Madagascar Aromatic and Medicinal Plant Value Chain Analysis

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND
MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN

ANALYSIS
COMBINING THE VALUE CHAIN APPROACH AND NATURE, HEALTH, WEALTH
AND POWER FRAMEWORKS
microREPORT #70
AUGUST 2006
This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was
prepared by Criss Juliard (ACDI/VOCA), Charles Benjamin (IRG), Maziar Sassanpour (ACDI/VOCA) and Aro
Ratovonomenjanahry and Pascal Ravohitrarivo with funding from the Accelerated Microenterprise Advancement
Project Business Development Services (AMAP BDS) Knowledge and Practice Task Order and the FRAME Project.
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MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND
MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN
ANALYSIS
COMBINING THE VALUE CHAIN APPROACH AND NATURE,
HEALTH, WEALTH AND POWER FRAMEWORKS
microREPORT #70
DISCLAIMER
The author’s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for
International Development or the United States Government.
CONTENTS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS i
I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
II. BACKGROUND 9
A. Introduction 9
B. Study Objectives 10
C. Analytical Framework and Approach 11
III. VALUE CHAIN CHARACTERISTICS 14

A. Overview 14
B. End Markets 15
C. Enabling Environment 21
D. Value Chain Actors 27
E. Relationships and Linkages Across Actors 37
F. Natural Resource Base and Sustainability Issues 41
IV. STRENGTHENING THE AMP VALUE CHAIN 44

A. Strategic Issues and Orientation 44
B. Constraints and Opportunities 44
C. Priority Actions 50
D. Stakeholder-led Action Plan 52
V. CONCLUSION: LINKING VALUE CHAINS AND NATURE, HEALTH, WEALTH AND POWER 55
ANNEX 1: METHODS 58
ANNEX 2: EXPORT PRICE OF SELECT MALAGASY ESSENTIAL OILS (MARCH-APRIL 2006) 61
ANNEX 3: PHOTOGRAPHS 62
MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AMAP Accelerated Microenterprise Advancement Program (USAID-funded Indefinite Quantity Contract)
AMP Aromatic and medicinal plants
ANTP Association Nationale des Tradi-praticiens (National Association of Traditional Healers)
BAMEX Business & Market Expansion (USAID/Madagascar project)
BDS Business development services
BfN Bundesamt für Naturschutz (German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation)
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CIE Conseil Interministériel de l’Environnement (Inter-ministerial Environmental Council)
CIF Cost, Insurance and Freight
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
CNE Conseil National de l’Environnement (National Environmental Council)
CNRE Centre National de Recherches sur l’Environnement (National Center for Research on the Environment)
CTD Collectivités Territoriales Décentralisées (Decentralized Local Authorities)
EMEA European Medicines Agency
ESSA Ecole Supérieure des Sciences Agronomiques (Academy of Agronomic Sciences)
FOB Free on Board
FOFIFA Centre National de la Recherche Applique au Développement Rural (National Center for Applied Research in
Rural Development)
FRAME USAID project: Knowledge Sharing in the Natural Resource Community (www.frameweb.org)
FTF Fair Trade Federation
GACP Good Agricultural and Collection Practices
GAP Good Agricultural Practices
GELOSE/GCF Gestion Locale Sécurisée (Secured Local Management)/Gestion Contractualisée des Forêts (Contractual
Forest Management)
GOM Government of Madagascar
HMPC Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products
ICBG International Cooperative Biodiversity Group
IMRA Institut Malgache pour la Recherche Appliquée (Malagasy Institute for Applied Research)
IRG International Resources Group
ISSC-MAP International Standard for Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
MEEF Ministère d'Environnement et des Eaux et Forêts (Ministry of Environment, Water and Forests)
MSE Micro and small enterprises
MT Metric ton
NGO Nongovernmental organization
NHWP Nature, Health, Wealth and Power framework
NRM Natural Resource Management
ONE Office National de l’Environnement (National Environmental Office)
PNF Programme National Foncier (National Land Program)
USAID United States Agency for International Development
VCA Value chain approach
WHO World Health Organization
WWF World Wildlife Federation
MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS i

I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Context of study. This assessment of Madagascar’s aromatic and medicinal plant (AMP) industry integrates the value
chain approach (VCA) developed under USAID’s Accelerating Microenterprise Advancement Project Business
Development Services (AMAP BDS) Knowledge and Practice Task Order and the Nature, Health, Wealth and Power
(NHWP) framework developed under USAID/FRAME and adapted by the USAID/Madagascar Mission.
The NHWP framework focuses on the nexus of natural resources, human health, economic concerns and
governance as a driving force in rural development. It highlights the interlinked challenges of (a) facilitating
sustainable utilization and improved management of natural resources, (b) improving standards of health and
nutrition, (c) promoting economic growth and poverty alleviation, and (d) empowering rural producers and
institutionalizing popular participation in public decision-making.
The VCA addresses the potential of small firms and the industries they dominate to compete in global markets. It
focuses on (a) the role of benefits in creating incentives or disincentives for performance, (b) the effect of relative
power among firms on inter-firm cooperation and coordination, and (c) the impact of learning and innovation on the
competitiveness of micro and small enterprises (MSE).
The two frameworks share a concern with harnessing markets to reduce poverty and promote equity. VCA uses the
industry sector as a starting point, and NHWP uses natural resource-dependent producers as a starting point.
Combining the two analytical frameworks situates fundamental environmental and social issues within a broader
context of competitiveness and long-term industry sustainability. One purpose of this study is to examine the
potential advantages of a joint value chain–NHWP approach. Our analysis of Madagascar’s AMP sector suggests that
value chain analysis can be enhanced through full consideration of the role of natural resource management, health
concerns and governance issues. It also suggests that value chain analysis can be an important tool for understanding
the linkages between local-level NHWP dynamics and broader market systems.
Aromatic and medicinal plants. Madagascar’s AMP value chain consists of plant products used in the perfume,
cosmetics, food, wellness and pharmaceutical industries. AMP in Madagascar are either wildcrafted (collected from
natural stands) or cultivated (in agroforestry systems or plantations). Common wildcrafted plants in the study area
include radriaka (Lantana camara), talapetraka (Centella asiatica), and wild ginger (Hedysarum coronarium). Cultivated plants
include ginger (Zingiber officinalis) cinnamon (Cinnamomom verum) and black pepper (Piper nigrum). Additionally, some
endangered species, such as niaouli (Melaleuca quinquenervia) and katrafay (Cedrelopsis grevei) are increasingly cultivated on
private plots. Plantation crops include cinnamon (Cinnamomom verum), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globilus and Eucalyptus
citrodora), cloves (Eugenia caryophyllata), and ravintsara (Cinnamomom camphora).
End markets. Madagascar has a robust and expanding domestic market and a modest share of the global AMP
market. Madagascar has potential competitive advantage for some specific (e.g., endemic, scarce) plant products. The
domestic market is on a growth trend because of combined government and civil society efforts to mainstream
traditional and herbal medicine. Global markets in the aromatic, cosmetic and health sectors demand steady supplies
of new and innovative scents and medicinal products. Increasingly, these products must also be certified organic, fair
trade or sustainably produced. The market requires suppliers to adhere to broker terms (quantity, quality and timing of
shipments), proper packaging and consistency on product, price and delivery.
Organic essential oil products for the export market and quality medicinal and herbal products for the domestic
market have the greatest potential for growth now and into the future. To create competitive advantage, the value
chain must become more flexible, innovative and efficient. Improving efficiency requires:
• better vertical and horizontal integration among actors in the value chain
MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 1

• adoption of a clear regulatory framework and sets of product norms and standards
• building capacity for certification standards
• promoting sustainable natural resource and production practices
In addition, the AMP industry must establish effective channels of communication among value chain actors to allow
them to respond quickly to shifting market demands.
Value chain actors. The AMP value chain involves five levels of actors:
(1) Producers. Three groups comprise the “production” function: wildcrafters, cultivators and plantation operators.
These groups include the largest number of individuals (almost all part-time) and MSEs. Producers are aware of
biodiversity issues but have limited knowledge and incentives to apply conservation practices at the ground level.
(2) Collectors. Collectors and sub-collectors (aggregators or middlemen) collect harvested plant material from
wildcrafters and, to a lesser degree, from cultivators. This group is less sensitive to biodiversity conservation
issues.
(3) Processors. There are approximately 37 large processors and “hundreds” of small distilleries (formal and
informal) that convert vegetative material into bulk or consumer grade products. The informal firms drag down
product quality. A principal environmental concern at this level is fuel for the stills, which is primarily wood from
neighboring forests.
(4) Wholesalers (domestic and export markets). Twenty-six of the 37 large processing firms are also exporters.
Formal exporters have learned that sustainable production practices are important to developing and expanding
competitiveness with key European and U.S. importers.
(5) Domestic retailers. They comprise three types of outlets: pharmacies, specialty wellness centers and spas, and
informal vendors of medicinal plant products. All three categories are stakeholders of and understand the need
for improving conservation measures.
The AMP value chain is characterized by the informal nature of its upstream base (producers, gatherers and
collectors) and its better organized and more formally structured actors downstream (processors and wholesalers/
retailers). Overall the value chain operates with little vertical integration and almost no horizontal collaboration.
Producers and collectors have little access to end-market information, obtain fewer benefits relative to other actors,
and are the least integrated in the value chain.
Opportunities. In the short to medium term, the focus should be on high-end aromatic and spice products for
international markets and on medicinal plant products for the expanding domestic market. International AMP
markets are expanding at a rate of 10 to 15 percent annually and there is a call for increasingly diversified products—
particularly those that are new and exotic—as consumers become increasingly interested in alternative and natural
medicine. Expansion of the domestic market is driven by the Government of Madagascar’s active promotion of
traditional medicine and traditional practitioners as a health care option within the state health care system. The
legitimatization of traditional practitioners is a factor in upgrading quality control and increasing availability of
healthcare to a large underserved market. Domestic and export markets complement each other, since improvements
carry over from one market to the other. In the best of possible worlds, both markets should be aggressively pursued.
Micro and small enterprises. MSEs are favored in the AMP value chain. A growth trend in overseas markets puts
Madagascar in a favorable position with its specialty brand as an “exotic island” and its natural product diversity.
Spice, herb and medicinal plants sectors are dominated by agricultural MSEs. Producers (wildcrafters and cultivators),

collectors and small retailers represent the largest segments of value chain actors by number. They are predominately
family and individual enterprises.
Result of analysis: enhancing competitiveness and sustainability. Strengthening Madagascar’s AMP sector
requires a focus on five key actions. A stakeholder’s workshop held as part of this analysis (next section) produced
complementary actions by category of actors in the chain:
(1) Emphasize AMP in natural resource management and biodiversity conservation practices and training.
The AMP sector’s livelihood depends on sustainable management of specific plants. Biodiversity per se is an
important resource in the search for new products, a repository of genetic material. Madagascar’s rich biodiversity
favors it as a source for innovation, yet unpredictable export markets can lead to over-harvesting and resource
depletion in some cases. If accompanied by appropriate training, the promotion of AMP cultivation in
ecologically complex forest gardens will contribute to sustainable management and biodiversity conservation.
(2) Establish and diffuse AMP norms, standards and certification. End markets increasingly demand that AMP
products conform to specific norms and standards, including health and sanitary, and certified organic, sustainable
harvest and Fair Trade. To protect its competitive advantage, the AMP private sector (large, medium and MSE) in
collaboration with concerned ministries (Commerce, Health, Agriculture, Forest) must accelerate the process
already started by establishing equitable norms, standards and certification. Once formulated, these must be
widely diffused among all segments of the value chain, and must include a mechanism that continually updates
information to accommodate market shifts.
(3) Support mainstreaming of traditional medicine. The Malagasy Ministry of Health and Family Planning, the
Medical Association and the Traditional Healers’ Association recently adopted a policy that recognizes traditional
medicine and integrates AMP into the modern healthcare system. This initiative needs to be supported through
advocacy and health policy projects. Mainstreaming traditional medicine will increase the accessibility of
healthcare for the rural poor and further legitimatize traditional and herbal medicine.
(4) Mainstream “informal” processors, collectors, distributors. The general quality of AMP products remains
low, especially by international standards, because of the “informal” nature of most participants. Improving
quality requires upgrading skills and providing up-to-date equipment and technologies for actors (MSEs) at the
margin of their profession. Skill upgrading is already provided by several large export firms through backward
linkages. These can be reinforced through supplier contracts. Offering the opportunity to mainstream those who
want upgrading will improve vertical and horizontal relations as it will reduce a major friction between formal and
informal operators. It will open the way for a more dynamic and innovative value chain, facilitating the
establishments of networks and overall integration of the sector.
(5) Launch coordination and branding campaign. The AMP value chain links micro and small enterprises at the
rural level, mid-size processing businesses in semi-urban or village regions, and international markets through
larger exporter firms in the capital and urban centers. For the chain to function more effectively in the future it
requires initially a coordinating hand or a neutral institution to synchronize various activities and events planned
for the value chain that will make it more competitive and more environmentally focused. It also requires a
rallying point, a simple vision or objective that will appeal to the local end-market and provide a recognized brand
appeal to the international market.
Stakeholder-led action plan. The assessment team brought together a group of 51 stakeholders in Moramanga,
Madagascar in late July, 2006 to discuss the results of the study, to review preliminary findings, and to develop an
action plan for strengthening the AMP value chain. The participants represented all of the categories of value-chain

actors, including the public sector. Each level of actor developed an action plan specific to the group with short,
medium, and long-term objectives representing their constraints and priorities. Participants made commitments to
take responsibility for implementation. Key points in the stakeholder-led action plan include:
• Wildcrafters and cultivators. The main constraint of this group is its marginalization and general lack of
information. Their proposed actions focused on the development of a communication program:
o Establish a data bank of producers, with their relative strength and weakness
o Form a producer’s network
o Establish communication links, using new information technology when possible
o Put into place local natural resource management structures to preserve the environment and sustain
production
• Collectors. The main constraint of this group is its inability to network within the group and with upstream and
downstream actors. Their proposed actions focus on enhancing communication and the creation of a network:
o Implement communication and network activities to build relationships among collectors
o Identify reliable buyers
o Conduct feasibility and profitability study of products collected
o Search for technical and financing partners
o Prepare a seasonal plan, including activities to undertake and a chronogram
• Processors, Exporters and Wholesalers. Their primary constraint is the lack of a regulatory framework. Their
proposed actions revolved around the creation of clear norms and standards and an effective, low-cost
certification system, as well as overall integration of the value chain.
o Contact all other actors, including local and national administrations, to diffuse workshop results
o Review and put into place uniform set of norms, standards and certification requirements
o Revitalize professional associations, with expanded functions and membership
• Public Sector actors made a commitment to report back to their prospective ministries, to organize an inter-
ministerial meeting of departments involved with AMP.
o Establish a AMP working group within each ministry
o Prepare an AMP support project within each ministry (Environment/Water & Forestry; Health,
Commerce and Industry; Finance)
o Implement, monitor, evaluate and adjust projects where needed
• USAID programs, ERI and BAMEX, sketched out the framework for an action plan to support the AMP value
chain, focusing on communications, overall value chain support and promotion of techniques for environmental
conservation.
o Collect and diffuse information on AMP VC in specific locations (market, actors, technical aspects)
o Seek financing sources and technical support to assist firm-level upgrading and technical training
o Assist producers to prepare contracts, negotiation techniques, develop projects
o Lobby public sector institutions and assist in establishing partnership with public sector
o Organize and provide training according to needs
o Support creation of locally based association and groups
o Coordinate efforts to mobilize financial resources and technical support to support existing organizations
Drawing lessons from the value chain–NHWP framework. The analysis of the AMP value chain is enhanced
through full consideration of the role of natural resource management, health concerns and governance issues. Value
chain analysis is an important tool for understanding the linkages between local-level NHWP dynamics and broader
market systems. Our observations from the field suggest that it is possible to increase value chain efficiency and

competitiveness but that these improvements alone will not necessarily improve the lives of the rural poor. Value
chain strengthening is a potentially powerful tool for promoting NHWP-related development goals, but deliberate
interventions are necessary to create opportunities for the rural poor. In this regard, some key points that emerge
from analysis of the AMP value chain through a VCA/NHWP lens include:
(1) Nature
• Conservation incentives. Economic opportunity does not necessarily translate into incentives to manage resources
sustainable for all actors in the value chain. Deliberate, sustainable management of AMP (e.g., cinnamon, ginger,
cloves) as plantation or agroforestry crops is associated with stable demand, which creates longer time horizons
for decision-making.
• Cultivation. There is a trend toward plantation cultivation and vertical integration of some products by downstream
firms, providing them a regular supply and greater control over quality. This trend strengthens the value chain,
but it also risks taking the means of production out of the hands of the rural poor and limiting their participation
in the value chain. Several firms have helped local people upgrade production techniques by promoting improved
harvesting and cultivation in agroforestry or forest gardens. This upgrading improves supply of raw materials for
downstream actors, while having positive effects for local producers and ecosystems.
(2) Health
• Quality of and access to medicine. The majority of Malagasy, particularly in the rural areas where 70 percent of the
population lives, continue to depend on plant-based, traditional medicines for cultural and financial reasons. The
strengthening of norms and standards for medicines, as international markets demand, should lead to effective
medicines being available and accessible on the local market.
• Legitimization of traditional practitioners. The Government of Madagascar is actively promoting the role of traditional
medical practitioners and herbalists in order to increase the range of health care options. The legitimatization of
traditional practitioners is an important element in upgrading the quality and availability of healthcare, stimulating
demand for high quality AMP products and strengthening the value chain overall.
(3) Wealth
• Poverty reduction. The majority of producers are poor (and young and/or female). AMP are a source of cash income
as well as means of diversifying household livelihoods. The amounts are small but not insignificant. There are
opportunities to improve the position (and income) of the poor: by improving their power to negotiate prices
(perhaps through a producer association), by providing stable markets for their products, or by creating
opportunities for local level value-added processing (perhaps through community-level distilleries or incentives
for quality control and traceability). Some producers feel that employment in plantations could increase income
security, health standards and connectivity to more formal agricultural technology. A more detailed economic
analysis is necessary to compare the relative advantages of production systems for smallholders.
• Social relations between producers and collectors. Collectors often deal in multiple products (many of which, such as rice,
are more important than AMP) and provide additional services such as credit. Local producers have little power
to influence prices in the face of effective local-level monopsony (single potential buyer), and they accrue limited
direct benefits from participation in the value chain as a result. Efforts to improve the bargaining position of
producers must address the multifaceted nature of this relationship. Integrating AMP producers into a broader,
existing cooperative structure could improve their bargaining position. Providing services such as small credit or
cereal banking through the cooperative could further strengthen the bargaining position by reducing dependence
on collectors.

