eklèptunsh P = P1 ∪ P2 èqoume

U (f, P ) + U (g, P ) − ε ≤ U (f, P1 ) + U (g, P2 ) − ε

Z b Z b
< f (x)dx + g(x)dx
a a
< L(f, P1 ) + L(g, P2 ) + ε
≤ L(f, P ) + L(g, P ) + ε.

Sunduˆzontac me thn (4.4.8) blèpoume ìti

Z b Z b Z b
(f + g)(x)dx − ε ≤ U (f + g, P ) − ε ≤ f (x)dx + g(x)dx
a a a
Z b
≤ L(f + g, P ) + ε ≤ (f + g)(x)dx + ε.
a

AfoÔ to ε > 0  tan tuqìn,

Z b Z b Z b Z b
(4.4.11) (f + g)(x)dx ≤ f (x)dx + g(x)dx ≤ (f + g)(x)dx.
a a a a

'Omwc,
Z b Z b
(4.4.12) (f + g)(x)dx ≤ (f + g)(x)dx.
a a

'Ara,
Z b Z b Z b Z b
(4.4.13) (f + g)(x)dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx = (f + g)(x)dx.
a a a a

'Epetai to Je¸rhma. 2
 4.4 Idiìthtes tou oloklhr¸matos Riemann · 67

Je¸rhma 4.4.3. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simh kai èstw t∈R . Tìte, h tf

eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto [a, b]
kai

Z b Z b
(4.4.14) (tf )(x)dx = t f (x)dx.
a a

Apìdeixh . Ac upojèsoume pr¸ta ìti t > 0. 'Estw P = {a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn =

b} diamèrish tou [a, b]. An gia k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 orÐsoume

(4.4.15) mk = inf{(tf )(x) : xk ≤ x ≤ xk+1 }, Mk = sup{(tf )(x) : xk ≤ x ≤ xk+1 }

kai

(4.4.16) m0k = inf{f (x) : xk ≤ x ≤ xk+1 }, Mk0 = sup{f (x) : xk ≤ x ≤ xk+1 },

eÐnai fanerì ìti

(4.4.17) mk = tm0k kai Mk = tMk0 .

'Ara,

(4.4.18) L(tf, P ) = tL(f, P ) kai U (tf, P ) = tU (f, P ).

'Epetai ìti
Z b Z b Z b Z b
(4.4.19) (tf )(x)dx = t f (x)dx kai (tf )(x)dx = t f (x)dx.
a a a a

AfoÔ h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh, èqoume

Z b Z b
(4.4.20) f (x)dx = f (x)dx.
a a

'Epetai ìti h tf eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh, kai

Z b Z b
(4.4.21) (tf )(x)dx = t f (x)dx.
a a

An t < 0, h mình allag  sto prohgoÔmeno epiqeÐrhma eÐnai ìti t¸ra mk = tMk0 kai
Mk = tm0k . Sumplhr¸ste thn apìdeixh mìnoi sac.
Tèloc, an t = 0 èqoume tf ≡ 0. 'Ara,
Z b Z b
(4.4.22) tf = 0 = 0 · f. 2
a a

Apì ta Jewr mata 4.4.2 kai 4.4.3 prokÔptei ˆmesa h {grammikìthta tou oloklhr¸-
matoc}.
Je¸rhma 4.4.4 (grammikìthta tou oloklhr¸matoc). An f, g : [a, b] → R eÐnai

dÔo oloklhr¸simec sunart seic kai t, s ∈ R , tìte h tf + sg eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto

[a, b] kai

Z b Z b Z b
(4.4.23) (tf + sg)(x)dx = t f (x)dx + s g(x)dx. 2
a a a
68 · Olokl rwma Riemann

Je¸rhma 4.4.5. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R fragmènh sunˆrthsh kai èstw c ∈ (a, b).

H f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto [a, b] an kai mìno an eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sta [a, c]kai

[c, b]. Tìte, isqÔei

Z b Z c Z b
(4.4.24) f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
a a c

Apìdeixh . Upojètoume pr¸ta ìti h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sta [a, c] kai [c, b]. 'Estw
ε > 0. Upˆrqoun diamerÐseic P1 tou [a, c] kai P2 tou [c, b] ¸ste
Z c
ε
(4.4.25) L(f, P1 ) ≤ f (x)dx ≤ U (f, P1 ) kai U (f, P1 ) − L(f, P1 ) <
a 2
kai
Z b
ε
(4.4.26) L(f, P2 ) ≤ f (x)dx ≤ U (f, P2 ) kai U (f, P2 ) − L(f, P2 ) < .
c 2

To sÔnolo Pε = P1 ∪ P2 eÐnai diamèrish tou [a, b] kai isqÔoun oi

(4.4.27) L(f, Pε ) = L(f, P1 ) + L(f, P2 ) kai U (f, Pε ) = U (f, P1 ) + U (f, P2 ).

Apì tic parapˆnw sqèseic paÐrnoume

U (f, Pε ) − L(f, Pε ) = (U (f, P1 ) − L(f, P1 )) + (U (f, P2 ) − L(f, P2 ))

ε ε
< + = ε.
2 2
AfoÔ to ε > 0  tan tuqìn, h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto [a, b] (krit rio tou Riemann).
Epiplèon, gia thn Pε èqoume
Z b
(4.4.28) L(f, Pε ) ≤ f (x)dx ≤ U (f, Pε )
a

kai, apì tic (4.4.25), (4.4.26) kai (4.4.27),

Z c Z b
(4.4.29) L(f, Pε ) ≤ f (x)dx + f (x)dx ≤ U (f, Pε ).
a c

Epomènwc,
!
Z
 b Z c Z b 
(4.4.30) 
 f (x)dx − f (x)dx + f (x)dx  ≤ U (f, Pε ) − L(f, Pε ) < ε,
a a c

kai afoÔ to ε > 0  tan tuqìn,

Z b Z c Z b
(4.4.31) f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
a a c

AntÐstrofa: upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto [a, b] kai jewroÔme ε > 0.
Upˆrqei diamèrish P tou [a, b] ¸ste

(4.4.32) U (f, P ) − L(f, P ) < ε.

 4.4 Idiìthtes tou oloklhr¸matos Riemann · 69

An c ∈
/ P jètoume P 0 = P ∪ {c}, opìte pˆli èqoume

(4.4.33) U (f, P 0 ) − L(f, P 0 ) ≤ U (f, P ) − L(f, P ) < ε.

MporoÔme loipìn na upojèsoume ìti c ∈ P . OrÐzoume P1 = P ∩ [a, c] kai P2 =

P ∩ [c, b]. Oi P1 , P2 eÐnai diamerÐseic twn [a, c] kai [c, b] antÐstoiqa, kai

(4.4.34) L(f, P ) = L(f, P1 ) + L(f, P2 ) , U (f, P ) = U (f, P1 ) + U (f, P2 ).

AfoÔ

(4.4.35) (U (f, P1 ) − L(f, P1 )) + (U (f, P2 ) − L(f, P2 )) = U (f, P ) − L(f, P ) < ε,

èpetai ìti

(4.4.36) U (f, P1 ) − L(f, P1 ) < ε kai U (f, P2 ) − L(f, P2 ) < ε.

AfoÔ to ε > 0  tan tuqìn, to krit rio tou Riemann deÐqnei ìti h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh
sta [a, c] kai [c, b]. T¸ra, apì to pr¸to mèroc thc apìdeixhc paÐrnoume thn isìthta
Z b Z c Z b
(4.4.37) f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx. 2
a a c

Je¸rhma 4.4.6. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simh sunˆrthsh. Upojètoume ìti

m ≤ f (x) ≤ M gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b] . Tìte,

Z b
(4.4.38) m(b − a) ≤ f (x)dx ≤ M (b − a).
a

ShmeÐwsh . O arijmìc
Z b
1
(4.4.39) f (x)dx
b−a a

eÐnai h mèsh tim  thc f sto [a, b].

Apìdeixh . ArkeÐ na diapist¸sete ìti gia kˆje diamèrish P tou [a, b] isqÔei

(4.4.40) m(b − a) ≤ L(f, P ) ≤ U (f, P ) ≤ M (b − a)

(to opoÐo eÐnai polÔ eÔkolo). 2

Pìrisma 4.4.7. (a) 'Estw f : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simh sunˆrthsh. Upojètoume

ìti f (x) ≥ 0 gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b] . Tìte,

Z b
(4.4.41) f (x)dx ≥ 0.
a

(b) 'Estw f, g : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simec sunart seic. Upojètoume ìti f (x) ≥ g(x)

gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b]. Tìte,

Z b Z b
(4.4.42) f (x)dx ≥ g(x)dx.
a a
70 · Olokl rwma Riemann

Apìdeixh . (a) Efarmìzoume to Je¸rhma 4.4.6: mporoÔme na pˆroume m = 0.

(b) H f − g eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sunˆrthsh kai (f − g)(x) ≥ 0 gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b].
Efarmìzoume to (a) gia thn f −g kai qrhsimopoioÔme th grammikìthta tou oloklhr¸-
matoc. 2

Je¸rhma 4.4.8. 'Estw f : [a, b] → [m, M ] oloklhr¸simh sunˆrthsh kai èstw

φ : [m, M ] → R suneq c sunˆrthsh. φ ◦ f : [a, b] → R

Tìte, h eÐnai oloklhr¸simh.

Apìdeixh . 'Estw ε > 0. Ja broÔme diamèrish P tou [a, b] me thn idiìthta U (φ ◦

f, P ) − L(φ ◦ f, P ) < ε. To zhtoÔmeno èpetai apì to krit rio tou Riemann.
H φ eÐnai suneq c sto [m, M ], ˆra eÐnai fragmènh: upˆrqei A > 0 ¸ste |φ(ξ)| ≤
A gia kˆje ξ ∈ [m, M ]. EpÐshc, h φ eÐnai omoiìmorfa suneq c: an jèsoume ε1 =
ε/(2A + b − a) > 0, upˆrqei 0 < δ < ε1 ¸ste, gia kˆje ξ, η ∈ [m, M ] me |ξ − η| < δ
isqÔei |φ(ξ) − φ(η)| < ε1 .
Efarmìzontac to krit rio tou Riemann gia thn oloklhr¸simh sunˆrthsh f ,
brÐskoume diamerish P = {a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xk < xk+1 < · · · < xn = b} ¸ste
n−1
X
(4.4.43) U (f, P ) − L(f, P ) = (Mk (f ) − mk (f ))(xk+1 − xk ) < δ 2 .
k=0

OrÐzoume

I = {0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1 : Mk (f ) − mk (f ) < δ}
J = {0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1 : Mk (f ) − mk (f ) ≥ δ}.

ParathroÔme ta ex c:
(i) An k ∈ I , tìte gia kˆje x, x0 ∈ [xk , xk+1 ] èqoume |f (x) − f (x0 )| ≤ Mk (f ) −
mk (f ) < δ . PaÐrnontac ξ = f (x) kai η = f (x0 ), èqoume ξ, η ∈ [m, M ] kai |ξ −η| < δ .
'Ara,
|(φ ◦ f )(x) − (φ ◦ f )(x0 )| = |φ(ξ) − φ(η)| < ε1 .
AfoÔ ta x, x0  tan tuqìnta sto [xk , xk+1 ], sumperaÐnoume ìti Mk (φ◦f )−mk (φ◦f ) ≤
ε1 (exhg ste giatÐ). 'Epetai ìti
X X
(4.4.44) (Mk (φ ◦ f ) − mk (φ ◦ f ))(xk+1 − xk ) ≤ ε (xk+1 − xk ) ≤ (b − a)ε1 .
k∈I k∈I

(ii) Gia to J èqoume, apì thn (4.4.43),

X X
(4.4.45) δ (xk+1 − xk ) ≤ (Mk (f ) − mk (f ))(xk+1 − xk ) < δ 2 ,
k∈J k∈J

ˆra
X
(4.4.46) (xk+1 − xk ) < δ < ε1 .
k∈J

EpÐshc,

(4.4.47) |(φ ◦ f )(x) − (φ ◦ f )(x0 )| ≤ |(φ ◦ f )(x)| + |(φ ◦ f )(x0 )| ≤ 2A

 4.4 Idiìthtes tou oloklhr¸matos Riemann · 71

gia kˆje x, x0 ∈ [xk , xk+1 ], ˆra Mk (φ ◦ f ) − mk (φ ◦ f ) ≤ 2A gia kˆje k ∈ J . 'Epetai

ìti
X X
(4.4.48) (Mk (φ ◦ f ) − mk (φ ◦ f ))(xk+1 − xk ) ≤ 2A (xk+1 − xk ) < 2Aε1 .
k∈J k∈J

Apì tic (4.4.44) kai (4.4.48) sumperaÐnoume ìti

n−1
X
U (φ ◦ f, P ) − L(φ ◦ f, P ) = (Mk (φ ◦ f ) − mk (φ ◦ f ))(xk+1 − xk )
k=0
X
= (Mk (φ ◦ f ) − mk (φ ◦ f ))(xk+1 − xk )
k∈I
X
+ (Mk (φ ◦ f ) − mk (φ ◦ f ))(xk+1 − xk )
k∈J
< (b − a)ε1 + 2Aε1 = ε.

Autì oloklhr¸nei thn apìdeixh. 2

Qrhsimopoi¸ntac to Je¸rhma 4.4.8 mporoÔme na elègxoume eÔkola thn oloklhrwsimìth-
ta diafìrwn sunart sewn pou prokÔptoun apì thn sÔnjesh miac oloklhr¸simhc
sunˆrthshc f me katˆllhlec suneqeÐc sunart seic.

Je¸rhma 4.4.9. 'Estw f, g : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simec sunart seic. Tìte,

(a) h |f | eÐnai oloklhr¸simh kai

Z
 b  Z
 b
(4.4.49) 
 f (x)dx ≤ |f (x)|dx.
a a

(b) h f2 eÐnai oloklhr¸simh.

(g) h fg eÐnai oloklhr¸simh.

Apìdeixh . Ta (a) kai (b) eÐnai ˆmesec sunèpeiec tou Jewr matoc 4.4.8. Gia to (g)
grˆyte

(f + g)2 − (f − g)2
(4.4.50) fg =
4
kai qrhsimopoi ste to (b) se sunduasmì me to gegonìc ìti oi f + g, f − g eÐnai
oloklhr¸simec. 2

Mia sÔmbash. Wc t¸ra orÐsame to a f (x)dx mìno sthn perÐptwsh a < b (douleÔame
Rb

sto kleistì diˆsthma [a, b]). Gia praktikoÔc lìgouc epekteÐnoume ton orismì kai
sthn perÐptwsh a ≥ b wc ex c:
Ra
(a) an a = b, jètoume a f = 0 (gia kˆje f ).
(b) an a > b kai h f : [b, a] → R eÐnai oloklhr¸simh, orÐzoume
Z b Z a
(4.4.51) f (x)dx = − f (x)dx.
a b
72 · Olokl rwma Riemann

4.5 O orismìc tou Riemann*

O orismìc pou d¸same gia thn oloklhrwsimìthta miac fragmènhc sunˆrthshc f :
[a, b] → R ofeÐletai ston Darboux. O pr¸toc austhrìc orismìc thc oloklhrwsimìth-
tac dìjhke apì ton Riemann kai eÐnai o ex c:
Orismìc 4.5.1. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R fragmènh sunˆrthsh. Lème ìti h f eÐnai
oloklhr¸simh sto [a, b] an upˆrqei ènac pragmatikìc arijmìc I(f ) me thn ex c
idiìthta:
Gia kˆje ε > 0 mporoÔme na broÔme δ > 0 ¸ste: an P = {a = x0 <
x1 < · · · < xn = b} eÐnai diamèrish tou [a, b] me plˆtoc kP k < δ kai an
ξk ∈ [xk , xk+1 ], k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 eÐnai tuqoÔsa epilog  shmeÐwn apì
ta upodiast mata pou orÐzei h P , tìte
 n−1 
X 

 f (ξ k )(xk+1 − xk ) − I(f ) < ε.

k=0

Se aut  thn perÐptwsh lème ìti o I(f ) eÐnai to (R)-olokl rwma thc f sto [a, b].
Sumbolismìc . Sun jwc grˆfoume Ξ gia thn epilog  shmeÐwn {ξ0 , ξ1 , . . . , ξn−1 } kai
(f, P, Ξ) gia to ˆjroisma
P

n−1
X
(4.5.1) f (ξk )(xk+1 − xk ).
k=0

Parathr ste ìti t¸ra to Ξ {upeisèrqetai} sto sumbolismì (f, P, Ξ) afoÔ gi-

P
a thn Ðdia diamèrish P mporoÔme na èqoume pollèc diaforetikèc epilogèc Ξ =
{ξ0 , ξ1 , . . . , ξn−1 } me ξk ∈ [xk , xk+1 ].
H basik  idèa pÐsw apì ton orismì eÐnai ìti
Z b X
(4.5.2) f (x)dx = lim (f, P, Ξ)
a

ìtan to plˆtoc thc P teÐnei sto mhdèn kai ta ξk epilègontai aujaÐreta sta upodi-
ast mata pou orÐzei h P . Epeid  den èqoume sunant sei tètoiou eÐdouc {ìria} wc
t¸ra, katafeÔgoume ston {eyilontikì orismì}.
Skopìc aut c thc paragrˆfou eÐnai h apìdeixh thc isodunamÐac twn dÔo orism¸n
oloklhrwsimìthtac:
Je¸rhma 4.5.2. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R fragmènh sunˆrthsh. H f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh

katˆ Darboux an kai mìno an eÐnai oloklhr¸simh katˆ Riemann .

Apìdeixh . Upojètoume pr¸ta ìti h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh katˆ Riemann. Grˆfoume

I(f ) gia to olokl rwma thc f me ton orismì tou Riemann.
'Estw ε > 0. MporoÔme na broÔme mia diamèrish P = {a = x0 < x1 <
· · · < xn = b} (me arketˆ mikrì plˆtoc) ¸ste gia kˆje epilog  shmeÐwn Ξ =
{ξ0 , ξ1 , . . . , ξn−1 } me ξk ∈ [xk , xk+1 ] na isqÔei
 n−1 
X  ε
(4.5.3)  f (ξk )(xk+1 − xk ) − I(f ) < .
 4
k=0
 4.5 O orismìs tou Riemann* · 73

Gia kˆje k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 mporoÔme na broÔme ξk0 , ξk00 ∈ [xk , xk+1 ] ¸ste

ε ε
(4.5.4) mk > f (ξk0 ) − kai Mk < f (ξk00 ) + .
4(b − a) 4(b − a)
'Ara,
n−1
X ε ε
(4.5.5) L(f, P ) > f (ξk0 )(xk+1 − xk ) − > I(f ) −
4 2
k=0

kai
n−1
X ε ε
(4.5.6) U (f, P ) < f (ξk00 )(xk+1 − xk ) + < I(f ) + .
4 2
k=0

'Epetai ìti

(4.5.7) U (f, P ) − L(f, P ) < ε,

dhlad  h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh katˆ Darboux. EpÐshc,

Z b Z b
ε ε
(4.5.8) I(f ) − < f (x)dx ≤ f (x)dx < I(f ) + ,
2 a a 2

kai afoÔ to ε > 0  tan tuqìn,

Z b Z b
(4.5.9) f (x)dx = f (x)dx = I(f ).
a a

Dhlad ,
Z b
(4.5.10) f (x)dx = I(f ).
a

AntÐstrofa: upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh me ton orismì tou Darboux.

