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Bigtable: A Distributed Storage System For Structured Data

Bigtable is a distributed storage system designed by Google to manage large amounts of structured data across thousands of servers. It provides a flexible data model that allows clients to dynamically control how data is stored and accessed at scale. Data is indexed by row key and column key, and stored as uninterpreted strings. This allows Bigtable to reliably store petabytes of data for applications with different demands, from backend processing to low-latency queries.

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Max Chiu
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133 views

Bigtable: A Distributed Storage System For Structured Data

Bigtable is a distributed storage system designed by Google to manage large amounts of structured data across thousands of servers. It provides a flexible data model that allows clients to dynamically control how data is stored and accessed at scale. Data is indexed by row key and column key, and stored as uninterpreted strings. This allows Bigtable to reliably store petabytes of data for applications with different demands, from backend processing to low-latency queries.

Uploaded by

Max Chiu
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Bigtable: A Distributed Storage System for Structured Data

Fay Chang, Jeffrey Dean, Sanjay Ghemawat, Wilson C. Hsieh, Deborah A. Wallach
Mike Burrows, Tushar Chandra, Andrew Fikes, Robert E. Gruber
{fay,jeff,sanjay,wilsonh,kerr,m3b,tushar,fikes,gruber}@google.com

Google, Inc.

Abstract achieved scalability and high performance, but Bigtable


Bigtable is a distributed storage system for managing provides a different interface than such systems. Bigtable
structured data that is designed to scale to a very large does not support a full relational data model; instead, it
size: petabytes of data across thousands of commodity provides clients with a simple data model that supports
servers. Many projects at Google store data in Bigtable, dynamic control over data layout and format, and al-
including web indexing, Google Earth, and Google Fi- lows clients to reason about the locality properties of the
nance. These applications place very different demands data represented in the underlying storage. Data is in-
on Bigtable, both in terms of data size (from URLs to dexed using row and column names that can be arbitrary
web pages to satellite imagery) and latency requirements strings. Bigtable also treats data as uninterpreted strings,
(from backend bulk processing to real-time data serving). although clients often serialize various forms of struc-
Despite these varied demands, Bigtable has successfully tured and semi-structured data into these strings. Clients
provided a flexible, high-performance solution for all of can control the locality of their data through careful
these Google products. In this paper we describe the sim- choices in their schemas. Finally, Bigtable schema pa-
ple data model provided by Bigtable, which gives clients rameters let clients dynamically control whether to serve
dynamic control over data layout and format, and we de- data out of memory or from disk.
scribe the design and implementation of Bigtable. Section 2 describes the data model in more detail, and
Section 3 provides an overview of the client API. Sec-
tion 4 briefly describes the underlying Google infrastruc-
1 Introduction ture on which Bigtable depends. Section 5 describes the
fundamentals of the Bigtable implementation, and Sec-
Over the last two and a half years we have designed,
tion 6 describes some of the refinements that we made
implemented, and deployed a distributed storage system
to improve Bigtable’s performance. Section 7 provides
for managing structured data at Google called Bigtable.
measurements of Bigtable’s performance. We describe
Bigtable is designed to reliably scale to petabytes of
several examples of how Bigtable is used at Google
data and thousands of machines. Bigtable has achieved
in Section 8, and discuss some lessons we learned in
several goals: wide applicability, scalability, high per-
designing and supporting Bigtable in Section 9. Fi-
formance, and high availability. Bigtable is used by
nally, Section 10 describes related work, and Section 11
more than sixty Google products and projects, includ-
presents our conclusions.
ing Google Analytics, Google Finance, Orkut, Person-
alized Search, Writely, and Google Earth. These prod-
ucts use Bigtable for a variety of demanding workloads,
which range from throughput-oriented batch-processing 2 Data Model
jobs to latency-sensitive serving of data to end users.
The Bigtable clusters used by these products span a wide A Bigtable is a sparse, distributed, persistent multi-
range of configurations, from a handful to thousands of dimensional sorted map. The map is indexed by a row
servers, and store up to several hundred terabytes of data. key, column key, and a timestamp; each value in the map
In many ways, Bigtable resembles a database: it shares is an uninterpreted array of bytes.
many implementation strategies with databases. Paral-
lel databases [14] and main-memory databases [13] have (row:string, column:string, time:int64) → string

To appear in OSDI 2006 1


"contents:" "anchor:cnnsi.com" "anchor:my.look.ca"

"<html>..." t3
"com.cnn.www" "<html>..." t5 "CNN" t9 "CNN.com" t8
"<html>..." t6

Figure 1: A slice of an example table that stores Web pages. The row name is a reversed URL. The contents column family con-
tains the page contents, and the anchor column family contains the text of any anchors that reference the page. CNN’s home page
is referenced by both the Sports Illustrated and the MY-look home pages, so the row contains columns named anchor:cnnsi.com
and anchor:my.look.ca. Each anchor cell has one version; the contents column has three versions, at timestamps t3 , t5 , and t6 .