(4) Power
• Producer organizations. Producer associations are almost non-existent in AMP sector, in part because production is
“part-time” for most gatherers and producers, and in part because of the immense distance between actors.
Producer organizations will be difficult to form and time consuming. However, they are necessary to improve the
position of producers, to enhance the efficiency and equity of the entire value chain, to promote participation in
decision-making and to promote sustainable practices. At current levels, it is unlikely that producers will have
incentive to self-organize. However, it may be possible to organize them under pre-existing groups, such as the
federated Koloharena cooperatives.
• Strengthening local government. Receipts from taxes are a potential source of revenue for cash-strapped communal
governments. However, few of governments have the capacity to monitor or enforce their own policies in this
regard, so there is significant leakage. Strengthening this capacity, enabling communal governments to collect
taxes could provide incentive and ability for them to monitor resource use. Revenue could be reinvested in natural
resource management. But it can also foster accountability from constituents if it is seen as contributing financial
resources of consequence.
Table ES-1: Summary of Key Constraints and Opportunities
Stakeholders Observations from

Key Constraints Key Opportunities
Perspective & Actions NHWP Perspective
Enabling Environment
AMP sector lacks clear Participation of all value Full participation of all POWER: Strengthen local
norms and standards chain levels and public value chain actor levels governments. Receipts
sector in development of from taxes are potential
norms, standards revenue. Few have
capacity to monitor/
enforce their own NRM
policies. Revenue could be
reinvested in NRM and
foster accountability from
constituents.
Meeting certification Decentralize certification Review and put into place HEALTH: Strengthening
standards is difficult, bodies; train at local levels set of norms and standards for medicinal
especially for MSE certification requirements plants helps rural areas,
which depends on plant-
based traditional medicine.
High value plant species Establish an AMP overall Prepare an AMP support NATURE: Responsible
are being depleted sustainable framework project (public sector) firms help local people to
involving all participants upgrade production
techniques by promoting
improved harvesting and
cultivation in forest
gardens.

Inter-Firm Cooperation (Vertical)
Distance, isolation and BDS providers promote Network within the value NATURE: Economic
lack of trust impede equitable contract models chain opportunity does not
cooperation and agreements, provide necessarily translate into
training, help build incentives to manage
linkages between levels resources sustainably.
Incentives for
sustainability are shaped by
relations within value
chain.
Insufficient market Processing and export Contact all actors in the NATURE: Trend toward
information reaches firms expand up stream value chain, prepare plantation cultivation (for
producers education, information on seasonal plans, implement some products) by
production cycles communication activities downstream firms
strengthens vertical
integration. Trend also
risks taking means of
agricultural production out
of hands of rural poor.
Inter-Firm Cooperation (Horizontal)
Wildcrafters have little Reinforce informal Form a producers POWER: Producers have
bargaining power groupings around seasonal network; establish limited leverage in face of
collection periods communication links using local-level monopsony
possible new information (single potential buyer).
technology Train wildcrafters to
improve their power to
negotiate prices.
Collectors are separated Ignored by projects in the Integrate collector network
by great distance; past now needs into value chain; search for
information is scarce; institutional follow-up to technical and financial
supply source is their Action Plan partners
uncertain
Among processors, lack Skill and knowledge Not addressed
of trust between formal upgrading of informal
and informal distilleries actors; increase their
integration into value
chain
Among exporters/ Revive professional Revitalize professional
wholesalers, inability of associations; institutional associations
associations to adapt to strengthening
markets

Firm-Level Upgrading
Wholesalers, retailers, Two levels: a) develop Apply at firm level WEALTH/HEALTH:
and exporters lack hand-crafted, natural- conformity to standards, Some producers feel that
access to quality based packaging for niche norms and certification employment in plantation
packaging and packing markets; b) investment in could increase income
supplies cluster industries (glass, security, health standards
etc.) supporting AMP and and access to more formal
other sectors agricultural technology
HEALTH: Government’s
promotion of traditional
medicinal practitioners
increases range of health
care options. Training of
practitioners improves
health care delivery.
Processors have not up- Technical training by BDS None specified
dated distillery providers, field-exchange
technology; informal visits; decentralized testing
distilleries produce laboratories
inferior products
Wildcrafters, cultivators, Encourage wholesalers/ Establish data bank of NATURE: Upgrading
and collectors are unable exporters to strengthen producers; establish improves supply of raw
to upgrade operations; backward linkage. Use communication links using materials for downstream
learning is not taking firms like Label CBD, IT when possible; put into actors; positive effect for
place at these levels BIONEXX, Phael Flor as place local NRM local producers and
models. structures to preserve ecosystems.
environment

II. BACKGROUND
A. INTRODUCTION
Madagascar is one of the world’s poorest countries economically and one of its richest in biodiversity. Madagascar is
the world’s fourth largest island, covering an area of 592,000 km2. It contains at least 13,000 plant species, of which
more than 80 percent are endemic and 3,500 are reported to have medicinal properties. With a per capita GDP of
U.S. $809, Madagascar ranks 146 of 177 countries on the Human Development Index. 1 Seventy-four percent of its
population lives in rural areas, and 78 percent of the rural population lives in poverty. 2
Agriculture accounts for the largest share of GDP

(35 percent); economic growth has accelerated over
past four years (5.2 percent in 2004), as the
government shifted from socialist to private sector-
led growth policies. Political strife associated with
this transition set back the country, as key road
infrastructure was destroyed. In spite of these
challenges, the new government has shown a strong
commitment to environmental programs. The most
ambitious expression of this commitment was
President Marc Ravalomanana’s 2003 pledge to
increase Madagascar’s protected area from 1.7
million hectares to 6 million hectares—10 percent of
the country’s surface area. This effort is known as
the “Durban Vision.”
Madagascar’s rural economy is based upon

subsistence-oriented agriculture. Much of this
agriculture is slash-and-burn (tavy), which has been a
principal cause of forest cover and biodiversity loss.
The challenges of improving standards of living
among the rural poor and conserving biodiversity
are interlinked in Madagascar, and a key issue is how
to increase rural incomes and reduce the need for
tavy. USAID/Madagascar’s Environment and Figure 1: Geographic Distribution of Poverty
Natural Resource program has concentrated efforts
to address the interlinked challenges of biodiversity conservation and rural poverty reduction by promoting
alternatives to tavy along two of the country’s forest corridors: Zahamena-Mantadia and Ranamofana-Andringitra-
Ivohibe.
Madagascar has a long-standing ethno-medical tradition of plant use for prevention and healing. With the introduction
of Western medicine on the island, reliance on traditional remedies gave way to prescribed drugs from large
1 Source: Human Development Report 2005; World Development Indicators database, April 2006
2 Source: The Wealth of the Poor (World Resources Report 2005)
pharmaceutical companies. In recent decades, the rising cost of Western medicine and a growing recognition of
traditional medicine have revived use of plant-based, locally-produced medicinal products. Research institutions have
helped validate the active medicinal properties of traditional plants. During the same period, through self-directed
exchange forums, events and campaigns, there has been a perceptible coming together of traditional healers, medical
doctors and public authorities. This has been propelled by the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recent mandate
that African countries must increase traditional health practices to serve up to 30 percent of the health delivery
services. All of these factors have increased the respectability and use of plant-based traditional medicine and
practices.
International AMP markets are expanding at a rate of 10 to 15 percent annually and there is a call for increasingly
diversified products— particularly those that are new and exotic—as consumers become increasingly interested in
alternative and natural medicine.
Madagascar’s ability to respond to the trends of these two end markets is founded on:
• its unique and varied plant base, 80 percent of which is endemic
• an experienced AMP processing sector, which realizes its need to upgrade
• an emerging awareness among actors of the inefficiency of the present organization of the AMP value chain
• increased awareness among actors in the value chain, the Malagasy government, certain importers, NGOs and
development projects of the need to tie environmental sustainability to market demands, not only to expand the
income generating base, but also to reduce tavy cultivation practices
These factors also favor the AMP sector as an opportunity for addressing interlinked development and conservation
challenges. As the present study reveals, however, development of the export-oriented AMP industry also presents the
danger of negative environmental impacts, particularly through the over-exploitation of high-demand plants.
Experience with AMP has shown that economic value does not automatically create incentives for sustainable
management of the resource base. Linking AMP value chain development to biodiversity conservation, sustainable
NRM and rural poverty reduction requires deliberate action. The export sector has applied pressure through importer
requirements for environmental considerations in the harvesting and production of aromatic and medicinal products.
Malagasy-led programs, institutions and interest groups are putting additional pressure to apply stricter regulations to
safeguard the plant production base and promote sustainability at the processing level.
B. STUDY OBJECTIVES
The goal of this analysis is to provide a diverse group of stakeholders with the information needed to make sound
decisions and plan interventions focused on developing productive and globally competitive industries dependent
upon the sustainable management of scarce natural resources that will benefit local people. A growing body of
research has highlighted the interdependent and interlocking challenges of promoting sustainable management of
scarce environmental resources, developing competitive industries, reducing poverty through integration of micro-
and small enterprises (MSEs) into competitive industries, improving heath and nutrition standards, and fostering the
emergence of democratic governance.
The objective of this analysis is to provide a road map for businesses and facilitating NGOs from which stakeholders
in the AMP value chain can develop an industry competitiveness strategy and a stakeholder-driven action plan
to:
• increase the competitiveness and productivity of the natural resource-dependent industry
• ensure the sustainability of the AMP natural resource base in question

• reduce poverty through increased benefit flows to the rural poor through employment generation and the
contributions of MSEs to overall industry competitiveness
• foster good governance within the value chain (private sector) and in the external institutional environment
(public sector)
For donors and public policymakers, the results of this study will be used to:
• determine whether natural resource-based enterprise has the potential to provide the foundation for productive
and globally competitive industries in the long-run with minimum adverse environmental impacts and maximum
social and economic benefit for local people
• understand where and how the legal, regulatory and policy environment affects the growth potential and
distributional equity of aromatic and medicinal plants and identify related opportunities for enhancing growth and
equity
The research addresses the following key issues:

• What are the end market characteristics and trends, and what is Madagascar’s position in the global market?
• How do individuals enter the aromatic and medicinal plant trade, how is the trade coordinated and regulated, and
how are benefits from the trade distributed among the actors?
• Under what enabling environment conditions can the AMP value chain be competitive while maintaining the
sustainability of the resource base?
• How does the current structure of the value chain and natural product management systems influence natural
wealth, market power, and information, learning, and benefit flows?
• What are the opportunities for upgrading in the value chain for increased efficiency, product differentiation and
accessing new markets prioritized according to end market information on key competitiveness factors?
• What are the opportunities for enhancing health, biodiversity conservation and democratic governance via the
value chain while maintaining competitiveness?
• What are the predicted positive and negative impacts—whether direct, indirect or unintended—of different
proposed interventions?
• What are the potential win-win relationships, incentives and catalysts for pursuing opportunities?
• What short-term actions can be taken to pursue opportunities and address constraints?
C. ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK AND APPROACH

This assessment of Madagascar’s AMP industry integrates the value chain approach developed under USAID’s AMAP
BDS Knowledge and Practice Task Order and the NHWP framework developed by USAID’s Africa Bureau and
adapted by the USAID/Madagascar mission.
The NHWP lens sets out key questions including: how can we integrate nature (natural resource management), wealth
(economic concerns) and power (good governance)? How is it possible to facilitate (a) sustainable utilization and
improved management of natural resources, (b) improved standards of health and nutrition, (c) economic growth and
poverty alleviation, (d) empowerment and enfranchisement? The value chain approach (VCA) addresses the question:
can small firms and the industries they dominate compete in globalized markets, and, if so, how? How do benefits
create incentives or disincentives for performance? How does the relative power among firms in a value chain affect
inter-firm cooperation and coordination? How do learning and innovation promoted by both private and public
actors affect the competitiveness of MSEs?

This value chain approach examines the key businesses in the AMP industry to analyze the relationships between
them and the factors affecting the performance of the industry. The analysis identifies ways to achieve higher levels of
competitiveness through a combination of three strategies: producing and delivering goods and services more
efficiently; differentiating products or services through quality standards and branding; and exploiting new market
demand. Factors include access to and the requirements of end markets; the global, national, regional and local
business enabling environments; vertical linkages between actors that permit the flow of products and services,
learning and benefits; horizontal linkages between like firms to create economies of scale and bargaining power;
sector-specific, cross-cutting business and financial service markets; and opportunities for firm-level upgrading.
Combining these two analytical

frameworks situates fundamental
environmental and social issues within a
broader context of competitiveness and
long-term industry sustainability. From
the VCA perspective, long-term industry
competitiveness necessitates protection
of the resource base on which it is
founded, and social benefits to provide
incentives to stakeholders (including
communities where the plants are
gathered, produced or processed) to
support the industry. From the NHWP
perspective, value chains are assessed for
their potential to address multiple,
interrelated development goals: increased
resource productivity and biodiversity
conservation (Nature), improved
standards of health and nutrition
(Health), economic growth through
development of competitive industry
(Wealth) and local empowerment and
good governance (Power). FRAME and
AMAP experiences highlight key
relationships between producers and Study sites
consumers, between public and private

actors. These relationships can facilitate
learning and information sharing that
builds greater industry competitiveness, Figure 2: Forest Corridors and Study Sites
while removing barriers to sustainable
use of natural resources and effective NRM. Emphasis is placed on identifying the conditions under which rural
communities may be effectively integrated into the value chain, not merely passive suppliers of raw material but active
participants who are motivated to manage their resources, reinvest and innovate.
A panel of USAID staff and partners selected the AMP sector for this study based upon NHWP- and VCA-related
criteria. The aromatic and medicinal plants sector was considered as a single value chain encompassing diverse

products, many of which have relatively small markets individually but a large potential collectively. AMP initially
appeared to involve a single set of actors who work simultaneously with numerous, diverse products in order to
respond to changing demand. The value chain becomes somewhat differentiated at the producer level because of the
geographic distribution of the plants, ecological impacts of harvesting behavior and gendered division of labor.
A joint AMAP-FRAME-USAID/Madagascar research team selected survey sites and participants by referral, starting
with end market actors and working up the value chain. Through these downstream players and their network, the
team was able to identify suppliers, intermediaries, collectors and producers as well as the plant-types gathered and
cultivated. Staff of USAID/Madagascar’s BAMEX project assisted in identifying end market actors among their
clients. Using this approach, we identified two corridors that are both AMP production zones and USAID
intervention areas for economic development and environmental protection. These include the Moramanga-
Toamasina-Brickaville and nearby coastal zone, and the Fianarantsoa plateau to the Manakara-Manazara zone.
Meetings with community groups living on the periphery of the Zahamena-Ankeniheny corridor, as well as with
actors in Toamasina, led us to conclude that the majority of gathered or cultivated AMP in the region grew or were
gathered in the periphery of the corridors, rather than in the protected forests themselves.
The team developed a set of survey instruments for a variety of value chain actors, including producers,
intermediaries, processors, distributors/exporters and public sector actors. The pool of survey participants was
selected to provide a broad and representative orientation to the AMP value chain. We did not use random sampling
to select survey participants, as we did not intend to use the data for statistical analysis. If USAID/Madagascar
pursues opportunities in the AMP sector, we recommend collecting quantitative baseline data for monitoring and
evaluation purposes.
After fieldwork was completed, the FRAME, AMAP and USAID/Madagascar organized a workshop to discuss the
results of the study, review preliminary findings, and identify strategies and implementation plans for strengthening
the value chain. The 51 participants represented all functional groups in the value chain. The present report integrates
the results, including a stakeholder-led action plan.
Methods and sequencing of activities are described in greater detail in Annex 1.

III. VALUE CHAIN CHARACTERISTICS
A. OVERVIEW
Madagascar’s AMP value chain consists of plants and products derived from plants that are used in the perfume,
food, wellness and pharmaceutical industries. From a geographical perspective, the value chain characteristics
described in this report are representative of the east-central part of the island, which roughly stretches from coastal
flatlands up through dense forest as well as denuded mountains, and ends in a plateau of rolling hills and flatlands at
an altitude of around 1,400 meters. The climatic conditions range from tropical to semi-arid with the latter’s rain-falls
not exceeding 600 mm.
The value chain consists of five types of actors:

• Producers, made up of wildcrafters and cultivators
• Collectors, including up to three level of sub-collectors
• Processors, composed of formal and informal firms
• Wholesalers that service both the domestic and export markets
• Retailers that sell to both formal and informal domestic consumers
The largest groups in any region are the producers and collectors, whose numbers are difficult to estimate because of
the part-time nature of their activity. It is rare for instance for individuals or groups to be engaged for more than a
third of their time in gathering, cultivating or collecting aromatic and medicinal plants. These two sets of actors are at
the lowest level with regards to accessing end-market information and obtaining benefits, and are the least integrated
in the value chain.
We estimate that there are between 50 and 75 processing units in the region surveyed. They transform raw vegetative
material into essential oils, teas, lotions, soaps or other forms of cosmetic or medical products. Exporters are smaller
in number and are concentrated in the capital city and the seaport town of Toamasina.
The value chain operates within an enabling environment of loose regulations promulgated in large part for forestry
products, even though only a small number of the AMPs in the region originate from the forest. There are sparse
support services focusing on the sector, particularly with regards to financing. However, research institutions provide
multiple services from analyses of the chemical properties of plants and verification of medicinal effects to the
reproduction and multiplication of rare species and the marketing of locally produced aromatic and medicinal
products.