'Estw ε > 0. Upˆrqei diamèrish P = {a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b} tou [a, b] ¸ste
ε
(4.5.11) U (f, P ) − L(f, P ) < .
4
H f eÐnai fragmènh, dhlad  upˆrqei M > 0 ¸ste |f (x)| ≤ M gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b].
Epilègoume
ε
(4.5.12) δ= > 0.
6nM
'Estw P 0 diamèrish tou [a, b] me plˆtoc kP k < δ , h opoÐa eÐnai kai eklèptunsh
thc P . Tìte, gia kˆje epilog  Ξ shmeÐwn apì ta upodiast mata pou orÐzei h P 0
èqoume
Z b
ε X
f (x)dx − < L(f, P ) ≤ L(f, P 0 ) ≤ (f, P 0 , Ξ)
a 4
Z b
0 ε
≤ U (f, P ) ≤ U (f, P ) < f (x)dx + .
a 4
74 · Olokl rwma Riemann

Dhlad ,
X Z b 
 ε
0

(4.5.13)  (f, P , Ξ) − f (x)dx < .

a 2
Zhtˆme na deÐxoume to Ðdio prˆgma gia tuqoÔsa diamèrish P1 me plˆtoc mikrìtero
apì δ (h duskolÐa eÐnai ìti mia tètoia diamèrish den èqei kanèna lìgo na eÐnai eklèp-
tunsh thc P ).
'Estw P1 = {a = y0 < y1 < · · · < ym = b} mia tètoia diamèrish tou [a, b]. Ja
{prosjèsoume} sthn P1 èna-èna ìla ta shmeÐa xk thc P ta opoÐa den an koun sthn
P1 (autˆ eÐnai to polÔ n − 1).
Ac poÔme ìti èna tètoio xk brÐsketai anˆmesa sta diadoqikˆ shmeÐa yl < yl+1 thc
P1 . JewroÔme thn P2 = P1 ∪ {xk } kai tuqoÔsa epilog  Ξ(1) = {ξ0 , ξ1 , . . . , ξm−1 }
me ξl ∈ [yl , yl+1 ], l = 0, 1, . . . , m − 1. Epilègoume dÔo shmeÐa ξl0 ∈ [yl , xk ] kai ξl00 ∈
[xk , yl+1 ] kai jewroÔme thn epilog  shmeÐwn Ξ(2) = {ξ0 , ξ1 , . . . , ξl−1 , ξl0 , ξl00 , . . . , ξm−1 }
pou antistoiqeÐ sthn P2 . 'Eqoume
X X 
(1) (2)  0
 

 (f, P 1 , Ξ ) − (f, P 2 , Ξ ) = |f (ξl )(yl+1 − yl ) − f (ξl )(xk − yl )
−f (ξl00 )(yl+1 − xk )|
≤ 3M max |yl+1 − yl | < 3M δ
l
ε
= .
2n
Antikajist¸ntac th dosmènh (P1 , Ξ(1) ) me ìlo kai leptìterec diamerÐseic (Pk , Ξ(k) )
pou prokÔptoun me thn prosj kh shmeÐwn thc P , metˆ apì n to polÔ b mata
ftˆnoume se mia diamèrish P0 kai mia epilog  shmeÐwn Ξ(0) me tic ex c idiìthtec:
(a) h P0 eÐnai koin  eklèptunsh twn P kai P1 , kai èqei plˆtoc mikrìtero apì δ .
(b) afoÔ h P0 eÐnai eklèptunsh thc P , ìpwc sthn (4.5.13) èqoume
X Z b 
 (0)
 ε
(4.5.14) 
 (f, P 0 , Ξ ) − f (x)dx< .
 2
a

(g) afoÔ kˆname to polÔ n b mata gia na ftˆsoume sthn P0 kai afoÔ se kˆje b ma
ta ajroÐsmata apeÐqan to polÔ 2n ε
, èqoume
X 
 (1)
X
(0) 
 ε ε
 (f, P1 , Ξ ) − (f, P0 , Ξ ) < n = .
 2n 2
Dhlad , gia thn tuqoÔsa diamèrish P1 plˆtouc < δ kai gia thn tuqoÔsa epilog 
Ξ(1) shmeÐwn apì ta upodiast mata thc P1 , èqoume
X Z b  X X 
(1) (1) (0) 
   

 (f, P 1 , Ξ ) − f (x)dx
 < 
 (f, P 1 , Ξ ) − (f, P 0 , Ξ )
a
X Z b 
(f, P0 , Ξ(0) ) −
 
+ f (x)dx
a
ε ε
< + = ε.
2 2
'Epetai ìti h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh me ton orismì tou Riemann, kaj¸c kai ìti oi
Rb
I(f ) kai a f (x)dx eÐnai Ðsoi. 2
 4.6 Ask seis · 75

4.6 Ask seic
Omˆda A'. Erwt seic katanìhshc

'Estw f : [a, b] → R. Exetˆste an oi parakˆtw protˆseic eÐnai alhjeÐc   yeudeÐc

(aitiolog ste pl rwc thn apˆnths  sac).

1. An h f eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh, tìte h f eÐnai fragmènh.

2. An h f eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh, tìte paÐrnei mègisth tim .

3. An h f eÐnai fragmènh, tìte eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh.

4. An h |f | eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh, tìte h f eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh.

5. An h f eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh, tìte upˆrqei c ∈ [a, b] ¸ste f (c)(b − a) =

Rb
a
f (x) dx.

6. An h f eÐnai fragmènh kai an L(f, P ) = U (f, P ) gia kˆje diamèrish P tou [a, b],
tìte h f eÐnai stajer .

7. An h f eÐnai fragmènh kai an upˆrqei diamèrish P ¸ste L(f, P ) = U (f, P ), tìte

h f eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh.

8. An h f eÐnai Riemann oloklhr¸simh kai an f (x) = 0 gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b] ∩ Q, tìte

Z b
f (x)dx = 0.
a

Omˆda B'
9. 'Estw f : [0, 1] → R fragmènh sunˆrthsh me thn idiìthta: gia kˆje 0 < b ≤ 1
h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto diˆsthma [b, 1]. DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto
[0, 1].

10. ApodeÐxte ìti h sunˆrthsh f : [−1, 1] → R me f (x) = sin x1 an x 6= 0 kai

f (0) = 2 eÐnai oloklhr¸simh.

11. 'Estw g : [a, b] → R fragmènh sunˆrthsh. Upojètoume ìti h g eÐnai suneq c

pantoÔ, ektìc apì èna shmeÐo x0 ∈ (a, b). DeÐxte ìti h g eÐnai oloklhr¸simh.

12. Qrhsimopoi¸ntac to krit rio tou Riemann apodeÐxte ìti oi parakˆtw sunart -

seic eÐnai oloklhr¸simec:
(a) f : [0, 1] → R me f (x) = x.
(b) f : [0, π/2] → R me f (x) = sin x.

13. Exetˆste an oi parakˆtw sunart seic eÐnai oloklhr¸simec sto [0, 2] kai up-
ologÐste to olokl rwma touc (an upˆrqei):
(a) f (x) = x + [x].
76 · Olokl rwma Riemann

(b) f (x) = 1 an x = 1
k gia kˆpoion k ∈ N, kai f (x) = 0 alli¸c.

14. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R suneq c sunˆrthsh me f (x) ≥ 0 gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b]. DeÐxte
ìti Z b
f (x)dx = 0
a

an kai mìno an f (x) = 0 gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b].

15. 'Estw f, g : [a, b] → R suneqeÐc sunart seic ¸ste

Z b Z b
f (x)dx = g(x)dx.
a a

DeÐxte ìti upˆrqei x0 ∈ [a, b] ¸ste f (x0 ) = g(x0 ).

16. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R suneq c sunˆrthsh me thn idiìthta: gia kˆje suneq 
sunˆrthsh g : [a, b] → R isqÔei
Z b
f (x)g(x)dx = 0.
a

DeÐxte ìti f (x) = 0 gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b].

17. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R suneq c sunˆrthsh me thn idiìthta: gia kˆje suneq 
sunˆrthsh g : [a, b] → R pou ikanopoieÐ thn g(a) = g(b) = 0, isqÔei
Z b
f (x)g(x)dx = 0.
a

DeÐxte ìti f (x) = 0 gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b].

18. 'Estw f, g : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simec sunart seic. DeÐxte thn anisìthta

Cauchy-Schwarz:
!2 ! !
Z b Z b Z b
f (x)g(x)dx ≤ f 2 (x)dx · g 2 (x)dx .
a a a

19. 'Estw f : [0, 1] → R oloklhr¸simh sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti

Z 1 2 Z 1
f (x)dx ≤ f 2 (x)dx.
0 0

IsqÔei to Ðdio an antikatast soume to [0, 1] me tuqìn diˆsthma [a, b]?

20. 'Estw f : [0, +∞) → R suneq c sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti

Z x
1
lim f (t)dt = f (0).
x→0 x
+
0
 4.6 Ask seis · 77

21. 'Estw f : [0, 1] → R oloklhr¸simh sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti h akoloujÐa

n  
1X k
an = f
n n
k=1

R1
sugklÐnei sto 0
f (x)dx. [ Upìdeixh: Qrhsimopoi ste ton orismì tou Riemann.]

22. DeÐxte ìti √ √ √

1+ 2 + ··· + n 2
lim √ = .
n→∞ n n 3

23. 'Estw
R1
f : [0, 1] → R suneq c sunˆrthsh. OrÐzoume mia akoloujÐa (an ) jètontac
an = 0 f (xn )dx. DeÐxte ìti an → f (0).

24. DeÐxte ìti h akoloujÐa γn = 1 + 12 + 13 + · · · + n1 −

Rn 1
1 x
dx sugklÐnei.

25. 'Estw f : [0, 1] → R Lipschitz suneq c sunˆrthsh ¸ste

|f (x) − f (y)| ≤ M |x − y|

gia kˆje x, y ∈ [0, 1]. DeÐxte ìti

Z 1 n  
 1X k  M
 f (x)dx − f ≤

0 n n  2n
k=1

gia kˆje n ∈ N.

Omˆda G'
26. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R gnhsÐwc aÔxousa kai suneq c sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti
Z b Z f (b)
f (x)dx = bf (b) − af (a) − f −1 (x)dx.
a f (a)

27. 'Estw f : [0, +∞) → [0, +∞) gnhsÐwc aÔxousa, suneq c kai epÐ sunˆrthsh me
f (0) = 0. DeÐxte ìti gia kˆje a, b > 0
Z a Z b
ab ≤ f (x)dx + f −1 (x)dx
0 0

me isìthta an kai mìno an f (a) = b.

28. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R suneq c sunˆrthsh me thn ex c idiìthta: upˆrqei M > 0
¸ste Z x
|f (x)| ≤ M |f (t)|dt
a

gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b]. DeÐxte ìti f (x) = 0 gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b].
78 · Olokl rwma Riemann

29. 'Estw a ∈ R. DeÐxte ìti den upˆrqei jetik  suneq c sunˆrthsh f : [0, 1] → R
¸ste Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
f (x)dx = 1, xf (x)dx = a kai x2 f (x)dx = a2 .
0 0 0

30. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R suneq c, mh arnhtik  sunˆrthsh. Jètoume M = max{f (x) :

x ∈ [a, b]}. DeÐxte oti h akoloujÐa
!1/n
Z b
γn = [f (x)]n dx
a

sugklÐnei, kai limn→∞ γn = M .

31. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simh sunˆrthsh. Skopìc aut c thc ˆskhshc eÐnai
na deÐxoume ìti h f èqei pollˆ shmeÐa sunèqeiac.
(a) Upˆrqei diamèrish P tou [a, b] ¸ste U (f, P ) − L(f, P ) < b − a (exhg ste giatÐ).
DeÐxte ìti upˆrqoun a1 < b1 sto [a, b] ¸ste b1 − a1 < 1 kai

sup{f (x) : a1 ≤ x ≤ b1 } − inf{f (x) : a1 ≤ x ≤ b1 } < 1.

(b) Epagwgikˆ orÐste kibwtismèna diast mata [an , bn ] ⊆ (an−1 , bn−1 ) me m koc

mikrìtero apì 1/n ¸ste
1
sup{f (x) : an ≤ x ≤ bn } − inf{f (x) : an ≤ x ≤ bn } < .
n
(g) H tom  aut¸n twn kibwtismènwn diasthmˆtwn perièqei akrib¸c èna shmeÐo.
DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai suneq c se autì.
(d) T¸ra deÐxte ìti h f èqei ˆpeira shmeÐa sunèqeiac sto [a, b] (den qreiˆzetai peris-
sìterh douleiˆ!).

32. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simh (ìqi anagkastikˆ suneq c) sunˆrthsh me

f (x) > 0 gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b]. DeÐxte ìti
Z b
f (x)dx > 0.
a

Omˆda D'. Sumplhr¸mata thc JewrÐac

ApodeÐxte tic parakˆtw protˆseic.

33. 'Estw f, g, h : [a, b] → R treÐc sunart seic pou ikanopoioÔn thn f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤
h(x) gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b]. Upojètoume ìti oi f, h eÐnai oloklhr¸simec kai
Z b Z b
f (x)dx = h(x)dx = I.
a a

DeÐxte ìti h g eÐnai oloklhr¸simh kai

Z b
g(x)dx = I.
a
 4.6 Ask seis · 79

34. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simh sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti h |f | eÐnai oloklhr¸simh.

OmoÐwc, ìti h f 2 eÐnai oloklhr¸simh.

35. 'Estw f, g : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simec sunart seic. DeÐxte ìti h f · g eÐnai

oloklhr¸simh.

36. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simh. DeÐxte ìti

Z
 b  Z
 b

 f (x)dx ≤ |f (x)|dx.
a a

37. 'Estw f : R → R sunˆrthsh oloklhr¸simh se kˆje kleistì diˆsthma thc

morf c [a, b]. DeÐxte ìti:
Ra Ra
(a) 0 f (x)dx = 0 f (a − x)dx.
Rb Rb
(b) a f (x)dx = a f (a + b − x)dx.
Rb R b+c
(g) a f (x)dx = a+c f (x − c)dx.
R cb Rb
(d) ca f (t)dt = c a f (ct)dt.
Ra
(e) −a f (x)dx = 0 an h f eÐnai peritt .
Ra Ra
(st) −a f (x)dx = 2 0 f (x)dx an h f eÐnai ˆrtia.

38. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R fragmènh sunˆrthsh.

(a) DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh an kai mìno an gia kˆje ε > 0 mporoÔme na
broÔme klimakwtèc sunˆrt seic gε , hε : [a, b] → R me gε ≤ f ≤ hε kai
Z b Z b
hε (x)dx − gε (x)dx < ε.
a a

(b) DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh an kai mìno an gia kˆje ε > 0 mporoÔme na
broÔme suneqeÐc sunart seic gε , hε : [a, b] → R me gε ≤ f ≤ hε kai
Z b Z b
hε (x)dx − gε (x)dx < ε.
a a
Kefˆlaio 5

To jemeli¸dec je¸rhma tou

ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ
Se autì to Kefˆlaio ja lème ìti mia sunˆrthsh f : [a, b] → R eÐnai paragwgÐsimh

sto [a, b] an h parˆgwgoc f 0 (x) upˆrqei gia kˆje x ∈ (a, b) kai, epiplèon, upˆrqoun
oi pleurikèc parˆgwgoi

f (x) − f (a) f (x) − f (b)

0
f+ (a) = lim+ kai f−
0
(b) = lim .
x→a x−a x→b− x−b

SumfwnoÔme na grˆfoume f 0 (a) = f+

0
(a) kai f 0 (b) = f−
0
(b).

5.1 To je¸rhma mèshc tou OloklhrwtikoÔ LogismoÔ

'Estw f : [a, b] → R mia Riemann oloklhr¸simh sunˆrthsh. Sto prohgoÔmeno
Kefˆlaio orÐsame th mèsh tim 

Z b
1
(5.1.1) f (x)dx
b−a a

thc f sto [a, b]. An h f upotejeÐ suneq c, tìte upˆrqei ξ ∈ [a, b] me thn idiìthta
Z b
1
(5.1.2) f (ξ) = f (x)dx.
b−a a

O isqurismìc autìc eÐnai ˆmesh sunèpeia tou ex c genikìterou jewr matoc.

Je¸rhma 5.1.1 (je¸rhma mèshc tim c tou oloklhrwtikoÔ logismoÔ). 'Est-

w f : [a, b] → R suneq c sunˆrthsh kai èstwg : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simh

sunˆrthsh me mh arnhtikèc timèc. Upˆrqei ξ ∈ [a, b] ¸ste

Z b Z b
(5.1.3) f (x)g(x)dx = f (ξ) g(x)dx.
a a
82 · To jemeli¸des je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ

Apìdeixh . Oi f kai g eÐnai oloklhr¸simec, ˆra h f · g eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto [a, b].
H f eÐnai suneq c sto [a, b], ˆra paÐrnei elˆqisth kai mègisth tim . 'Estw

(5.1.4) m = min{f (x) : a ≤ x ≤ b} kai M = max{f (x) : a ≤ x ≤ b}.

AfoÔ h g paÐrnei mh arnhtikèc timèc, èqoume

(5.1.5) mg(x) ≤ f (x)g(x) ≤ M g(x)

gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b]. Sunep¸c,

Z b Z b Z b
(5.1.6) m g(x)dx ≤ f (x)g(x)dx ≤ M g(x)dx.
a a a
Rb
AfoÔ g ≥ 0 sto [a, b], èqoume a g(x)dx ≥ 0. DiakrÐnoume dÔo peript¸seic: an
Rb Rb
a
g(x)dx = 0, tìte apì thn (5.1.6) blèpoume ìti a f (x)g(x)dx = 0. 'Ara, h (5.1.3)
isqÔei ξ ∈ [a, b].
gia kˆje
Rb
Upojètoume loipìn ìti a g(x)dx > 0. Tìte, apì thn (5.1.6) sumperaÐnoume ìti
Rb
a
f (x)g(x)dx
(5.1.7) m≤ Rb ≤ M.
a
g(x)dx

AfoÔ h f eÐnai suneq c, to Je¸rhma Endiˆmeshc Tim c deÐqnei ìti upˆrqei ξ ∈ [a, b]
¸ste
Rb
f (x)g(x)dx
(5.1.8) f (ξ) = a R b .
a
g(x)dx
'Epetai to sumpèrasma. 2
Pìrisma 5.1.2. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R suneq c sunˆrthsh. Upˆrqei ξ ∈ [a, b] ¸ste

Z b
(5.1.9) f (x)dx = f (ξ)(b − a).
a

Apìdeixh . 'Amesh sunèpeia tou Jewr matoc 5.1.1, an jewr soume thn g : [a, b] → R

me g(x) = 1 gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b]. 2
Sthn epìmenh parˆgrafo ja deÐxoume (xanˆ) to Pìrisma 5.1.2, aut  th forˆ san
ˆmesh sunèpeia tou pr¸tou jemeli¸douc jewr matoc tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ.

5.2 Ta jemeli¸dh jewr mata tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ

Orismìc 5.2.1 (aìristo olokl rwma). 'Estw f : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simh
sunˆrthsh. EÐdame ìti h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto [a, x] gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b]. To
aìristo olokl rwma f eÐnai h sunˆrthsh F : [a, b] → R pou orÐzetai apì thn
thc

Z x
(5.2.1) F (x) = f (t)dt.
a

Qrhsimopoi¸ntac to gegonìc ìti kˆje Riemann oloklhr¸simh sunˆrthsh eÐnai

fragmènh, ja deÐxoume ìti to aìristo olokl rwma miac oloklhr¸simhc sunˆrthshc
eÐnai pˆntote suneq c sunˆrthsh.
 5.2 Ta jemeli¸dh jewr mata tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ · 83

Je¸rhma 5.2.2. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simh sunˆrthsh. To aìristo

olokl rwma F thc f eÐnai suneq c sunˆrthsh sto [a, b]

.

. AfoÔ h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh, eÐnai ex orismoÔ fragmènh. Dhlad , upˆrqei

Apìdeixh

M > 0 ¸ste |f (x)| ≤ M gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b].

'Estw x < y sto [a, b]. Tìte,
Z y Z x  Z y 
   
|F (x) − F (y)| =  f (t)dt − f (t)dt =  f (t)dt
Z ya a x

≤ |f (t)|dt ≤ M |x − y|.
x

'Ara, h F eÐnai Lipschitz suneq c (me stajerˆ M ). 2

MporoÔme na deÐxoume kˆti isqurìtero: sta shmeÐa sunèqeiac thc f , h F eÐnai

paragwgÐsimh.

Je¸rhma 5.2.3. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simh sunˆrthsh. An h f eÐnai

suneq c sto x0 ∈ [a, b] , tìte hF eÐnai paragwgÐsimh sto x0 kai

(5.2.2) F 0 (x0 ) = f (x0 ).

Apìdeixh. Upojètoume ìti a < x0 < b (oi dÔo peript¸seic x0 = a   x0 = b

elègqontai ìmoia, me th sÔmbash pou kˆname sthn arq  tou KefalaÐou). Jètoume
δ1 = min{x0 − a, b − x0 }. An |h| < δ1 , tìte
!
x0 +h x0
F (x0 + h) − F (x)
Z Z
1
− f (x0 ) = f (t)dt − f (t)dt − f (x0 )
h h a a
!
Z x0 +h Z x0 +h
1
= f (t)dt − f (x0 )dt
h x0 x0
Z x0 +h
1
= [f (t) − f (x0 )]dt.
h x0

'Estw ε > 0. H f eÐnai suneq c sto x0 , ˆra upˆrqei 0 < δ < δ1 ¸ste an |x − x0 | < δ
tìte |f (x) − f (x0 )| < ε.
'Estw 0 < |h| < δ .
(a) An 0 < h < δ , tìte
   Z x0 +h 
 F (x0 + h) − F (x)  1 
 − f (x0 ) = 
 [f (t) − f (x0 )]dt
 h h x0
1 x0 +h
Z
≤ |f (t) − f (x0 )|dt
h x0
1 x0 +h
Z
1
≤ εdt = · hε = ε.
h x0 h
84 · To jemeli¸des je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ

(b) An −δ < h < 0, tìte

   Z x0 
 F (x0 + h) − F (x)   1 
 − f (x )
0 
 =  [f (t) − f (x0 )]dt
 h |h| x0 +h
Z x0
1
≤ |f (t) − f (x0 )|dt
|h| x0 +h
Z x0
1 1
≤ εdt = · (−h)ε = ε.
|h| x0 +h |h|
'Epetai ìti
F (x0 + h) − F (x0 )
lim = f (x0 ),
h→0 h
dhlad  F 0 (x0 ) = f (x0 ). 2
'Amesh sunèpeia eÐnai to pr¸to jemeli¸dec je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ .
Je¸rhma 5.2.4 (pr¸to jemeli¸dec je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ).
An h f : [a, b] → R eÐnai suneq c, tìte to aìristo olokl rwma F thc f eÐnai

paragwgÐsimh sunˆrthsh kai

(5.2.3) F 0 (x) = f (x)

gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b]
. 2
Pìrisma 5.2.5. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R suneq c sunˆrthsh. Upˆrqei ξ ∈ [a, b] ¸ste

Z b
(5.2.4) f (x)dx = f (ξ)(b − a).
a

Apìdeixh. Efarmìzoume
Rx to je¸rhma mèshc tim c tou diaforikoÔ logismoÔ gia th
sunˆrthsh F (x) = a f (t) dt sto [a, b]. 2

Ac upojèsoume t¸ra ìti f : [a, b] → R eÐnai mia suneq c sunˆrthsh. Mia parag-
wgÐsimh sunˆrthsh G : [a, b] → R lègetai parˆgousa thc f (  antiparˆgwgoc
thc f ) an G0 (x) = f (x) gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b]. SÔmfwna me to Je¸rhma 5.2.4, h
sunˆrthsh Z x
F (x) = f (t)dt
a
eÐnai parˆgousa thc f . An G eÐnai mia ˆllh parˆgousa thc f , tìte G0 (x) − F 0 (x) =
f (x) − f (x) = 0 gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b], ˆra h G − F eÐnai stajer  sto [a, b] (apl 
sunèpeia tou jewr matoc mèshc tim c). Dhlad , upˆrqei c ∈ R ¸ste
(5.2.5) G(x) − F (x) = c
gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b]. AfoÔ F (a) = 0, paÐrnoume c = G(a). Dhlad ,
Z x
(5.2.6) f (t)dt = G(x) − G(a)
a

  alli¸c
Z x
(5.2.7) G(x) = G(a) + f (t)dt
a

gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b]. 'Eqoume loipìn deÐxei to ex c:

 5.2 Ta jemeli¸dh jewr mata tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ · 85

Je¸rhma 5.2.6. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R suneq c sunˆrthsh kai èstw F (x) =

Rx
a
f (t)dt to aìristo olokl rwma f thc . An G : [a, b] → R eÐnai mia parˆgousa

thc f, tìte

Z x
(5.2.8) G(x) = F (x) + G(a) = f (t)dt + G(a)
a

gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b]

. Eidikìtera,

Z b
f (x)dx = G(b) − G(a). 2
a

ShmeÐwsh: Den eÐnai swstì ìti gia kˆje paragwgÐsimh sunˆrthsh G : [a, b] → R
isqÔei h isìthta
Z b
(5.2.9) G(b) − G(a) = G0 (x)dx.
a

Gia parˆdeigma, an jewr soume th sunˆrthsh G : [0, 1] → R me G(0) = 0 kai

G(x) = x2 sin x12 an 0 < x ≤ 1, tìte h G eÐnai paragwgÐsimh sto [0, 1] allˆ h G0
den eÐnai fragmènh sunˆrthsh (elègxte to) opìte den mporoÔme na milˆme gia to
Rb
olokl rwma a G0 .
An ìmwc h G : [a, b] → R eÐnai paragwgÐsimh kai h G0 eÐnai oloklhr¸simh
sto [a, b], tìte h (5.2.9) isqÔei. Autì eÐnai to deÔtero jemeli¸dec je¸rhma tou

ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ .

Je¸rhma 5.2.7 (deÔtero jemeli¸dec je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ Logis-

moÔ). G : [a, b] → R
'Estw G0
paragwgÐsimh sunˆrthsh. An h eÐnai oloklhr¸simh

sto [a, b] tìte

Z b
(5.2.10) G0 (x)dx = G(b) − G(a).
a

Apìdeixh . 'Estw P = {a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b} mia diamèrish tou [a, b]. Efar-
mìzontac to Je¸rhma Mèshc Tim c sto [xk , xk+1 ], k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1, brÐskoume
ξk ∈ (xk , xk+1 ) me thn idiìthta

(5.2.11) G(xk+1 ) − G(xk ) = G0 (ξk )(xk+1 − xk ).

An, gia kˆje 0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1, orÐsoume

(5.2.12)
mk = inf{G0 (x) : xk ≤ x ≤ xk+1 } kai Mk = sup{G0 (x) : xk ≤ x ≤ xk+1 },

tìte

(5.2.13) mk ≤ G0 (ξk ) ≤ Mk ,

ˆra
n−1
X
(5.2.14) L(G0 , P ) ≤ G0 (ξk )(xk+1 − xk ) ≤ U (G0 , P ).
k=0
86 · To jemeli¸des je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ

Dhlad ,
n−1
X
(5.2.15) L(G0 , P ) ≤ (G(xk+1 ) − G(xk )) = G(b) − G(a) ≤ U (G0 , P ).
k=0

AfoÔ h P  tan tuqoÔsa kai h G0 eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto [a, b], paÐrnontac supremum
wc proc P sthn arister  anisìthta kai infimum wc proc P sthn dexiˆ anisìthta
thc (5.2.15), sumperaÐnoume ìti
Z b Z b
(5.2.16) G0 (x)dx ≤ G(b) − G(a) ≤ G0 (x)dx,
a a

pou eÐnai to zhtoÔmeno. 2

5.3 Mèjodoi olokl rwshc

Ta jewr mata aut c thc paragrˆfou {perigrˆfoun} dÔo qr simec mejìdouc olok-
l rwshc: thn olokl rwsh katˆ mèrh kai thn olokl rwsh me antikatˆstash.
Sumbolismìc. An F : [a, b] → R, tìte sumfwnoÔme na grˆfoume
b
(5.3.1) [F (x)]ba = F (x) a := F (b) − F (a).
Je¸rhma 5.3.1 (olokl rwsh katˆ mèrh). 'Estw f, g : [a, b] → R paragwgÐsimec

sunart seic. An oi f0 kai g0 eÐnai oloklhr¸simec, tìte

Z x Z x
(5.3.2) f g 0 = (f g)(x) − (f g)(a) − f 0 g.
a a

Eidikìtera,

Z b Z b
(5.3.3) f (x)g 0 (x)dx = [f (x)g(x)]ba − f 0 (x)g(x)dx.
a a

Apìdeixh . H f · g eÐnai paragwgÐsimh kai

(5.3.4) (f · g)0 (x) = f (x)g 0 (x) + f 0 (x)g(x)
sto [a, b]. Apì thn upìjesh, oi sunart seic f g 0 , f 0 g eÐnai oloklhr¸simec, ˆra kai h
(f · g)0 eÐnai oloklhr¸simh. Apì to deÔtero jemeli¸dec je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ
LogismoÔ, gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b] èqoume
Z x Z x Z x
(5.3.5) f g0 + f 0g = (f g)0 = (f g)(x) − (f g)(a).
a a a

O deÔteroc isqurismìc prokÔptei an jèsoume x = b. 2

Mia efarmog  eÐnai to {deÔtero je¸rhma mèshc tim c tou oloklhrwtikoÔ logis-
moÔ}.
Pìrisma 5.3.2. 'Estw f, g : [a, b] → R . Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai suneq c sto [a, b]
kai h g eÐnai monìtonh kai suneq¸c paragwgÐsimh sto [a, b] . Tìte, upˆrqei ξ ∈ [a, b]
¸ste

Z b Z ξ Z b
(5.3.6) f (x)g(x)dx = g(a) f (x)dx + g(b) f (x)dx.
a a ξ
 5.3 Mèjodoi olokl rwshs · 87

Rx
Apìdeixh . JewroÔme to aìristo olokl rwma F (x) = a f (t)dt thc f sto [a, b].
Tìte, to zhtoÔmeno paÐrnei thn ex c morf : upˆrqei ξ ∈ [a, b] ¸ste
Z b
(5.3.7) F 0 (x)g(x)dx = g(a)F (ξ) + g(b)(F (b) − F (ξ)).
a

H g eÐnai suneq¸c paragwgÐsimh, ˆra mporoÔme na efarmìsoume olokl rwsh katˆ

mèrh sto aristerì mèloc. 'Eqoume
Z b Z b
0
(5.3.8) F (x)g(x)dx = F (b)g(b) − F (a)g(a) − F (x)g 0 (x)dx
a a
Z b
= F (b)g(b) − F (x)g 0 (x)dx,
a
afoÔ F (a) = 0. Efarmìzoume to je¸rhma mèshc tim c tou OloklhrwtikoÔ Logis-
moÔ: h g eÐnai monìtonh, ˆra h g 0 diathreÐ prìshmo sto [a, b]. H F eÐnai suneq c kai
h g 0 oloklhr¸simh, ˆra upˆrqei ξ ∈ [a, b] ¸ste
Z b Z b
0
(5.3.9) F (x)g (x)dx = F (ξ) g 0 (x)dx = F (ξ)(g(b) − g(a)).
a a

Antikajist¸ntac sthn (5.3.8) paÐrnoume

(5.3.10)
Z b
F 0 (x)g(x) = F (b)g(b) − F (ξ)(g(b) − g(a)) = g(a)F (ξ) + g(b)(F (b) − F (ξ)),
a

dhlad  thn (5.3.7). 2

Je¸rhma 5.3.3 (pr¸to je¸rhma antikatˆstashc). 'Estw φ : [a, b] → R

paragwgÐsimh sunˆrthsh. Upojètoume ìti h φ0 eÐnai oloklhr¸simh. An I = φ([a, b])
kai f :I→R eÐnai mia suneq c sunˆrthsh, tìte

Z b Z φ(b)
(5.3.11) f (φ(t))φ0 (t) dt = f (s) ds.
a φ(a)

Apìdeixh . H φ eÐnai suneq c, ˆra to I = φ([a, b]) eÐnai kleistì diˆsthma. H f eÐnai
suneq c sto I , ˆra eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto I . OrÐzoume F : I → R me
Z x
(5.3.12) F (x) = f (s) ds
φ(a)

(parathr ste ìti to φ(a) den eÐnai aparaÐthta ˆkro tou I , dhlad  h F den eÐnai
aparaÐthta to aìristo olokl rwma thc f sto I ). AfoÔ h f eÐnai suneq c sto
I , to pr¸to jemeli¸dec je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ deÐqnei ìti h F eÐnai
paragwgÐsimh sto I kai F 0 = f . 'Epetai ìti
Z b Z b
(5.3.13) f (φ(t))φ0 (t) dt = F 0 (φ(t))φ0 (t) dt.
a a

ParathroÔme ìti

(5.3.14) (F 0 ◦ φ) · φ0 = (F ◦ φ)0 .
88 · To jemeli¸des je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ

H (F 0 ◦ φ) · φ0 eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto [a, b], ˆra h (F ◦ φ)0 eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto
[a, b]. Apì to deÔtero jemeli¸dec je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ paÐrnoume
Z b Z b Z b
(5.3.15) (f ◦ φ) · φ0 = (F 0 ◦ φ) · φ0 = (F ◦ φ)0 = (F ◦ φ)(b) − (F ◦ φ)(a).
a a a

AfoÔ
Z φ(b) Z φ(a) Z φ(b)
(5.3.16) (F ◦ φ)(b) − (F ◦ φ)(a) = f− f= f,
φ(a) φ(a) φ(a)

paÐrnoume thn (5.3.11). 2

Je¸rhma 5.3.4 (deÔtero je¸rhma antikatˆstashc). 'Estw ψ : [a, b] → R

suneq¸c paragwgÐsimh sunˆrthsh, me ψ 0 (x) 6= 0 gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b] . AnI = ψ([a, b])
kai f :I→R eÐnai mia suneq c sunˆrthsh, tìte

Z b Z ψ(b)
(5.3.17) f (ψ(t)) dt = f (s)(ψ −1 )0 (s) ds.
a ψ(a)

Apìdeixh . H ψ 0 eÐnai suneq c kai den mhdenÐzetai sto [a, b], ˆra eÐnai pantoÔ jetik 
  pantoÔ arnhtik  sto [a, b]. Sunep¸c, h ψ eÐnai gnhsÐwc monìtonh sto [a, b]. An,
qwrÐc periorismì thc genikìthtac, upojèsoume ìti h ψ eÐnai gnhsÐwc aÔxousa tìte
orÐzetai h antÐstrofh sunˆrthsh ψ −1 : I → R thc ψ sto I = ψ([a, b]) = [ψ(a), ψ(b)].
Efarmìzoume to pr¸to je¸rhma antikatˆstashc gia thn f · (ψ −1 )0 (parathr ste ìti
h (ψ −1 )0 eÐnai suneq c sto I ). 'Eqoume
Z ψ(b) Z b
f · (ψ −1 )0 = [(f · (ψ −1 )0 ) ◦ ψ]ψ 0
ψ(a) a
Z b
= (f ◦ ψ) · [(ψ −1 )0 ◦ ψ]ψ 0
a
Z b
= (f ◦ ψ) · (ψ −1 ◦ ψ)0
a
Z b
= f ◦ ψ.
a

Autì apodeiknÔei thn (5.3.17). 2

5.4 Genikeumèna oloklhr¸mata

Se aut n thn parˆgrafo epekteÐnoume ton orismì tou oloklhr¸matoc gia sunart -
seic pou den eÐnai fragmènec   eÐnai orismènec se diast mata pou den eÐnai kleistˆ
kai fragmèna. Ja arkestoÔme se kˆpoiec basikèc kai qr simec peript¸seic.
1. Upojètoume ìti b ∈ R   b = +∞ kai f : [a, b) → R eÐnai mia sunˆrthsh pou eÐnai
oloklhr¸simh katˆ Riemann se kˆje diˆsthma thc morf c [a, x], ìpou a < x < b.
An upˆrqei to
Z x
(5.4.1) lim f (t) dt
x→b− a
 5.4 Genikeumèna oloklhr¸mata · 89

kai eÐnai pragmatikìc arijmìc, tìte lème ìti h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto [a, b) kai
orÐzoume
Z b Z x
f (t) dt = lim f (t) dt.
a x→b− a
Rb
An to {ìrio} sthn (5.4.1) eÐnai ±∞ tìte lème ìti to a f (t) dt apoklÐnei sto ±∞.
Entel¸c anˆloga orÐzetai to genikeumèno olokl rwma miac sunˆrthshc f : (a, b] →
R (ìpou a ∈ R   a = −∞) pou eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto [x, b] gia kˆje a < x < b, na
eÐnai to Z Z b b
f (t) dt = lim+ f (t) dt,
a x→a x
an to teleutaÐo ìrio upˆrqei.
ParadeÐgmata
(a) JewroÔme th sunˆrthsh f : [1, ∞) → R me f (x) = x12 . Gia kˆje x > 1 èqoume
Z x
1 1 1
2
dt = − |x1 = 1 − .
1 t t x
Sunep¸c, Z ∞ Z x  
1
f (t) dt = lim f (t) dt = lim 1− = 1.
1 x→∞ 1 x→∞ x
(b) JewroÔme th sunˆrthsh f : [1, ∞) → R me f (x) = x1 . Gia kˆje x > 1 èqoume
Z x
1
dt = ln t |x1 = ln x − ln 1 = ln x.
1 t

Sunep¸c, Z ∞ Z x
f (t) dt = lim f (t) dt = lim ln x = +∞.
1 x→∞ 1 x→∞

(g) JewroÔme th sunˆrthsh f : (0, 1] → R me f (x) = ln x. Parathr ste ìti h f den

eÐnai fragmènh: lim ln x = −∞. Gia kˆje x ∈ (0, 1) èqoume
x→0+
Z 1
ln t dt = t ln t − t |1x = −1 − x ln x + x.
x

Sunep¸c,
Z 1 Z x
f (t) dt = lim+ f (t) dt = lim (−1 − x ln x + x) = −1.
0 x→0 1 x→∞

(d) JewroÔme th sunˆrthsh f : [0, 1) → R me f (x) = √1−x

1
. Parathr ste ìti h f
den eÐnai fragmènh: lim √1−x = +∞. Gia kˆje x ∈ (0, 1) èqoume
1
x→1−
Z x √ √
1
√ dt = −2 1 − t |x0 = 2 − 2 1 − x.
0 1−t
Sunep¸c,
Z 1 Z x √
f (t) dt = lim f (t) dt = lim (2 − 2 1 − x) = 2.
0 x→1− 0 x→1−
90 · To jemeli¸des je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ

(e) JewroÔme th sunˆrthsh f : [0, ∞) → R me f (x) = sin x. Gia kˆje x > 0 èqoume
Z x
sin t dt = − cos t |x0 = cos x − 1.
0
R∞
AfoÔ to ìrio lim (cos x − 1) den upˆrqei, to genikeumèno olokl rwma 0
sin t dt
x→∞
den paÐrnei kˆpoia tim .

2. Upojètoume ìti b ∈ R   b = +∞ kai a ∈ R   a = −∞. 'Estw f : (a, b) → R mia

sunˆrthsh pou eÐnai oloklhr¸simh katˆ Riemann se kˆje kleistì diˆsthma [x, y],
ìpou a < x < y < b. JewroÔme tuqìn c ∈ (a, b) kai exetˆzoume an upˆrqoun ta
genikeumèna oloklhr¸mata
Z c Z b
f (t) dt kai f (t) dt.
a c
Rb
An upˆrqoun kai ta dÔo, tìte lème ìti to genikeumèno olokl rwma a
f (t) dt upˆrqei
kai eÐnai Ðso me
Z b Z c Z b
f (t) dt = f (t) dt + f (t) dt.
a a c
Parathr ste ìti, se aut n thn perÐptwsh, h tim  tou ajroÐsmatoc sto dexiì mè-
loc den exartˆtai apì thn epilog  tou c sto (a, b) (exhg ste giatÐ). Sunep¸c, to
genikeumèno olokl rwma orÐzetai kalˆ me autìn ton trìpo. An kˆpoio apì ta dÔo
Rc Rb
genikeumèna oloklhr¸mata a f (t) dt kai c f (t) dt den èqei tim , tìte lème ìti to
Rb
a
f (t) dt den orÐzetai (den èqei tim ). Stic peript¸seic pou kˆpoio apì ta dÔo   kai
ta dÔo genikeumèna oloklhr¸mata apoklÐnoun sto ±∞ isqÔoun ta sun jh gia tic
morfèc a ± ∞.
ParadeÐgmata
(a) JewroÔme th sunˆrthsh f : R → R me f (x) = x2x+1 . 'Eqoume
Z ∞ Z x
t ln(x2 + 1)
f (t) dt = lim 2
dt = lim = +∞.
0 x→∞ 0 t + 1 x→∞ 2
'Omoia,
Z 0
f (t) dt = −∞.
−∞
R∞
Sunep¸c, to −∞
f (t) dt den orÐzetai: èqoume aprosdiìristh morf  (+∞) + (−∞).
(b) JewroÔme th sunˆrthsh f : R → R me f (x) = x21+1 . 'Eqoume
Z ∞ Z x
1
f (t) dt = lim 2
dt = lim arctan x = π/2.
0 x→∞ 0 t +1 x→∞

'Omoia,
Z 0
f (t) dt = π/2.
−∞
Sunep¸c,
Z ∞ Z 0 Z ∞
1 1 1 π π
dt = dt + dt = + = π.
−∞ t2 + 1 −∞ t2 + 1 0 t2 + 1 2 2
 5.4 Genikeumèna oloklhr¸mata · 91

5.4aþ To krit rio tou oloklhr¸matoc

'Estw f : [a, ∞) → R+ mh arnhtik  sunˆrthsh, h opoÐa eÐnai oloklhr¸simh se kˆje
diˆsthma [a, x], ìpou x > a. Se aut n thn perÐptwsh, h sunˆrthsh
Z x
F (x) := f (t) dt
a

eÐnai aÔxousa sto (a, +∞). Sunep¸c, to

Z ∞ Z x
f (t) dt = lim f (t) dt
a x→∞ a
R∞
upˆrqei an kai mìno an h F eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh. Diaforetikˆ, a fP (t) dt = +∞.
∞
AntÐstoiqo apotèlesma eÐqame deÐ gia thn sÔgklish seir¸n k=1 ak me mh-
arnhtikoÔc ìrouc. Mia tètoia seirˆ sugklÐnei an kai mìno an h akoloujÐa (sn )
twn merik¸n ajroismˆtwn thc eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh. Diaforetikˆ, apoklÐnei sto +∞.
ToP epìmeno je¸rhma dÐnei èna krit rio sÔgklishc gia seirèc pou grˆfontai sth
∞
morf  k=1 f (k), ìpou f : [1, +∞) → R eÐnai mia fjÐnousa mh-arnhtik  sunˆrthsh.

Je¸rhma 5.4.1. 'Estw f : [1, +∞) → R fjÐnousa sunˆrthsh me mh arnhtikèc

timèc. JewroÔme thn

P∞ akoloujÐa(ak ) ak = f (k) k = 1, 2, . . .
me , . Tìte, h seirˆ

mh
R∞ arnhtik¸n ìrwn a
k=1 k sugklÐnei an kai mìno an to genikeumèno olokl rwma

1
f (t) dt upˆrqei.