We settled on this data model after examining a variety Column Families


of potential uses of a Bigtable-like system. As one con-
crete example that drove some of our design decisions, Column keys are grouped into sets called column fami-
suppose we want to keep a copy of a large collection of lies, which form the basic unit of access control. All data
web pages and related information that could be used by stored in a column family is usually of the same type (we
many different projects; let us call this particular table compress data in the same column family together). A
the Webtable. In Webtable, we would use URLs as row column family must be created before data can be stored
keys, various aspects of web pages as column names, and under any column key in that family; after a family has
store the contents of the web pages in the contents: col- been created, any column key within the family can be
umn under the timestamps when they were fetched, as used. It is our intent that the number of distinct column
illustrated in Figure 1. families in a table be small (in the hundreds at most), and
that families rarely change during operation. In contrast,
a table may have an unbounded number of columns.
A column key is named using the following syntax:
family:qualifier. Column family names must be print-
Rows
able, but qualifiers may be arbitrary strings. An exam-
ple column family for the Webtable is language, which
The row keys in a table are arbitrary strings (currently up stores the language in which a web page was written. We
to 64KB in size, although 10-100 bytes is a typical size use only one column key in the language family, and it
for most of our users). Every read or write of data under stores each web page’s language ID. Another useful col-
a single row key is atomic (regardless of the number of umn family for this table is anchor; each column key in
different columns being read or written in the row), a this family represents a single anchor, as shown in Fig-
design decision that makes it easier for clients to reason ure 1. The qualifier is the name of the referring site; the
about the system’s behavior in the presence of concurrent cell contents is the link text.
updates to the same row. Access control and both disk and memory account-
Bigtable maintains data in lexicographic order by row ing are performed at the column-family level. In our
key. The row range for a table is dynamically partitioned. Webtable example, these controls allow us to manage
Each row range is called a tablet, which is the unit of dis- several different types of applications: some that add new
tribution and load balancing. As a result, reads of short base data, some that read the base data and create derived
row ranges are efficient and typically require communi- column families, and some that are only allowed to view
cation with only a small number of machines. Clients existing data (and possibly not even to view all of the
can exploit this property by selecting their row keys so existing families for privacy reasons).
that they get good locality for their data accesses. For
example, in Webtable, pages in the same domain are Timestamps
grouped together into contiguous rows by reversing the
hostname components of the URLs. For example, we Each cell in a Bigtable can contain multiple versions of
store data for maps.google.com/index.html under the the same data; these versions are indexed by timestamp.
key com.google.maps/index.html. Storing pages from Bigtable timestamps are 64-bit integers. They can be as-
the same domain near each other makes some host and signed by Bigtable, in which case they represent “real
domain analyses more efficient. time” in microseconds, or be explicitly assigned by client

To appear in OSDI 2006 2


// Open the table Scanner scanner(T);
Table *T = OpenOrDie("/bigtable/web/webtable"); ScanStream *stream;
stream = scanner.FetchColumnFamily("anchor");
// Write a new anchor and delete an old anchor stream->SetReturnAllVersions();
RowMutation r1(T, "com.cnn.www"); scanner.Lookup("com.cnn.www");
r1.Set("anchor:www.c-span.org", "CNN"); for (; !stream->Done(); stream->Next()) {
r1.Delete("anchor:www.abc.com"); printf("%s %s %lld %s\n",
Operation op; scanner.RowName(),
Apply(&op, &r1); stream->ColumnName(),
stream->MicroTimestamp(),
stream->Value());
Figure 2: Writing to Bigtable. }

Figure 3: Reading from Bigtable.