Table 1 summarizes the principal plants in the study communities.
Table 1: Common Aromatic & Medicinal Plants in Study Area
Botanical Name Common Name Part Used Botanical Name Common Name Part Used
Melaleuca quinquenervia
Centella asiatica Talapetraka Leaf Niaouli Leaf
var viridoflora
Cinnamomum
Ravintsara Leaf Pelargonium graveolens Geranium Leaf
camphora
Cinnamomum verum Cinnamon Bark Piper nigrum Black pepper Seed
Eucalyptus citrodora Eucalyptus Leaf Prunus africana Pygieum; Kotofihy Bark
Eucalyptus globilus Eucalyptus Leaf Psiadia altissima Dingadingana Leaf
Eugenia
Clove Clove, leaf Ravensara aromoatica Ravensara Leaf
cariophyllata
Hedychium Longoza;
Leaf Tagetes minuta Tagetas Leaf
coronarium Wild ginger
Lantana camara Lantana; Radriaka Flower Zingiber officinalis Ginger/Skamalaho Root
The value chain map on the next page (Figure 3) summarizes the product flow from input supplier to end market
buyers.
B. END MARKETS
Madagascar has a robust and expanding domestic market and a modest share of the global market for AMP. The
domestic market is on a growth trend because of combined government and civil society efforts to mainstream
traditional and herbal medicine. With exports of $4 million, Madagascar is not among the top ten exporting nations,
but it follows very closely. However, these exports are not insignificant at the national level. Moreover, the global
market is expanding by an estimated 10-15 percent per year, and Madagascar has potential competitive advantage for
some specific (e.g., endemic, scarce) plant products.
Global markets in the aromatic, cosmetic and health care sectors demand steady supplies of new and innovative
scents and medicinal products. For example, the perfume industry continually searches for “new” scents that can be
introduced as new seasonal lines. Increasingly, these products must also be certified organic, fair trade or sustainably
produced.
Madagascar presently exports five key AMP products. Three are relatively scarce essential oils: ylang ylang, niaouli,
and ravintsara. The other two are spices: cinnamon (some bark is also distilled into essential oil) and clove (used
mostly in Indonesia in cigarettes). The potential for growth lies in organic aromatic essential oils—not only ylang
ylang, niaouli, ravintsara and cinnamon, but also from new, endemic or “exotic” plants.

Figure 3: Aromatic and Medicinal Plant Value Chain Map
Madagascar Aromatic and

Medicinal Plants Value Chain
Functions Support
Services
Local market buyers Importers
Retailing Pharmacies Herbalists Wellness Cosmetic Niche retail Pharma-

centers and perfume ceutical
industry industry
Scarce financing and

advisory services
Local Formal Integrated
market exporters and producer Very few organic, fair
Wholesaling sellers Opportunistic some local to trade, sustainability
sellers market wholesaler certification and
sellers environ mental audit
services
Machinery,
equipment and
Opportunistic Other Formal maintenance
distilleries processing: distilleries services
Processing (small) drying, creams, (essential
lotions, powder, oils) Research centers
essence and laboratories
Sub -collectors Large

(community collectors
members, foot (outsiders,
or bike) truck)
Collection
Opportunistic
collectors
No financial services,
some NGOs, donor
projects, sparse
Individual and Cultivators Plantation investments
Production community owners
wildcrafters Some NRM technical
support from Water
and Forests
Nurseries Packaging
Input Supply

1. EXPORT MARKETS
In terms of value, it is estimated that 80-90 percent of Madagascar’s AMP products are intended for export, the
majority of which are essential oils. Exports totaled $4 million in 2004. There is growing demand (8-15 percent per
year) 3 for many popular species of medicinal plants in Europe, North America and Asia. Factors and market trends
that will potentially increase the demand for medicinal plants are:
• increased costs of institutional and pharmaceutical-based health care
• search for new drugs and treatments of serious diseases
• consumers seeking an alternative or complement to pharmaceutical drugs and modern healthcare
• large pharmaceutical and over-the-counter companies placing botanical medicines more strongly on the mass
market through increased advertising budgets and media attention
• increased emphasis on safety, efficacy and quality that could push producers in Madagascar to increase research
and development, thereby improving the quality of medicinal products to conform to international standards
• increased requests for organically certified raw material or value-added products, especially for the development
of new products (e.g., medicines, nutritional supplements, cosmetics).
The European Union is the largest importer of AMP products, accounting for 38 percent of the world market in
2001. The leading country for AMP demand in Europe is Germany, constituting over 42 percent of the European
market, followed by France (25 percent), Italy (9 percent) and the UK (8 percent). The medicinal plant trade is largely
conducted through Germany: most importers are found in Germany and it is the leading market for exporters from
developing countries. In 2000, the world market for herbal remedies was U.S. $19.4 billion: Europe $6.7 billion, Asia
$5.1 billion, North America $4.0 billion, Japan $2.2 billion, and the rest of the world at $1.4 billion. 4 The main world
competitors for lesser-developed country exporters of aromatic and medicinal plants are China, Singapore, Brazil and
Egypt, which are the leading suppliers in the world market (Table 2).
3 FAO (2002), Biodiversity and Ecosystem Approach in Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y4586E/Y4586E00.htm
4 WWF-UK, Trade in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Factsheet 4: http://www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary/pdf/tradeplants.pdf
Table 2: Leading Countries in Import and Export of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Country of Volume Value Country of Volume Value

Import (Tons) (US $1,000) Export (Tons) (US $1,000)
Hong Kong 73,650 314,000 China 139,750 298,650
Japan 56,750 146,650 USA 11,950 114,450
USA 56,000 133,350 Germany 15,050 72,400
Germany 45,850 113,900 Singapore 11,250 59,850
Rep. Korea 31,400 52,550 India 36,750 57,400
France 20,800 50,400 Chile 11,850 29,100
China 12,400 41,750 Bulgaria 10,150 14,850
Italy 11,450 42,250 Albania 7,350 14,050
Pakistan 11,350 11,850 Egypt 11,350 13,700
Spain 8,600 27,450 Morocco 7,250 13,200
UK 7,600 25,550 Mexico 10,600 10,050
Singapore 6,550 55,500 Pakistan 8,100 5,300
Worldwide 342,550 1,015,200 Total 281,550 643,200
Source: UNCTAD COMTRADE database, United Nations Statistics Division, 2002
It is thought that currently over 50,000 plants species are used for medicinal and aromatic purposes worldwide. Many
of the numbers in Table 3 (below) are estimates, but Madagascar appears to have the largest percentage of medicinal
plants among its plant species.

Table 3: Prevalence of Medicinal Plants in Select Countries
Medicinal Plant Percentage with

Country Plant Species
Species Medicinal Value
China 26,092 4,941 18.9
Madagascar 13,000 3,500 27.0
India 15,000 3,000 20.0
USA 21,641 2,564 11.8
Thailand 11,625 1,800 15.5
Vietnam 10,500 1,800 17.1
Malaysia 15,500 1,200 7.7
Indonesia 22,500 1,000 4.4
Philippines 8,931 850 9.5
Nepal 6,973 700 10.0
Sri Lanka 3,314 550 16.6
Pakistan 4,950 300 6.1
Average 13,366 1,700 12.7
World 422,000 56,385 13.64
Source: http://www.fao.org : Biodiversity and Ecosystem Approach in Agriculture, Forestry, and

Fisheries; IK Notes 91, World Bank, April, 2006.
Madagascar’s export market is predominately essential oils, which are high in

TEXT BOX 1: RAVENSARA
value and—because concentrated—are relatively inexpensive to transport
IN AROMATHERAPY
(an important consideration for an island nation). Europe is the predominant
destination, buying more than 70 percent of exports. Other destinations “At the moment, demand for
include Asia and the Indian subcontinent. The aromatic and cosmetic [Madagascar’s] Ravensara (R.
industries have been traditionally the largest buyers. aromatica/ anisata L) outstrips the
supply and is likely to do so for
A major trend favoring traditional aromatic plants, for which Madagascar has some time. It is one of the most
been a long-time supplier, is the worldwide expansion and use of valuable oils in the aromatherapy
aromatherapy. Related to this trend is the perfume industry’s search for new repertoire and, supply permitting,
products to “reinvent” traditional lines. This trend also favors Madagascar has the potential for becoming a
because of its diverse flora, permitting producers, processors and exporters star such as lavender or tea tree.”
to innovate their product base.
Fragrance Earth, UK (2005)
Growth is noted in natural products and niche markets. These prefer high-
end packaging and a “story” about the origin and people involved at the production source. Madagascar is presently
not in a competitive position to respond to the former because it must import all quality bottling and packaging
inputs. However, it can offer an interesting “story” through the national branding effort—“Madagascar Naturally”—
put into place to promote environmentally-oriented tourism.
Products grown and produced according to strict organic regulations command a 15 to 20 percent premium over non-
organically certified products. While Madagascar exported organic products to Europe and the U.S. for over a decade,
these products were organic by default rather than through practiced organic methods. In more recent years,
requirements for certification of organic production methods have become stringent. Several exporters of AMP

products have responded by producing in their own plantations to the higher standards and are being certified
organic, not only for the premium prices but for the positive environmental impact of organics. 5 Madagascar’s long
distance from markets in Europe, Asia and the U.S. is less of a constraint for AMP products than for fresh organic
fruits and vegetables that were attempted in the early 1990s. Table 4 shows the evolution of certified AMP products
over a two-year period for which reliable date is available.
Table 4: Exports of Select Organic AMP and Essential Oils from Madagascar, 1999 and 2000
Quantity Exported (kg)

Essential Oil (Organic)
1999 2000
Ylang Ylang (essential oil) 2,319 3,500
Niaouli (essential oil) 1,600 825
Ravintsara (essential oil) 980 725
Cinnamon 7,690 5,520
Clove 1,645 8,290
Other 1,205 2,006
Source: World Markets for Organic Fruit and Vegetables 6
2. DOMESTIC MARKETS
The domestic end-market consists of three types of retail outlets: TEXT BOX 2: IMRA AND
BIODIVERSITY
small consumers of medicinal plant products, pharmacies and
specialty wellness outlets including spas. There are 109 Research and marketing by IMRA
pharmacies in the capital, and five wellness spas in the country. A (Malagasy Institute for Applied Research)
multitude of small-scale sellers operate from kiosks, small tables helped protect the environment and slow
or blankets in community markets. There are no reliable deforestation by developing a product
numbers on these informal retailers. based on the seeds of the Eugenia jambolana
tree, which was used by traditional healers
There is a strong domestic demand market for medicinal plants to treat diabetics. In the past, E. jambolana
and essential oils. Knowledge of natural medicine is widespread trees were cut down for housing
in Madagascar, and its use is integrated in everyday life. As an construction, furniture-making or fuel.
isolated, poor island nation, Madagascar traditionally relied on its Since the species’ medicinal uses have
own resources for health care. As a result, it developed over time been uncovered by IMRA and publicized,
an intricate pharmacopeia based on plants and their derivatives. such destructive practices have declined.
Herbalists and herbal doctors (tradi-praticiens) are ubiquitous and At the same time, rural people have
highly regarded. Stalls are commonly found in weekly markets, generated extra income from seed
selling AMP in varied forms—bark, dried leaves, flowers, roots, collection and the entire country has
fruits, herbal teas, extracts, creams, powder and oils. Locally profited from the trees’ fruits which have
produced, plant-based “soft” or “green” medicines are available been processed into jams, jellies and
at affordable prices, sold in simple packages in powder form drinks.
rather than in pills. A quality benchmark for these products are
5 The Guidance Manuel for Organic Collection of Wild Plants: http://www.sippo.ch/files/publications/agri_wildplants05.pdf

6 FAO (2001), http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/004/Y1669E/Y1669E00.HTM
the packets or herbal mixes sold by the respected IMRA the Institute Malgache de Recherches Appliquées, which conducts
rigorous applied research to each type of medication sold under its name.
During the last 15 years, the medicinal part of the AMP sector has been particularly active as seen through the success
of the Association nationale des tradi-praticiens (ANTP), an association with some 500 registered members. The
association, through a recently launched census, claims that about 10,000 individuals are involved in traditional healing
in Madagascar. This number encompasses several categories of individuals who grow or collect their own plants,
diagnose illnesses and practice traditional medicine. We can use this figure to make a rough estimate of the industry’s
importance in Madagascar. Traditional healers earn on average around 10,000 Ariary ($5.00) per day. 7 If we assume
that two-thirds of these individuals are engaged in diagnosing and providing healing services for 300 days per year, we
arrive at a domestic annual end-market of about $10 million.
A recent World Bank report, 8 describes the Government of Madagascar’s strong support of traditional medicine
through the creation of a commission to study the regulatory environment of traditional medicine in the country. The
committee has established general objectives, the most important of which is improving access for the population
(especially the most vulnerable) to quality care and service. In collaboration with the Ministry of Health and Family
Planning and the ANTP, the commission prepared a Convention that lays out procedures for placing traditional
healers as partners with modern medicine professionals. The Ministry is responsible for assuring that traditional healer
practices are in harmony with the regulatory environment of the modern medical profession.
Another dimension of the local market is the development over the past five years of “wellness tourism” along with
its associated beauty products, health spas and eco-lodges. To date, these attract mostly local residents, but the aim is
to attract international tourists. The Ministry of Health recently gave approval to HOMEOPHARMA, a large local
pharmaceutical company, to enter the hospitality and wellness industry with its own brand of eco-lodges. Its program
includes stay and treatment at three industry-run eco-lodges, combined with visits to essential oil productions. 9
C. ENABLING ENVIRONMENT
1. GLOBAL
Madagascar is signatory to several conventions that impact its AMP sector:
• Madagascar is a party to and has ratified the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES). The signatories agree to cooperate in international trade to ensure that the survival of
wild animals and plants is not threatened. A recent example of a determination affecting Madagascar is listing a
moratorium on the trade of Prunos africana because the plant’s survival was threatened due to over-harvesting.
• Madagascar is signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and has been member since 1996. In
this context, Madagascar has developed national legislation to protect the intellectual property rights of local
populations to plant genetic material, based on the Bonn Guidelines on Access to Genetic Resources and Fair and Equitable
7 Interview with an ANTP board member.

8 IK Notes 91, Traditional Medicine Programmes in Madagascar,
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDKNOWLEDGE/Resources/iknt91.htm
9 This subsector includes an aggregate of the travel industry, essential oil, production, hotel rooms (e.g., Colbert, Amarina,
Nosey Bay Hotel, HOMEOPHARMA eco-lodges), restaurants, nature park fees, tour operators, organic food, doctor
consultations, guides and participating NGOs. The survey was not able to provide an estimate of the value of this industry,
but can only attest to its recent expansion and growth in capital investments.
Sharing of the Benefits Arising out of their Utilisation. The law was initiated in 1999 and drafted 2001; it now awaits
approval by the National Assembly.
International agreements and directives on natural products, as opposed to conventions, offer guidelines, benchmarks
and recommended practices but compliance is voluntary. For the AMP sector, agreements cover areas that promote
health, safety and sustainable practices at the production, harvesting and processing levels:
• Fair Trade Federation (FTF) provides guidelines and regulations for determining a product’s classification of a
Fair Trade label.
• As a member of WHO, Madagascar is asked to respect the Directive on Good Agricultural and Collection
Practices (GACP) for medicinal plants. 10
• Exporters to Europe must be mindful of the directive from the Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products
(HMPC) of the European Medicines Agency (EMEA). 11
International markets increasingly demand natural AMP products that meet standards developed to protect the health
and safety of their consumers. These standards are translated into certification protocols that affect all actors in the
value chain, especially producers or wildcrafters. Organic certification is presently the most widely used protocol.
Obtaining certification is often complex and expensive, but is compensated by price premiums and positive
environmental impact, as discussed above.
Two factors influence certification in Madagascar. First, EcoCert is the only internationally recognized organic
certification body residing fulltime in Madagascar. While EcoCert is approved to provide certification for both E.U.
and U.S. market organic standards, the lack of competitiveness in this support service reduces accessibility for the
widely diffuse AMP production area. Second, importers are increasingly demanding multiple certifications that include
Biorganic® certified, Fair Trade standards, Traceability or Sustainable Wild Harvest certification—which are not
provided by EcoCert.
There is a process in place to develop international standards for sustainable wild collection of medicinal and aromatic
plants (ISSC-MAP). It is conducted under the joint leadership of the German Federal Agency for Nature
Conservation (BfN), WWF/TRAFFIC (Germany) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
and the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group. 12
2. NATIONAL
Environmental policy: A variety of institutions help shape national-level policies and priorities with a direct impact
on the management, use and commercialization of natural products in general. The “Durban Vision” commits to
expanding the country’s protected area network, establishing both strict protected areas and multiple use zones.
Government ministries and international donors have mobilized to implement this vision, with an anticipated deadline
of 2012. While it is uncertain how this process will unfold, it may create an added incentive to find alternatives to
destructive practices associated with wildcrafting.
The government has also been an active participant in a 15-year multi-donor Environment Program, which is
presently in its last 5-year phase, during which Malagasy institutions will take full financial and management
responsibility of the national program. The program provides a forum for coordinating environmental policies and
programs, including policy recommendations affecting AMP. A number of specific government agencies participate in
10 http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2003/9242546275.pdf
11 www.emea.eu.int/pdfs/human/hmpc/24681605en.pdf
12 www.floraweb.de/proxy/floraweb/map-pro/
this process and offer potential vehicles for influencing policies and delivering technical assistance related to AMP.
These include the National Environmental Council (Conseil National de l’Environnement; CNE), the Inter-ministerial
Environmental Council (Conseil Interministériel de l’Environnement; CIE), and the National Environmental Office (Office
National de l’Environnement; ONE). These agencies are under the umbrella of the Ministry of Environment and of
Water and Forests (Ministère de l’Environnement et des Eaux et Forets; MEEF), and they work in collaboration with
decentralized local governments (Collectivités Territoriales Décentralisées; CTD) and private enterprises.
Regulations, fees and taxes: Related to decentralization and the levels of government presence, the AMP sector is
hampered by having to interpret and navigate within a set of confusing and overlapping regulations, fees and taxes.
These factors impinge on the sector’s competitiveness when compared with the environment in other competitor
countries.
Historically, AMPs were considered forest-derived products and placed under the Ministry of Water and Forests.
Gathering aromatic and medicinal plants wherever they grew originally fell under regulations of forestry hunting
permits and timber products. The first step still today for “collecting in the wild” is to obtain an “authorization” or a
permit from Water and Forests, now a Department within MEEF. The process is as follows.
a) Permit: This authorization, given against payment, permits the holder to gather, cut and haul from the forest raw
plant material. Under existing regulations payment is made to the regional office of MEEF, but presently there is
no matrix for plant variety or location precision for obtaining the permit. One large company supplying the local
market in medicinal plants has obtained a blanket authorization from the MEEF central authority to gather AMPs
on the entire island territory.
b) Once gathered, a tax or redevance must be paid to MEEF based on the actual amount of plant material collected
and exported. The party obtaining the permit above is responsible for paying the redevance tax. Confusion arises
because the tax is set at 4 percent of FOB 13 price if the product “emanates” from the forests” or 2 percent if it is
“transformed” or processed. In addition, it is not clear if the tax applies to products gathered in areas that were
but are no longer forests.
c) If plant material is transported out of the commune from where it is collected, it is levied a tax or ristourne,
established by the commune and paid directly to them. The fee is based on weight, which compared to timber
products is usually low. Payment is usually made by the collector or the processor, and they often must also pay
the redevance tax if neither the collectors nor wildcrafters paid their contribution. Proof of payment of the ristourne
tax and the authorization permit issued by Water and Forests must accompany all vehicles transporting AMPs on
major roads, and must be presented at regional and national police check points. However, if the plants are grown
on agricultural lands, the cultivator and his/her collector no longer fall under Water and Forests regulations, do
not have a signed ristourne document, and therefore could be exempt from paying the commune ristourne tax. The
regulation is not clear on this, at least at the producer level of the chain. Dried plant material is relatively light
weight and can be transported through informal channels along back roads and paths by bicycle, carts or on one’s
back, thus evading control and fees.
If AMPs are transported out of the region or province along major roads, these administrative entities also have
the authority to levy their own tax on transported goods. Cloves, for example, are taxed 1,000 Ariary ($0.50)/kg
by the regional governments, whether wildcrafted or cultivated.
13 FOB—Free On Board—indicates that the quoted price covers all expenses up to and including the loading of goods aboard
a vessel.
d) AMP products exported from Madagascar (predominately essential oils) pay two export taxes (2 percent of FOB
value and 3 percent of CIF 14 value), and processors/wholesalers pay an import tax on material used in the
processing, testing and manufacturing of other AMP products (i.e., stainless steel, boilers, specialty bottles,
containers and testing equipment, dryers, packaging). These tax rates are established by the Ministry of Finance.
The following table shows the cost structure of three AMP products, including various fees and taxes. Transport costs
are factored at each step of the value chain (e.g., raw material includes landed cost at the collection places, collection
includes collectors’ mark-up and transport, etc.)
Table 5: Cost Structure of Three AMP Products
Percentage of Total Cost