Apìdeixh. Apì to gegonìc ìti h f eÐnai fjÐnousa prokÔptei ˆmesa ìti h f eÐnai
oloklhr¸simh se kˆje diˆsthma [k, k + 1] kai
Z k+1
ak+1 = f (k + 1) ≤ f (t) dt ≤ f (k) = ak
k
P∞
gia kˆje k ∈ N. An upojèsoume ìti h seirˆ k=1 ak sugklÐnei, tìte gia kˆje x > 1
èqoume
Z x Z [x]+1 [x] Z k+1 [x] ∞
X X X
f (t) dt ≤ f (t) dt = f (t) dt ≤ ak ≤ ak .
1 1 k=1 k k=1 k=1

'Epetai ìti to Z ∞ Z x
f (t) dt = lim f (t) dt
1 x→∞ 1
R∞
upˆrqei. AntÐstrofa, an to 1
f (t) dt upˆrqei, gia kˆje n ∈ N èqoume
n−1
X Z k+1
sn = f (1) + f (2) + · · · + f (n) ≤ f (1) + f (t) dt
k=1 k
Z n Z ∞
= f (1) + f (t) dt ≤ f (1) + f (t) dt.
1 1
P∞
AfoÔ h akoloujÐa (sn ) twn merik¸n ajroismˆtwn thc k=1 ak eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh,
h seirˆ sugklÐnei. 2.
ParadeÐgmata
92 · To jemeli¸des je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ

P∞
(a) H seirˆ 1
k=2 k ln k apoklÐnei diìti
Z ∞ Z x Z ln x
1 1 dy
dt = lim dt = lim = lim (ln(ln x) − ln(ln 2)) = +∞.
2 t ln t x→∞ 2 t ln t x→∞ ln 2 y x→∞

P∞
(b) H seirˆ 1
k=2 k(ln k)2 sugklÐnei diìti
Z ∞ Z x Z ln x  
1 1 dy 1 1 1
dt = lim dt = lim = lim − = .
2 t(ln t)2 x→∞ 2 t(ln t)2 x→∞ ln 2 y2 x→∞ ln 2 ln x ln 2

5.5 Ask seic
Omˆda A'
1. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R oloklhr¸simh sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti upˆrqei s ∈ [a, b] ¸ste
Z s Z b
f (t)dt = f (t)dt.
a s

MporoÔme pˆnta na epilègoume èna tètoio s sto anoiktì diˆsthma (a, b)?

2. 'Estw f : [0, 1] → R oloklhr¸simh kai jetik  sunˆrthsh ¸ste

R1
0
f (x)dx = 1.
DeÐxte ìti gia kˆje n ∈ N upˆrqei diamèrish {0 = t0 < t1 < · · · < tn = 1} ¸ste
R tk+1
tk
f (x)dx = n1 gia kˆje k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1.

3. 'Estw f : [0, 1] → R suneq c sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti upˆrqei s ∈ [0, 1] ¸ste

Z 1
f (s)
f (x)x2 dx = .
0 3

4. Upojètoume ìti h f : [0, 1] → R eÐnai suneq c kai ìti

Z x Z 1
f (t)dt = f (t)dt
0 x

gia kˆje x ∈ [0, 1]. DeÐxte ìti f (x) = 0 gia kˆje x ∈ [0, 1].

5. 'Estw f, h : [0, +∞) → [0, +∞). Upojètoume ìti h h eÐnai suneq c kai h f eÐnai
paragwgÐsimh. OrÐzoume
Z f (x)
F (x) = h(t)dt.
0

DeÐxte ìti F 0 (x) = h(f (x)) · f 0 (x).

6. 'Estw f : R → R suneq c kai èstw δ > 0. OrÐzoume

Z x+δ
g(x) = f (t)dt.
x−δ

DeÐxte ìti h g eÐnai paragwgÐsimh kai breÐte thn g 0 .

 5.5 Ask seis · 93

7. 'Estw g, h : R → R paragwgÐsimec sunart seic. OrÐzoume

Z g(x)
G(x) = t2 dt.
h(x)

DeÐxte ìti h G eÐnai paragwgÐsimh sto R kai breÐte thn G0 .

8. 'Estw f : [1, +∞) → R suneq c sunˆrthsh. OrÐzoume

Z x x
F (x) = f dt.
1 t
BreÐte thn F 0 .

9. 'Estw f : [0, a] → R suneq c. DeÐxte ìti, gia kˆje x ∈ [0, a],

Z x Z x Z u 
f (u)(x − u)du = f (t)dt du.
0 0 0

10. 'Estw a, b ∈ R me a < b kai f : [a, b] → R suneq¸c paragwgÐsimh sunˆrthsh.

An P = {a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b} eÐnai diamèrish tou [a, b], deÐxte ìti
n−1
X Z b
|f (xk+1 ) − f (xk )| ≤ |f 0 (x)| dx.
k=0 a

11. 'Estw f : [0, +∞) → [0, +∞) gnhsÐwc aÔxousa, suneq¸c paragwgÐsimh sunˆrthsh
me f (0) = 0. DeÐxte ìti, gia kˆje x > 0,
Z x Z f (x)
f (t) dt + f −1 (t) dt = xf (x).
0 0

Omˆda B'
12. 'Estw f : [0, 1] → R suneq¸c paragwgÐsimh sunˆrthsh me f (0) = 0. DeÐxte ìti
gia kˆje x ∈ [0, 1] isqÔei
Z 1 1/2
|f (x)| ≤ |f 0 (t)|2 dt .
0

13. 'Estw f : [0, +∞) → R suneq c sunˆrthsh me f (x) 6= 0 gia kˆje x > 0, h opoÐa
ikanopoieÐ thn Z x
f (x)2 = 2 f (t)dt
0
gia kˆje x ≥ 0. DeÐxte ìti f (x) = x gia kˆje x ≥ 0.
14. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R suneq¸c paragwgÐsimh sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti
Z b Z b
lim f (x) cos(nx)dx = 0 kai lim f (x) sin(nx)dx = 0.
n→∞ a n→∞ a
94 · To jemeli¸des je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ

15. Exetˆste wc proc th sÔgklish tic akoloujÐec

Z π Z π
an = sin(nx)dx kai bn = | sin(nx)|dx.
0 0

16. 'Estw f : [0, +∞) → R suneq¸c paragwgÐsimh sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti upˆrqoun
suneqeÐc, aÔxousec kai jetikèc sunart seic g, h : [0, +∞) → R ¸ste f = g − h.
Kefˆlaio 6

Teqnikèc olokl rwshc
Se autì to Kefˆlaio perigrˆfoume, qwrÐc idiaÐterh austhrìthta, tic basikèc mejìdouc
upologismoÔ oloklhrwmˆtwn. DÐnetai mia sunˆrthsh f kai jèloume na broÔme mia
antiparˆgwgo thc f , dhlad  mia sunˆrthsh F me thn idiìthta F 0 = f . Tìte,
Z
f (x)dx = F (x) + c.

6.1 Olokl rwsh me antikatˆstash

6.1aþ PÐnakac stoiqeiwd¸n oloklhrwmˆtwn
Kˆje tÔpoc parag¸gishc F 0 (x) = f (x) mac dÐnei ènan tÔpo olokl rwshc: h F eÐ-
nai antiparˆgwgoc thc f . MporoÔme ètsi na dhmiourg soume ènan pÐnaka basik¸n
oloklhrwmˆtwn, antistrèfontac touc tÔpouc parag¸gishc twn pio basik¸n sunart -
sewn:
xa+1
Z Z
a 1
x dx = , a 6= −1, dx = ln |x| + c
a+1 x
Z Z
ex dx = ex + c, sin x dx = − cos x + c
Z Z
1
cos x dx = sin x + c, dx = tan x + c
cos2 x
Z Z
1 1
dx = − cot x + c, √ dx = arcsin x + c
sin2 x 1 − x2
Z
1
dx = arctan x + c.
1 + x2

6.1bþ Upologismìc tou f (φ(x))φ0 (x) dx

R

H antikatˆstash u = φ(x), du = φ0 (x) dx mac dÐnei

Z Z
f (φ(x))φ0 (x) dx = f (u) du, u = φ(x).

An to olokl rwma dexiˆ upologÐzetai eukolìtera, jètontac ìpou u thn φ(x) up-

ologÐzoume to olokl rwma aristerˆ.
96 · Teqnikès olokl rwshs

ParadeÐgmata
(a) Gia ton upologismì tou Z
arctan x
dx
1 + x2
jètoume u = arctan x. Tìte, du = dx
1+x2 kai anagìmaste sto

u2
Z
u du = + c.
2
'Epetai ìti
(arctan x)2
Z
arctan x
2
dx = + c.
1+x 2
(b) Gia ton upologismì tou
Z Z
sin x
tan x dx = dx
cos x
jètoume u = cos x. Tìte, du = − sin x dx kai anagìmaste sto
Z
1
− du = − ln |u| + c.
u
'Epetai ìti Z
tan x dx = − ln | cos x| + c.

(g) Gia ton upologismì tou Z √

cos( x)
√ dx
x
√
jètoume u = x. Tìte, du = 2dx
√ kai anagìmaste sto
x
Z
2 cos u du = 2 sin u + c.

'Epetai ìti √
√
Z
cos( x)
√ dx = 2 sin( x) + c.
x

6.1gþ Trigwnometrikˆ oloklhr¸mata

Oloklhr¸mata pou perièqoun dunˆmeic   ginìmena trigwnometrik¸n sunart sewn m-
poroÔn na anaqjoÔn se aploÔstera an qrhsimopoi soume tic basikèc trigwnometrikèc
tautìthtec:
1
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1, 1 + tan2 x =
cos2 x
1 1 + cos 2x
1 + cot2 x = , cos2 x =
sin2 x 2
1 − cos 2x
sin2 x = , sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
2
cos(a − b)x − cos(a + b)x sin(a + b)x + sin(a − b)x
sin ax sin bx = , sin ax cos bx =
2 2
cos(a + b)x + cos(a − b)x
cos ax cos bx = .
2
 6.1 Olokl rwsh me antikatˆstash · 97

ParadeÐgmata
(a) Gia ton upologismì tou Z
cos2 x dx

qrhsimopoioÔme thn cos2 x = 1+cos2

2x
: èqoume
Z Z Z Z
2 1 + cos 2x 1 1 x sin 2x
cos x dx = dx = dx + cos 2x dx = + + c.
2 2 2 2 4
Me ton Ðdio trìpo mporoÔme na uplogÐsoume to cos4 x dx, qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn
R

2
1 cos 2x cos2 2x

4 1 + cos 2x 1 cos 2x 1 + cos 4x
cos x = = + + = + + .
2 4 2 4 4 2 8

(b) Gia ton upologismì tou

Z Z Z
5 4
sin x dx = sin x sin x dx = (1 − cos2 x)2 sin x dx

eÐnai protimìterh h antikatˆstash u = cos x. Tìte, du = − sin x dx kai anagìmaste

sto
2u3 u5
Z
− (1 − u2 )2 du = −u + − + c.
3 5
'Epetai ìti
2 cos3 x cos5 x
Z
sin5 x dx = − cos x + − + c.
3 5
Thn Ðdia mèjodo mporoÔme na qrhsimopoi soume gia opoiod pote olokl rwma thc
morf c Z
cosm x sinn x dx

an ènac apì touc ekjètec m, n eÐnai perittìc kai o ˆlloc ˆrtioc. Gia parˆdeigma, an
m = 3 kai n = 4, grˆfoume
Z Z
cos3 x sin4 x dx = (1 − sin2 x) sin4 x cos x dx

kai, me thn antikatˆstash u = sin x, anagìmaste sto aplì olokl rwma

Z
(1 − u2 )u4 du.

(g) DÔo qr sima oloklhr¸mata eÐnai ta

Z Z
tan x dx kai cot2 x dx.
2

Gia to pr¸to grˆfoume

Z Z   Z
1
2
tan x dx = − 1 dx = [(tan x)0 − 1] dx = tan x − x + c,
cos2 x
kai, ìmoia, gia to deÔtero grˆfoume
Z Z   Z
1
cot2 x dx = − 1 dx = [(− cot x)0 − 1] dx = − cot x − x + c.
sin2 x
98 · Teqnikès olokl rwshs

6.1dþ Upologismìc tou f (x) dx me thn antikatˆstash x = φ(t)

R

H antikatˆstash x = φ(t), dx = φ0 (t) dt ìpou φ antistrèyimh sunˆrthsh mac

dÐnei Z Z
f (x) dx = f (φ(t))φ0 (t) dt.

An to olokl rwma dexiˆ upologÐzetai eukolìtera, jètontac ìpou t thn φ−1 (x) up-
ologÐzoume to olokl rwma aristerˆ.
ParadeÐgmata: trigwnometrikèc antikatastˆseic
√
(a) Se oloklhr¸mata pou perièqoun thn a2 − x2 jètoume x = a sin t. Tìte,
p
a2 − x2 = a cos t kai dx = a cos t dt.

Gia parˆdeigma, gia ton upologismì tou

Z
dx
√ ,
x 9 − x2
2

√
an jèsoume x = 3 sin t, tìte dx = 3 cos t dt kai 9 − x2 = 3 cos t, kai anagìmaste
sto Z Z
3 cos t dt 1 dt 1
= = − cot t + c.
9 sin2 t(3 cos t) 9 sin2 t 9
Tìte, apì thn p √
cos t 1 − sin2 t 9 − x2
cot t = = = ,
sin t sin t x
paÐrnoume √
9 − x2
Z
dx
√ =− + c.
2
x 9−x 2 9x
√
(b) Se oloklhr¸mata pou perièqoun thn x2 − a2 jètoume x = a/ cos t. Tìte,
p a sin t
x2 − a2 = a tan t kai dx = dt.
cos2 t
Gia parˆdeigma, gia ton upologismì tou
Z √ 2
x −4
dx,
x
√
an jèsoume x = cos t ,
2
tìte dx = 2 sin t
cos2 t dt = 2 tan t
cos t dt kai x2 − 4 = 2 tan t, kai
anagìmaste sto
Z Z
2 tan t 2 tan t
dt = 2 tan2 t dt = 2 tan t − 2t + c.
2/ cos t cos t
√
AfoÔ t = arctan x2 −4
2 , paÐrnoume
Z √ √
x2 − 4 p x2 − 4
dx = x2 − 4 − 2 arctan + c.
x 2
 6.2 Olokl rwsh katˆ mèrh · 99

√
(g) Se oloklhr¸mata pou perièqoun thn x2 + a2 jètoume x = a tan t. Tìte,
p a a
x2 + a2 = kai dx = dt.
cos t cos2 t
Gia parˆdeigma, gia ton upologismì tou
Z √ 2
x +1
dx,
x4
√
an jèsoume x = tan t, tìte dx = cos12 t dt kai x2 + 1 = cos 1
t , kai anagìmaste sto
Z Z
1 1 1 cos t 2
dt = dt = − + c.
cos t tan4 t cos2 t sin4 t 3 sin3 t
AfoÔ t = arctan x, blèpoume ìti sin t = tan t cos t = √ x
x2 +1
kai telikˆ paÐrnoume
Z √
x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)3/2
dx = − + c.
x4 3x3

6.2 Olokl rwsh katˆ mèrh

O tÔpoc thc olokl rwshc katˆ mèrh eÐnai:
Z Z
f (x)g 0 (x) dx = f (x)g(x) − f 0 (x)g(x) dx,

kai prokÔptei ˆmesa apì thn (f g)0 = f g 0 + f 0 g , an oloklhr¸soume ta dÔo mèlh thc.
Suqnˆ, eÐnai eukolìtero na upologÐsoume to olokl rwma sto dexiì mèloc.
ParadeÐgmata
(a) Gia ton upologismì tou x log x dx grˆfoume
R

x2 log x 1 x2 log x x2
Z Z Z
1
x log x dx = (x2 )0 log x dx = − x dx = − + c.
2 2 2 2 4

(b) Gia ton upologismì tou x cos x dx grˆfoume

R

Z Z Z
x cos x dx = x(sin x)0 dx = x sin x − sin x dx = x sin x + cos x + c.

(g) Gia ton upologismì tou ex sin x dx grˆfoume

R

Z Z Z
x x 0
I = e sin x dx = (e ) sin x dx = e sin x − ex cos x dx
x

Z Z
= ex sin x − (ex )0 cos x dx = ex sin x − ex cos x + ex (cos x)0 dx
Z
= e (sin x − cos x) − ex sin x dx = ex (sin x − cos x) − I.
x

'Epetai ìti
ex (sin x − cos x)
Z
ex sin x dx = + c.
2
100 · Teqnikès olokl rwshs

(d) Gia ton upologismì tou x sin2 x dx qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn tautìthta sin2 x =
R
1−cos(2x)
2 grˆfoume
Z Z Z
2 x cos(2x)
x sin x dx = dx − x dx.
2 2

Gia to deÔtero olokl rwma, qrhsimopoioÔme thn antikatˆstash u = 2x kai olok-

l rwsh katˆ mèrh ìpwc sto (b).
√
(e) Gia ton upologismì tou log(x + x) dx grˆfoume
R

√ √ √
Z Z Z  
0 x 1
log(x+ x) dx = (x) log(x+ x) dx = x log(x+ x)− √ 1+ √ dx.
x+ x 2 x
√
Katìpin, efarmìzoume thn antikatˆstash u = x.

6.3 Olokl rwsh rht¸n sunart sewn

Se aut  thn parˆgrafo perigrˆfoume mia mèjodo me thn opoÐa mporeÐ kaneÐc na
upologÐsei to aìristo olokl rwma opoiasd pote rht c sunˆrthshc

p(x) an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0

(6.3.1) f (x) = = .
q(x) bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · + b1 x + b0

H pr¸th parat rhsh eÐnai ìti mporoÔme pˆnta na upojètoume ìti n < m. An o

bajmìc n tou arijmht  p(x) eÐnai megalÔteroc   Ðsoc apì ton bajmì m tou parono-
mast  q(x), tìte diairoÔme to p(x) me to q(x): upˆrqoun polu¸numa π(x) kai υ(x)
¸ste o bajmìc tou υ(x) na eÐnai mikrìteroc apì m kai

(6.3.2) p(x) = π(x)q(x) + υ(x).

Tìte,

π(x)q(x) + υ(x) υ(x)

(6.3.3) f (x) = = π(x) + .
q(x) q(x)

Sunep¸c, gia ton upologismì tou f (x) dx mporoÔme t¸ra na upologÐsoume qwristˆ
R

to π(x) dx (aplì olokl rwma poluwnumik c sunˆrthshc) kai to υ(x) q(x) dx (rht 

R R

sunˆrthsh me thn prìsjeth idiìthta ìti deg(υ) < deg(q)).

Upojètoume loipìn sth sunèqeia ìti f = p/q kai deg(p) < deg(q). MporoÔme
epÐshc na upojèsoume ìti an = bm = 1. QrhsimopoioÔme t¸ra to gegonìc ìti
kˆje polu¸numo analÔetai se ginìmeno prwtobˆjmiwn kai deuterobˆjmiwn ìrwn.
To q(x) = xm + · · · + b1 x + b0 grˆfetai sth morf 

(6.3.4) q(x) = (x − α1 )r1 · · · (x − αk )rk (x2 + β1 x + γ1 )s1 · · · (x2 + βl x + γl )sl .

Oi α1 , . . . , αk eÐnai oi pragmatikèc rÐzec tou q(x) (kai rj eÐnai h pollaplìthta thc

rÐzac αj ) en¸ oi ìroi x2 + βi x + γi eÐnai ta ginìmena (x − zi )(x − zi ) ìpou zi oi
migadikèc rÐzec tou q(x) (kai si eÐnai h pollaplìthta thc rÐzac zi ). Parathr ste ìti
kˆje ìroc thc morf c x2 + βi x + γi èqei arnhtik  diakrÐnousa. EpÐshc, oi k, s ≥ 0
kai r1 + · · · + rk + 2s1 + · · · + 2sl = m (o bajmìc tou q(x)).
 6.3 Olokl rwsh rht¸n sunart sewn · 101

Grˆfoume thn f (x) sth morf 

xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
(6.3.5) f (x) = ,
(x − α1 )r1 · · · (x − αk )rk (x2 + β1 x + γ1 )s1 · · · (x2 + βl x + γl )sl

kai thn {analÔoume se aplˆ klˆsmata}: upˆrqoun suntelestèc Ajt , Bit , Γit ¸ste

A11 A12 A1r1

f (x) = + 2
+ ··· +
x − α1 (x − α1 ) (x − α1 )r1
+···
Ak1 Ak2 Akr1
+ + + ··· +
x − αk (x − αk )2 (x − αk )rk
B11 x + Γ11 B12 x + Γ12 B1s x + Γ1s1
+ 2 + 2 2
+ ··· + 2 1
x + β1 x + γ1 (x + β1 x + γ1 ) (x + β1 x + γ1 )s1
+···
Bl1 x + Γl1 Bl2 x + Γl2 Bls x + Γlsl
+ 2 + 2 + ··· + 2 1 .
x + βl x + γl (x + βl x + γl )2 (x + βl x + γl )sl

H eÔresh twn suntelest¸n gÐnetai wc ex c: pollaplasiˆzoume ta dÔo mèlh thc

isìthtac me to q(x) (parathr ste ìti isoÔtai me to elˆqisto koinì pollaplˆsio
twn paronomast¸n tou dexioÔ mèlouc). ProkÔptei tìte mia isìthta poluwnÔmwn.
Exis¸nontac touc suntelestèc touc, paÐrnoume èna sÔsthma m exis¸sewn me m ag-
n¸stouc: touc Aj1 , . . . , Ajrj , Bi1 , . . . , Bisi , Γi1 , . . . , Γisi , j = 1, . . . , k , i = 1, . . . , l.
Metˆ apì autì to b ma, qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn grammikìthta tou oloklhr¸matoc,
anagìmaste ston upologismì oloklhrwmˆtwn twn ex c dÔo morf¸n:
(a) Oloklhr¸mata thc morf c (x−α) 1
k dx. Autˆ upologÐzontai ˆmesa: an
R

k ≥ 2 tìte
Z
1 1
(6.3.6) k
dx = − + c,
(x − α) (k − 1)(x − α)k−1

kai an k = 1 tìte
Z
1
(6.3.7) dx = ln |x − α| + c.
x−α

(b) Oloklhr¸mata thc morf c Bx+Γ

dx, ìpou to x2 + bx + γ èqei arn-
R
(x2 +bx+γ)k
htik  diakrÐnousa. Grˆfontac Bx + anagìmaste sta
Γ = B2 (2x + b) + Γ − Bb 2 ,

oloklhr¸mata
Z Z
2x + b 1
(6.3.8) dx kai dx.
(x2 + bx + γ)k (x2 + bx + γ)k

To pr¸to upologÐzetai me thn antikatˆstash y = x2 + bx + γ (exhg ste giatÐ). Gia

2 2
to deÔtero, grˆfoume pr¸ta x2 +bx+γ = x + 2b + 4γ−b kai me thn antikatˆstash
√ 2
4
4γ−b
x + 2b = 2 y anagìmaste (exhg ste giatÐ) ston upologismì oloklhrwmˆtwn
thc morf c
Z
1
(6.3.9) Ik = dy.
(y 2 + 1)k
102 · Teqnikès olokl rwshs

O upologismìc tou Ik basÐzetai sthn anadromik  sqèsh

1 y 2k − 1
(6.3.10) Ik+1 = 2 k
+ Ik .
2k (y + 1) 2k

Gia thn apìdeixh thc (6.3.10) qrhsimopoioÔme olokl rwsh katˆ mèrh. Grˆfoume

y2
Z Z Z
dx 1 y
Ik = = (y)0 dy = + 2k dy
(y 2 + 1)k 2
(y + 1)k 2
(y + 1) k (y + 1)k+1
2

y2 + 1 − 1
Z
y
= + 2k dy
(y 2 + 1)k (y 2 + 1)k+1
Z Z
y 1 1
= + 2k dy − 2k dy
(y 2 + 1)k (y 2 + 1)k (y 2 + 1)k+1
y
= + 2kIk − 2kIk+1 .
(y 2 + 1)k

'Epetai to zhtoÔmeno. GnwrÐzoume ìti

Z
1
(6.3.11) I1 = dy = arctan y + c,
y2 + 1

ˆra, qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn (6.3.10), mporoÔme diadoqikˆ na broÔme ta I2 , I3 , . . ..