applications. Applications that need to avoid collisions
must generate unique timestamps themselves. Different
versions of a cell are stored in decreasing timestamp or- Bigtable supports several other features that allow the
der, so that the most recent versions can be read first. user to manipulate data in more complex ways. First,
To make the management of versioned data less oner- Bigtable supports single-row transactions, which can be
ous, we support two per-column-family settings that tell used to perform atomic read-modify-write sequences on
Bigtable to garbage-collect cell versions automatically. data stored under a single row key. Bigtable does not cur-
The client can specify either that only the last n versions rently support general transactions across row keys, al-
of a cell be kept, or that only new-enough versions be though it provides an interface for batching writes across
kept (e.g., only keep values that were written in the last row keys at the clients. Second, Bigtable allows cells
seven days). to be used as integer counters. Finally, Bigtable sup-
In our Webtable example, we set the timestamps of ports the execution of client-supplied scripts in the ad-
the crawled pages stored in the contents: column to dress spaces of the servers. The scripts are written in a
the times at which these page versions were actually language developed at Google for processing data called
crawled. The garbage-collection mechanism described Sawzall [28]. At the moment, our Sawzall-based API
above lets us keep only the most recent three versions of does not allow client scripts to write back into Bigtable,
every page. but it does allow various forms of data transformation,
filtering based on arbitrary expressions, and summariza-
tion via a variety of operators.
3 API Bigtable can be used with MapReduce [12], a frame-
work for running large-scale parallel computations de-
The Bigtable API provides functions for creating and veloped at Google. We have written a set of wrappers
deleting tables and column families. It also provides that allow a Bigtable to be used both as an input source
functions for changing cluster, table, and column family and as an output target for MapReduce jobs.
metadata, such as access control rights.
Client applications can write or delete values in 4 Building Blocks
Bigtable, look up values from individual rows, or iter-
ate over a subset of the data in a table. Figure 2 shows Bigtable is built on several other pieces of Google in-
C++ code that uses a RowMutation abstraction to per- frastructure. Bigtable uses the distributed Google File
form a series of updates. (Irrelevant details were elided System (GFS) [17] to store log and data files. A Bigtable
to keep the example short.) The call to Apply performs cluster typically operates in a shared pool of machines
an atomic mutation to the Webtable: it adds one anchor that run a wide variety of other distributed applications,
to www.cnn.com and deletes a different anchor. and Bigtable processes often share the same machines
Figure 3 shows C++ code that uses a Scanner ab- with processes from other applications. Bigtable de-
straction to iterate over all anchors in a particular row. pends on a cluster management system for scheduling
Clients can iterate over multiple column families, and jobs, managing resources on shared machines, dealing
there are several mechanisms for limiting the rows, with machine failures, and monitoring machine status.
columns, and timestamps produced by a scan. For ex- The Google SSTable file format is used internally to
ample, we could restrict the scan above to only produce store Bigtable data. An SSTable provides a persistent,
anchors whose columns match the regular expression ordered immutable map from keys to values, where both
anchor:*.cnn.com, or to only produce anchors whose keys and values are arbitrary byte strings. Operations are
timestamps fall within ten days of the current time. provided to look up the value associated with a specified

To appear in OSDI 2006 3


key, and to iterate over all key/value pairs in a specified dynamically added (or removed) from a cluster to acco-
key range. Internally, each SSTable contains a sequence modate changes in workloads.
of blocks (typically each block is 64KB in size, but this The master is responsible for assigning tablets to tablet
is configurable). A block index (stored at the end of the servers, detecting the addition and expiration of tablet
SSTable) is used to locate blocks; the index is loaded servers, balancing tablet-server load, and garbage col-
into memory when the SSTable is opened. A lookup lection of files in GFS. In addition, it handles schema
can be performed with a single disk seek: we first find changes such as table and column family creations.
the appropriate block by performing a binary search in Each tablet server manages a set of tablets (typically
the in-memory index, and then reading the appropriate we have somewhere between ten to a thousand tablets per
block from disk. Optionally, an SSTable can be com- tablet server). The tablet server handles read and write
pletely mapped into memory, which allows us to perform requests to the tablets that it has loaded, and also splits
lookups and scans without touching disk. tablets that have grown too large.
Bigtable relies on a highly-available and persistent As with many single-master distributed storage sys-
distributed lock service called Chubby [8]. A Chubby tems [17, 21], client data does not move through the mas-
service consists of five active replicas, one of which is ter: clients communicate directly with tablet servers for
elected to be the master and actively serve requests. The reads and writes. Because Bigtable clients do not rely on
service is live when a majority of the replicas are running the master for tablet location information, most clients
and can communicate with each other. Chubby uses the never communicate with the master. As a result, the mas-
Paxos algorithm [9, 23] to keep its replicas consistent in ter is lightly loaded in practice.
the face of failure. Chubby provides a namespace that A Bigtable cluster stores a number of tables. Each ta-
consists of directories and small files. Each directory or ble consists of a set of tablets, and each tablet contains
file can be used as a lock, and reads and writes to a file all data associated with a row range. Initially, each table
are atomic. The Chubby client library provides consis- consists of just one tablet. As a table grows, it is auto-
tent caching of Chubby files. Each Chubby client main- matically split into multiple tablets, each approximately
tains a session with a Chubby service. A client’s session 100-200 MB in size by default.
expires if it is unable to renew its session lease within the
lease expiration time. When a client’s session expires, it 5.1 Tablet Location
loses any locks and open handles. Chubby clients can
also register callbacks on Chubby files and directories We use a three-level hierarchy analogous to that of a B+ -
for notification of changes or session expiration. tree [10] to store tablet location information (Figure 4).
Bigtable uses Chubby for a variety of tasks: to ensure
UserTable1
that there is at most one active master at any time; to Other ...
store the bootstrap location of Bigtable data (see Sec- METADATA
tablets ...
tion 5.1); to discover tablet servers and finalize tablet
... ..
server deaths (see Section 5.2); to store Bigtable schema Root tablet .
...
information (the column family information for each ta- Chubby file (1st METADATA tablet)
...
UserTableN
ble); and to store access control lists. If Chubby becomes ... ..
. ...
unavailable for an extended period of time, Bigtable be-
..
comes unavailable. We recently measured this effect ... .
in 14 Bigtable clusters spanning 11 Chubby instances. ...
The average percentage of Bigtable server hours during
which some data stored in Bigtable was not available due Figure 4: Tablet location hierarchy.
to Chubby unavailability (caused by either Chubby out-
ages or network issues) was 0.0047%. The percentage The first level is a file stored in Chubby that contains
for the single cluster that was most affected by Chubby the location of the root tablet. The root tablet contains
unavailability was 0.0326%. the location of all tablets in a special METADATA table.
Each METADATA tablet contains the location of a set of
user tablets. The root tablet is just the first tablet in the
5 Implementation METADATA table, but is treated specially—it is never
split—to ensure that the tablet location hierarchy has no
The Bigtable implementation has three major compo- more than three levels.
nents: a library that is linked into every client, one mas- The METADATA table stores the location of a tablet
ter server, and many tablet servers. Tablet servers can be under a row key that is an encoding of the tablet’s table