Cost
C. camphora R. aromatica L. camara
Raw plant material 50 28 30
Collection + taxes (ristourne, redevance) 10 25 15
Processing 26 32 46
Export taxes 5 6 0*
Other 9 9 9
Total 100% 100% 100%
* not exported
Source: Etude filière : Plantes aromatiques, médicinales, et huiles essentielles (SCAC, FOFIFA/DRD, 2003)
Ministries: The national and local enabling environment is further complicated by the number of ministries directly
implicated in the AMP value chain. In addition to the Ministry of Environment, Water and Forests, there are:
• Ministry of Agriculture, Husbandry and Fisheries, which claims that
since most AMP (aside from products derived from trees) grow or are TEXT BOX 3: SAME
produced in buffer or agricultural lands, the sector falls under their STANDARDS FOR 56
YEARS
mandate
• Ministry of Finance, which oversees taxation To export cinnamon bark in the
• Ministry of Health and Family Planning, which approves new drugs form of “cigarette” bark rolls, a
that emanate from traditional medicinal practice. It overseas the standard set in 1950 and still on
medicinal segment of the AMP value chain as well as conventional the books stipulates these must not
medical practice. It is tasked to provide the population a safe and exceed 10 cm. However,
equitable option to conventional medicine through traditional consumers prefer and importers
pharmacopoeia and medical practices. specify longer size rolls. Another
• Ministry of Industry and Commerce and Support to the Private Sector. decree stipulates that dried plants
This Ministry’s Norms and Standards Bureau is tasked with defining must be transported in jute bags,
and establishing norms, grades and standards for consumer products but international standards require
and, when possible, harmonizing these with importing countries’ non-contaminant plastic bags. An
norms. Presently there are only a few national level norms and exporter either loses the client or
standards related to AMP products. Some date back to the colonial breaks the law.
14 CIF—Cost, Insurance and Freight—indicates that the quoted price covers all expenses and risks up to and including delivery at
a named destination. The price excludes import customs clearance and other costs and risks.
period and do not take into account shifts in consumer preference (see Text Box 3 above).
A leading AMP producer (Label CBD) is responding to the lack of updated norms and standards by developing AMP
products that are new to Madagascar and the international market. This allows Label CBD to diversify its traditional
exports. Also, by setting the standards for these new products and registering the branded Malagasy name with the
Ministry’s Bureau and internationally, the firm leapfrogs the government process and assures a measure of protection
for its intellectual property.
Transportation infrastructure and logistics: Transport costs at each level of the value chain are impacted by the
poor condition of rural infrastructure. Because of inadequate transport facilities, wildcrafters pay up to 10 percent of
the selling price to have their gathered plant material transported either on a person’s back or by bicycle. The
percentage cost reduces as the dry material is trucked to processing plants; transport to the port facilities accounts for
between 0.5 and 5 percent of the price of the finished products. 15
The slow growth in firms that specialize in providing logistical services—from freight forwarding to rapid
loading/unloading, dispatching, distribution, tracking, dedicated software, broader ranged communications, inventory
control and supply chain management—is understandable under Madagascar’s present situation. The AMP sector is
still too small to drive growth in logistical services, but as other sectors grow, improvements in the support
environment will carry over to the AMP sector.
3. NATURAL RESOURCE GOVERNANCE

Two domains of governance with potential impact on the distribution of access and benefits in the AMP sector are
decentralized local government and resource tenure practices. The potential contribution of local government in
promoting sustainable practice is largely unrealized due to lack of capacity and resources. For the same reason, AMP
has yet to yield significant tax revenue. Local tenure practices do not appear to significantly influence access to wild
AMP, which are generally open access. These issues are discussed in detail below.
Decentralization: Madagascar’s decentralized system of government is based on a hierarchy of territorial units

comprising 6 autonomous provinces, 28 regions, 158 departments and 1,392 communes. Administered by elected
mayors and councils, the rural communes have a potentially important role in promoting sustainable natural resource
management. They articulate communal priorities and direct investments through the preparation of communal
development plans; they can work with government technical agencies to raise awareness and circulate information
about sound practices; and they can craft specific policies appropriate to local social and environmental conditions.
Communes frequently perceive natural resources as a potential source of revenue, and a number of communes in the
study sample have enacted taxes on AMP (generally around 20-40 Ariary per kilogram of raw material). However,
many communes lack resources to effectively monitor and enforce environmental policies, including tax collection.
Resources access and tenure: Most wildcrafting is conducted on land that is in the public domain. Access is free
and unrestrained for residents and non-residents alike. We did not encounter any gender differences in access to wild
AMP. However, there is some gender specialization, as most wildcrafters are women. Cultivation of AMP is generally
a household activity, following patterns of household decision-making, and there do not appear to be institutionalized
means of favoring groups within communities (such as restrictions on access to land).
15 Based on three products surveyed (Cinnamumum camphora, Lantana camara and Raventsara aromatica), Etude filière : SCAC,
FOFIFA/DRD (2003) ‘‘Plantes aromatiques, médicinales, et huile essentielle : Proposition de scénarios de mécanisme fiscal
et de systèmes de contrôle’’
Open access conditions have enabled depletion of certain high-value AMP, such as kotofihy (Prunus africana) and
ravensara (R. aromatica) in some places. When there is a surge in demand for such products, harvesters often use
techniques that maximize yields but end up killing trees. For example, while it is possible to harvest Prunus bark and
ravensara leaves in a sustainable manner, Prunus trees are frequently girdled to maximize bark harvest, and ravensara
trees are cut to access upper twigs and leaves. The government has made efforts at a national level to develop a
sustainable management strategy with little effect; attempts to regulate and enforce rules locally have proven
ineffective. The government issued a moratorium on P. africana harvest and export in 2003 under pressure from
CITES and harvesting ceased. Given current enforcement capacity, it appears unlikely that policy targeting producers
would be effective. Instead, as this experience with Prunus suggests, it may be possible to promote sustainable
management by targeting the end market. It remains to be seen whether it is possible to affect harvesting behavior by
restricting end markets short of a full moratorium.
Our surveys indicate that customary rule systems do not govern access to non-timber forest products, such as AMP.
However, in certain rural communes (e.g., the community of Antanala in the region of Ranomafana), customary
‘kings’ (apanjaka) play a role in biodiversity conservation. In effect, the collection of AMP in these areas is under their
authority. The system does not have an official basis but depends on the moral authority of the apanjaka, which is
widely recognized by the population. There is also tacit recognition of their authority by the administration. The
cultural value of medicinal plants in this area also takes the form of strong attachment to traditional healers,
tangalamena, and a deep-seated reverence for the therapeutic virtues of medicinal plants. Similarly, the community of
St. Marie, near Toamasina, which is well known for its abundant R. aromatica, does not allow harvesting because of the
tree’s spiritual significance (believed to have been left by their ancestors).
Cultivated land closer to villages is considered communal land and managed through customary, community-based
land rights. Land use for cultivation of AMP or other crops is accessed through consent of township or commune.
However, rights to trees on that land belong to long-standing families and to their descendents. Another traditional
system allows “outsiders” conditional access to family-owned land on a temporary basis—a “sacred” transfer pact
(fatitra) between a family and a close friend to cultivate fallow land. The verbal agreement gives the close friend rights
to cultivate the land for a particular purpose and time period. This system allows fallow land to be used for cash crops
such as AMP as well as for rice.
Customary land tenure is considered insecure, as it is not recognized by the state, though the effects of this insecurity
on productivity and investment are uncertain. Land titles and registration are rare in rural areas. The government of
Madagascar, with support of the Millennium Challenge Account, has initiated a major initiative (Programme National
Foncier; PNF) to decentralize and simplify land registration and titling in order to make it more accessible to rural
populations and to tailor it to rural land use patterns. A system of “guichet fonciers” creates a role for rural communes in
registering and titling land that has been in use over time.
Several pieces of national legislation restrict resource-related activities that potentially negatively impact AMP. Tree
cutting is regulated through the same system of permitting and fee collection that governs AMP production. Use of
fire to clear land for farming is prohibited. MEEF is putting finishing touches on legislation to regulate collection of
plants and tree products from protected and non-protected zones. This legislation will establish an updated fee
structure for AMP, which are now regulated by the same guidelines used for timber. It is unclear when this legislation
will go into effect. The GELOSE/GCF 16 program provides a mechanism for transferring management rights (but not
16 The GELOSE/GCF (GEstion LOcale SEcurisé/Gestion Contractualisée des Forêts; Secured Local Management/Contractual
Forest Management) system establishes equitable benefit sharing of natural resources between the State, the commune and
other natural resource users.
ownership) of natural resources from the state to a community for a specific period of time. It allows communities to
determine who can have access to their resources (including AMP) and enhances their ability to exercise stewardship
over fragile lands. However, the process for transferring rights is cumbersome, and lack of assistance to communities
in implementation has hampered the program’s performance.
D. VALUE CHAIN ACTORS

This section presents actors and the role they play in each segment of the AMP value chain, from plant gatherers and
producers to collectors, processors, wholesalers/exporters and retailers. The section focuses on the value chain’s
“mainstreamed” actors and firms, although there are lesser known elements who enter and exit the value chain at the
flash of an opportunity. These are often referred to as “opportunists” and are not included in the following
discussion.
The present AMP value chain is characterized by the informal nature of its upstream base (producers, gatherers and
collectors) and its better organized and more formally structured actors downstream (processors and
wholesalers/retailers). Overall the value chain operates with little vertical integration and almost no horizontal
collaboration. Yet actors are conscious that there are local and export market opportunities for AMP products
without necessarily being able to identify consumer trends or react quickly to them at their level of operation.
1. PRODUCERS
Plant material “production systems”: Three groups TEXT BOX 4: EXAMPLES OF PRODUCER
comprise the “production” function of the AMP value PRICES
chain—wildcrafters, cultivators and plantation operators. At Befontsy, the purchase price to wildcrafters for
They differ in their level of power, their opportunity to talepetraka is 1,400 Ariary per kg dry. Collectors buy
benefit from the natural resource base and their cost from collection points (often hamlet stores) at 1,600
recovery practices. Production strategy depends on the Ariary per kg. On average, a woman can gather 1 kg
nature of the plant. Some plants are endemic and exist in fresh during a half-day, producing on average 10 kg
the wild, while others are exotics and have traditionally dry during the year. The daily wage for women in the
been cultivated as agroforestry crops. There are ongoing region is approximately 2,000 Ariary.
attempts to domesticate wild plants that are increasingly
scarce in the wild, such as R. aromatica, which indicates a In Vohamina, prices for wildcrafted radriaka are
trend towards AMP cultivation. While there are no always fixed by buyers and have been declining over
reliable statistics on the percentage of actors among the time. The price paid to wildcrafters dropped from 50
three groups, community interviews suggest that a Ariary/kg, 2 years ago, to 30 Ariary and presently to
majority of households engage in seasonal wildcrafting. 20 Ariary. At that price, women preferred to work in
A much smaller number of households cultivate AMP their rice fields and the volume collected has
on private land. For example, villagers estimate that dropped.
approximately 10 percent of households own clove trees In Vohimana, the price for longoza delivered to a
and that income in the community from the sale of collection point is 20 Ariary/kg dry. A wildcrafter can
cloves is second only to that earned from rice. gather approximately 50 kg in a half-day.
• Wildcrafting—individuals and groups who gather In Moramanga, the price paid to producers for fresh
nearby plant material in the wild, part-time and carry ginger root is fixed by collectors. Prices increased
them to small collection points. For many, gathering from180 Ariary /kg in 2005 to 200 Ariary/kg in 2006.
aromatic and medicinal plants is part of their
livelihood diversification strategy even if it is not an important source of cash income. They engage in other
income generating activities that are generally more remunerative. Plants that are generally collected by this
category of actors include radriaka (L. camara), talapetraka (C. asiatica) and wild ginger (H. coronarium).
• Cultivating—individuals and groups who plant and harvest plant material on land to which they have some
rights or deeds. Plants cultivated by small private landholders include ginger (Zingiber officinalis), cinnamon (C.
verum) and black pepper (Piper nigrum). There is also evidence of endangered species such as niaouli (M.
quinquenervia) and katrafay (Cedrelopsis grevei) being cultivated in private plots.
• Plantations—Plantations are larger landholdings with little plant differentiation (i.e., containing one or two
species). They are generally established by large distributors in an effort to improve product quality and availability
and held under different types of tenure arrangements—deeded, rental or owned. Plants include cinnamon (C.
verum), eucalyptus (E. globilus and E. citrodora), cloves (E. cariophyllata) and ravintsara (C. camphora).
Wildcrafters: This group is comprised essentially of individuals (almost entirely women and children) and informal
groupings (MSEs), who seize an opportunity to earn additional income by responding to a call for plant material,
usually available in their fields or on open access public lands and forests. Gathering sites are generally within 3 km of
villages. Depending on their location in relation to natural resources, between 10 and 50 percent of a village is engaged
in some part-time AMP gathering. Capital entry cost is zero, and time devoted to wildcrafting is balanced against the
opportunity cost of cultivating rice and other activities. For most rural households, wildcrafting of AMP is generally
only part of diversified livelihood strategies, which also include some form of agricultural production and/or
handicraft activity. However, AMP can provide an important source of cash income, even if the amounts are generally
small (see Text Box 4 above). A 1996 study found that in some communities over 30 percent of their cash income was
derived from collection of P. africana bark. 17
Wildcrafters do not gather plant material until they hear of a specific

order from a sub-collector. Information flows as follows: wildcrafters are
informed of an order (rough amounts, technical specifications and price)
by word of mouth through a local collector, who generally specifies the
order to the owner of a village’s convenience store and gives the date he
will return to the village (generally a week later) to collect what has been
brought to the village store. Prices are fixed and non-negotiable
regardless of quantity or quality gathered. Wildcrafters receive no other
information, and have few means of gathering information about the
location of the plant source other than by traveling by foot to find
PHOTO 1
productive areas. Wildcrafters usually do not know the use or destination
market of the plants. (Most plants gathered by wildcrafters are destined This plant is commonly called
for the domestic medicinal market.) Income from wildcrafting is usually “tandroho” and collected in the
used to meet current needs and not saved. One-off orders for certain Niarovana commune in the
plants can translate into a good opportunity for wildcrafters, especially if Vatmandry district. Collectors and
the demand is great and prices are high, but such orders can also lead to people interviewed knew neither the
rapid and uncontrolled depletion of the species. use nor the destination of the plant.
According to interviews in Beforona,
Given the ad hoc nature of wildcrafting, there is presently little incentive the plant repels mosquitoes.
to self-organize formal associations. Nonetheless, several organizations
17 Walter, S. & J.C.R. Rakotonirina. (1995). “L'exploitation de Prunus africanum à Madagascar.” Unpublished report cited in
FAO (2001). It should be noted, however, that unsustainable harvesting of P. africana led to a moratorium in 2003.
have begun facilitating informal associations of wildcrafters as a means of improving product reliability, quality and
traceability. Wildcrafters generally have little time, information or interest in managing natural resources. However,
those grouped together through an NGO or supported by professional processors and buyers appear more
productive, better informed and more interested in protecting nearby plant life than do non-organized wildcrafters.
Furthermore, NGOs frequently link community organizing around AMP to provision of community health services.
For example, export firms such as Label CBD and Phael Flor structure prices to cover costs of village clinics and
nurses while maintaining their own price competitiveness.
Cultivators and Plantation Operators: These actors are distinguished from wildcrafters by their purchasing power,
which allows them to access a bicycle or public transport to take them and their goods to and from regional markets,
where they can gather market information and establish relationships beyond the village level. They are able to buy
seeds or starter plants from sources that can provide them with rough price information. Subsequently, they can better
respond to market demand and have a better chance of negotiating prices than wildcrafters.
Cultivators plant aromatic and medicinal plants in addition to other crops usually in a separate part of the land and on
a small scale, but have insufficient knowledge of production norms. Small-scale cultivators are MSEs and can upgrade
their farming enterprise if opportunities arise in response to buyers who need plants that are difficult to source from
the wild. Such is the case for Artemesia annua, which is sought by pharmaceuticals for its anti-malarial qualities.
BIONEXX, a private for-profit company operating in Madagascar, has sought cultivators with small landholdings to
plant the Artemsia (see Photo 2). Through representatives in villages, the company provides seeds and fertilizer and
technical instructions for growing the plant from nursery to maturity, harvesting, drying and storing. The company
announces a purchase price (5,500 Ariary/kg) within 4-5 months of planting but states it will negotiate a final price
when the plant reaches maturity. BIONEXX indicates it will collect the dried products from the production fields.
The cost of entry is relatively low under this model and cost recovery can only be calculated after a trial season.
AMP production in plantations (most are from 10 to 70 ha) permits closer

relations to end-market players, since they are generally operated under the
management of large domestic market suppliers or exporting firms. Typical
AMP produced in plantations are clove, cinnamon, eucalyptus and recently
ravintsara (C. camphora). Employment ranges from 4-5 people to several
hundred. In the area surveyed, we estimated approximately 15 plantations.
Plantations provide a more stable production base and greater control over
quality. Production is organized and is trending towards respecting norms
of good agricultural practice (GAP). Participants have an understanding of
their role within the value chain. The plantation model requires investment
in management, training, equipment and labor, which makes financing an
issue. Plantations initially do not promote biodiversity within their growing
area, nor does the growing environment replicate the soil, ground cover or PHOTO 2
canopy of a natural setting. However, plantations provide a scaled option to BIONEXX poster instructing
regenerate endangered plant and tree species. Health care and health potential Artemisia cultivators on
information are usually provided to employees under the plantation model. proper techniques; on wall of
Plantations are more able to become certified organic than other producers villages shop used as collection
(although it can be costly, time consuming and requires rigorous point.
management) as they can better control production, provide traceability and
input supply records, and can more easily pay for support services, even if these are scarce in the AMP sector.