ParadeÐgmata
(a) Gia ton upologismì tou oloklhr¸matoc

3x2 + 6 3x2 + 6
Z Z
dx = dx,
x + x2 − 2x
3 x(x − 1)(x + 2)

zhtˆme a, b, c ∈ R ¸ste

3x2 + 6 a b c
= + + .
x(x − 1)(x + 2) x x−1 x+2

Grˆfoume

3x2 + 6 a(x − 1)(x + 2) + bx(x + 2) + cx(x − 1)

=
x(x − 1)(x + 2) x(x − 1)(x + 2)
(a + b + c)x2 + (a + 2b − c)x − 2a
= ,
x(x − 1)(x + 2)

kai lÔnoume to sÔsthma

a + b + c = 3, a + 2b − c = 0, −2a = 6.

H lÔsh eÐnai: a = −3, b = 3 kai c = 3. Sunep¸c,

3x2 + 6
Z Z Z Z
dx dx dx
dx = −3 +3 +3
x(x − 1)(x + 2) x x−1 x+2
= −3 ln |x| + 3 ln |x − 1| + 3 ln |x + 2| + c.
 6.3 Olokl rwsh rht¸n sunart sewn · 103

(b) Gia ton upologismì tou oloklhr¸matoc

5x2 + 12x + 1 5x2 + 12x + 1
Z Z
3 2
dx = dx,
x + 3x − 4 (x − 1)(x + 2)2
zhtˆme a, b, c ∈ R ¸ste
5x2 + 12x + 1 a b c
= + + .
(x − 1)(x + 2)2 x − 1 x + 2 (x + 2)2
Grˆfoume
5x2 + 12x + 1 a(x + 2)2 + b(x − 1)(x + 2) + c(x − 1)
=
(x − 1)(x + 2)2 (x − 1)(x + 2)2
2
(a + b)x + (4a + b + c)x + (4a − 2b − c)
= ,
(x − 1)(x + 2)2
kai lÔnoume to sÔsthma
a + b = 5, 4a + b + c = 12, 4a − 2b − c = 1.
H lÔsh eÐnai: a = 2, b = 3 kai c = 1. Sunep¸c,
5x2 + 12x + 1
Z Z Z Z
dx dx dx
dx = 2 + 3 +
(x − 1)(x + 2)2 x−1 x+2 (x + 2)2
1
= 2 ln |x − 1| + 3 ln |x + 2| − + c.
x+2

(g) Gia ton upologismì tou oloklhr¸matoc

Z Z
x+1 x+1
dx = dx,
x5 − x4 + 2x3 − 2x2 + x − 1 (x − 1)(x2 + 1)2
zhtˆme a, b, c, d, e ∈ R ¸ste
x+1 a bx + c dx + e
= + + .
(x − 1)(x2 + 1)2 x − 1 x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2
Katal goume sthn
x + 1 = a(x2 + 1)2 + (bx + c)(x − 1)(x2 + 1) + (dx + e)(x − 1)
kai lÔnoume to sÔsthma
a + b = 0, −b + c = 0, 2a + b − c + d = 0, −b + c − d + e = 1, a − c − e = 1.
H lÔsh eÐnai: a = 1/2, b = −1/2, c = −1/2, d = −1 kai e = 0. Sunep¸c,
Z
x+1
dx
x − x + 2x3 − 2x2 + x − 1
5 4

Z Z Z
1 dx 1 x+1 x
= − 2
dx − dx
2 x−1 2 x +1 (x + 1)2
2

(x2 + 1)0
Z Z Z Z
1 dx 1 2x 1 dx 1
= − 2
dx − 2
− dx
2 x−1 4 x +1 2 x +1 2 (x2 + 1)2
1 1 1 1 1
= ln |x − 1| − ln |x2 + 1| − arctan x + + c.
2 4 2 2 x2 + 1
104 · Teqnikès olokl rwshs

6.4 Kˆpoiec qr simec antikatastˆseic

6.4aþ Rhtèc sunart seic twn cos x kai sin x
Gia ton upologismì oloklhrwmˆtwn thc morf c
Z
R(cos x, sin x) dx

ìpou R(u, v) eÐnai phlÐko poluwnÔmwn me metablhtèc u kai v , suqnˆ qrhsimopoioÔme

thn antikatˆstash
x
u = tan .
2
Parathr ste ìti

cos2 x
2 − sin2 x
2 1 − tan2 x
2 1 − u2
cos x = = x =
cos2 x
2 + sin2 x
2
1 + tan2 2
1 + u2
kai
x x x x 2 tan x2 2u
sin x = 2 sin cos = 2 tan cos2 = = .
2 2 2 2 1 + tan2 x2 1 + u2
1+tan2 x
EpÐshc, du
dx = 1
2 cos2 x = 2
2
, dhlad 
2

2du
dx = .
1 + u2
'Etsi, anagìmaste sto olokl rwma

1 − u2
Z  
2u 2
R 2
, 2
du.
1+u 1+u 1 + u2
 2

Dedomènou ìti h sunˆrthsh F (u) = R 1−u 1+u 2 , 2u
1+u 2 1+u2 eÐnai rht  sunˆrthsh tou
2

u, to teleutaÐo olokl rwma upologÐzetai me th mèjodo pou perigrˆyame sthn Parˆ-

grafo 6.3.
ParadeÐgmata.
(a) Gia ton upologismì tou oloklhr¸matoc
Z
1 + sin x
dx
1 − cos x
1−u2
jètoume u = tan x2 . AfoÔ dx = 1+u2 du,
2
cos x = 1+u2 kai sin x = 1+u2 ,
2u
anagìmaste
sto olokl rwma
(1 + u)2
Z
du,
u2 (1 + u2 )
to opoÐo upologÐzetai me anˆlush se aplˆ klˆsmata.
(a) Gia ton upologismì tou oloklhr¸matoc
Z
x
dx
1 + sin x
 6.4 Kˆpoies qr simes antikatastˆseis · 105

jètoume u = tan x2 . AfoÔ dx = 1+u2

2 du kai sin x = 1+u2 , anagìmaste sto olok-
2u

l rwma
Z Z
1 2 1
2 arctan u 2u 1 + u2 du = 4 arctan u du
1 + 1+u 2 (1 + u)2
Z  0
1
= 4 arctan u − du
1+u
Z
arctan u 1
= −4 +4 2
du.
1+u (1 + u )(1 + u)
To teleutaÐo olokl rwma upologÐzetai me anˆlush se aplˆ klˆsmata.

6.4bþ Oloklhr¸mata algebrik¸n sunart sewn eidik c morf c

Perigrˆfoume ed¸ kˆpoiec antikatastˆseic pou qrhsimopoioÔntai gia ton upologis-
mì oloklhrwmˆtwn thc morf c
Z p Z p Z p
2
R(x, 1 − x ) dx, 2
R(x, x − 1) dx, R(x, x2 + 1) dx,

ìpou R(u, v) eÐnai phlÐko poluwnÔmwn me metablhtèc u kai v .

√
(a) Gia to olokl rwma R(x, 1 − x2 ) dx, kˆnoume pr¸ta thn allag  metablht c
R
√
x = sin t. AfoÔ 1 − x2 = cos t kai dx = cos t dt, anagìmaste sto olokl rwma
Z
R(sin t, cos t) cos t dt,

to opoÐo upologÐzetai me thn antikatˆstash thc prohgoÔmenhc upoparagrˆfou (rht 

sunˆrthsh twn cos t kai sin t).
√
(b) Gia to olokl rwma R(x, x2 −√1) dx, mia idèa eÐnai na qrhsimopoi soume thn
R

allag  metablht c x = cos 1

t . Tìte, t kai dx = cos2 t dt. Anagìmaste
sin t
x2 − 1 = cos sin t

ètsi sto olokl rwma

Z   Z
1 sin t sin t
R , dt = R1 (cos t, sin t) dt
sin t cos t cos2 t

gia kˆpoia rht  sunˆrthsh R1 (u, v), to opoÐo upologÐzetai me thn antikatˆstash
thc prohgoÔmenhc upoparagrˆfou (rht  sunˆrthsh twn cos t kai sin t).
EÐnai ìmwc protimìtero na qrhsimopoi soume thn ex c allag  metablht c:
p
u = x + x2 − 1.

Tìte,
u2 + 1 p u2 − 1 u2 − 1
x= , x2 − 1 = , dx = du.
2u 2u 2u2
Anagìmaste ètsi sto rhtì olokl rwma
 2
u + 1 u2 − 1 u2 − 1
Z 
R , du
2u 2u 2u2
to opoÐo upologÐzetai me anˆlush se aplˆ klˆsmata.
106 · Teqnikès olokl rwshs

√
(b) Gia to olokl rwma R(x, x2 + 1) √ dx, mia idèa eÐnai na qrhsimopoi soume thn
R

allag  metablht c x = − cot t. Tìte, x2 − 1 = sin1 t kai dx = sin12 t dt. Anagì-

maste ètsi sto olokl rwma
Z   Z
cos t 1 1
R − , dt = R1 (cos t, sin t) dt
sin t sin t sin2 t

gia kˆpoia rht  sunˆrthsh R1 (u, v), to opoÐo upologÐzetai me thn antikatˆstash
thc prohgoÔmenhc upoparagrˆfou (rht  sunˆrthsh twn cos t kai sin t).
EÐnai ìmwc protimìtero na qrhsimopoi soume thn ex c allag  metablht c:
p
u = x + x2 + 1.

Tìte,
u2 − 1 p u2 + 1 u2 + 1
x= , x2 − 1 = , dx = du.
2u 2u 2u2
Anagìmaste ètsi sto rhtì olokl rwma
 2
u − 1 u2 + 1 u2 + 1
Z 
R , du
2u 2u 2u2

to opoÐo upologÐzetai me anˆlush se aplˆ klˆsmata.

ParadeÐgmata
(a) Gia ton upologismì tou oloklhr¸matoc
Z p
x2 − 1 dx

2
u2 −1
jètoume x2 − 1 = (x − u)2 . IsodÔnama, x = u2u +1
. Tìte, dx = 2u2 du kai
2
x − u = 2u , opìte anagìmaste ston upologismì tou
1−u

−(u2 − 1)2
Z
du.
4u3

(b) Gia ton upologismì tou oloklhr¸matoc

Z
1
√ dx
x x2 + 1
√
jètoume u = x + x2 + 1. Tìte,

u2 − 1 p u2 + 1 u2 + 1
x= , x2 − 1 = , dx = du.
2u 2u 2u2
Anagìmaste ètsi sto olokl rwma
Z
2
du
u2 −1
to opoÐo upologÐzetai me anˆlush se aplˆ klˆsmata.
 6.5 Ask seis · 107

6.5 Ask seic

Omˆda A'
1. UpologÐste ta akìlouja oloklhr¸mata:
2x2 + x + 1 3x2 + 3x + 1
Z Z Z
2x
dx , dx , dx.
x2 + 2x + 2 (x + 3)(x − 1)2 x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 1

2. UpologÐste ta akìlouja oloklhr¸mata:

Z Z Z Z
dx dx dx dx
, √ √ , √ , √ .
x4 + 1 x+ 3x x x2 − 1 1 + ex

3. UpologÐste ta akìlouja oloklhr¸mata:

Z Z Z Z Z √
dx
cos3 x dx , cos2 x sin3 x dx , tan2 x dx , , tan x dx .
cos4 x

4. Qrhsimopoi¸ntac olokl rwsh katˆ mèrh, deÐxte ìti: gia kˆje n ∈ N,

2n − 1
Z Z
dx 1 x dx
2 n+1
= 2 n
+ .
(x + 1) 2n (x + 1) 2n (x2 + 1)n

5. UpologÐste ta akìlouja oloklhr¸mata:

x2
Z Z Z
1
dx , dx , x log x dx
(x2 − 4)(x2 − 1) (1 + x)(1 + x2 )
Z Z Z
x cos x dx , ex sin x dx , x sin2 x dx

√
Z Z Z
1 x+4
log(x + x) dx , √ dx , dx
x 1 − x2 (x2 + 1)(x − 1)
cos3 x
Z Z Z
x dx
dx , dx , .
1 + sin x sin2 x (x2 + 2x + 2)2

6. UpologÐste ta oloklhr¸mata
Z Z
1
sin(log x) dx , √ log(1 − x) dx.
x x

7. UpologÐste ta oloklhr¸mata
xex
Z Z
x arctan x
dx , dx.
(1 + x2 )2 (1 + x)2
108 · Teqnikès olokl rwshs

8. UpologÐste ta oloklhr¸mata
ex
Z Z
log(tan x)
dx , dx.
1 + e2x cos2 x

9. UpologÐste ta oloklhr¸mata
π Z π4
tan3 x
Z
x 4

2
dx , dx
0 cos x −π 4
cos3 x
Z 5 p  Z π4
x log 1 + x2 dx , x tan2 x dx.
0 0

10. UpologÐste ta akìlouja embadˆ:

(a) Tou qwrÐou pou brÐsketai sto pr¸to√tetarthmìrio kai frˆssetai apì tic grafikèc
parastˆseic twn sunart sewn f (x) = x, g(x) = x − 2 kai apì ton x-ˆxona.
(b) Tou qwrÐou pou frˆssetai apì tic grafikèc parastˆseic twn sunart sewn
f (x) = cos x kai g(x) = sin x sto diˆsthma [ π4 , 5π
4 ].

Omˆda B'
11. UpologÐste ta oloklhr¸mata
Z Z Z Z
1 + sin x 1 x 1
dx , dx , dx , √ dx
1 − cos x sin x (1 + x2 )2 x 1 − x2
Z Z Z Z p
1 x
dx , x arctan x dx , √ dx , x2 − 1 dx.
(1 + x2 )2 x2 + 1

12. UpologÐste to olokl rwma

Z π
x sin x
dx.
0 1 + cos2 x

13. UpologÐste to olokl rwma

Z π
2 sin x
dx.
0 sin x + cos x

14. UpologÐste to olokl rwma

Z π
4
log(1 + tan x) dx.
0

15. DeÐxte ìti to genikeumèno olokl rwma

Z ∞
xp dx
0
 6.5 Ask seis · 109

den eÐnai peperasmèno gia kanèna p ∈ R.

16. UpologÐste ta akìlouja genikeumèna oloklhr¸mata:
Z ∞ Z 1 Z 1
−x2 dx
xe dx , √ , log x dx .
0 −1 1 − x2 0

17. DeÐxte ìti, gia kˆje n ∈ N,

Z ∞
e−x xn dx = n!
0

18. BreÐte ta ìria

Z x3 Z x2
3 −x6 t2 1
lim x e e dt , lim+ 4 et sin t dt.
x→+∞ 0 x→0 x 0
Kefˆlaio 7

Je¸rhma Taylor
7.1 Je¸rhma Taylor
Orismìc 7.1.1. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R kai èstw x0 ∈ [a, b]. Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai
n forèc paragwgÐsimh sto x0 . To polu¸numo Taylor tˆxhc n thc f sto x0
eÐnai to polu¸numo Tn,f,x0 : R → R pou orÐzetai wc ex c:
n
X f (k) (x0 )
(7.1.1) Tn,f,x0 (x) = (x − x0 )k ,
k!
k=0

dhlad ,
(7.1.2)
f 00 (x0 ) f (n) (x0 )
Tn,f,x0 (x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ) + (x − x0 )2 + · · · + (x − x0 )n .
2 n!
To upìloipo Taylor tˆxhc n thc f sto x0 eÐnai h sunˆrthsh Rn,f,x0 : [a, b] → R
pou orÐzetai wc ex c:

(7.1.3) Rn,f,x0 (x) = f (x) − Tn,f,x0 (x).

'Otan x0 = 0, sunhjÐzoume na onomˆzoume ta Tn,f,0 kai Rn,f,0 polu¸numo MacLaurin

kai upìloipo MacLaurin thc f antÐstoiqa.

Parat rhsh 7.1.2. ParagwgÐzontac to Tn,f,x0 blèpoume ìti:

n
X f (k) (x0 )
Tn,f,x0 (x) = (x − x0 )k , ˆra Tn,f,x0 (x0 ) = f (x0 ),
k!
k=0
n
X f (k) (x0 )
0
Tn,f,x (x) = (x − x0 )k−1 , ˆra 0
Tn,f,x (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ),
0
(k − 1)! 0
k=1
n
Xf (k) (x0 )
00
Tn,f,x (x) = (x − x0 )k−2 , ˆra 00
Tn,f,x (x0 ) = f 00 (x0 ),
0
(k − 2)! 0
k=2
··· ···
n (k)
(n)
X f (x0 ) (n)
Tn,f,x0 (x) = (x − x0 )k−n , ˆra Tn,f,x0 (x0 ) = f (n) (x0 ).
(k − n)!
k=n
112 · Je¸rhma Taylor

Dhlad , to polu¸numo Taylor tˆxhc n thc f sto x0 ikanopoieÐ tic

(k)
(7.1.3) Tn,f,x0 (x0 ) = f (k) (x0 ), k = 0, 1, . . . , n

kai eÐnai to monadikì polu¸numo bajmoÔ to polÔ Ðsou me n pou èqei aut  thn idiìthta
(exhg ste giatÐ).
Parat rhsh 7.1.3. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R kai èstw x0 ∈ [a, b]. Upojètoume ìti
h f eÐnai n − 1 forèc paragwgÐsimh sto [a, b] kai n forèc paragwgÐsimh sto x0 .
Parathr ste ìti
n
0
X f (k) (x0 )
(7.1.4) Tn,f,x (x) = (x − x0 )k−1
0
(k − 1)!
k=1

kai
n−1
X f (s+1) (x0 )
(7.1.5) Tn−1,f 0 ,x0 (x) = (x − x0 )s .
s=0
s!

Jètontac k = s + 1 sthn (7.1.5) sumperaÐnoume ìti

0
(7.1.6) Tn,f,x 0
= Tn−1,f 0 ,x0 .

'Epetai ìti

0
(7.1.7) Rn,f,x 0
= Rn−1,f 0 ,x0 .

Prìtash 7.1.4. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R kai èstw x0 ∈ [a, b] . Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai

n−1 forèc paragwgÐsimh sto [a, b] n kai forèc paragwgÐsimh sto x0 . Tìte,

Rn,f,x0 (x)
(7.1.8) lim = 0.
x→x0 (x − x0 )n
Apìdeixh. Me epagwg  wc proc n. Gia n = 1 èqoume

R1,f,x0 (x) = f (x) − f (x0 ) − f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ),

ˆra
R1,f,x0 (x) f (x) − f (x0 )
(7.1.9) = − f 0 (x0 ) → 0
x − x0 x − x0
ìtan x → x0 , apì ton orismì thc parag¸gou sto shmeÐo x0 .
Upojètoume ìti h prìtash isqÔei gia n = m kai gia kˆje sunˆrthsh pou
ikanopoieÐ tic upojèseic. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R, m forèc paragwgÐsimh sto [a, b]
kai m + 1 forèc paragwgÐsimh sto x0 . Tìte,

(7.1.10) lim Rm+1,f,x0 (x) = lim (x − x0 )m+1 = 0

x→x0 x→x0

kai
0
Rm+1,f,x 0
(x) Rm,f 0 ,x0 (x)
(7.1.11) lim 0 = lim =0
x→x0 [(x − x0 )m+1 ] x→x0 (m + 1)(x − x0 )m

apì thn epagwgik  upìjesh gia thn f 0 . Efarmìzontac ton kanìna l’Hospital oloklhr¸noume
to epagwgikì b ma. 2
 7.1 Je¸rhma Taylor · 113

L mma 7.1.5. 'Estw p polu¸numo bajmoÔ to polÔ Ðsou me n to opoÐo ikanopoieÐ thn

p(x)
(7.1.12) lim = 0.
x→x0 (x − x0 )n

Tìte, p≡0 .