To appear in OSDI 2006 4


identifier and its end row. Each METADATA row stores The master is responsible for detecting when a tablet
approximately 1KB of data in memory. With a modest server is no longer serving its tablets, and for reassign-
limit of 128 MB METADATA tablets, our three-level lo- ing those tablets as soon as possible. To detect when a
cation scheme is sufficient to address 234 tablets (or 261 tablet server is no longer serving its tablets, the master
bytes in 128 MB tablets). periodically asks each tablet server for the status of its
The client library caches tablet locations. If the client lock. If a tablet server reports that it has lost its lock,
does not know the location of a tablet, or if it discov- or if the master was unable to reach a server during its
ers that cached location information is incorrect, then last several attempts, the master attempts to acquire an
it recursively moves up the tablet location hierarchy. exclusive lock on the server’s file. If the master is able to
If the client’s cache is empty, the location algorithm acquire the lock, then Chubby is live and the tablet server
requires three network round-trips, including one read is either dead or having trouble reaching Chubby, so the
from Chubby. If the client’s cache is stale, the location master ensures that the tablet server can never serve again
algorithm could take up to six round-trips, because stale by deleting its server file. Once a server’s file has been
cache entries are only discovered upon misses (assuming deleted, the master can move all the tablets that were pre-
that METADATA tablets do not move very frequently). viously assigned to that server into the set of unassigned
Although tablet locations are stored in memory, so no tablets. To ensure that a Bigtable cluster is not vulnera-
GFS accesses are required, we further reduce this cost ble to networking issues between the master and Chubby,
in the common case by having the client library prefetch the master kills itself if its Chubby session expires. How-
tablet locations: it reads the metadata for more than one ever, as described above, master failures do not change
tablet whenever it reads the METADATA table. the assignment of tablets to tablet servers.
We also store secondary information in the When a master is started by the cluster management
METADATA table, including a log of all events per- system, it needs to discover the current tablet assign-
taining to each tablet (such as when a server begins ments before it can change them. The master executes
serving it). This information is helpful for debugging the following steps at startup. (1) The master grabs
and performance analysis. a unique master lock in Chubby, which prevents con-
current master instantiations. (2) The master scans the
servers directory in Chubby to find the live servers.
5.2 Tablet Assignment (3) The master communicates with every live tablet
server to discover what tablets are already assigned to
Each tablet is assigned to one tablet server at a time. The
each server. (4) The master scans the METADATA table
master keeps track of the set of live tablet servers, and
to learn the set of tablets. Whenever this scan encounters
the current assignment of tablets to tablet servers, in-
a tablet that is not already assigned, the master adds the
cluding which tablets are unassigned. When a tablet is
tablet to the set of unassigned tablets, which makes the
unassigned, and a tablet server with sufficient room for
tablet eligible for tablet assignment.
the tablet is available, the master assigns the tablet by
sending a tablet load request to the tablet server. One complication is that the scan of the METADATA
Bigtable uses Chubby to keep track of tablet servers. table cannot happen until the METADATA tablets have
When a tablet server starts, it creates, and acquires an been assigned. Therefore, before starting this scan (step
exclusive lock on, a uniquely-named file in a specific 4), the master adds the root tablet to the set of unassigned
Chubby directory. The master monitors this directory tablets if an assignment for the root tablet was not dis-
(the servers directory) to discover tablet servers. A tablet covered during step 3. This addition ensures that the root
server stops serving its tablets if it loses its exclusive tablet will be assigned. Because the root tablet contains
lock: e.g., due to a network partition that caused the the names of all METADATA tablets, the master knows
server to lose its Chubby session. (Chubby provides an about all of them after it has scanned the root tablet.
efficient mechanism that allows a tablet server to check The set of existing tablets only changes when a ta-
whether it still holds its lock without incurring network ble is created or deleted, two existing tablets are merged
traffic.) A tablet server will attempt to reacquire an ex- to form one larger tablet, or an existing tablet is split
clusive lock on its file as long as the file still exists. If the into two smaller tablets. The master is able to keep
file no longer exists, then the tablet server will never be track of these changes because it initiates all but the last.
able to serve again, so it kills itself. Whenever a tablet Tablet splits are treated specially since they are initi-
server terminates (e.g., because the cluster management ated by a tablet server. The tablet server commits the
system is removing the tablet server’s machine from the split by recording information for the new tablet in the
cluster), it attempts to release its lock so that the master METADATA table. When the split has committed, it noti-
will reassign its tablets more quickly. fies the master. In case the split notification is lost (either