Current access to new land for plantations in the public domain is determined in part by the NRM practices proposed
by plantation management. The business must prepare a project description (business plan to include location, size,
plants cultivated/harvested, duration, environmental considerations, maintenance practices, investment) and request
authorization from MEEF. Recent policy shift has decentralized the decision-point from the capital to the regional
offices. Water and Forests request an opinion from the local government authority (Commune) regarding their
knowledge of the applicant, the project and the appropriateness of the business to the wellbeing of the commune.
Based on this and their own evaluation, Water and Forests can grant a “contrat d’exploitation.” Entry costs are based on
land size and species planted, and the expected time span for a decision is between 3-5 months, although this varies by
location.
Communities view plantations as legitimate operations and as sources of employment. Land is privately leased or in
the public domain, and since the investment aims are long-term and plants are planted and cared for, they are not
perceived as being exploitive of the natural resource base.
Table 6: Comparison of Production Systems
Production system Advantages Disadvantages

Wildcrafting • It is cheaper and does not require • Uncontrolled demand may lead to
infrastructure and investment. extirpation of species; wildcrafters are
• Many species are only required in small first line to suffer.
quantities that do not make cultivation • Local knowledge of the plant ecology
economically viable. and biology is helpful, but wildcrafters
• No pesticides are used. only gather when there is an order, not
on basis of optimal biological signals.
• It has been shown that plants in their
wild state contain stronger medicinal • Haphazard harvesting and sourcing
properties that the cultivated variety. affects reliability in end-markets.
Cultivation/Plantation • Cultivation provides reliable botanical • Land titling is not common in areas
identification. adjacent to protected zones.
• Cultivation provides a steady source of • Watering during dry season is
raw material. unreliable and may require investment.
• Collectors, intermediaries and other • Entry and maintenance costs increase
buyers can agree on volumes and as size of cultivated area increases.
prices with the grower over time. • There is greater risk of crop loss due to
• Post-harvest handling and quality weather, cyclone, pest invasion,
control can be assured. disease.
• Product standards can be made to • Monocropping can degrade soil
meet consumer preferences. structure and fertility, rendering sites
• Cultivated plants can be easily certified less sustainable over long run.
as organic.

2. COLLECTORS
Collectors and sub-collectors are aggregators or middlemen who collect harvested plant material from wildcrafters
and, to a lesser degree, from cultivators. They deliver this raw plant material (often dried) to processors. Collectors
and sub-collectors do not generally deal with plantation operators, who usually deal directly with processing plants.
Collectors operate among one, two or three layers of sub-aggregators, which is understandable given the geographical
dispersion of wildcrafters. Smaller ones collect directly from wildcrafters or small hamlet collection sites, successively
moving up to larger collectors at villages on rural roads, to even larger, often Chinese owned, trucking points on
paved roads. The levels could be referred to as “first level sub-collectors” (ambulatory, on bicycles or at small hamlet
shops), “second level sub-collectors” (medium sized, at villages on rural roads) and “third level collectors” (large).
Sub-collectors are part-time actors of the value chain, while the larger collectors are more permanent.
As demand from end-markets is not always predictable, third-level collectors do not initiate a collection campaign
until they receive an order from an exporter, a local wholesaler or a processor. Orders include purchase price
parameters. Collectors then determine the sub-collectors to contact based on their knowledge of zones where the
required plants are abundant and where competition is likely to be lower.
Collectors establish their purchase prices based on a calculated markup, differentiated according to the type of
product and the extent of handling required. Roots, barks and organics have the largest markup, while small leaves
and wildcrafted plants have the lowest. Our surveys indicate that margins for first-level sub-collectors are 10-20
percent and 25-35 percent for higher level collectors, who sell directly to
processors (see Table 11 on page 41).
A typical first-level “ambulant” collectors travels by bicycle to villages

where the plants are found and announces the plant required, some
specification, the purchase price per kg dry-weight and the date of his
return to collect the raw product. He does not provide advances to
individual wildcrafters but does provide funds to the hamlet shopkeeper
to pay for plant material as it arrives at the shop. While hamlet shops are PHOTO 3
convenient places to collect plant material, they also pose a constraint to
Hamlet shop serving also as a
quality control. Hamlet shopkeepers operate on low margins, providing
collection point. Shop owners are
basics goods (e.g., rice, sugar, oil) to local households, at times on credit.
generally migrants. To maintain a
Shopkeepers are interested in keeping wildcrafters as customers, and thus
good standing in the community,
are more likely to accept all plant material brought to them, even if the
they must establish good
material does not conform to standards requested by ambulant collectors.
relationships with collectors. They
Typically, second- and third-level collectors regroup the collections of dry are generally willing to forfeit a
material made by those of the bicycle group, and are characterized by the small amount on the AMP
use of pick-ups or trucks along more accessible roads. This level can be collection transaction in order to
linked to suppliers to larger commercial outfits that feed directly into gain a loyal customer for basic
urban processing plants in Antananarivo, Fianarantsoa or Toamasina. consumer products.

Table 7: Estimated Numbers of Fixed and Mobile Collectors in Three Study Areas
Commune
Type of Tsirangiana Total of Six
Business Beforna Ambouhibary Communes
Nairorvana
Ambatovala Anosibe-Anala
Tsaraivany
Collector/fixed 46 10 4 60
Collector/mobile herbalists 8 4 3 15
Collectors/opportunists 5 2 4 11
Total 59 16 11 86
Source: Interviews with Rural Commune officials (2006)
3. PROCESSORS TEXT BOX 5: PHAEL FLOR

Processing (distilling/extracting/drying) plants: Phael Flor is a Malagassy firm established in 1985
There are approximately 37 large processing firms that by a perfume chemist who produces extracts from
convert vegetative material into bulk or consumer grade aromatic products. Its principal clients are in
products; 26 of these are exporters. These firms are France, although it ships certified organic products
located in the capital city, Toamasina and other large to the U.S. The firm began by sourcing plant
towns. Additionally there are numerous small to mid- material from wildcrafters and processing them in
size distilleries located in small towns or near collection Antananarivo. It now sources from its own
points closer to the plant source. plantations, from cultivators and from some
wildcrafters. To move closer to suppliers, it
The smaller units can be divided into two types. The first decentralized its facilities by installing small
are the “formal” 18 affiliated distilleries associated with modern distilleries and plant drying facilities in
larger exporting businesses (Label CBD, Phael Flor, rural areas close to the plant source. Phael Flor
HOMEOPHARMA and Talamanga). They are initially places a head office employee to operate
constructed of high quality material (welded stainless the decentralized mini-plants, then leases these
steel), use low pressure steam boilers to control heat, rural businesses assuring a market through
have access to testing equipment, possess up-to-date production contracts. In 2005, it sold 120 kg of
technical knowledge, and produce a quality product. cinnamon essential oil. One year later, its export
These formal distilleries are either affiliates of exporting has increased to 250 kg (at € 210/kg). It also
operations or are tied to exporters through production exports raventsara, ginger, lemon grass and vetiver
contracts. They are recent additions to the AMP value extracts.
chain and their numbers are comparatively small. During
the survey, the team identified four in the Fianarantsoa area, three in Moramanga and one in Tsivangiana-Mahanoro.
The other type of distillery is “informal.” These are generally constructed of lower quality material (steel drums instead
of stainless steel, direct heat to the plant material in place of low pressure steam), with insufficient measuring and
product testing equipment. They are inefficient and produce low-grade output. According to interviews with rural
commune officials (Table 8), these small and medium-sized enterprises represent a “large” share of the processing
sector, though as often the case with informal sectors that are highly mobile, accurate data is not available.
18 Tax-paying, registered companies that advertise and have a fixed office.

Table 8: Estimated Numbers of Formal and Informal Processors in Three Study Areas
Commune
Type of Tsirangiana Ambouhibary
Business Beforna Total
Nairorvana Anosibe-
Ambatovala
Tsaraivany Anala
Processor/formal 1 1 0 2
Processor/informal 10 2 2 14
Total 11 3 2 16
Source: Interviews with Rural Commune officials (2006)
Processing requires more skill than other stages in the value chain to operate successfully, both in producing varied
products and in adapting to continually changing end-market demands. We observed this part of the chain to be the
most innovative in both new product development and new technology adoption. It is not surprising that this link
also shows the greatest drive to upgrade. Energy requirements for heating distilleries is an important cost factor; there
appears to be inefficient use of water to cool the condensate coils, and upgrading might allow recycling of vegetative
waste after distillation.
Trend: Export end-markets are increasingly demanding products that meet Fair Trade and sustainability criteria. 19 To
conform to these requirements, processing plants require certification, which includes tracing finished products
upstream to the production level. The trend requires processors to position themselves closer to the raw material
source.
Exporters are responding by installing smaller formal processing units in the field (built with quality materials and
according to standards with testing equipment). Sometimes they place company staff at the decentralized plants which
they initially capitalize (through internal financing) and later spin off as independent companies. At other times,
exporters promote small businesses through training, technical support and contracts for local-level collection and
processing. This form of in-country outsourcing leads to performance-based purchase contracts, resulting in more
reliable delivery of processed products and conformity to company specifications.
The trend is increasing awareness and involvement of Antananarivo and Toamasina firms to playing more proactive
roles in sustainable natural resource management. Processors and exporters are not just linking downstream in the
value chain but are involved in establishing nurseries, replanting threatened species and contributing to better
stewardship of fragile lands. These investments do not appear to affect prices paid to producers, but they generally
improve relations with communities and result in better availability of plant material.
Presently, processors cannot depend on sourcing much of their raw plant needs from plantations. Production from
plantations is still relatively small compared to demand, which is still met mostly by wildcrafters. From the trend, we
can estimate lower raw material costs and more reliable delivery with increased sourcing from plantations.
19 Firms can be certified that their products come from “sustainable wild collection” by partnering with an NGO such as
Conservation International, World Wildlife Fund or Wildlife Conservation Society, which will provide the conditions and
certification: www.floraweb.de/proxy/floraweb/map-pro Fair Trade conditionality and certification can only be granted by
the Fair Trade Federation: www.fairtrade.org
4. WHOLESALERS AND EXPORTERS
Marketing channels consist essentially of three types of distributors of local natural products:
• exporters who retail or wholesale traditional Malagasy AMP products through established importer networks
• sellers of traditional AMP products for local consumption—these are generally small-scale actors who sell in local
marketplaces; they do not export directly
• integrated firms that have established a presence in the rural sourcing regions to oversee wildcrafting, cultivation
and processing into their wholesale/export or retail
operation 20 TEXT BOX 6: THE LABEL CBD APPROACH
Label CBD was created in 1999 through the initiative
The more formal firms in the AMP sector are integrated
of Oliver Behra as the for-profit arm of the NGO
processors and wholesalers who supply the local and
“Man and Environment.” It promotes rural
export markets. Once they begin exporting to international
development and biodiversity conservation through
markets, firms are obliged to develop capabilities to engage
the commercialization of AMP. The Label CBD
in activities that favor improved resource and land
approach has several key features:
management practices in response to consumer demand.
• environmental impact studies to evaluate whether
Wholesalers to the local market usually begin as
production potential is sustainable and adequate
manufacturers of local medicinal products that source their
for anticipated markets
dry or fresh plant material from small producers through
direct contracts. They also source processed material from • installation of distilleries in communities to process
small distilleries on an as-needed and as-available basis. community-sourced material, and training of local
The more aggressive companies have established producers to assure quality and traceability
plantations and their own distillation/processing facilities
• a commitment to paying producers fair prices and
capable of producing diverse and large quantities of
reinvesting a portion of its revenues in social
products on a regular basis. This also allowed these firms
services (health clinic, nurse or teacher) in
to enter the export markets and become integrated, more
producers’/partner communities
efficient value chain participants.
• calculating prices paid to producers based on (a)
Among the largest local market wholesalers is
livable wage, (b) amortization of distillery, (c)
HOMEOPHARMA, a firm that produces about 200
distillery function, and (d) operation of social
different products and distributes them through a network
services
that includes 21 franchised retail stores throughout the
country, the national pharmacy distribution system and Label CBD supplies essential oils to a number of
supermarket chains. The firm has become a major exporter major European cosmetic firms (e.g., Channel, Yves
of essential oils, and, after joining an international Rocher) and continuously searches for new products
consortium of AMP producers, has expanded its to expand into new markets. Several products form
capabilities to develop new products and condition them the core of its business: Ylang ylang (Cananga odorata),
to conform to international standards. cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), “saro” (a newly
discovered plant with anti-bacterial properties),
Another organization, IMRA (a foundation that operates
Calophyllum, Iary (Psiadia altissima), and Niaouli
as a private business and an applied research institute) uses
(Melaleuca viridoflora).
small retailers, traditional healers, physical
therapist/masseuses and street sellers to reach out to the
20 As shown in the value chain map, there are opportunistic firms at this level that come and go as demand markets rise and fall.
This ad hoc group is seasonal, difficult to define and quantify, and could not be treated in the present survey.
mass local consumer. The simplicity of packaging of its products (small plastic sacks, paper sacks and plastic vials) is
aligned with the strategy to keep prices low and provide the appearance of an authentic natural Malagasy product.
Wholesalers and exporters rely on a small number of core export products, assuring some stability and providing
capital for innovation. For example, the majority of HOMEOPHARMA’s exports consist of three main products:
niaouli (50 percent of exports; 1.5 tons), ravensara (25 percent) and eucalyptus (25 percent). Likewise, ylang ylang and
niaouli are core products for Label CBD. Markets for these products are relatively stable, but competition is high and
margins are low relative to other products (Table 9). Table 10 shows the estimated quantities of selected AMP
products processed and sold by Label CBD in 2006.
Table 9: Profit margins on selected AMP products exported by Label CBD, 2006 (prices in Ariary) 21
Market Price paid

price by fair Price paid to Estimated
(MSE) trade producer demand,
essential oil partners communities Profit (per 2006 Annual Margin
Product (per kg) (per kg) (per kg) kg) (kg) profit (%)
Niaouli 9,000 10,000 9,000 1,000 1,000 1,000,000 10
Ylang ylang 50,000 62,000 50,000 12,000 500 6,000,000 19
Cannelle 190,000 190,000 90,000 100,000 100 10,000,000 53
Saro 50,000 50,000 22,000 28,000 500 14,000,000 56
Calophyllum 22,000 22,000 9,000 13,000 1,000 13,000,000 59
Iary 44,000 44,000 22,000 22,000 300 6,600,000 50
Source: Label CBD
Table 10: Quantities of selected AMP products processed and exported by Label CBD, 2006
Estimated Conversion People

Price of raw demand, 2006 factor (raw employed as
material (essential oil, material to Raw material wildcrafters
Product (Ariary/kg) kg) essential oil) necessary (kg) (regular) 22
Ylang ylang 100 500 0.003 166,667 26
Cinnamon 300 100 0.007 14,286 7
“Saro” 100 500 0.010 50,000 8
Calophyllum 400 1,000 0.110 9,091 6
Iary 80 300 0.003 100,000 13
Niaouli 20 1,000 0.003 333,333 10
Total 70
Source: Label CBD
Trend: There has been a growing trend toward vertical integration among large downstream operators who seek a
dependable supply of high quality product. These firms are following the trend of linking back into the production
sector (i.e., Label CBD, Phael Flor and Talamanga of the Groupe Ratsimamanga) by establishing small processing
plants in rural areas and training producers to attain high quality standards and to reduce costs, creating rural
employment and providing advances on production as a form of financing.
21 U.S. $1 = ~2050 Ariary

22 Livable wage calculated at ~ U.S. $26/month
On the one hand, this move upstream in the value chain offers the opportunity for end buyers to better control the
quality of raw material, and on the other, it provides wildcrafters and cultivators a relatively more stable buyer and
allows them to become better informed of end-market demands. Talamanga developed a system to upgrade certain
collectors in the field by providing them with training and a form of accreditation. This was a way to establish loyalty
among qualified collectors, and to better assure the receipt of raw material conforming to Talamanga’s specific
standards.
In other cases, large-scale distributors have begun growing raw materials in plantations and operating their own
distilleries. This approach provides greater control over availability and quality of final product, but it also bypasses
rural producers and processors, potentially depriving them of revenue. In addition, it increases the risks for the
distributor (see Table 6 on page 24).
5. SUPPORTING MARKETS
The number of support services, specialists and suppliers is presently insufficient to provide significant firm-level
upgrading assistance. Packaging options are limited, there are too few nurseries, financing institutions are absent from
rural areas, and there is a lack of specialized service providers such as communication/information services, technical
training, events and fairs organizers.
Finance: The AMP sector suffers from a lack of access to financing. Madagascar’s formal banking system operates
mostly in regional capitals and is not present “outside the cities.” There is a micro-credit sector with local
representative agencies, and there is a national entrepreneur development scheme in place. The latter operates only in
regional capital cities. Interviews with producers, collectors and processors in the field indicate they did not have
access to informal financing systems and the micro-credit institutions were not present in AMP production areas. The
sector is perceived as too unpredictable and high risk. Only a small percentage (less than 10 percent) of buyers
provided some form of financing through advances to their suppliers; these came from large firms.
Donor projects, NGOs and private investors are the sole sources of external liquidity in the sector. With increased
activity, professionalism and competitiveness of the AMP sector, private investment could be encouraged to increase
its presence through derived businesses. With a concentration of activities in specific corridors, there could be
increased opportunities for cluster development in the Fianarantsoa, Moramanga and Fenerif Est/Toamasina regions.
Packaging/bottling: Processors and exporters in the AMP value chain have access to three levels of packing,
depending on where they situate themselves in the end market: a) imported specialized dark glass bottles and barrels
for essential oils (expensive); b) moderately priced, locally produced plastic packaging (ordinary or Poly Ethylène
Teraphalate; PET) in the form of plastic jars bottles and small receptacles for lotions, some essential oils, soaps,
creams and medicine; and c) ordinary low cost packaging, which is essentially plastic sacks filled and sealed by hand.
The two largest local producers of the intermediary level packaging are SFOI and PLASTIMA.
Information/communication: This type of supporting market remains weak in spite of important efforts made by
the private sector (extension and development of telecommunications) and the State through opening and improving
rural access roads. Other than personal contacts and the internet for those with access, there are no known sources
for market, price and technical information that exporters, wholesalers and retailers can utilize. Although present at
the local level, Water and Forests agents’ support to the AMP sector is weak and sporadic. Agents are generally not
well trained and lack access to technical information on sustainable cultivation and harvesting.