Apìdeixh. Me epagwg  wc proc n. Gia to epagwgikì b ma parathroÔme pr¸ta ìti

p(x)
(7.1.13) p(x0 ) = lim p(x) = lim (x − x0 )n = 0,
x→x0 x→x0 (x − x0 )n

Sunep¸c, p(x0 ) = 0. 'Ara,

(7.1.14) p(x) = (x − x0 )p1 (x),

ìpou p1 polu¸numo bajmoÔ to polÔ Ðsou me n − 1 to opoÐo ikanopoieÐ thn

p1 (x) p(x)
(7.1.15) lim = lim = 0.
x→x0 (x − x0 )n−1 x→x0 (x − x0 )n

An upojèsoume ìti h Prìtash isqÔei gia ton n − 1, tìte p1 ≡ 0 ˆra p ≡ 0. 2.

H Prìtash 7.1.4 kai to L mma 7.1.5 apodeiknÔoun ton ex c qarakthrismì tou
poluwnÔmou Taylor Tn,f,x0 :

Je¸rhma 7.1.6. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R kai èstw x0 ∈ [a, b] . Upojètoume ìti h f

eÐnai n−1 forèc paragwgÐsimh sto [a, b] kai n forèc paragwgÐsimh sto x0 . Tìte, to

polu¸numo Taylor tˆxhc n thc f sto x0 eÐnai to monadikì polu¸numo T bajmoÔ to

polÔ Ðsou me n to opoÐo ikanopoieÐ thn

f (x) − T (x)
(7.1.16) lim = 0.
x→x0 (x − x0 )n

Apìdeixh. H Prìtash 7.1.4 deÐqnei ìti to Tn,f,x0 ikanopoieÐ thn (7.1.16). Gia th
monadikìthta arkeÐ na parathr sete ìti an dÔo polu¸numa T1 , T2 bajmoÔ to polÔ
Ðsou me n ikanopoioÔn thn (7.1.16), tìte to polu¸numo p := T1 − T2 ikanopoieÐ thn
(7.1.12). Apì to L mma 7.1.5 sumperaÐnoume ìti T1 ≡ T2 . 2

Parat rhsh 7.1.7. To Je¸rhma 7.1.6 mac dÐnei ènan èmmeso trìpo gia na brÐsk-
oume to polu¸numo Taylor tˆxhc n miac sunˆrthshc f se kˆpoio shmeÐo x0 . ArkeÐ
na broÔme èna polu¸numo bajmoÔ to polÔ Ðsou me n to opoÐo ikanopoieÐ thn (7.1.16).
(i) H sunˆrthsh f (x) = 1−x
1
eÐnai ˆpeirec forèc paragwgÐsimh sto (−1, 1) kai èqoume
dei ìti
1
= 1 + x + x2 + · · · + xn + · · · gia kˆje |x| < 1.
1−x
Ja deÐxoume ìti, gia kˆje n,

Tn,f,0 (x) = Tn (x) := 1 + x + · · · + xn .

ParathroÔme ìti

1 1 − xn+1 xn+1
f (x) − Tn (x) = − = .
1−x 1−x 1−x
114 · Je¸rhma Taylor

'Ara,
f (x) − Tn (x) x
lim n
= lim = 0,
x→0 x x→0 1 − x

kai to zhtoÔmeno prokÔptei apì to Je¸rhma 7.1.6.

(ii) H sunˆrthsh f (x) = 1
1+x2 eÐnai ˆpeirec forèc paragwgÐsimh sto R kai èqoume
dei ìti
1
= 1 − x2 + x4 + · · · + (−1)n x2n + · · · gia kˆje |x| < 1.
1 + x2

Ja deÐxoume ìti, gia kˆje n,

T2n,f,0 (x) = T2n+1,f,0 (x) = T2n (x) := 1 − x2 + x4 − · · · + (−1)n x2n .

ParathroÔme ìti

1 1 − (−1)n+1 x2n+2 (−1)n+1 x2n+2

f (x) − Tn (x) = 2
− 2
= .
1+x 1+x 1 + x2

'Ara,
f (x) − T2n (x) (−1)n+1 x
lim = lim = 0,
x→0 x2n+1 x→0 1 + x2

kai (profan¸c)
f (x) − T2n (x) (−1)n+1 x2
lim 2n
= lim = 0,
x→0 x x→0 1 + x2
opìte to zhtoÔmeno prokÔptei apì to Je¸rhma 7.1.6.

To Je¸rhma Taylor dÐnei eÔqrhstec ekfrˆseic gia to upìloipo Taylor Rn,f,x0

tˆxhc n miac sunˆrthshc f se kˆpoio shmeÐo x0 .

Je¸rhma 7.1.8 (Je¸rhma Taylor). 'Estw f : [a, b] → R mia sunˆrthsh n+1

forèc paragwgÐsimh sto [a, b] kai èstw x0 ∈ [a, b] . Tìte, gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b] ,

(i) Morf  Cauchy tou upoloÐpou Taylor: Upˆrqei ξ metaxÔ twn x0 kai x ¸ste

f (n+1) (ξ)
(7.1.17) Rn,f,x0 (x) = (x − ξ)n (x − x0 ).
n!
(ii) Morf  Lagrange tou upoloÐpou Taylor: Upˆrqei ξ metaxÔ twn x0 kai x
¸ste

f (n+1) (ξ)
(7.1.18) Rn,f,x0 (x) = (x − x0 )n+1 .
(n + 1)!

(iii) Oloklhrwtik  morf  tou upoloÐpou Taylor: An h f (n+1) eÐnai oloklhr¸simh

sunˆrthsh, tìte

Z x
1
(7.1.19) Rn,f,x0 (x) = f (n+1) (t)(x − t)n dt.
n! x0
 7.1 Je¸rhma Taylor · 115

Apìdeixh. StajeropoioÔme to x ∈ [a, b] kai orÐzoume φ : [a, b] → R me

n
X f (k) (t)
(7.1.20) φ(t) = Rn,f,t (x) = f (x) − (x − t)k .
k!
k=0

ParagwgÐzontac wc proc t blèpoume ìti

n  (k+1)
f (k) (t)

0 0
X f (t) k k−1
φ (t) = −f (t) − (x − t) − (x − t)
k! (k − 1)!
k=1
(n+1)
f (t)
= − (x − t)n ,
n!
afoÔ to mesaÐo ˆjroisma eÐnai thleskopikì. Parathr ste epÐshc ìti
(7.1.21) φ(x0 ) = Rn,f,x0 (x) kai φ(x) = Rn,f,x (x) = 0.
(i) Gia thn morf  Cauchy tou upoloÐpou efarmìzoume to Je¸rhma Mèshc Tim c gia
thn φ sto diˆsthma me ˆkra x kai x0 : Upˆrqei ξ metaxÔ twn x0 kai x ¸ste
Rn,f,x0 (x) = φ(x0 ) − φ(x) = φ0 (ξ)(x0 − x).
Apì thn
f (n+1) (ξ)
φ0 (ξ) = − (x − ξ)n
n!
èpetai ìti
f (n+1) (ξ)
Rn,f,x0 (x) = (x − ξ)n (x − x0 ).
n!
(ii) Gia thn morf  Lagrange tou upoloÐpou efarmìzoume to Je¸rhma Mèshc Tim c
tou Cauchy gia thn φ kai gia thn g(t) = (x − t)n+1 sto diˆsthma me ˆkra x kai x0 :
Upˆrqei ξ metaxÔ twn x0 kai x ¸ste
Rn,f,x0 (x) φ(x0 ) − φ(x) φ0 (ξ)
= = .
(x − x0 )n+1 g(x0 ) − g(x) g 0 (ξ)
'Epetai ìti
(n+1)
− f n! (ξ) (x − ξ)n f (n+1) (ξ)
Rn,f,x0 (x) = n
(x − x0 )n+1 = (x − x0 )n+1 .
−(n + 1)(x − ξ) (n + 1)!
(iii) Gia thn oloklhrwtik  morf  tou upoloÐpou parathroÔme ìti (apì thn upìjes 
mac) h φ0 eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto diˆsthma me ˆkra x kai x0 , opìte efarmìzetai to
deÔtero jemeli¸dec je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ:
Z x0
Rn,f,x0 (x) = φ(x0 ) − φ(x) = φ0 (t) dt
x
x0
f (n+1) (t)
Z
= − (x − t)n dt
x n!
x
f (n+1) (t)
Z
= (x − t)n dt.
x0 n!
'Etsi, èqoume tic treic morfèc gia to upìloipo Rn,f,x0 (x). 2
Sthn epìmenh Parˆgrafo ja qrhsimopoi soume to Je¸rhma Taylor gia na broume
to anˆptugma se dunamoseirˆ twn basik¸n uperbatik¸n sunart sewn.
116 · Je¸rhma Taylor

7.2 Dunamoseirèc kai anaptÔgmata Taylor

7.2aþ H ekjetik  sunˆrthsh f (x) = ex
ParathroÔme ìti f (k) (x) = ex gia kˆje x ∈ R kai k = 0, 1, 2, . . .. Eidikìtera,
f (k) (0) = 1 gia kˆje k ≥ 0. Sunep¸c,
n
X xk x2 xn
(7.2.1) Tn (x) := Tn,f,0 (x) = =1+x+ + ··· + .
k! 2! n!
k=0

'Estw x 6= 0. Qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn morf  Lagrange tou upoloÐpou paÐrnoume

eξ
(7.2.2) Rn (x) := Rn,f,0 (x) = xn+1
(n + 1)!
gia kˆpoio ξ metaxÔ twn 0 kai x. Gia na ektim soume to upìloipo diakrÐnoume dÔo
peript¸seic.
• An x > 0 tìte
eξ ex xn+1
|Rn (x)| = xn+1 ≤ .
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!
• An x < 0, tìte ξ < 0 kai eξ < 1, ˆra

eξ |x|n+1
|Rn (x)| = |x|n+1 ≤ .
(n + 1)! (n + 1)!

Se kˆje perÐptwsh,

e|x| |x|n+1
(7.2.3) |Rn (x)| ≤ .
(n + 1)!
e|x| |x|n+1
'Estw x 6= 0. Efarmìzontac to krit rio tou lìgou gia thn akoloujÐa an := (n+1)!
blèpoume ìti
an+1 |x|
= → 0,
an n+2
ˆra
lim |Rn (x)| = 0.
n→∞

Sunep¸c,
∞
X xk
(7.2.4) ex = lim Tn (x) =
n→∞ k!
k=0

gia kˆje x ∈ R.

7.2bþ H sunˆrthsh f (x) = cos x

ParathroÔme ìti f (2k) (x) = (−1)k cos x kai f (2k+1) (x) = (−1)k sin x gia kˆje x ∈ R
kai k = 0, 1, 2, . . .. Eidikìtera, f (2k) (0) = (−1)k kai f (2k+1) (0) = 0. Sunep¸c,
n
X (−1)k x2k x2 x4 (−1)n x2n
(7.2.5) T2n (x) := T2n,f,0 (x) = =1− + − ··· + .
(2k)! 2! 4! (2n)!
k=0
 7.2 Dunamoseirès kai anaptÔgmata Taylor · 117

'Estw x 6= 0. Qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn morf  Lagrange tou upoloÐpou paÐrnoume

f (2n+1) (ξ) 2n+1

(7.2.6) R2n (x) := R2n,f,0 (x) = x
(2n + 1)!
gia kˆpoio ξ metaxÔ twn 0 kai x. Gia na ektim soume to upìloipo parathroÔme ìti
|f (2n+1) (ξ)| ≤ 1 (eÐnai kˆpoio hmÐtono   sunhmÐtono), ˆra

|x|2n+1
(7.2.7) |R2n (x)| ≤ .
(2n + 1)!
|x|2n+1
Efarmìzontac to krit rio tou lìgou gia thn akoloujÐa an := (2n+1)! blèpoume ìti

lim |R2n (x)| = 0.

n→∞

Sunep¸c,
∞
X (−1)k x2k
(7.2.8) cos x = lim T2n (x) =
n→∞ (2k)!
k=0

gia kˆje x ∈ R.

7.2gþ H sunˆrthsh f (x) = sin x

ParathroÔme ìti f (2k) (x) = (−1)k sin x kai f (2k+1) (x) = (−1)k cos x gia kˆje x ∈ R
kai k = 0, 1, 2, . . .. Eidikìtera, f (2k) (0) = 0 kai f (2k+1) (0) = (−1)k . Sunep¸c,
(7.2.9)
n
X (−1)k x2k+1 x3 x5 (−1)n x2n+1
T2n+1 (x) := T2n+1,f,0 (x) = =x− + − ··· + .
(2k + 1)! 3! 5! (2n + 1)!
k=0

'Estw x 6= 0. Qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn morf  Lagrange tou upoloÐpou paÐrnoume

f (2n+2) (ξ) 2n+2

(7.2.10) R2n+1 (x) := R2n+1,f,0 (x) = x
(2n + 2)!
gia kˆpoio ξ metaxÔ twn 0 kai x. Gia na ektim soume to upìloipo parathroÔme ìti
|f (2n+2) (ξ)| ≤ 1 (eÐnai kˆpoio hmÐtono   sunhmÐtono), ˆra

|x|2n+2
(7.2.11) |R2n+1 (x)| ≤ .
(2n + 2)!
|x|2n+2
Efarmìzontac to krit rio tou lìgou gia thn akoloujÐa an := (2n+2)! blèpoume ìti

lim |R2n+1 (x)| = 0.

n→∞

Sunep¸c,
∞
X (−1)k x2k+1
(7.2.12) sin x = lim T2n+1 (x) =
n→∞ (2k + 1)!
k=0

gia kˆje x ∈ R.
118 · Je¸rhma Taylor

7.2dþ H sunˆrthsh f (x) = ln(1 + x), x ∈ (−1, 1]

(−1)k−1 (k−1)!
ParathroÔme ìti f (k) (x) = (1+x)k
gia kˆje x > −1 kai k = 1, 2, . . .. Ei-
dikìtera, f (0) = 0 kai f (k)
(0) = (−1) k−1
(k − 1)! gia kˆje k ≥ 1. Sunep¸c,
n
X (−1)k−1 xk x2 x3 (−1)n−1 xn
(7.2.13) Tn (x) := Tn,f,0 (x) = =x− + − ··· + .
k 2 3 n
k=1

'Estw x > −1. Qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn oloklhrwtik  morf  tou upoloÐpou paÐrnoume
Z x
(x − t)n
(7.2.14) Rn (x) := Rn,f,0 (x) = (−1)n n+1
dt.
0 (1 + t)

Jètoume u = 1+t .
x−t
Tìte, to u metabˆlletai apì x wc 0 kai dt
1+t = −du
1+u (elègxte to).
Sunep¸c,
0
−un
Z
(7.2.15) Rn (x) = du.
x 1+u
DiakrÐnoume dÔo peript¸seic:
• An −1 < x < 0 tìte
0 |x|
|u|n 1 |x|n+1
Z Z
1
|Rn (x)| ≤ du ≤ un du = .
x 1+u 1+x 0 1+x n+1

• An 0 < x ≤ 1 tìte
x x
un |x|n+1
Z Z
|Rn (x)| = du ≤ un du = .
0 1+u 0 (n + 1)

Se kˆje perÐptwsh,
lim |Rn (x)| = 0.
n→∞
Sunep¸c,
∞
X (−1)k−1 xk
(7.2.16) ln(1 + x) = lim Tn (x) =
n→∞ k
k=1

gia kˆje x ∈ (−1, 1] (seirˆ Mercator).

Eidikìtera, gia x = 1 paÐrnoume ton tÔpo tou Leibniz
∞
X (−1)k−1 1 1 1 (−1)n−1
(7.2.17) ln 2 = =1− + − + ··· + + ··· .
k 2 3 4 n
k=1

DeÔteroc trìpoc: Apì th sqèsh

1 tn
(7.2.18) = 1 − t + t2 + · · · + (−1)n−1 tn−1 + (−1)n (t 6= −1)
1+t 1+t
èqoume, gia kˆje x > −1,
(7.2.19) Z x Z x n
1 x2 x3 n−1 x
n
n t
ln(1 + x) = dt = x − + + · · · + (−1) + (−1) dt.
0 1+t 2 3 n 0 1+t
 7.2 Dunamoseirès kai anaptÔgmata Taylor · 119

An onomˆsoume Fn (x) th diaforˆ

x2 x3 xn
 
(7.2.20) ln(1 + x) − x − + + · · · + (−1)n−1
2 3 n

èqoume
x
tn
Z
(7.2.21) Fn (x) = (−1)n dt .
0 1+t

Ektim¸ntac to olokl rwma ìpwc prin, blèpoume ìti

|x|n+1
 
1
(7.2.22) |Fn (x)| ≤ max 1,
x+1 n+1

gia kˆje −1 < x ≤ 1. Sunep¸c, limn→∞ Fn (x) = 0. 'Epetai ìti

∞
X xn
(7.2.23) ln(1 + x) = (−1)n−1
n=1
n

Fn (x)
gia x ∈ (−1, 1]. Parathr ste epÐshc ìti lim = 0, to opoÐo apodeiknÔei ìti
x→0 xn
Fn (x) = Rn,f,0 (x).
n

'Otan |x| > 1 h seirˆ apoklÐnei (afoÔ h akoloujÐa xn den teÐnei sto 0) kai gia
x = −1 epÐshc apoklÐnei (armonik  seirˆ).

7.2eþ H diwnumik  sunˆrthsh f (x) = (1 + x)a , x > −1

H f orÐzetai apì thn f (x) = exp(a ln(1 + x)). An a > 0, to ìrio limx→−1 f (x)
upˆrqei kai eÐnai Ðso me 0, diìti ln(1 + x) = y → −∞ kai exp(ay) → 0. Se aut n thn
perÐptwsh mporoÔme na epekteÐnoume to pedÐo orismoÔ thc f sto [−1, ∞) jètontac
f (−1) = 0. ParagwgÐzontac blèpoume ìti

f (k) (x) = a(a − 1) · · · (a − k + 1)(1 + x)a−k

f (k) (0) = a(a − 1) · · · (a − k + 1).

Sunep¸c,
n  
X a
(7.2.24) Tn (x) := Tn,f,0 (x) = xk
k
k=0

ìpou
 
a a(a − 1) · · · (a − k + 1)
(7.2.25) = .
k k!

Parathr ste ìti an a ∈ N tìte ka = 0 gia kˆje k ∈ N me k > a, opìte

a  
a
X a
(7.2.26) (1 + x) = xk .
k
k=0
120 · Je¸rhma Taylor

Upojètoume loipìn ìti a ∈

/ N. Ja deÐxoume ìti, ìtan |x| < 1, tìte Tn,f,0 (x) → f (x).
QrhsimopoioÔme th morf  Cauchy tou upoloÐpou: upˆrqei ξ anˆmesa sto 0 kai sto
x ¸ste
f (n+1) (ξ) a(a − 1) . . . (a − n)
Rn (x) = (x − ξ)n x = (1 + ξ)a−(n+1) (x − ξ)n x
n!  n n!
a(a − 1) . . . (a − n) x − ξ
= (1 + ξ)a−1 x
n! 1+ξ

Gia na deÐxoume ìti lim Rn (x) = 0 ìtan |x| < 1, parathroÔme pr¸ta ìti
n→∞
 
x − ξ 
(7.2.27)  1 + ξ  ≤ |x|
  ìtan |x| < 1.

Prˆgmati, an 0 ≤ ξ ≤ x èqoume
 
x − ξ  x − ξ x
(7.2.28)  1 + ξ  = 1 + ξ ≤ 1 + ξ ≤ x = |x|.
 

An −1 < x ≤ ξ ≤ 0 jewroÔme thn sunˆrthsh gx : [x, 0] → R me

x−ξ x+1
(7.2.29) gx (ξ) = = −1
1+ξ ξ+1
h opoÐa eÐnai fjÐnousa (afoÔ x + 1 > 0) ˆra èqei mègisth tim  thn gx (x) = 0 kai
elˆqisth thn gx (0) = x opìte gia kˆje t ∈ [x, 0] èqoume gx (ξ) ≤ 0 ˆra
 
x − ξ 
(7.2.30)  1 + ξ  = −gx (ξ) ≤ −gx (0) = −x = |x|.
 

'Epetai ìti
 a(a − 1) . . . (a − n) x − ξ n
   
a−1 

|Rn (x)| = 
 (1 + ξ) x
n! 1+ξ
 
 a(a − 1) . . . (a − n) n  
x  (1 + ξ)a−1 x

≤
n!
 
 a(a − 1) . . . (a − n) n 
≤ x  M (x)
n!

ìpou M (x) = |x| max(1, (1 + x)a−1 ) (ˆskhsh), ˆra arkeÐ na deÐxoume ìti
 
 a(a − 1) . . . (a − n) n 
yn ≡  x  → 0
n!
kaj¸c n → ∞. 'Eqoume
 a(a − 1) . . . (a − n)(a − (n + 1)) n! xn+1   a − n + 1 
   
yn+1
=  = x.
yn a(a − 1) . . . (a − n) (n + 1)! xn   n + 1 

Gia kˆje n ≥ a − 1 èqoume |a − (n + 1)| = n + 1 − a, ˆra

 
yn+1  a − (n + 1)  n + 1 − a
(7.2.31) = x = |x| → |x| < 1
yn n+1 n+1
 7.3 Sunart seis parastˆsimes se dunamoseirˆ · 121

ìtan n → ∞, ˆra yn → 0. DeÐxame ìti an |x| < 1 tìte lim Rn (x) = 0. 'Ara,
n→∞

∞  
a
X a k
(7.2.32) (1 + x) = x
n=0
k

gia −1 < x < 1.