To appear in OSDI 2006 5


because the tablet server or the master died), the master 5.4 Compactions
detects the new tablet when it asks a tablet server to load
the tablet that has now split. The tablet server will notify As write operations execute, the size of the memtable in-
the master of the split, because the tablet entry it finds in creases. When the memtable size reaches a threshold, the
the METADATA table will specify only a portion of the memtable is frozen, a new memtable is created, and the
tablet that the master asked it to load. frozen memtable is converted to an SSTable and written
to GFS. This minor compaction process has two goals:
it shrinks the memory usage of the tablet server, and it
5.3 Tablet Serving reduces the amount of data that has to be read from the
The persistent state of a tablet is stored in GFS, as illus- commit log during recovery if this server dies. Incom-
trated in Figure 5. Updates are committed to a commit ing read and write operations can continue while com-
log that stores redo records. Of these updates, the re- pactions occur.
cently committed ones are stored in memory in a sorted Every minor compaction creates a new SSTable. If this
buffer called a memtable; the older updates are stored in a behavior continued unchecked, read operations might
sequence of SSTables. To recover a tablet, a tablet server need to merge updates from an arbitrary number of
SSTables. Instead, we bound the number of such files
by periodically executing a merging compaction in the
memtable Read Op
background. A merging compaction reads the contents
of a few SSTables and the memtable, and writes out a
new SSTable. The input SSTables and memtable can be
Memory
discarded as soon as the compaction has finished.
GFS A merging compaction that rewrites all SSTables
tablet log into exactly one SSTable is called a major compaction.
SSTables produced by non-major compactions can con-
Write Op
tain special deletion entries that suppress deleted data in
SSTable Files older SSTables that are still live. A major compaction,
on the other hand, produces an SSTable that contains
Figure 5: Tablet Representation no deletion information or deleted data. Bigtable cy-
cles through all of its tablets and regularly applies major
reads its metadata from the METADATA table. This meta- compactions to them. These major compactions allow
data contains the list of SSTables that comprise a tablet Bigtable to reclaim resources used by deleted data, and
and a set of a redo points, which are pointers into any also allow it to ensure that deleted data disappears from
commit logs that may contain data for the tablet. The the system in a timely fashion, which is important for
server reads the indices of the SSTables into memory and services that store sensitive data.
reconstructs the memtable by applying all of the updates
that have committed since the redo points.
When a write operation arrives at a tablet server, the 6 Refinements
server checks that it is well-formed, and that the sender
is authorized to perform the mutation. Authorization is The implementation described in the previous section
performed by reading the list of permitted writers from a required a number of refinements to achieve the high
Chubby file (which is almost always a hit in the Chubby performance, availability, and reliability required by our
client cache). A valid mutation is written to the commit users. This section describes portions of the implementa-
log. Group commit is used to improve the throughput of tion in more detail in order to highlight these refinements.
lots of small mutations [13, 16]. After the write has been
committed, its contents are inserted into the memtable. Locality groups
When a read operation arrives at a tablet server, it is
similarly checked for well-formedness and proper autho- Clients can group multiple column families together into
rization. A valid read operation is executed on a merged a locality group. A separate SSTable is generated for
view of the sequence of SSTables and the memtable. each locality group in each tablet. Segregating column
Since the SSTables and the memtable are lexicograph- families that are not typically accessed together into sep-
ically sorted data structures, the merged view can be arate locality groups enables more efficient reads. For
formed efficiently. example, page metadata in Webtable (such as language
Incoming read and write operations can continue and checksums) can be in one locality group, and the
while tablets are split and merged. contents of the page can be in a different group: an ap-

To appear in OSDI 2006 6


plication that wants to read the metadata does not need Caching for read performance
to read through all of the page contents.
To improve read performance, tablet servers use two lev-
In addition, some useful tuning parameters can be els of caching. The Scan Cache is a higher-level cache
specified on a per-locality group basis. For example, a lo- that caches the key-value pairs returned by the SSTable
cality group can be declared to be in-memory. SSTables interface to the tablet server code. The Block Cache is a
for in-memory locality groups are loaded lazily into the lower-level cache that caches SSTables blocks that were
memory of the tablet server. Once loaded, column fam- read from GFS. The Scan Cache is most useful for appli-
ilies that belong to such locality groups can be read cations that tend to read the same data repeatedly. The
without accessing the disk. This feature is useful for Block Cache is useful for applications that tend to read
small pieces of data that are accessed frequently: we data that is close to the data they recently read (e.g., se-
use it internally for the location column family in the quential reads, or random reads of different columns in
METADATA table. the same locality group within a hot row).