Research institutions and laboratories: Research and laboratory institutions conduct product phytochemical
research, evaluation of medicinal properties, and testing and analysis required for export and third-party audit and
verification. Three different types of institutions are conspicuous, based upon the type of support they provide:
• Agronomy research: Centre National de la Recherche Applique au Développement Rurale (FOFIFA), Ecole
Supérieure des Sciences Agronomiques (ESSA)
• Environmental research: Centre National de Recherches sur l'Environnement (CNRE)
• Pharmaceutical and medicinal research: Centre National d'Application des Recherches Pharmaceutiques
(CNARP), IMRA, HOMEOPHAMA
Other laboratories, which receive funding and equipment from projects such as the International Cooperative
Biodiversity Group (ICBG)/Centre ValBio, 23 focus on safeguarding and ensuring the sustainability of Madagascar’s
medicinal plants. The laboratories offer third-party evaluation, they are used by the private sector, fees are reasonable
and services are reliable.
Organic certification: Internationally recognized EcoCert is an audit and certification body. However, it is also an
important vehicle for disseminating information on regulations of importing countries and on technical information
for meet organic standards, phyto-sanitary and safety updates, and advice on labeling products to facilitate entry into
different markets.
Business development services (BDS): There is absence of private-sector training and consulting firms specializing
in the AMP sector (e.g., negotiations, business planning, technical training in GAP and distillation techniques, good
collection practices and quality control). This absence is particularly acute in the producing/collecting/processing
zones, which are the areas that require the most upgrading. Through its Business Centers Ivoharena (BCI), BAMEX is
filling a void by assisting AMP distributors to identify export markets and has sponsored research into technical and
policy aspects of AMP.
E. RELATIONSHIPS AND LINKAGES ACROSS ACTORS

This section presents factors that establish, maintain or strain relationships among actors—MSEs and larger firms—in
the AMP value chain, and linkages that appear to regulate transactions and allow or prevent skill transfer across layers
of actors. Competitive value chains are generally characterized by cooperation among actors and firms related both
vertically and horizontally.
1. VERTICAL
Actors closest to the end market (wholesalers, retailers and exporters) are generally engaged fulltime in the AMP trade.
As one moves upstream, progressively away from the consumer and closer to the natural product base (wildcrafters,
cultivators), actors become increasingly marginalized, part-time players. There is an absence of trained and
experienced professionals up and down the chain and little sharing of market and technical information.
Class suspicion, lack of confidence and bad past experiences color relationships among actors in the AMP value chain.
The greater the physical distance between actors and the more difficult to navigate the transport and communication
infrastructure that separates them, the lower are the chances that relations overcome distrust.
23 Centre ValBio [Valorisation de Biodiversité]: International Training Center for the Study of Biodiversity, near Ranomafana
National Park
Wildcrafters’ link to market information is twice removed and passes through sub-collectors who are usually not
generous in sharing information. In fact, the relationship between these actor groups is based less on information
sharing than on a shared need to maintain stable social ties that transcend financial concerns. The two to three-tiered
collector model is inefficient, time consuming and constraining for establishing long-term cooperative relations.
Nevertheless, middlemen play an indispensable role under the present value chain structure, given the remoteness of
production zones.
There is a distinction to be made between a relationship that links wildcrafters/producers (usually women) and
permanently based sub-collectors (small hamlet convenience stores, both men and women) and the relationship
that links wildcrafters with ambulant sub-collectors (usually men). For the former, the relation is generally neighborly
and supportive. Producers rarely negotiate price or quality from fear of not being able to sell or of breaking a
community bond. There are exceptions. Even when women band together as a group or cooperative, they are not
prone to engage in price negotiations; Malagasy at that level are discreet in manner and non-confrontational in nature.
In the same vein, there are small-shop, sub-collectors who will pay wildcrafters full price for a bag load (usually 30 to
50 kg) brought to them even though the load will contain foreign particles and plant parts that do not meet the next
level collector’s specifications. For the shopkeeper, it is more important to maintain good “neighborly” relations than
to refuse merchandise. Payments to producers are generally made upon delivery; there are no advances in these
transactions. There is shared trust at this level of the value chain. Buyers and sellers prefer maintaining a longstanding
relationship rather than break it and seek another client or seller.
Conversely, the relationship that links wildcrafter/producers with ambulant sub-collectors (roving collectors on
bicycles or small pick-up trucks) is generally distrustful and perceived as exploitive from both ends. The ambulant
sub-collector is seen as an outsider to the community and does not want his client to know who he is, where he comes
from, and to whom he resells. Information flow and knowledge sharing do not exist between the two actor groups,
although the wildcrafter/producer wants information and more know-how. There are no advances from the sub-
collector to the producer. Generally, relations are established on the basis of opportunity—who can deliver requested
products on time or who pays on a timely basis upon delivery of products.
The processor/buyer is closer to the end market and has a longer-tem view of business prospects than the collector.
The collector requires a truck and warehouse space, which can both be rented at an entry cost of under U.S. $8,000. A
collectors’ survival is based less on capital investment than on a stable network of sub-collectors. If the collector
cannot provide plant material according to specifications, the non-binding relationship is easily terminated. The
processor/buyer either finds another collector or expands his business by establishing a presence in the production
region.
2. HORIZONTAL
Cooperation among actors closest to the end markets is stronger than that expressed among actors closest to the
natural product base where MSEs are concentrated. For the latter, a low level of cooperation is a function of the
physical distance between individual wildcrafters or collectors (and poor transport infrastructure) as well as a general
suspicion among competitors who vie for the same finite resources. When the plant source is either cultivated or
grown in plantations, there is less tension among competitors. It is not clear which of these two forms of production
systems result in a more effective allocation of resources within the chain.
There is little distinction among actors regarding the importance of protecting the natural resource base, from which
they derive their livelihood. There are encouraging signs of individuals, groups and private firms taking affirmative

action to reduce pressure on the ecosystem and these same people are actively involved in working with or promoting
projects that ensure more sustainable behavior.
Relationships between “resource owners” and other actors in the value chain are less tied to resource base
considerations than to underlying suspicions of government bodies, socio-economic class differences and zonal
distinctions between residents of the high plateau and those who live along the protected corridors and coastal
regions. 24 The latter is subtle but not negligible and plays a role in formulating trusting relationships.
With the exception of limited, nascent efforts by some NGOs and projects, horizontal relations among cultivators and
wildcrafters are virtually nonexistent. There is little evidence of information sharing since there is scant information
available. Even information about where plants can be found is shared only among family members. Prices are
announced by collectors and generally accepted by wildcrafters.
Among permanently based collectors, there is a degree of collaboration on pricing (i.e., collectors in a small region can
agree upon the price to pay for a product to fill a specific order). Because they are located in small towns and along
paved roads, they have greater access to transport and communication links. They need to be in frequent contact with
their buyers to respond to their orders in a timely manner, as there are specific harvest and “higher yield” seasons for
almost all aromatic and medicinal plants.
Processors, which require a higher degree of technical skills in order to be competitive, establish informal
relationships among each other but do not have a platform to exchange experience and knowledge. Distilleries in the
field practice similar technologies, but the variation in material, equipment and application of techniques indicates that
firms could benefit from upgrading schemes, training and financing. As expected, distilleries managed by wholesalers
and exporters are on the higher end of technical sophistication, but among them as well, there is a need to improve
energy efficiency, and testing and analyzing of the end
product. There is no association or federation of TEXT BOX 7: PROFESSIONAL
distilleries. ASSOCIATIONS
Past attempts to organize professional associations
Relationships among wholesalers and exporters are
have had mixed results. Two associations, SYPEAM
haphazard and inconsistent. There have been attempts to
and PRONABIO, exist but have not been active.
form professional associations at this level (see Text Box
There has been discussion of revitalizing
7), but these initiatives have proven difficult to sustain, as
PRONABIO.
the associations did not function effectively or consistently
as lobbying or collaborative structures and they were tied • SYPEAM (SYndicat Professionnel des
to donor-funded projects of limited duration. There is a producteurs d'Extraits Aromatiques alimentaires et
clear need for organization at this level, given the range of médicinaux de Madagascar) includes 33 members
policy issues that must be addressed. AMP workshop (80 percent of AMP distributors).
participants expressed enthusiasm for re-energizing
• PRONABIO (Professional Organization of
PRONABIO, but there must be a concerted effort to
Operators in Agribusiness of Natural and Organic
foster local leadership to sustain such an association.
Products of Madagascar) controls the
Relationships and linkages between Malagasy firms and
“NATIORA” brand and includes 28 enterprises,
overseas importers are stronger than among the Malagasy
including members of SYPEAM and other
firms in-country. Better integration at this level can
enterprises.
improve the overall efficiency of the AMP value chain. For
24 There are no discernable differences in occupation (producer, wildcrafters, processors, exporters, collectors) related to one’s
region of origin.
example, regrouping and better coordination of logistics would allow some economy of scale and increase the
competitiveness of this segment of the value chain.
3. MAINTAINING ACCESS
As mentioned under natural resource governance, access to natural resources is currently not a barrier to participation
in the AMP value chain. Collusion and permits are also not used as a means of controlling access to resources or
creating entry barriers. Margins are not disproportionately large or extremely skewed among collectors (see Table 11).
Margins run from 10 to 20 percent for first-level collectors, from 10 to 30 percent for high-level collectors (those who
sell to processors), and from 10 to 50 percent for retailers and exporters (see Table 9). Margins depend on geography
and the nature of specific products, which vary by scarcity and demand. The number of actors decreases moving
downstream. Downstream actors deal with larger quantities per capita and earn higher margins. There may be
opportunities to increase prices to producers and low-level collectors, but it must be recognized that downstream
actors bear relatively higher levels of risk due to capital investment and fluctuating markets.
Table 11: Estimated margins for collectors (Ariary per kg)
Margin
Product Location Purchase price Sale price Profit (%)
First level collectors
Kotofihy Befontsy 200 500 300 60 25
Talapetraka Befontsy (a) 1,200 1,400 200 14
Talapetraka Befontsy (b) 1,600 1,800 200 11
Talapetraka Ampitabe 1,200 1,400 200 14
Talapetraka Morarano 1,500 1,800 300 17
Ginger Beforona 320 400 80 20
Second level collectors
Cinnamon (organic) Niarovana 2,200 3,000 800 27
Cinnamon Niarovana 550 600 50 8
Cinnamon Ambalamanahazo 400 500 100 20
Ginger Beforona 230 320 90 28
Source: Surveys (2006)
Value chain actors maintain a competitive edge by building exclusive networks of suppliers upstream. They form these
networks by cultivating trust and loyalty over time, building reputations for dependability, and providing cash
advances (in an area where credit is rare). For example, most collectors form exclusive relationships with wildcrafters
and cultivators. These networks and the territories over which they extend are very difficult for outsiders to penetrate.
Table 12 describes vertical relationships in terms of strategies used to maintain advantage at different levels (i.e., by
gaining and controlling access to productive resources, assets and social networks).
25 The exceptionally high margin for Kotofihy is due to its scarcity.

Table 12: Access Map
Actor Type of Access Mechanism for Maintaining Access
Producers • Access to productive • Access to AMP in the forest and forest margins is generally open
resources (wild plants access; we did not encounter Dina (local ordnances) controlling
for wildcrafting, land access to non-timber forest products in study sites
for cultivation) • Fields in which AMP are cultivated are maintained under customary
land tenure arrangements; rights are hereditary
Sub-collectors • Social networks of • Collectors maintain exclusive relationships with local producers by
local AMP producers providing a variety of services: (1) credit for basic consumer goods
such as sugar, rice and oil; (2) barter; (3) small advances; or (4) non-
insistence of norms for plant products
• Purchase prices are generally non-negotiable
Collectors • Network of lower level • Build trust among lower-level collectors, especially through
(intermediaries) collectors for raw advances and timely payment; generally no written contracts
material • Maintain relations with processors and control flow of orders
upstream (i.e., information); loyalty based on collection and storage
capacity
• Supply lower level collectors with materials such as bags and scales.
• Proximity to transport and communication links
Processors • Networks of collectors • Purchase agreement for raw products delivered; generally aligns
(informal) for raw material purchase prices to other processors with a small, non-negotiable
• Relations with local increase
market buyers • Technological know-how (processing tools and methods)
• Establishes contract on case-by-case basis
Processors • Networks of collectors • Exclusive collector networks considered proprietary knowledge

(formal), • Access to foreign and • Loyalty based on mutual trust established over several years of
wholesalers, domestic markets collaboration; possibility of formal contracts
exporters • Technological know-how (processing tools and methods)
• Relations with import partners developed over long periods of time
• Knowledge of distribution and export norms and logistics
F. NATURAL RESOURCE BASE AND SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES

Production systems and sustainability: We have found it useful to consider AMP as a single value chain given the
convergence of actors, but it is also necessary to distinguish among specific AMP from a management perspective in
order to assess potential environmental impact and sustainability prospects (see Table 13). Our typology of AMP
production systems corresponds to categories of producers discussed above. The basic distinction is between
wildcrafting and cultivation. However, we further distinguish between wildcrafted products harvested in natural
forests and those harvested in “disturbed” areas, such as tanety (cleared hillsides), fallow fields and roadsides.
Cultivation is differentiated between agroforesty systems and plantations. Most AMP are either wildcrafted or
cultivated, and some wild plants are increasingly cultivated due to scarcity or instability (or seasonality) of production
in the wild.
Table 13: Natural Resource Management
Practice/
Botanical Name Common Name Habitat Production Harvest Impact
Centella asiatica Talapetraka; centella Plains, prairies, rice Wildcrafted; stalk Little impact
fields and leaves cut
Cinnamomum Ravinstara; camphor Tanety Wildcrafted & Little impact
camphora cultivated; cut stalks
and leaves
Cinnamomum verum Cinnamon Tanety (hillside); Wildcrafted & Little impact
base of slope cultivated; cut stalks
and bark
Eucalyptus citrodora Eucalyptus Tanety Cultivated; cut stalks Little impact
and leaves
Eucalyptus globilus Eucalyptus Tanety Cultivated; cut stalks Little impact
and leaves
Eugenia cariophyllata Clove Slope Cultivated; cut stalks Little impact
and flower cloves
Hedychium coronarium Longoza; wild ginger Along river beds Wildcrafted; cut No impact
stalks and leaves
Lantana camara Lantana Slope; base of slope; Wildcrafted; cut No impact
roadside flowers
Melaleuca Niaouli; paper bark, Moist depressions Wildcrafted; cut No impact
quinquenervia var punk tree stalk and leaves
viridoflora
Pelargonium x Geranium Depressions; tanety Cultivated; leaves Risk of erosion on
aspermum tanety
Piper nigrum Black pepper Base of slope; slope Cultivated; cut Little impact
buches
Prunus Africana Kotofihy; African Forest Wildcrafted; cut Decrease in
plum tree stalks and leaves, population
tree and even root
bark
Psiadia altissima Dingadingana Slope; Savoka (old Wildcrafted; cut No impact
fallow) leaves
Ranvesara aromatica Ranvesara Forest Wildcrafted; Decrease in
population
Tagetes minuta Tagetas Forest Wildcrafted; cut Significant decrease
stalk and leaves in population
Zingiber officinalis Ginger Slope Cultivated; root Serious risk of
erosion

Most plants wildcrafted from disturbed areas are spontaneously occurring
herbaceous plants or bushes (e.g., Centella asiatica, Lantana camara). They are TEXT BOX 8: SELF-
frequently abundant, and harvesting does not appear to lead to depletion. In IDENTIFIED
some cases (e.g., rosy periwinkle), harvesting is purported to stimulate OPPORTUNITIES
growth, as plants are maintained in a state of secondary succession. Upon witnessing a serious threat
to the survival of the cinnamon
As discussed above, most plants wildcrafted from forests (e.g., Prunus tree (C. aromatica) due to over
africana, Ravensara aromatica, Tagetes minuta) are commonly open access and exploitation, a federation of
susceptible to overharvesting. Sustainable harvesting techniques exist for exporters petitioned the Ministry
these plants, but demand surges and high values promote unsustainable of Environment, Water and
practices, as wildcrafters (and opportunists at other levels) seek to maximize Forests to impose a two-year ban
quantity (and therefore income) in a short period of time. on the export of its bark and by-
Agroforestry encompasses both trees grown as traditional components of products. This was enacted.
farm systems (e.g., clove) and trees that are being incorporated into forest During that period, members of
gardens as they become relatively scarce in natural forests (e.g., Cinnamomum the federation replanted
verum, P. africana). In some cases, distributors have encouraged villagers to cinnamon trees in plantations
cultivate these products as a means of increasing supply and quality. The and through agroforestry
relative stability of demand and high value has therefore begun to foster practices. Exports have expanded
incentives for sustainable management. While structurally and biologically twentyfold and trees are now
less complex than natural forests, these agroforestry systems not only offer under sustainable production.
economic alternatives outside of protected areas but maintain relatively Source: Phael Flor
higher levels of biodiversity and ecosystem complexity outside of protected
areas than do other agricultural systems.
For some plants, plantations can be an effective way of structuring production, particularly for plants that are exotic
(e.g., Cinnamomum camphora, Eucalyptus sp.) or scarce in nature (e.g. Cinnamomum aromatica). Plantation cultivation can
lead to stable supplies, greater control over quality, and sustainable production. Because they are generally controlled
by vertically integrated firms, they do not necessarily create alternative income opportunities for local people that
might relieve some pressure from natural forest.
Biodiversity linkages: In a general sense, while AMP present an opportunity to promote sustainable management of
specific resources and create income sources outside of forest corridors, their direct link to biodiversity conservation
is tenuous. As noted above, economic value does not necessarily translate into incentives for sustainable management,
much less biodiversity conservation. A stable demand could increase the time horizon and economic incentives for
sustainable management. Clear and consistently applied norms could also improve harvesting behavior, though this is
difficult to monitor for some products. These types of signals must come from downstream value chain actors,
especially end market distributors.
The greatest incentives for conservation of biodiversity per se (as opposed to conservation of particular species) may
come from bioprospecting, which places an option value on diverse plant species as a repository of yet undiscovered
medicines. Programs such as ICBG in Zahamena provide local people with “up-front” compensation through
support for income generating projects in return for commitments to conservation and rights to search for new plant-
based drugs. The ICBG also makes provisions to share benefits and royalties for drugs that are discovered and taken
to market (though this has not yet happened in Madagascar).