Gia |x| > 1 h seirˆ apoklÐnei (krit rio lìgou). Gia |x| = 1 h sumperiforˆ
exartˆtai apì thn tim  tou a. Gia parˆdeigma, ìtan a = −1, h seirˆ apoklÐnei kai
sta dÔo ˆkra (gewmetrik  seirˆ me lìgo x). ApodeiknÔetai ìti ìtan a = −1/2 h
seirˆ sugklÐnei gia x = 1 kai apoklÐnei gia x = −1, kai ìtan a = 1/2 (kai genikìtera
ìtan a > 0), h seirˆ sugklÐnei kai sta dÔo ˆkra.

7.2þ H sunˆrthsh f (x) = arctan x, |x| ≤ 1

Xekinˆme apì thn Z x
1
arctan x = dt.
0 1 + t2
AntÐ na paragwgÐsoume n forèc thn arctan sto 0, eÐnai eukolìtero na oloklhr¸-
soume thn

1 2 4 6 n 2n (−1)n+1 t2n+2
(7.2.33) = 1 − t + t − t + · · · + (−1) t +
1 + t2 1 + t2
opìte
x x
x3 2n+1
t2n+2
Z Z
1 n x
(7.2.34) dt = x − + · · · + (−1) + (−1)n+1 dt.
0 1 + t2 3 2n + 1 0 1 + t2

An orÐsoume

x3 x2n+1
(7.2.35) pn (x) = x − + · · · + (−1)n
3 2n + 1
èqoume
x  Z |x|
t2n+2  |x|2n+3
Z
2n+2

(7.2.36) |f (x) − pn (x)| =  dt ≤ t dt ≤
0 1 + t2  0 2n + 3

opìte, ìtan |x| ≤ 1, blèpoume ìti lim pn (x) = f (x), dhlad 

n→∞

∞
X x2n+1 x3 x5
(7.2.37) arctan x = (−1)n =x− + + ···
n=0
2n + 1 3 5

gia x ∈ [−1, 1].

7.3 Sunart seic parastˆsimec se dunamoseirˆ

Sthn Parˆgrafo 2.4 suzht same gia pr¸th forˆ tic dunamoseirèc. EÐdame ìti an
∞
ak xk eÐnai mia dunamoseirˆ me suntelestèc ak , tìte to sÔnolo twn shmeÐwn sta
P
k=0
122 · Je¸rhma Taylor

opoÐa sugklÐnei h dunamoseirˆ eÐnai {ousiastikˆ} èna diˆsthma summetrikì wc proc

to 0 ( , endeqomènwc, to {0}   to R). An orÐsoume
R := sup{|x| : h dunamoseirˆ sugklÐnei sto x},
tìte h dunamoseirˆ sugklÐnei apolÔtwc se kˆje x ∈ (−R, R) kai apoklÐnei se kˆje x
me |x| > R. To diˆsthma (−R, R) onomˆzetai thc dunamoseirˆc.
diˆsthma sÔgklishc

To sÔnolo thc dunamoseirˆc, dhlad  to sÔnolo ìlwn twn shmeÐwn sta

sÔgklishc

opoÐa sugklÐnei, prokÔptei apì to (−R, R) me thn prosj kh (Ðswc) tou R   tou −R
  twn ±R. Sthn perÐptwsh pou R = +∞, h dunamoseirˆ sugklÐnei se kˆje x ∈ R.
Sthn perÐptwsh pou R = 0, h dunamoseirˆ sugklÐnei mìno sto shmeÐo x = 0.
H epìmenh Prìtash dÐnei ènan {tÔpo} gia thn aktÐna sÔgklishc.
∞
Prìtash 7.3.1. ak xk
P
'Estw mia dunamoseirˆ me suntelestèc ak . H aktÐna

k=0
sÔgklis c thc dÐnetai apì thn

1
R= .
lim sup |ak |1/k
∞
. DeÐqnoume pr¸ta ìti an |x| lim sup |ak | < 1, tìte h seirˆ
p
ak xk
k
P
Apìdeixh

k→∞ k=1
sugklÐnei apolÔtwc. Prˆgmati, an jewr soume s > 0 me |x| lim sup k |ak | < s < 1,
p

tìte apì ton qarakthrismì tou lim sup, upˆrqei N ∈ N ¸ste |ak xk | ≤ sk gia kˆje
k ≥ N , kai to sumpèrasma èpetai apì to krit rio sÔgkrishc.
∞
Sth sunèqeia deÐqnoume ìti an |x| lim sup k |ak | > 1, tìte h seirˆ ak apok-
p P
k→∞ k=1
lÐnei. Prˆgmati, an jewr soume s > 0 me |x| lim sup k |ak | > s > 1, tìte apì ton
p

qarakthrismì tou lim sup, upˆrqoun ˆpeiroi deÐktec k1 < k2 < · · · < kn < kn+1 <
· · · ¸ste |akn xkn | ≥ skn > 1 gia kˆje n ∈ N. 'Ara, ak xk 6→ 0 kai efarmìzetai to
krit rio apìklishc.
Sunduˆzontac ta parapˆnw blèpoume ìti to diˆsthma sÔgklishc thc dunamo-
seirˆc eÐnai anagkastikˆ to (−R, R), ìpou R = lim sup1|ak |1/k . 2

Orismìc 7.3.2. Lème ìti mia sunˆrthsh f : (−R, R) → R eÐnai parastˆsimh se

dunamoseirˆ me kèntro to 0 an upˆrqei akoloujÐa (ak )∞

k=0 pragmatik¸n arijm¸n ¸ste

∞
X
f (x) = ak xk
k=0

gia kˆje x ∈ (−R, R) .

To je¸rhma pou akoloujeÐ deÐqnei ìti an mia sunˆrthsh eÐnai parastˆsimh se

dunamoseirˆ sto (−R, R), tìte eÐnai ˆpeirec forèc paragwgÐsimh kai oi parˆgwgoÐ
thc upologÐzontai me parag¸gish twn ìrwn thc dunamoseirˆc. Anˆloga, upologÐze-
tai to olokl rwmˆ thc se kˆje upodiˆsthma tou (−R, R).
Je¸rhma 7.3.3 (je¸rhma parag¸gishc dunamoseir¸n).
P∞ n
n=0 an x 'Estw

mia dunamoseirˆ pou sugklÐnei(−R, R)sto R > 0 gia kˆpoion . JewroÔme th

sunˆrthsh f : (−R, R) → R me

∞
X
f (x) = ak xk .
k=0
 7.3 Sunart seis parastˆsimes se dunamoseirˆ · 123

Tìte, h f eÐnai ˆpeirec forèc paragwgÐsimh: gia kˆje k≥0 kai gia kˆje |x| < R
isqÔei

∞
X
(k)
f (x) = n(n − 1) · · · (n − k + 1)an xn−k .
n=k

EpÐshc,

f (n) (0)
an = , n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
n!
kai, gia kˆje |x| < R , h f eÐnai oloklhr¸simh sto [0, x] kai

Z x ∞
X an n+1
f (t) dt = x .
0 n=0
n +1

Apìdeixh. DeÐqnoume pr¸ta ìti, gia kˆje x ∈ (−R, R),

∞
X
(1) f 0 (x) = nan xn−1 .
n=1

AfoÔ |x| < R, upˆrqei δ > 0 ¸ste |x| + δ < R. 'Epetai (exhg ste giatÐ) ìti
∞
X
|an |(|x| + δ)n < +∞.
n=0

'Estw 0 < |t| < δ . Parathr ste ìti

   n   
n  
X n  X n 
|(x + t)n − xn − nxn−1 t| =  xn−k tk  = t2  xn−k tk−2 
   
 k   k 
k=2 k=2
n   n  
t2 X n n−k k−2 2 t2 X n
≤ |x| t δ ≤ |x|n−k δ k
δ2 k δ2 k
k=2 k=2
t2
≤ (|x| + δ)n .
δ2
Sunep¸c,
 ∞
 ∞ 
 f (x + t) − f (x) X   X (x + t)n − xn − nxn−1 t 
− nan xn−1  =  an
   
t t
 
   
n=1 n=1
∞
|t|
X
≤ |an |(|x| + δ)n .
δ 2 n=0

PaÐrnontac to ìrio kaj¸c to t → 0, blèpoume ìti

∞
f (x + t) − f (x) X
lim = nan xn−1 ,
t→0 t n=1

to opoÐo apodeiknÔei thn (1).

124 · Je¸rhma Taylor

P∞
Qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn Prìtash 7.3.1 Pblèpoume ìti h dunamoseirˆ n=1 nan xn−1
∞
èqei thn Ðdia aktÐna sÔgklishc me thn n=0 an xn (exhg ste giatÐ). Efarmìzontac
loipìn ton Ðdio sullogismì gia thn f sth jèsh thc f , blèpoume ìti
0

∞
X
(2)
f (x) = n(n − 1)an xn−2 .
n=2

SuneqÐzontac me ton Ðdio trìpo, apodeiknÔoume ìti h f eÐnai ˆpeirec forèc parag-
wgÐsimh kai ìti gia kˆje k ≥ 0 kai gia kˆje |x| < R isqÔei
∞
X
(k)
(2) f (x) = n(n − 1) · · · (n − k + 1)an xn−k .
n=k

Jètontac x = 0 sthn (2) blèpoume ìti

f (k) (0) = k!ak
gia kˆje k ≥ 0 (parathr ste ìti: an jèsoume x = 0 sto dexiì mèloc thc (2), tìte
ìloi oi ìroi tou ajroÐsmatoc mhdenÐzontai, ektìc apì ekeÐnon pou antistoiqeÐ sthn
tim  n = k kai isoÔtai me k(k − 1) · · · 2 · 1 · ak x0 = k!ak ). P∞ an n+1
Gia ton teleutaÐo isqurismì, parathroÔme ìti h dunamoseirˆ n=0 n+1 x èqei
P∞
thn Ðdia aktÐna sÔgklishc me thn n=0 an x (exhg ste giatÐ) kai paragwgÐzontac
n

ìro proc ìro thn

∞
X an n+1
F (x) = x
n=0
n +1
sto (−R, R) paÐrnoume
∞
X
F 0 (x) = an xn = f (x).
n=0
Apì to jemeli¸dec je¸rhma tou ApeirostikoÔ LogismoÔ èpetai ìti
Z x ∞
X an n+1
f (t) dt = F (x) − F (0) = F (x) = x
0 n=0
n +1

gia kˆje x ∈ (−R, R). 2

Pìrisma 7.3.4 (je¸rhma monadikìthtac). 'Estw (ak ) (bk )

, akoloujÐec prag-

matik¸n arijm¸n me thn ex c idiìthta: upˆrqei R>0 ¸ste

∞
X ∞
X
ak xk = bk xk
k=0 k=0

gia kˆje x ∈ (−R, R) . Tìte,

ak = bk gia kˆje k = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
Apìdeixh. Apì to Je¸rhma 7.3.3, gia th sunˆrthsh f : (−R, R) → R me
∞
X ∞
X
f (x) = ak xk = bk xk
k=0 k=0

èqoume
f (k) (0) = k!ak = k!bk
gia kˆje k ≥ 0. Sunep¸c, ak = bk gia kˆje k ≥ 0. 2
 7.4 Ask seis · 125

7.4 Ask seic
Pr¸th Omˆda
1. 'Estw p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn polu¸numo bajmoÔ n kai èstw a ∈ R. DeÐxte
ìti upˆrqoun b0 , b1 , · · · , bn ∈ R ¸ste

p(x) = b0 + b1 (x − a) + · · · + bn (x − a)n gia kˆje x ∈ R.

DeÐxte ìti
p(k) (a)
bk = , k = 0, 1, . . . , n.
k!
2. Grˆyte kajèna apì ta parakˆtw polu¸numa sth morf  b0 + b1 (x − 3) + · · · +
bn (x − 3)n :

p1 (x) = x2 − 4x − 9, p2 (x) = x4 − 12x3 + 44x2 + 2x + 1, p3 (x) = x5 .

3. Gia kˆje mÐa apì tic parakˆtw sunart seic, na brejeÐ to polu¸numo Taylor Tn,f,a
pou upodeiknÔetai.

(T3,f,0 ) : f (x) = exp(sin x).

(T2n+1,f,0 ) : f (x) = (1 + x2 )−1 .
(Tn,f,0 ) : f (x) = (1 + x)−1 .
(T4,f,0 ) : f (x) = x5 + x3 + x.
(T6,f,0 ) : f (x) = x5 + x3 + x.
(T5,f,1 ) : f (x) = x5 + x3 + x.

4. 'Estw n ≥ 1 kai f, g : (a, b) → R sunart seic n forèc paragwgÐsimec sto

x0 ∈ (a, b) ¸ste f (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ) = · · · = f (n−1) (x0 ) = 0, g(x0 ) = g 0 (x0 ) = · · · =
g (n−1) (x0 ) = 0 kai g (n) (x0 ) 6= 0. DeÐxte ìti

f (x) f (n) (x0 )

lim = (n) .
x→x0 g(x) g (x0 )

5. 'Estw n ≥ 2 kai f : (a, b) → R sunˆrthsh n forèc paragwgÐsimh sto x0 ∈ (a, b)

¸ste f (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ) = · · · = f (n−1) (x0 ) = 0 kai f (n) (x0 ) 6= 0. DeÐxte ìti:
(a) An o n eÐnai ˆrtioc kai f (n) (x0 ) > 0, tìte h f èqei topikì elˆqisto sto x0 .
(b) An o n eÐnai ˆrtioc kai f (n) (x0 ) < 0, tìte h f èqei topikì mègisto sto x0 .
(g) An o n eÐnai perittìc, tìte h f den èqei topikì mègisto oÔte topikì elˆqisto sto
x0 , allˆ to x0 eÐnai shmeÐo kamp c gia thn f .

6. An f (x) = ln x, x > 0, breÐte thn plhsièsterh eujeÐa kai thn plhsièsterh

parabol  sto grˆfhma thc f sto shmeÐo (e, 1).

7. BreÐte to polu¸numo Taylor Tn,f,0 gia th sunˆrthsh

Z x
2
f (x) = e−t dt, (x ∈ R).
0
126 · Je¸rhma Taylor

8. BreÐte to polu¸numo Taylor Tn,f,0 gia th sunˆrthsh f : R → R pou orÐzetai wc

ex c: f (0) = 0 kai
2
f (x) = e−1/x , x 6= 0.

9. Qrhsimopoi¸ntac to anˆptugma Taylor thc sunˆrthshc arctan x (−1 ≤ x ≤ 1)

upologÐste to ˆjroisma
∞
X 1
(−1)n .
n=0
3n (2n + 1)

10. 'Estw f : R → R ˆpeirec forèc paragwgÐsimh sunˆrthsh. Upojètoume ìti

f 000 = f kai f (0) = 1, f 0 (0) = f 00 (0) = 0.
(a) 'Estw R > 0. DeÐxte ìti upˆrqei M = M (R) > 0 ¸ste: gia kˆje x ∈ [−R, R]
kai gia kˆje k = 0, 1, 2, . . .,
|f (k) (x)| ≤ M.
(b) BreÐte to polu¸numo Taylor T3n,f,0 kai, qrhsimopoi¸ntac to (a) kai opoiond pote
tÔpo upoloÐpou, deÐxte ìti
∞
X x3k
f (x) =
(3k)!
k=0

gia kˆje x ∈ R.

11. BreÐte proseggistik  tim , me sfˆlma mikrìtero tou 10−6 , gia kajènan apì
touc arijmoÔc
1
sin 1, sin 2, sin , e, e2 .
2

12. (a) DeÐxte ìti

π 1 1
= arctan + arctan
4 2 3
kai
π 1 1
= 4 arctan − arctan .
4 5 239
(b) DeÐxte ìti π = 3.14159 · · · (me ˆlla lìgia, breÐte proseggistik  tim  gia ton
arijmì π me sfˆlma mikrìtero tou 10−6 ).
Kefˆlaio 8

Kurtèc kai koÐlec

sunart seic
8.1 Orismìc
Se autì to kefˆlaio, me I sumbolÐzoume èna (kleistì, anoiktì   hmianoiktì, peperas-
mèno   ˆpeiro) diˆsthma sto R.
'Estw a, b ∈ R me a < b. Sto epìmeno L mma perigrˆfoume ta shmeÐa tou
eujÔgrammou tm matoc [a, b].

L mma 8.1.1. An a<b sto R tìte

(8.1.1) [a, b] = {(1 − t)a + tb : 0 ≤ t ≤ 1}.

Eidikìtera, gia kˆje x ∈ [a, b] èqoume

b−x x−a
(8.1.2) x= a+ b.
b−a b−a
Apìdeixh . EÔkola elègqoume ìti, gia kˆje t ∈ [0, 1] isqÔei

(8.1.3) a ≤ (1 − t)a + tb = a + t(b − a) ≤ b,

dhlad 

(8.1.4) {(1 − t)a + tb : 0 ≤ t ≤ 1} ⊆ [a, b].

AntÐstrofa, kˆje x ∈ [a, b] grˆfetai sth morf 

b−x x−a
(8.1.5) x= a+ b.
b−a b−a
Parathr¸ntac ìti t := (x − a)/(b − a) ∈ [0, 1] kai 1 − t = (b − x)/(b − a), blèpoume
ìti

(8.1.6) [a, b] ⊆ {(1 − t)a + tb : 0 ≤ t ≤ 1}.

Ta shmeÐa (1 − t)a + tb tou [a, b] lègontai kurtoÐ sunduasmoÐ twn a kai b. 2

128 · Kurtès kai koÐles sunart seis

Orismìc 8.1.2. 'Estw f : I → R mia sunˆrthsh.

(a) H f lègetai kurt  an

(8.1.7) f ((1 − t)a + tb) ≤ (1 − t)f (a) + tf (b)

gia kˆje a, b ∈ I kai gia kˆje t ∈ R me 0 < t < 1 (parathr ste ìti, afoÔ to I eÐnai
diˆsthma, to L mma 8.1.1 deÐqnei ìti to shmeÐo (1 − t)a + tb ∈ [a, b] ⊆ I , dhlad  h
f orÐzetai kalˆ se autì). H gewmetrik  shmasÐa tou orismoÔ eÐnai h ex c: h qord 
pou èqei san ˆkra ta shmeÐa (a, f (a)) kai (b, f (b)) den eÐnai poujenˆ kˆtw apì to
grˆfhma thc f .
(b) H f lègetai gnhsÐwc an eÐnai kurt  kai èqoume gn sia anisìthta sthn
kurt 

(8.1.7) gia kˆje a < b sto I kai gia kˆje 0 < t < 1.
(g) H f : I → R lègetai koÐlh (antÐstoiqa, gnhsÐwc koÐlh) an h −f eÐnai kurt 
(antÐstoiqa, gnhsÐwc kurt ).

Parat rhsh 8.1.3. IsodÔnamoi trìpoi me touc opoÐouc mporeÐ na perigrafeÐ h

kurtìthta thc f : I → R eÐnai oi ex c:
(a) An a, b, x ∈ I kai a < x < b, tìte

b−x x−a
(8.1.8) f (x) ≤ f (a) + f (b).
b−a b−a
Parathr ste ìti to dexiì mèloc aut c thc anisìthtac isoÔtai me

f (b) − f (a)
(8.1.9) f (a) + (x − a).
b−a
(b) An a, b ∈ I kai an t, s > 0 me t + s = 1, tìte

(8.1.10) f (ta + sb) ≤ tf (a) + sf (b).