Bloom filters
Compression As described in Section 5.3, a read operation has to read
from all SSTables that make up the state of a tablet.
Clients can control whether or not the SSTables for a If these SSTables are not in memory, we may end up
locality group are compressed, and if so, which com- doing many disk accesses. We reduce the number of
pression format is used. The user-specified compres- accesses by allowing clients to specify that Bloom fil-
sion format is applied to each SSTable block (whose size ters [7] should be created for SSTables in a particu-
is controllable via a locality group specific tuning pa- lar locality group. A Bloom filter allows us to ask
rameter). Although we lose some space by compress- whether an SSTable might contain any data for a spec-
ing each block separately, we benefit in that small por- ified row/column pair. For certain applications, a small
tions of an SSTable can be read without decompress- amount of tablet server memory used for storing Bloom
ing the entire file. Many clients use a two-pass custom filters drastically reduces the number of disk seeks re-
compression scheme. The first pass uses Bentley and quired for read operations. Our use of Bloom filters
McIlroy’s scheme [6], which compresses long common also implies that most lookups for non-existent rows or
strings across a large window. The second pass uses a columns do not need to touch disk.
fast compression algorithm that looks for repetitions in
a small 16 KB window of the data. Both compression
passes are very fast—they encode at 100–200 MB/s, and Commit-log implementation
decode at 400–1000 MB/s on modern machines. If we kept the commit log for each tablet in a separate
Even though we emphasized speed instead of space re- log file, a very large number of files would be written
duction when choosing our compression algorithms, this concurrently in GFS. Depending on the underlying file
two-pass compression scheme does surprisingly well. system implementation on each GFS server, these writes
For example, in Webtable, we use this compression could cause a large number of disk seeks to write to the
scheme to store Web page contents. In one experiment, different physical log files. In addition, having separate
we stored a large number of documents in a compressed log files per tablet also reduces the effectiveness of the
locality group. For the purposes of the experiment, we group commit optimization, since groups would tend to
limited ourselves to one version of each document in- be smaller. To fix these issues, we append mutations
stead of storing all versions available to us. The scheme to a single commit log per tablet server, co-mingling
achieved a 10-to-1 reduction in space. This is much mutations for different tablets in the same physical log
better than typical Gzip reductions of 3-to-1 or 4-to-1 file [18, 20].
on HTML pages because of the way Webtable rows are Using one log provides significant performance ben-
laid out: all pages from a single host are stored close efits during normal operation, but it complicates recov-
to each other. This allows the Bentley-McIlroy algo- ery. When a tablet server dies, the tablets that it served
rithm to identify large amounts of shared boilerplate in will be moved to a large number of other tablet servers:
pages from the same host. Many applications, not just each server typically loads a small number of the orig-
Webtable, choose their row names so that similar data inal server’s tablets. To recover the state for a tablet,
ends up clustered, and therefore achieve very good com- the new tablet server needs to reapply the mutations for
pression ratios. Compression ratios get even better when that tablet from the commit log written by the original
we store multiple versions of the same value in Bigtable. tablet server. However, the mutations for these tablets