IV. STRENGTHENING THE AMP
VALUE CHAIN
A. STRATEGIC ISSUES & ORIENTATION
Madagascar is well positioned to expand domestic AMP markets and to increase its presence in global markets by
strengthening aspects of the value chain. Moreover, given the nature of the raw material, the large number of rural
poor participants and the direct links with health, the growth of this sector can promote equity, empowerment,
conservation and health goals. In this section, we provide an overview of strategic issues to help orient the approaches
of USAID and its partners to strengthening the AMP value chain. Section B presents a more detailed summary of
constraints and opportunities in the value chain, and Section C suggests priority actions. Ultimately, responsibility for
improving the competitiveness of the AMP value chain rests with the actors themselves. Section D presents a
stakeholder-led action plan that was developed by participants in the July 26-27, 2006 AMP value chain workshop.
Value chain strengthening should be oriented around five key themes:
(1) Emphasize AMP in natural resource management and biodiversity conservation practices and
training. The AMP sector’s livelihood depends on sustainable management of specific plants. Biodiversity per
se is an important resource in the search for new products, a repository of genetic material. Madagascar’s rich
biodiversity favors it as a source for innovation, yet unpredictable export markets can lead to over-harvesting
and resource depletion in some cases. If accompanied by appropriate training, the promotion of AMP
cultivation in ecologically complex forest gardens will contribute to sustainable management and biodiversity
conservation.
(2) Establish and diffuse AMP norms, standards and certification. End markets increasingly demand that
AMP products conform to specific norms and standards, including health and sanitary, certified organic,
sustainable harvest and fair trade. To protect its competitive advantage, the AMP private sector (large,
medium and MSE) in collaboration with concerned ministries (Commerce, Health, Agriculture, Forest) must
accelerate the process already started by establishing equitable norms, standards and certification. Once
formulated, these must be widely diffused among all segments of the value chain, with a mechanism to
continually update to take market shifts into consideration.
(3) Support mainstreaming of traditional medicine. The Malagasy Ministry of Health and Family Planning,
the Medical Association and the Traditional Healers’ Association recently adopted a new policy that
recognizes traditional medicine and integrates AMP into the modern healthcare system. This initiative needs
to be supported through advocacy and health policy projects. Mainstreaming traditional medicine will increase
accessibility of healthcare for the rural poor and further legitimatize traditional and herbal medicine.
(4) Mainstream “informal” processors, collectors, distributors. The general quality of AMP products
remains low, especially by international standards, because of the “informal” nature of many participants.
Improving quality requires upgrading skills and providing up-to-date equipment and technologies for actors
(MSE) at the margin of their profession. Skill upgrading is already provided by several large export firms
through backward linkages and can be reinforced through supplier contracts. Offering the opportunity to
mainstream those who want upgrading will improve vertical and horizontal relations as it will reduce a major
friction between formal and informal operators. It will open the way for a more dynamic and innovative value
chain, facilitating the establishments of networks and overall integration of sector.
(5) Launch coordination and branding campaign. The AMP value chain links micro and small enterprises at
the rural level, mid-size processing businesses in semi-urban or village regions, and international markets
through larger exporter firms in the capital and urban centers. For the chain to function more effectively in
the future it requires initially a coordinating hand or a neutral institution to synchronize various activities and
events planned for the value chain that will make it more competitive and more environmentally focused. It
also requires a rallying point, a simple vision or objective that will appeal to the local end-market and provide
a recognized brand appeal to the internationally market.
B. CONSTRAINTS & OPPORTUNITIES
1. COMPETITIVENESS IN END MARKETS

Organic essential oil products for the export market and quality medicinal and herbal products for the domestic
market have the greatest potential for growth now and into the future. Global markets in the aromatic, cosmetic and
health sectors demand steady supplies of new and innovative scents and medicinal products. End market trends
suggest that Madagascar is in a favorable position due to its natural product diversity and specialty brand as an “exotic
island”. However, importers increasingly require these products to be certified organic, fair trade or sustainably
produced. Suppliers must also adhere to broker terms (quantity, quality and timing of shipments), proper packaging
and consistency on product, price and delivery.
Overall, in order for Madagascar to become competitive in the AMP global market place, its value chain must become
more flexible, innovative and efficient, so it can bring to market new products in a timely fashion. Specifically, it must
improve its efficiency through better vertical and horizontal integration; accelerate development and adoption of a
clear regulatory framework, including product norms and standards; build capacity for certification; and promote
sustainable production practices. In addition, the industry must establish effective channels of communication among
value chain actors to allow them to respond quickly to shifting market demands.
An important concern is how MSEs can benefit, based on what has been learned through the value chain analysis and
what is known of end-market data and trends. The spice, herb and medicinal plants sectors in general are dominated
by agricultural MSEs. However, opportunities for MSE growth in the AMP value chain are limited. The two largest
segments of value chain actors—producers (wildcrafters and cultivators) and collectors—are family and individual
enterprises. The primary cost of entry at these two levels is time, and risks are spread by diversifying household
livelihood portfolios. Processors and wholesaler/exporter/retailer segments of the value chain are much smaller in
number. Their enterprises are larger, and their entry costs and risks higher. Increasingly, their livelihoods are based on
their ability to source raw material from producers and collectors at competitive quality standards and prices. To
maintain this access, they are frequently expected to meet economic, social and health demands from suppliers.
With these observations in mind, the following four tables (tables 13 – 16) summarize key constraints and
opportunities for different aspects of value chain strengthening: enabling environment, inter-firm cooperation
(vertical), inter-firm cooperation (horizontal) and firm-level upgrading. A customary “sustainable support markets”
component is not added as a separate table because that segment of the value chain remains underdeveloped.
However, references to support market opportunities are included in the four summary tables.

Table 14: Enabling Business Environment
Scale Key Constraints / Opportunities
Norms and • Constraint: The lack of clear norms and standards for AMP products encourages
standards, “opportunists” to jump into and exit the value chain, bypassing control. Poor quality
unclear tax products hinder establishment of branded quality labels.
protocols and • Multiple levels of taxation and permits required of wildcrafters, collectors and
overlapping processors are a disincentive for MSEs in the chain. Lack of uniformity in their
ministries. application lead to confusion and marginalize MSEs.
• Planning capacity of national institutions exists at the central level (i.e., the Ministry of
Environment, Water and Forests and its multiple agencies: ONE, CNE, CIME) but are
less evident at the community and village level.
• Opportunity: Full participation of representative producer and collector MSEs in the
formulation process of norms and standards would improve the likelihood of
developing an appropriate and effective policy framework.
• Cultivators avoid the taxes and fees that are imposed on wildcrafting. A training
program could encourage some wildcrafters to increase knowledge of production
techniques for certain AMP plants.
• The proximity of Water and Forests and local authorities to producers should be
increased. Training agents in production and environmental dimensions of AMP
products will improve local participation in government-sponsored programs.
Certification • Constraint: Meeting certification standards is expensive and time-consuming for small
cultivator, collector and processing MSEs.
• Opportunity: Development of MSE support markets for local audits, certification
bodies and training facilities. Training is needed to improve knowledge and skills to
meet sustainability, fair trade and GACP standards.
• Increased competition among nascent BDS providers will lower prices and, if
decentralized, offer services closer to production and processing zones.
Overall AMP • Constraint: Progressive depletion of high-value plant species and loss of biodiversity
strategy affects all actors in the chain by reducing availability of raw material and limiting
opportunities to find new products. To counter this trend, producers must have
sufficient information and incentive to cultivate and harvest using sustainable strategies.
• Opportunities: The overall policy environment can be improved by establishing an
AMP sustainability framework, developing coherent rules and regulations with the
participation of actors from every value chain level, making the public aware of the
reasons behind regulations, and ensuring an enforcement mechanism. BDS providers
could provide training to public and private actors in sustainable techniques and market
relevance.

Table 15: Inter-Firm Cooperation (Vertical)
Level Key Constraints/Opportunities
Between • Constraints: Distances between producers and collectors are great. The virtual non-
producers and existence of transportation and communication infrastructure reduces chances of
collectors developing collaborative and durable networks. The concept of belonging to a full
value chain is virtually unknown.
• Relations are characterized by suspicion and lack of trust, especially regarding higher
level collectors.
• Opportunities: Negotiated transactions or contracts are limited. BDS providers can
play an important role in promoting equitable contract models, providing training and
support to expand contractual agreements, and building linkages between producers
and collectors.
Cooperation along • Constraints: Processors must establish annual and seasonal productions cycles that
the value chain specify raw material schedules. These are dependent on market signals from
wholesalers, distributors and/or exporters. Yet insufficient information trickles to the
collector and even less to wildcrafters.
• By rapidly entering and exiting the value chain, opportunists at all levels create
disincentives for upstream actors to form long-term collaborative relationships with
downstream buyers.
• Few benefits accrue to producers, apart from those provided by innovative exporters
and wholesalers, who provide health benefits (clinics, medicine) or make
commitments to purchase products. Label CBD provides a model for fostering win-
win relationships by developing backward linkage from wholesaler/buyers to
cultivators and wildcrafters.
• Opportunities: Processing and export firms can expand education and provide
information by distributing production schedules through information posters, radio
bulletins and text messaging to reach producer and collector actors. Private firms
such as BIONEXX and Label CBD have been proactive in knowledge sharing,
creating visuals, posting schedules and informing wildcrafters and cultivators of
technical requirements, improving dialogue among actors.

Table 16: Inter-Firm Cooperation (Horizontal)
Level Key Constraints / Opportunities
Among • Constraints: Producers operate in isolation and have little bargaining power for sales
wildcrafters and and prices.
cultivators • Opportunities: Informal groupings of wildcrafters and cultivators exist, but they
need reinforcement. They do not need permanent organization, as they can be
grouped around a seasonal collection period. Informal groupings and cooperation
promoted by wholesalers/distributors or exporters in a region could assist groups and
perhaps associations (kolahrenas) in developing a brand of the product sourced from
the region.
Among collectors • Constraints: Distances, scarcity of information and uncertainty of supply source
reduce incentives to collaborate.
• Informal nature of AMP collection encourages actors to remain independent rather
than associating or establishing cooperatives.
• Opportunities: Participants in the Action Planning workshop indicated strong desire
and need to establish regional collector associations. Institutional follow-up to the
Action Plan objective will provide incentive to continue and expand the initiative.
Among processors • Constraints: Distance and lack of trust between informal and formal distilleries
prevent them from working together, developing relationships or uniformly
improving quality.
• Opportunities: Skill and knowledge upgrading of informal actors increases their
integration into the value chain by increasing their legitimacy, encourages flow of
technical and market information among them, and enables high quality standards to
be achieved.
Among exporters/ • Constraints: Professional associations are difficult to sustain due to inability to adapt
wholesalers strategies to changing consumer demand.
• Opportunities: Participants in the Action Panning workshop expressed need and
interest in reviving two moribund professional associations. Institutional follow-up
support to this initiative will provide an incentive to carry-out the plan.

Table 17: Firm-Level Upgrading
Exporters and • Constraints: Adding value to AMP products is constrained by the lack of high quality
local market packaging material (vials, cream and lotion jars, bags, bottles and boxes). Without
wholesalers adequate, affordable packaging, distributors, retailers and exporters cannot produce a
finished, retail-ready product.
• Opportunity: There are two levels of opportunities: (1) small and medium-sized firms
can make use of hand-crafted, natural product-based packaging, baskets and other
containers that appeal to niche markets; (2) with large investments, there is the
opportunity to increase a cluster of firms supporting AMP products through high
quality glass, ceramic and plastic bottling and jar manufacturing.
Processors • Constraint: Madagascar’s comparative advantage 10 -15 years ago was exporting
(distillation) quality essential oils based on traditional distillation processes. Testing, technical
practices and skill levels of processor/distillers have not evolved sufficiently over time.
“Informal” processors have the rudimentary skills and their operations require
equipment upgrading in order to regain competitiveness.
• Quality testing and certification must be done by a third party. Laboratories have
power over processors because they must certify chemical composition before
products are allowed to be exported.
• Opportunities: Opportunities exist for rural BDS technical and business training
services, field/exchange visits and financing schemes.
• There are qualified laboratories but most are in large urban centers. Opportunities lie in
decentralizing laboratories to bring them closer to processing units and lower
transaction costs.
Wildcrafters, • Constraints: Wildcrafters and small cultivators are unable to upgrade their operations
cultivators, because of unpredictable orders schedules. They remain reactive rather than proactive
collectors value chain actors.
• Learning (e.g., sustainable harvesting techniques, cultivation, quality control) is not
taking place at these levels, condemning actors to remain reactive players. Poor
information flow limits the ability of producers to better integrate into the value chain.
• Opportunities: Learning could be facilitated by encouraging wholesalers/ exporters to
strengthen backward linkages to wildcrafters and collectors through incentives,
persuasion and traceability policies. There are encouraging signs from private
companies that use the BIONEXX model, which gives small farmers opportunities for
more regular income through a commitment to purchase specific AMP products that
meet market specifications.
• Rural radios offer an opportunity to circulate AMP price and technical information
during harvest periods.
• Processors are at the center of the value chain and should be seen as a potential partner
for improving information flow. They have some knowledge of the natural resource

base (harvest cycles, production areas, and prices), and they maintain relations between
their suppliers and wholesaler/retailers, who know markets and trends.
C. PRIORITY ACTIONS
Table 18 describes six priority actions required to follow up on the field survey and maintain momentum created at
the July 2006 stakeholder workshop. Some items appear repetitive, but if USAID is to adopt the AMP sector to test
future decisions, work in Madagascar must begin with these relatively easy to resolve constraints. The recommended
actions should take no longer than 12 months to accomplish.
We highly recommend that USAID recruit a one-year intern to coordinate and follow-up these and other
recommendations and to facilitate the activities proposed during the stakeholder workshop (Section D, below).
Table 18: Priority Action Table
Constraint Action Timeframe Lead

1. Disappearance of Establish a national AMP awareness initiative with 6 months USAID with
certain AMP species, national, regional and local governments, along with other donors
loss of biodiversity, representatives of value chain actors (including Tradi-
lack of national AMP praticien association) and overseas and local buyers.
strategy and vision Formulate an AMP sector short- and medium-term
national strategic plan. Incorporate international standard
organizations such the Committee on Medicinal
Products of the European Medicines Agency. 26
Improve access to information about sustainable 6 months ERI
wildcrafting, collection and processing through koloharena
(local cooperatives) network
2. Unclear regulatory Pressure GOM to pass and publish proposed AMP Months 1-4 BAMEX
framework and regulatory framework.
standards Draw up standards and norms for the top 15 or 20 AMP Months 2-10
products in collaboration with Ministry of Commerce
and Industry’s Bureau and value chain actors; include
associations such as Tradi-pratitien, SYPEAM and new
ones in the formation, VALBIO and IMRA
3. Insufficient Initiate a major communication strategy that will include Month 8 BAMEX and
information technical sheets and easy to distribute brochures on the ERI
dissemination among AMP sector; include a) application and use of products,
rural population and b) location of plant material and processing units, c) end
local authorities market demands.
26 http://www.emea.eu.int/pdfs/human/hmpc/24681605en.pdf
about AMP Prepare a multi-level training schedule. Support Month 6
development of regional BDS firms that can provide
training in required quality standards, cultivation and
harvesting techniques.
Reinforce role of mayors and local agents of government Ongoing
agencies (MEEF) in dissemination and training activities.
4. Demand for steady Establish a three-pronged training and upgrading Months 6-12 ERI
source of quality and program for the production of medicinal-grade products
medicinal-grade plant sourced from wildcrafters, cultivators and plantations.
material Emphasis will be to improve skill levels to satisfy the
needs of the local medicinal market.
Organize information days or special one-day events that
bring producers (wildcrafters, cultivators, plantation
managers) together with buyers/distributors/exporters
with facilitators. Focus on establishing relationships,
increasing trust and expanding information flow and
knowledge sharing among participants.
5. Disruption of AMP Upgrade “informal” processors in the value chain Months 4-6 BAMEX and
value chain by through demonstration. Improve skill levels, material ERI
“opportunists” used and quality of processing units. Invite an
experienced appropriate technology specialist to
Madagascar who has built small and efficient (in water
and energy) distilleries. Specialist will build a prototype in
a local agricultural machine institution, test the distillery
in an AMP production zone, design and implement a
training program around the unit for “informal”
processors, collectors and others.
6.1 Need for an AMP Recruit and hire an intern for one-year who will act as Month 1-12 USAID
coordinator coordinator of the AMP development strategy and
proposed program
6.2 Branding to appeal Work with Ministry of Tourism, hotels and spa sector to Months 2-12 Ministries of
to local and coordinate with “Madagascar Naturally” branding Tourism and
Health & Family
international end- campaign. Planning,
markets BAMEX and
ERI

6.3 High cost of retail- Develop a supply plan jointly with importers/local Months 8-12 BAMEX and
level packaging for suppliers, and exporters/local distributors for bulk ERI, Ministry of
Commerce and
AMP finished purchasing of packaging. Industry, and
products that meet private sector
technical
requirements (dark
bottles,
hermetically sealed
jars, etc.)
D. STAKEHOLDER-LED ACTION PLAN

The following table summarizes actions developed by all participants in the reporting and planning workshop held in
Moramanga, Madagascar in late July, 2006. Representatives from each segment of the value chain, including the public
sector, participated in the workshop. Each functional group of actors developed an action plan with short-, medium-
and long-term objectives representing their own appraisal and priorities. Participants made commitments to take
responsibility for implementation. The following table contains the main points included in the stakeholder-led action
plan.
Table 19: Stakeholders’ Action Points
WHO ACTION ACTION ACTION

Short Term: 1-3 months Medium Term: 1 year Long Term: 3 year
Wildcrafters, FOCUS: Communication • Form a producer network • Put into place local natural
Cultivators program • Establish communication resource management
• Establish a data bank of links, using new structures to preserve
producers, with each one’s information technology environment and sustain
strength and weakness when possible production
Support • Processors • Public sector, processors,