8.2 Kurtèc sunart seic orismènec se anoiktì diˆsthma

Se aut  thn Parˆgrafo meletˆme wc proc th sunèqeia kai thn paragwgisimìthta
mia kurt  sunˆrthsh pou orÐzetai se anoiktì diˆsthma. 'Ola ta apotelèsmata pou
ja apodeÐxoume eÐnai sunèpeiec tou akìloujou {l mmatoc twn tri¸n qord¸n}:

Prìtash 8.2.1 (to l mma twn tri¸n qord¸n). 'Estw f : (a, b) → R kurt 

sunˆrthsh. An y<x<z sto (a, b)

, tìte

f (x) − f (y) f (z) − f (y) f (z) − f (x)

(8.2.1) ≤ ≤ .
x−y z−y z−x

Apìdeixh . AfoÔ h f eÐnai kurt , èqoume

z−x x−y
(8.2.2) f (x) ≤ f (y) + f (z).
z−y z−y
Apì aut  thn anisìthta blèpoume ìti
y−x x−y x−y
(8.2.3) f (x) − f (y) ≤ f (y) + f (z) = [f (z) − f (y)],
z−y z−y z−y
 8.2 Kurtès sunart seis orismènes se anoiktì diˆsthma · 129

to opoÐo apodeiknÔei thn arister  anisìthta sthn (8.2.1). Xekin¸ntac pˆli apì thn
(8.2.2), grˆfoume
z−x x−z z−x
(8.2.4) f (x) − f (z) ≤ f (y) + f (z) = − [f (z) − f (y)],
z−y z−y z−y
ap ìpou prokÔptei h dexiˆ anisìthta sthn (8.2.1). 2
Ja qrhsimopoi soume epÐshc thn ex c apl  sunèpeia tou l mmatoc twn tri¸n qord¸n.
L mma 8.2.2. 'Estw f : (a, b) → R kurt  sunˆrthsh. An y < x < z < w sto

(a, b)
, tìte

f (x) − f (y) f (w) − f (z)

(8.2.5) ≤ .
x−y w−z
Apìdeixh . Efarmìzontac thn Prìtash 8.2.1 gia ta shmeÐa y < x < z , paÐrnoume
f (x) − f (y) f (z) − f (x)
(8.2.6) ≤ .
x−y z−x
Efarmìzontac pˆli thn Prìtash 8.2.1 gia ta shmeÐa x < z < w, paÐrnoume
f (z) − f (x) f (w) − f (z)
(8.2.7) ≤ .
z−x w−z
'Epetai to sumpèrasma. 2
Je¸rhma 8.2.3. 'Estw f : (a, b) → R kurt  sunˆrthsh. An x ∈ (a, b), tìte

upˆrqoun oi pleurikèc parˆgwgoi

0 f (x + h) − f (x) 0 f (x + h) − f (x)
(8.2.8) f− (x) = lim− kai f+ (x) = lim .
h→0 h h→0+ h
Apìdeixh . Ja deÐxoume ìti upˆrqei h dexiˆ pleurik  parˆgwgoc f+ 0
(x) (me ton
Ðdio trìpo douleÔoume gia thn arister  pleurik  parˆgwgo f− (x)). JewroÔme th
0

sunˆrthsh gx : (x, b) → R pou orÐzetai apì thn

f (z) − f (x)
(8.2.9) gx (z) := .
z−x
H gx eÐnai aÔxousa: an x < z1 < z2 < b, to l mma twn tri¸n qord¸n deÐqnei ìti
f (z1 ) − f (x) f (z2 ) − f (x)
(8.2.10) gx (z1 ) = ≤ = gx (z2 ).
z1 − x z2 − x
EpÐshc, an jewr soume tuqìn y ∈ (a, x), to l mma twn tri¸n qord¸n (gia ta y <
x < z ) deÐqnei ìti
f (x) − f (y) f (z) − f (x)
(8.2.11) ≤ = gx (z)
x−y z−x
gia kˆje z ∈ (x, b), dhlad  h gx eÐnai kˆtw fragmènh. 'Ara, upˆrqei to
f (z) − f (x) f (x + h) − f (x)
(8.2.12) lim gx (z) = lim+ = lim+ .
z→x+ z→x z−x h→0 h
Dhlad , upˆrqei h dexiˆ pleurik  parˆgwgoc f+
0
(x). 2
130 · Kurtès kai koÐles sunart seis

Je¸rhma 8.2.4. 'Estw f : (a, b) → R kurt  sunˆrthsh. Oi pleurikèc parˆgwgoi

0 0 0 0
f−,f+ eÐnai aÔxousec sto (a, b) kai f− ≤ f+ sto (a, b) .

Apìdeixh . 'Estw x < y sto (a, b). Gia arketˆ mikrì jetikì h èqoume x ± h, y ± h ∈
(a, b) kai x + h < y − h. Apì thn Prìtash 8.2.1 kai apì to L mma 8.2.2 blèpoume
ìti
(8.2.13)
f (x) − f (x − h) f (x + h) − f (x) f (y) − f (y − h) f (y + h) − f (y)
≤ ≤ ≤ .
h h h h
PaÐrnontac ìria kaj¸c h → 0+ , sumperaÐnoume ìti
0 0 0 0
(8.2.14) f− (x) ≤ f+ (x) ≤ f− (y) ≤ f+ (y).

Oi anisìthtec f− 0 0
(x) ≤ f− (y) kai f+
0 0
(x) ≤ f+ (y) deÐqnoun ìti oi f−
0
, f+0
eÐnai aÔx-
ousec sto (a, b). H arister  anisìthta sthn (8.2.14) deÐqnei ìti f− ≤ f+ sto (a, b).
0 0

2
H Ôparxh twn pleurik¸n parag¸gwn exasfalÐzei ìti kˆje kurt  sunˆrthsh f : I →
R eÐnai suneq c sto eswterikì tou I :

Je¸rhma 8.2.5. Kˆje kurt  sunˆrthsh f : (a, b) → R eÐnai suneq c.

Apìdeixh . 'Estw x ∈ (a, b). Tìte, gia mikrˆ h > 0 èqoume x + h, x − h ∈ (a, b) kai

f (x + h) − f (x) 0
(8.2.15) f (x + h) = f (x) + · h → f (x) + f+ (x) · 0 = f (x)
h
ìtan h → 0+ , en¸, teleÐwc anˆloga,

f (x − h) − f (x) 0
(8.2.16) f (x − h) = f (x) + · (−h) → f (x) + f− (x) · 0 = f (x)
−h

ìtan h → 0+ . 'Ara, h f eÐnai suneq c sto x. 2

8.3 ParagwgÐsimec kurtèc sunart seic

Ston Apeirostikì Logismì I dìjhke ènac diaforetikìc orismìc thc kurtìthtac gia
mia paragwgÐsimh sunˆrthsh f : (a, b) → R. Gia kˆje x ∈ (a, b), jewr same thn
efaptomènh

(8.3.1) u = f (x) + f 0 (x)(u − x)

tou graf matoc thc f sto (x, f (x)) kai eÐpame ìti h f eÐnai kurt  sto (a, b) an gia
kˆje x ∈ (a, b) kai gia kˆje y ∈ (a, b) èqoume

(8.3.2) f (y) ≥ f (x) + f 0 (x)(y − x).

Dhlad , an to grˆfhma {(y, f (y)) : a < y < b} brÐsketai pˆnw apì kˆje efaptomèn-
h.
To epìmeno je¸rhma deÐqnei ìti, an perioristoÔme sthn klˆsh twn paragwgÐsimwn
sunart sewn, oi {dÔo orismoÐ} sumfwnoÔn.
 8.3 ParagwgÐsimes kurtès sunart seis · 131

Je¸rhma 8.3.1. 'Estw f : (a, b) → R paragwgÐsimh sunˆrthsh. Ta ex c eÐnai

isodÔnama:

(a) H f eÐnai kurt .

(b) H f0 eÐnai aÔxousa.

(g) Gia kˆje x, y ∈ (a, b) isqÔei h

(8.3.3) f (y) ≥ f (x) + f 0 (x)(y − x).

Apìdeixh . Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai kurt . AfoÔ h f eÐnai paragwgÐsimh, èqoume

f 0 = f−
0
= f+ 0
sto (a, b). Apì to Je¸rhma 8.2.4 oi f− 0 0
, f+ eÐnai aÔxousec, ˆra h f 0
eÐnai aÔxousa.
Upojètoume t¸ra ìti h f 0 eÐnai aÔxousa. 'Estw x, y ∈ (a, b). An x < y ,
efarmìzontac to je¸rhma mèshc tim c sto [x, y], brÐskoume ξ ∈ (x, y) ¸ste f (y) =
f (x) + f 0 (ξ)(y − x). AfoÔ ξ > x kai h f 0 eÐnai aÔxousa, èqoume f 0 (ξ) ≥ f 0 (x). AfoÔ
y − x > 0, èpetai ìti

(8.3.4) f (y) = f (x) + f 0 (ξ)(y − x) ≥ f (x) + f 0 (x)(y − x).

An x > y , efarmìzontac to je¸rhma mèshc tim c sto [y, x], brÐskoume ξ ∈ (y, x)
¸ste f (y) = f (x) + f 0 (ξ)(y − x). AfoÔ ξ < x kai h f 0 eÐnai aÔxousa, èqoume
f 0 (ξ) ≤ f 0 (x). AfoÔ y − x < 0, èpetai pˆli ìti

(8.3.5) f (y) = f (x) + f 0 (ξ)(y − x) ≥ f (x) + f 0 (x)(y − x).

Tèloc, upojètoume ìti h (8.3.3) isqÔei gia kˆje x, y ∈ (a, b) kai ja deÐxoume ìti h f
eÐnai kurt . 'Estw x < y sto (a, b) kai èstw 0 < t < 1. Jètoume z = (1 − t)x + ty .
Efarmìzontac thn upìjesh gia ta zeugˆria x, z kai y, z , paÐrnoume

(8.3.6) f (x) ≥ f (z) + f 0 (z)(x − z) kai f (y) ≥ f (z) + f 0 (z)(y − z).

'Ara,

(1 − t)f (x) + tf (y) ≥ (1 − t)f (z) + tf (z) + f 0 (z)[(1 − t)(x − z) + t(y − z)]
= f (z) + f 0 (z)[(1 − t)x + ty − z]
= f (z).

Dhlad , (1 − t)f (x) + tf (y) ≥ f ((1 − t)x + ty). 2

Sthn perÐptwsh pou h f eÐnai dÔo forèc paragwgÐsimh sto (a, b), h isodunamÐa
twn (a) kai (b) sto Je¸rhma 8.3.1 dÐnei ènan aplì qarakthrismì thc kurtìthtac
mèsw thc deÔterhc parag¸gou.

Je¸rhma 8.3.2. 'Estw f : (a, b) → R dÔo forèc paragwgÐsimh sunˆrthsh. H f

eÐnai kurt  an kai mìno an f 00 (x) ≥ 0gia kˆje x ∈ (a, b) .

Apìdeixh . H f 0 eÐnai aÔxousa an kai mìno an f 00 ≥ 0 sto (a, b). 'Omwc, sto Je¸rhma
8.3.1 eÐdame ìti h f 0 eÐnai aÔxousa an kai mìno an h f eÐnai kurt . 2
132 · Kurtès kai koÐles sunart seis

8.4 Anisìthta tou Jensen

H anisìthta Jensen apodeiknÔetai me epagwg  kai {genikeÔei} thn anisìthta
tou

tou orismoÔ thc kurt c sunˆrthshc.

Prìtash 8.4.1 (anisìthta tou Jensen). 'Estw f : I → RP kurt  sunˆrthsh.

m
An x1 , . . . , xm ∈ I kai t1 , . . . , t m ≥ 0 me t1 + · · · + tm = 1 i=1 ti xi ∈ I
, tìte kai

(8.4.1) f (t1 x1 + · · · + tm xm ) ≤ t1 f (x1 ) + · · · + tm f (xm ).

Apìdeixh . 'Estw a = min{x1 , . . . , xm } kai b = max{x1 , . . . , xm }. AfoÔ to I eÐnai

diˆsthma kai a, b ∈ I , sumperaÐnoume ìti {x1 , . . . , xm } ⊆ [a, b] ⊆ I . AfoÔ ti ≥ 0 kai
t1 + · · · + tm = 1, èqoume

(8.4.2) a = (t1 + · · · + tm )a ≤ t1 x1 + · · · + tm xm ≤ (t1 + · · · + tm )b = b,

dhlad , t1 x1 + · · · + tm xm ∈ I .
Ja deÐxoume thn (8.4.1) me epagwg  wc proc m. Gia m = 1 den èqoume tÐpota
na deÐxoume, en¸ gia m = 2 h (8.4.1) ikanopoieÐtai apì ton orismì thc kurt c
sunˆrthshc.
Gia to epagwgikì b ma upojètoume ìti m ≥ 2, x1 , . . . , xm , xm+1 ∈ I kai
t1 , . . . , tm , tm+1 ≥ 0 me t1 +· · ·+tm +tm+1 = 1. MporoÔme na upojèsoume ìti kˆpoioc
ti < 1 (alli¸c, h anisìthta isqÔei tetrimmèna). QwrÐc periorismì thc genikìthtac
upojètoume ìti tm+1 < 1. Jètoume t = t1 + · · · + tm = 1 − tm+1 > 0. AfoÔ
x1 , . . . , xm ∈ I kai tt1 + · · · + tmt = 1, h epagwgik  upìjesh mac dÐnei

t1 tm
(8.4.3) x= x1 + · · · + xm ∈ I
t t
kai
 
t1 tm
(8.4.4) tf (x) = tf x1 + · · · + xm ≤ t1 f (x1 ) + · · · + tm f (xm ).
t t

Efarmìzontac t¸ra ton orismì thc kurt c sunˆrthshc, paÐrnoume

(8.4.5) f (tx + tm+1 xm+1 ) ≤ tf (x) + tm+1 f (xm+1 ).

Sunduˆzontac tic dÔo prohgoÔmenec anisìthtec, èqoume

f (t1 x1 + · · · + tm xm + tm+1 xm+1 ) = f (tx + tm+1 xm+1 )

≤ t1 f (x1 ) + · · · + tm f (xm )
+tm+1 f (xm+1 ). 2

Qrhsimopoi¸ntac thn anisìthta tou Jensen ja deÐxoume kˆpoiec klasikèc anisìtht-

ec. H pr¸th apì autèc genikeÔei thn anisìthta arijmhtikoÔ-gewmetrikoÔ mèsou.
Anisìthta arijmhtikoÔ-gewmetrikoÔ mèsou. 'Estw x1 , . . . , xn kai r1 , . . . , r n
jetikoÐ pragmatikoÐ arijmoÐ me r1 + · · · + rn = 1 . Tìte,

n
Y n
X
(8.4.6) xri i ≤ ri xi .
i=1 i=1
 8.4 Anisìthta tou Jensen · 133

Apìdeixh . H sunˆrthsh x 7→ ln x eÐnai koÐlh sto (0, +∞). AfoÔ ri > 0 kai r1 +
· · · + rn = 1, h anisìthta tou Jensen (gia thn kurt  sunˆrthsh − ln) deÐqnei ìti

(8.4.7) r1 ln x1 + · · · + rn ln xn ≤ ln(r1 x1 + · · · + rn xn ).

Dhlad ,

(8.4.8) ln(xr11 · · · xrnn ) ≤ ln(r1 x1 + · · · + rn xn ).

To zhtoÔmeno prokÔptei ˆmesa apì to gegonìc ìti h ekjetik  sunˆrthsh x 7→ ex

eÐnai aÔxousa. 2
Eidikèc peript¸seic thc prohgoÔmenhc anisìthtac eÐnai oi ex c:
(a) H klasik  anisìthta arijmhtikoÔ-gewmetrikoÔ mèsou
x1 + · · · + xn
(8.4.9) (x1 · · · xn )1/n ≤
n
ìpou x1 , . . . , xn > 0, h opoÐa prokÔptei apì thn (8.4.6) an pˆroume r1 = · · · = rn =
n.
1

(b) H anisìthta tou Young: x, y > 0

An t, s > 0kai t+s=1 me , tìte

(8.4.10) xt y s ≤ tx + sy.

H (8.4.10) emfanÐzetai polÔ suqnˆ sthn ex c morf : an x, y > 0 kai p, q > 1 me

1 1
p + q =1 , tìte

xp yq
(8.4.11) xy ≤ +
p q
Prˆgmati, arkeÐ na pˆroume touc xp , y q sth jèsh twn x, y kai touc p1 , 1q sth jèsh
twn t, s. Oi p kai q lègontai suzugeÐc ekjètec . Qrhsimopoi¸ntac aut  thn anisìthta
mporoÔme na deÐxoume thn klasik  anisìthta tou Hölder: p, q 'Estw suzugeÐc

ekjètec. An a1 , . . . , an
kai b1 , . . . , b neÐnai jetikoÐ pragmatikoÐ arijmoÐ, tìte

n n
!1/p n !1/q
X X p
X q
(8.4.12) ai bi ≤ ai bi .
i=1 i=1 i=1

Pn 1/p Pn 1/q
Apìdeixh . Jètoume A = ( i=1 api ) , B = ( i=1 bqi ) kai xi = ai /A, yi = bi /B .
Tìte, h zhtoÔmenh anisìthta (8.4.12) paÐrnei th morf 
n
X
(8.4.13) xi yi ≤ 1.
i=1

Apì thn (8.4.11) èqoume

n n  p n n
yq

X X x i 1X p 1X q
(8.4.14) xi yi ≤ + i = x + y .
i=1 i=1
p q p i=1 i q i=1 i

ParathroÔme ìti
n n n n
X 1 X p X 1 X q
(8.4.15) xpi = a = 1 kai yiq = b = 1.
i=1
Ap i=1 i i=1
B q i=1 i
134 · Kurtès kai koÐles sunart seis

'Ara,
n
X 1 1
(8.4.16) xi yi ≤ · 1 + · 1 = 1.
i=1
p q

'Epetai h (8.4.12). 2.
Epilègontac p = q = 2 paÐrnoume thn anisìthta Cauchy-Schwarz: an a1 , . . . , an
kaib1 , . . . , b n
eÐnai jetikoÐ pragmatikoÐ arijmoÐ, tìte

n n
!1/2 n
!1/2
X X X
(8.4.17) ai bi ≤ a2i b2i .
i=1 i=1 i=1

8.5 Ask seic
Omˆda A'
1. 'Estw f, fn : I → R. Upojètoume ìti kˆje fn eÐnai kurt  sunˆrthsh kai ìti
fn (x) → f (x) gia kˆje x ∈ I . DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai kurt .

2. 'Estw {fn : n ∈ N} akoloujÐa kurt¸n sunart sewn fn : I → R. OrÐzoume

f : I → R me f (x) = sup{fn (x) : n ∈ N}. An h f eÐnai peperasmènh pantoÔ sto I ,
tìte h f eÐnai kurt .

3. 'Estw f, g : R → R kurtèc sunart seic. Upojètoume akìma ìti h g eÐnai aÔxousa.

DeÐxte ìti h g ◦ f eÐnai kurt .

4. 'Estw f : I → R kurt  sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti

f (x1 + δ) − f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 + δ) − f (x2 )

gia kˆje x1 < x2 ∈ I kai δ > 0 gia to opoÐo x1 + δ, x2 + δ ∈ I .

5. 'Estw f : [a, b] → R kurt  sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte me èna parˆdeigma ìti h f den eÐnai
anagkastikˆ sunˆrthsh Lipschitz se olìklhro to [a, b], akìma kai an upojèsoume
ìti h f eÐnai fragmènh. EpÐshc, deÐxte ìti h f den eÐnai anagkastikˆ suneq c sto
[a, b].

6. 'Estw f : (a, b) → R kurt  sunˆrthsh kai ξ ∈ (a, b). DeÐxte ìti:

(a) an h f èqei olikì mègisto sto ξ tìte h f eÐnai stajer .
(b) an h f èqei olikì elˆqisto sto ξ tìte h f eÐnai fjÐnousa sto (a, ξ) kai
aÔxousa sto (ξ, b).
(g) an h f èqei topikì elˆqisto sto ξ tìte èqei olikì elˆqisto sto ξ .
(d) an h f eÐnai gnhsÐwc kurt , tìte èqei to polÔ èna shmeÐo olikoÔ elaqÐstou.

7. 'Estw f : R → R kurt  sunˆrthsh. An h f eÐnai ˆnw fragmènh, tìte eÐnai

stajer .

8. DeÐxte ìti kˆje kurt  sunˆrthsh orismènh se fragmèno diˆsthma eÐnai kˆtw
fragmènh.
 8.5 Ask seis · 135

9. 'Estw f : (0, +∞) → R koÐlh, aÔxousa, ˆnw fragmènh kai paragwgÐsimh

sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti
lim xf 0 (x) = 0.
x→+∞

Omˆda B'
10. DeÐxte ìti an h f : (0, +∞) → R eÐnai kurt  kai x1 , . . . , xm , y1 , . . . , ym > 0,
tìte   m  
y1 + · · · + ym X yi
(x1 + · · · + xm )f ≤ xi f .
x1 + · · · + xm i=1
xi
DeÐxte ìti h f (x) = (1+xp )1/p eÐnai kurt  sto (0, +∞) ìtan p ≥ 1, kai sumperˆnate
ìti
m
X
1/p
((x1 + · · · + xm )p + (y1 + · · · + ym )p ) ≤ (xpi + yip )1/p .
i=1

11. DeÐxte ìti h sunˆrthsh − sin x eÐnai kurt  sto [0, π]. Qrhsimopoi¸ntac to
deÐxte ìti h mègisth perÐmetroc n-g¸nou pou eggrˆfetai sto monadiaÐo kÔklo eÐnai
2n sin(π/n).

12. 'Estw α1 , α2 , . . . , αn jetikoÐ arijmoÐ. DeÐxte ìti

 n
(1 + α1 )(1 + α2 ) · · · (1 + αn ) ≥ 1 + (α1 α2 · · · αn )1/n .

[ Upìdeixh: Parathr ste ìti h x 7→ ln(1 + ex ) eÐnai kurt .]

Omˆda G'
13. 'Estw f : I → R jetik  koÐlh sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti h 1/f eÐnai kurt .
14. 'Estw f : [0, 2π] → R kurt  sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti gia kˆje k ≥ 1,
Z 2π
1
f (x) cos kxdx ≥ 0.
π 0

15. 'Estw f : (a, b) → R suneq c sunˆrthsh. DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai kurt  an kai mìno
an Z h
1
f (x) ≤ f (x + t)dt
2h −h
gia kˆje diˆsthma [x − h, x + h] ⊂ (a, b).

16. 'Estw f : (a, b) → R kurt  sunˆrthsh kai c ∈ (a, b). DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai
paragwgÐsimh sto c an kai mìno an
f (c + h) + f (c − h) − 2f (c)
lim = 0.
h→0+ h

17. 'Estw f : [0, +∞) kurt , mh arnhtik  sunˆrthsh me f (0) = 0. OrÐzoume

F : [0, +∞) → R me F (0) = 0 kai
Z x
1
F (x) = f (t)dt.
x 0

DeÐxte ìti h F eÐnai kurt .