To appear in OSDI 2006 7


were co-mingled in the same physical log file. One ap- of the SSTables that we generate are immutable. For ex-
proach would be for each new tablet server to read this ample, we do not need any synchronization of accesses
full commit log file and apply just the entries needed for to the file system when reading from SSTables. As a re-
the tablets it needs to recover. However, under such a sult, concurrency control over rows can be implemented
scheme, if 100 machines were each assigned a single very efficiently. The only mutable data structure that is
tablet from a failed tablet server, then the log file would accessed by both reads and writes is the memtable. To re-
be read 100 times (once by each server). duce contention during reads of the memtable, we make
We avoid duplicating log reads by first sort- each memtable row copy-on-write and allow reads and
ing the commit log entries in order of the keys writes to proceed in parallel.
htable, row name, log sequence numberi. In the Since SSTables are immutable, the problem of perma-
sorted output, all mutations for a particular tablet are nently removing deleted data is transformed to garbage
contiguous and can therefore be read efficiently with one collecting obsolete SSTables. Each tablet’s SSTables are
disk seek followed by a sequential read. To parallelize registered in the METADATA table. The master removes
the sorting, we partition the log file into 64 MB seg- obsolete SSTables as a mark-and-sweep garbage collec-
ments, and sort each segment in parallel on different tion [25] over the set of SSTables, where the METADATA
tablet servers. This sorting process is coordinated by the table contains the set of roots.
master and is initiated when a tablet server indicates that Finally, the immutability of SSTables enables us to
it needs to recover mutations from some commit log file. split tablets quickly. Instead of generating a new set of
Writing commit logs to GFS sometimes causes perfor- SSTables for each child tablet, we let the child tablets
mance hiccups for a variety of reasons (e.g., a GFS server share the SSTables of the parent tablet.
machine involved in the write crashes, or the network
paths traversed to reach the particular set of three GFS
servers is suffering network congestion, or is heavily 7 Performance Evaluation
loaded). To protect mutations from GFS latency spikes,
each tablet server actually has two log writing threads, We set up a Bigtable cluster with N tablet servers to
each writing to its own log file; only one of these two measure the performance and scalability of Bigtable as
threads is actively in use at a time. If writes to the ac- N is varied. The tablet servers were configured to use 1
tive log file are performing poorly, the log file writing is GB of memory and to write to a GFS cell consisting of
switched to the other thread, and mutations that are in 1786 machines with two 400 GB IDE hard drives each.
the commit log queue are written by the newly active log N client machines generated the Bigtable load used for
writing thread. Log entries contain sequence numbers these tests. (We used the same number of clients as tablet
to allow the recovery process to elide duplicated entries servers to ensure that clients were never a bottleneck.)
resulting from this log switching process. Each machine had two dual-core Opteron 2 GHz chips,
enough physical memory to hold the working set of all
running processes, and a single gigabit Ethernet link.
Speeding up tablet recovery The machines were arranged in a two-level tree-shaped
If the master moves a tablet from one tablet server to switched network with approximately 100-200 Gbps of
another, the source tablet server first does a minor com- aggregate bandwidth available at the root. All of the ma-
paction on that tablet. This compaction reduces recov- chines were in the same hosting facility and therefore the
ery time by reducing the amount of uncompacted state in round-trip time between any pair of machines was less
the tablet server’s commit log. After finishing this com- than a millisecond.
paction, the tablet server stops serving the tablet. Before The tablet servers and master, test clients, and GFS
it actually unloads the tablet, the tablet server does an- servers all ran on the same set of machines. Every ma-
other (usually very fast) minor compaction to eliminate chine ran a GFS server. Some of the machines also ran
any remaining uncompacted state in the tablet server’s either a tablet server, or a client process, or processes
log that arrived while the first minor compaction was from other jobs that were using the pool at the same time
being performed. After this second minor compaction as these experiments.
is complete, the tablet can be loaded on another tablet R is the distinct number of Bigtable row keys involved
server without requiring any recovery of log entries. in the test. R was chosen so that each benchmark read or
wrote approximately 1 GB of data per tablet server.
Exploiting immutability The sequential write benchmark used row keys with
names 0 to R − 1. This space of row keys was parti-
Besides the SSTable caches, various other parts of the tioned into 10N equal-sized ranges. These ranges were
Bigtable system have been simplified by the fact that all assigned to the N clients by a central scheduler that as-

To appear in OSDI 2006 8


Values read/written per second
4M
scans
# of Tablet Servers random reads (mem)
3M random writes
Experiment 1 50 250 500 sequential reads
random reads 1212 593 479 241 sequential writes
2M random reads
random reads (mem) 10811 8511 8000 6250
random writes 8850 3745 3425 2000
1M
sequential reads 4425 2463 2625 2469
sequential writes 8547 3623 2451 1905
scans 15385 10526 9524 7843 100 200 300 400 500
Number of tablet servers
Figure 6: Number of 1000-byte values read/written per second. The table shows the rate per tablet server; the graph shows the
aggregate rate.

signed the next available range to a client as soon as the Single tablet-server performance
client finished processing the previous range assigned to
it. This dynamic assignment helped mitigate the effects Let us first consider performance with just one tablet
of performance variations caused by other processes run- server. Random reads are slower than all other operations
ning on the client machines. We wrote a single string un- by an order of magnitude or more. Each random read in-
der each row key. Each string was generated randomly volves the transfer of a 64 KB SSTable block over the
and was therefore uncompressible. In addition, strings network from GFS to a tablet server, out of which only a
under different row key were distinct, so no cross-row single 1000-byte value is used. The tablet server executes
compression was possible. The random write benchmark approximately 1200 reads per second, which translates
was similar except that the row key was hashed modulo into approximately 75 MB/s of data read from GFS. This
R immediately before writing so that the write load was bandwidth is enough to saturate the tablet server CPUs
spread roughly uniformly across the entire row space for because of overheads in our networking stack, SSTable
the entire duration of the benchmark. parsing, and Bigtable code, and is also almost enough
to saturate the network links used in our system. Most
The sequential read benchmark generated row keys in Bigtable applications with this type of an access pattern
exactly the same way as the sequential write benchmark, reduce the block size to a smaller value, typically 8KB.
but instead of writing under the row key, it read the string Random reads from memory are much faster since
stored under the row key (which was written by an earlier each 1000-byte read is satisfied from the tablet server’s
invocation of the sequential write benchmark). Similarly, local memory without fetching a large 64 KB block from
the random read benchmark shadowed the operation of GFS.
the random write benchmark. Random and sequential writes perform better than ran-
The scan benchmark is similar to the sequential read dom reads since each tablet server appends all incoming
benchmark, but uses support provided by the Bigtable writes to a single commit log and uses group commit to
API for scanning over all values in a row range. Us- stream these writes efficiently to GFS. There is no sig-
ing a scan reduces the number of RPCs executed by the nificant difference between the performance of random
benchmark since a single RPC fetches a large sequence writes and sequential writes; in both cases, all writes to
of values from a tablet server. the tablet server are recorded in the same commit log.
Sequential reads perform better than random reads
The random reads (mem) benchmark is similar to the since every 64 KB SSTable block that is fetched from
random read benchmark, but the locality group that con- GFS is stored into our block cache, where it is used to
tains the benchmark data is marked as in-memory, and serve the next 64 read requests.
therefore the reads are satisfied from the tablet server’s Scans are even faster since the tablet server can return
memory instead of requiring a GFS read. For just this a large number of values in response to a single client
benchmark, we reduced the amount of data per tablet RPC, and therefore RPC overhead is amortized over a
server from 1 GB to 100 MB so that it would fit com- large number of values.
fortably in the memory available to the tablet server.
Figure 6 shows two views on the performance of our Scaling
benchmarks when reading and writing 1000-byte values
to Bigtable. The table shows the number of operations Aggregate throughput increases dramatically, by over a
per second per tablet server; the graph shows the aggre- factor of a hundred, as we increase the number of tablet
gate number of operations per second. servers in the system from 1 to 500. For example, the