Partners financing institutions
Collectors FOCUS: Communication and • Conduct feasibility and • Prepare seasonal plans
creation of network profitability study of • Implement communication
• Integration of network products collected and network activities
within value chain • Search for technical and
• Identify reliable buyers financing partners
• Prepare seasonal plan,
activities to undertake and
a chronogram

Support • Local and national • Local service providers • Local service providers
partners administration • ERI/BAMEX • ERI/BAMEX
• Local communications
platform
Processors, FOCUS: Norms, • Review and put into place • Adjust norms, standards
Exporters, certification, integration of uniform set of norms, • Expand functions and
Wholesalers value chain standards and certification membership of
• Diffuse workshop results requirements professional associations
• Contact all other actors • Revitalize professional
• Contact local and national associations
administrations to explain
focus
Support • USAID and others • Bureau Nationales des Normes • Bureau Nationales des Normes
partners organizations • External organizations • External organizations
Public Sector • Report to respective • Prepare an AMP support • Implement projects

ministries project within each • Monitor, evaluate and
• Call and hold an inter- ministry (Environment/ adjust where needed
ministerial meeting of Water & Forestry; Health,
departments involved with Commerce and Industry;
AMP Finance)
• Establish a AMP working
group within each ministry
Support • USAID and others • USAID and others • USAID and others
partners organizations organizations organizations

ERI/BAMEX FOCUS: Communications, • Information needs • Track financing sources
value chain support, assessment • Provide technical support
environmental conservation • Organize and provide • Assist in establishing
• Collect information on training according to needs partnership with public
AMP value chain in • Support creation of locally- sector
specific locations (market, based associations and
actors, technical aspects) groups
• Diffuse information • Revitalize existing
• Seek financing sources to organizations
assist firm-level upgrading • Seek financing sources
and technical training • Provide technical support
• Provide technical support
• Assist producers to prepare
contracts, negotiation
techniques, develop
projects
• Lobby public sector
institutions
• Assist in establishing
partnership with public
sector

V. CONCLUSION: LINKING VALUE
CHAINS AND NATURE, HEALTH,
WEALTH AND POWER
An important objective of this study has been to test a joint VCA/NHWP methodology. Our analysis of the AMP
sector suggests value chain analysis can be enhanced through full consideration of the role of NRM, health concerns,
and governance issues. It also suggests that value chain analysis can be an important tool for understanding the
linkages between local-level NHWP dynamics and broader market systems. Our observations from the field suggest it
is possible to increase value chain efficiency and competitiveness without necessarily improving the lives of the rural
poor. Value chain strengthening is a potentially powerful tool for promoting NHWP-related development goals, but
deliberate interventions are necessary to create opportunities for the rural poor. We conclude this report by
summarizing some of the major points that link the AMP value chain to NHWP dynamics.
1. NATURE
a. Conservation incentives. Economic opportunity does not necessarily translate into incentives to manage
resources sustainably for all actors in the value chain. Wildcrafters generally respond to demand and do not
appear to invest in sustainable management. This is not an issue where supply easily meets demand, but demand
surges have led to over-harvesting and destructive harvesting techniques for some high-value products, as
described in Section IV.F above. Deliberate, sustainable management of AMP (e.g., cinnamon, ginger, cloves) as
plantation or agroforestry crops is associated with stable demand, which creates longer time horizons for
decision-making. These signals generally must come from downstream value chain actors.
b. Cultivation. While wildcrafting and agroforestry production systems are most common, there appears to be a
trend toward plantation cultivation of some products by downstream firms, leading to vertical integration.
Plantations allow regular supply and greater control over quality, which strengthens the value chain overall. But
they also risk taking the means of production out of the hands of the rural poor and limiting their participation in
the value chain. Several firms, such as Phael Flore and Label CBD, have helped local people upgrade production
techniques by promoting improved harvesting and cultivation in agroforestry or forest gardens. These approaches
can improve supply of raw materials (quality, timing, traceability) for downstream actors, while having positive
effects for local producers and ecosystems.
2. HEALTH
a. Quality of and access to medicine. The majority of Malagasy, particularly in the rural areas where 70 percent of
the population lives, continue to depend on plant-based, traditional medicines for cultural and financial reasons.
The strengthening of norms and standards for medicines, as international markets demand, should lead to
effective medicines being available and accessible on the local market.
b. Legitimization of traditional practitioners. As described above, the Government of Madagascar is actively

promoting the role of traditional medical practitioners and herbalists in order to increase the range of health care

options. The legitimatization of traditional practitioners is an important element in upgrading the quality and
availability of healthcare, stimulating demand for high quality AMP and strengthening the value chain overall.
3. WEALTH
a. Poverty reduction. A fundamental question is whether the AMP value chain has potential to contribute to
poverty reduction. The majority of producers are poor (and young and/or female). AMP are a source of cash
income as well as a means of diversifying household livelihoods. The amounts are small but not insignificant.
AMP is a viable sector in Madagascar, with potential for competitive advantage in the global marketplace, but
sector growth will not necessarily lead to poverty reduction. For example, the trend toward vertical integration
may increase sector competitiveness through efficiency gains while marginalizing rural producers. There are
opportunities to improve the position (and income) of the poor—by improving their power to negotiate prices
(perhaps through some type of producer association), by providing stable markets for their products, or by
creating opportunities for local level value-added processing (perhaps through community-level distilleries or
incentives for quality control and traceability). The experiences of Phael Flor and Label CBD provide a model for
win-win relationships along the value chain. Some producers feel that employment in plantations could increase
income security, health standards and connectivity to more formal agricultural technology. A more detailed
economic analysis is necessary to compare the relative advantages of production systems for smallholders.
b. Social relations between producers and collectors. AMP are only one element of the relationships between
producers and collectors. Collectors often deal in multiple products (many of which, such as rice, are more
important than AMP) and provide additional services such as credit. Producers complain about receiving low
prices for AMP, determined by the collectors, but because of the complex relationships that develop between
them, they cannot seek alternative markets. Moreover, there are frequently few or no alternative markets (i.e.,
producers cannot take their products elsewhere). Local producers have little power to influence prices in the face
of effective local-level monopsony (single potential buyer), and they accrue limited direct benefits from
participation in the value chain as a result. Efforts to improve the bargaining position of producers must address
the multifaceted nature of this relationship. Integrating AMP producers into a broader, existing cooperative
structure could improve their bargaining position. Providing services, such as small credit or cereal banking,
through the cooperative could further strengthen the bargaining position by reducing dependence on collectors.
4. POWER
a. Producer organizations. Poor information flow and lack of bargaining power is partially the result of poorly
organized producers. Producer associations are almost non-existent in the AMP sector, in part because
production is part-time for most gatherers and producers, and in part because of the immense distance between
actors, both in travel time (by foot) and due to low penetration of transport infrastructure in the productive areas
studied. Producer organizations that could disseminate market and technical information to members and provide
the services of an advocacy group would be difficult and time consuming to form and sustain. However, they are
necessary to improve the position of producers, to enhance the efficiency and equity of the entire value chain, to
enable participation in decision-making and to promote sustainable practices. At current levels, it is unlikely that
producers will have incentive to self-organize. However, it may be possible to organize them under pre-existing
groups, such as the federated koloharena. It may also be possible to work with downstream actors to promote
producer organizations as a means of obtaining quality product.

b. Strengthening local government. Receipts from payment of taxes are a potential source of revenue for cash-
strapped communal governments. However, few of them have the capacity to monitor or enforce their own
policies in this regard, so there is significant leakage. Strengthening this capacity, enabling communal governments
to collect taxes, could provide incentive and ability for them to monitor resource use—particularly to limit
destructive harvesting of high-value, wildcrafted forest AMP. These funds could be used in part to invest in
natural resource management. But they can also contribute to improving the effectiveness and responsiveness of
nascent local governments in a general sense by fostering accountability from constituents if seen as contributing
financial resources of consequence.

ANNEX 1: METHODS
The AMP value chain analysis consisted of seven discrete steps.
1. Selection of natural product subsector or industry(ies) with significant potential for competitiveness,
employment growth, MSE participation, improved environmental governance, sustainable resource management
and other crosscutting objectives.
A panel of USAID staff and partners considered several sectors for study, using these criteria. The aromatic and
medicinal plants sector was selected as a single value chain encompassing diverse products, many of which have
relatively small markets individually but a large potential collectively. AMP initially appeared to involve a single set
of actors who work simultaneously with numerous, diverse products in order to respond to changing demand.
The value chain becomes somewhat differentiated at the producer level because of the geographic distribution of
the plants and the ecological impacts of harvesting behavior.
2. Desk study utilizing secondary materials as preparation for field study. A desk study was conducted prior
to launching the field study, including identification and synthesis of existing market research on AMP, such as
current characteristics of and trends in the global market; a bench-marking exercise to assess Madagascar’s
position in the market; and identification and synthesis of major findings in existing studies on impacts of the
selected industry on the ecology of the resource itself in Madagascar.
3. Selection of study sites based on the characteristics of the selected product including major growing areas, trade
routes, processing facilities and markets. This approach focused on AMP at the national level but noted regional
variance as appropriate.
4. Study design including survey instruments that integrate the NHWP and value chain frameworks. The research
team developed survey instruments for a variety of value chain actors, including producers, intermediaries,
processors, distributors/exporters and public sector actors. We selected survey participants by referral, starting
with end market actors and working back up the value chain. Staff of USAID/Madagascar’s BAMEX project
assisted in identifying end market actors among their clients. Our pool of survey participants was selected to
provide a broad and representative orientation to the AMP value chain. We did not use random sampling to select
survey participants, as we did not intend to generate statistical valid data.
5. Selection and training of local research team in integrated NHWP/value chain approach. Training built
on the experience of local consultants with established industry, natural resource management and business
development experience to capitalize on the integrated model for industry competitiveness and conservation.
6. Field visits, interviews and fact finding to apply the integrated framework in order to identify opportunities to
increase the competitiveness of the AMP value chain in tandem with the sustainable use and improved
management of its base in forest, periphery and non-forest zones. The research team consisted of five individuals:
Criss Julliard (AMAP-BDS), Maziar Sassanpour (AMAP-BDS), Charlie Benjamin (FRAME), Aro
Ratovonomenjanahry (independent consultant) and Pascal Ravohitrarivo (independent consultant). Over 5 weeks
(May-June 2006), the team conducted 41 interviews with 52 individuals representing different stakeholder groups
(see Table 20). These interviews focused on:
• The value chain’s main actors, critical opportunities and constraints to sustainable growth

• The relationships between these actors, including learning (e.g., information, skills transfer) and benefit (e.g.,
income, reduced risk) flows, and opportunities to increase value chain competitiveness and sustainability
• The enabling environment, including the natural resource base, local environmental governance, the existence
and quality of infrastructure and support services, and related “power,” “health” and “wealth” aspects.
Table20: Interviews
Actors No.
Transporters, distributors, & exporters 6
Intermediaries: processors 4
Intermediaries: collectors 8
Community groups 6
Producers (wildcrafters & cultivators) 7
Local government 4
Public sector (Ministries of Health, Environment, Water & Forests, Industry & Commerce) 3
Research laboratories, certification civil society 3
7. Stakeholder workshop. The AMAP/FRAME/USAID-Madagascar team brought together a group of 51

stakeholders to discuss the results of the study, review preliminary findings and identify strategies and
implementation plans for strengthening the selected value chain. The present report integrates the results of this
workshop.
2. SITE SELECTION
The AMP sub-sector contains a large number of plants gathered and processed relative to their real or perceived
virtues and availability. Identification of survey sites began by surveying value chain actors closest to the end markets.
These are the downstream players who process or export AMP products and/or sell to the domestic market. Through
these downstream players and their network the team was able to identify suppliers, intermediaries, collectors and
producers as well as the plant-types gathered and cultivated.
Based on information obtained from the Antananarivo-based exporters and distributors about their collection zones,
the team was able to define two corridors that were not only AMP production areas but also zones where USAID has
allocated resources for economic development and environmental interventions. These include the Moramanga-
Toamasina-Brickaville and nearby coastal zone, and the Fianarantsoa plateau to the Manakara-Manazara zone.
Meetings with community groups living on the periphery of the Zahamena-Ankeniheny corridor, as well as with
actors in Toamasina, led us to conclude that the majority of gathered or cultivated AMP in the region grew or were
gathered in the periphery of the corridors, rather than in the protected forests themselves.
Table 21 summarizes location of study sites and schedule of field visits.

Table 191: Study Sites
SUDY SITES
Week Commune
Region Town/Village
Urban/Rural
16/05/06 Antsinanana Toamasina Toamasina
Anjahamana Andranambolaha, Anjahamana
30/05/06 Mangoro Moramanga Moramanga
Amboasary-Gara Ambohimiadana
Ambohibary Befontsy
Beforona Beforona
Andasibe Ambavaniasy ; Vohimana; Sandrasoa
05/06/06 Mangoro Beforona Beforona
Antsinanana Tsivangiana Tsivangiana
Niarovana Ambalamangahazo; Niarovana
19/06/06 Haute Matsiatra Ranomafana Ranomafana, Masomanga
Fianarantsoa Fianarantsoa
Analanjirofo Fenerive Est Fenerive Est

ANNEX 2: EXPORT PRICE OF SELECT
MALAGASY ESSENTIAL OILS
(MARCH-APRIL 2006)27
FOB Production
Quota Stock
Products Botanical Name Tana
(kg/month) (kg) Season
(US$/kg)
Bourbon Geranium (C) Pelargonium graviolens 171.70 20 0 2-4 x/year
Cinnamon leaf (W) Cinnamomum zeylanicum 27.57 100 5 Whole year
Cinnamon bark (W) Cinnamomum zeylanicum 143.60 150 10 Whole year
Clove claw (stem) (C) Eugenia caryophyllata 24.59 400 0 Whole year
Clove bud (C) Eugenia caryophyllata 42.60 200 50 Whole year
Clove leaf (C) Eugenia caryophyllata 18.50 600 0 Feb-Oct
Dingadingana/Iary (W) Psiadia altissima 62.60 200 30 Whole year
Eucalyptus citriodora (C/W) Eucalypteus citriodora 33.20 100 15 Whole year
Eucalyptus globulus (C/W) Eucalypteus globulus 36.79 100 30 Whole year
Ginger root (C) Zingiber officinalis 124.00 200 10 July-Nov
Helichrysum (W) Helychrysum bracteiferum 122.30 50 25 Whole year
Helichrysum (W) Helychrysum 128.15 50 25 Whole year
gymnocephalum
Katrafay (W) Cedrelopsis grevei 88.20 100 60 March-Oct
Niaouli (3%) (W) Melaleuca viridoflora 18.34 200 150 Whole year
Niaouli (5%) (W) Melaleuca viridoflora 21.28 200 120 Whole year
Pepper, black (C) Piper nigrum 107.94 200 20 March-Dec
Ravensara anisata (W) Ravensare anisata 59.50 100 50 March-Oct
Ravensara aromatica (W) Ravensare aromatica 59.50 200 100 March-Oct
Ravintsara (C/W) Cinnamomum camphora 68.78 100 0 Nov-May
Ylang ylang 1 (C) Cananga odorata 106.00 100 25
Ylang ylang 2 (C) Cananga odorata 84.85 150 30 March-June and
Ylang ylang 3 (C) Cananga odorata 57.50 200 50 Sept-Dec
Ylang ylang extra (C) Cananga odorata 132.40 30 5
27 From Aroma, Malagasy affiliate of the Brazilian Peppertrade Board: http://www.peppertrade.com.br/baunilha-

listapreco.htm (accessed 8/29/06)
ANNEX 3: PHOTOGRAPHS
Lantana camara, a thorny bush, is ubiquitous and grows wild. Only the flower is wildcrafted.
Photo taken near a railroad bed.
Newly planted artemisia in a cleared forested area

Wildcrafting talepetraka
Wildcrafting talapetaka

Wildcrafter bringing in wild ginger; weighed and paid on the spot
Cultivating ravensara aromatica in a forest garden

Small, formal distillery
Stakeholder workshop: Developing a common understanding of constraints and

opportunities

Stakeholder workshop: Acting out a shared vision of the AMP value chain
Stakeholder workshop: Mapping the AMP sector, a step in developing a shared action plan

U.S. Agency for International Development
1300 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20523
Tel: (202) 712-0000
Fax: (202) 216-3524
www.usaid.gov

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MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND

MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN

<INSERT DOCUMENT TITLE> 2

III. VALUE CHAIN CHARACTERISTICS 14

IV. STRENGTHENING THE AMP VALUE CHAIN 44

ANNEX 2: EXPORT PRICE OF SELECT MALAGASY ESSENTIAL OILS (MARCH-APRIL 2006) 61

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS i

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 1

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 2

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 3

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 4

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 5

Table ES-1: Summary of Key Constraints and Opportunities

Stakeholders Observations from

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 6

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 7

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 8

Agriculture accounts for the largest share of GDP

Madagascar’s rural economy is based upon

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 10

The research addresses the following key issues:

C. ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK AND APPROACH

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 11

Combining these two analytical

consumers, between public and private

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 12

Methods and sequencing of activities are described in greater detail in Annex 1.

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 13

The value chain consists of five types of actors:

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 14

Table 1: Common Aromatic & Medicinal Plants in Study Area

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 15

Madagascar Aromatic and

Retailing Pharmacies Herbalists Wellness Cosmetic Niche retail Pharma-

Scarce financing and

Sub -collectors Large

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 16

Country of Volume Value Country of Volume Value

Source: UNCTAD COMTRADE database, United Nations Statistics Division, 2002

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 18

Medicinal Plant Percentage with

Source: http://www.fao.org : Biodiversity and Ecosystem Approach in Agriculture, Forestry, and

Madagascar’s export market is predominately essential oils, which are high in

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 19

Quantity Exported (kg)

Source: World Markets for Organic Fruit and Vegetables 6

5 The Guidance Manuel for Organic Collection of Wild Plants: http://www.sippo.ch/files/publications/agri_wildplants05.pdf

7 Interview with an ANTP board member.

Table 5: Cost Structure of Three AMP Products

Percentage of Total Cost

3. NATURAL RESOURCE GOVERNANCE

Decentralization: Madagascar’s decentralized system of government is based on a hierarchy of territorial units

D. VALUE CHAIN ACTORS

Wildcrafters do not gather plant material until they hear of a specific

AMP production in plantations (most are from 10 to 70 ha) permits closer

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 29

Table 6: Comparison of Production Systems

Production system Advantages Disadvantages

MADAGASCAR AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANT VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS 30