To appear in OSDI 2006 9


# of tablet servers # of clusters percentage of data served from memory, and complexity
0 .. 19 259 of the table schema. In the rest of this section, we briefly
20 .. 49 47 describe how three product teams use Bigtable.
50 .. 99 20
100 .. 499 50
> 500 12 8.1 Google Analytics
Google Analytics (analytics.google.com) is a service
Table 1: Distribution of number of tablet servers in Bigtable that helps webmasters analyze traffic patterns at their
clusters. web sites. It provides aggregate statistics, such as the
number of unique visitors per day and the page views
per URL per day, as well as site-tracking reports, such as
performance of random reads from memory increases by the percentage of users that made a purchase, given that
almost a factor of 300 as the number of tablet server in- they earlier viewed a specific page.
creases by a factor of 500. This behavior occurs because To enable the service, webmasters embed a small
the bottleneck on performance for this benchmark is the JavaScript program in their web pages. This program
individual tablet server CPU. is invoked whenever a page is visited. It records various
However, performance does not increase linearly. For information about the request in Google Analytics, such
most benchmarks, there is a significant drop in per-server as a user identifier and information about the page be-
throughput when going from 1 to 50 tablet servers. This ing fetched. Google Analytics summarizes this data and
drop is caused by imbalance in load in multiple server makes it available to webmasters.
configurations, often due to other processes contending We briefly describe two of the tables used by Google
for CPU and network. Our load balancing algorithm at- Analytics. The raw click table (˜200 TB) maintains a
tempts to deal with this imbalance, but cannot do a per- row for each end-user session. The row name is a tuple
fect job for two main reasons: rebalancing is throttled to containing the website’s name and the time at which the
reduce the number of tablet movements (a tablet is un- session was created. This schema ensures that sessions
available for a short time, typically less than one second, that visit the same web site are contiguous, and that they
when it is moved), and the load generated by our bench- are sorted chronologically. This table compresses to 14%
marks shifts around as the benchmark progresses. of its original size.
The random read benchmark shows the worst scaling The summary table (˜20 TB) contains various prede-
(an increase in aggregate throughput by only a factor of fined summaries for each website. This table is gener-
100 for a 500-fold increase in number of servers). This ated from the raw click table by periodically scheduled
behavior occurs because (as explained above) we transfer MapReduce jobs. Each MapReduce job extracts recent
one large 64KB block over the network for every 1000- session data from the raw click table. The overall sys-
byte read. This transfer saturates various shared 1 Gi- tem’s throughput is limited by the throughput of GFS.
gabit links in our network and as a result, the per-server This table compresses to 29% of its original size.
throughput drops significantly as we increase the number
of machines.
8.2 Google Earth
8 Real Applications Google operates a collection of services that provide
users with access to high-resolution satellite imagery of
As of August 2006, there are 388 non-test Bigtable clus- the world’s surface, both through the web-based Google
ters running in various Google machine clusters, with a Maps interface (maps.google.com) and through the
combined total of about 24,500 tablet servers. Table 1 Google Earth (earth.google.com) custom client soft-
shows a rough distribution of tablet servers per cluster. ware. These products allow users to navigate across the
Many of these clusters are used for development pur- world’s surface: they can pan, view, and annotate satel-
poses and therefore are idle for significant periods. One lite imagery at many different levels of resolution. This
group of 14 busy clusters with 8069 total tablet servers system uses one table to preprocess data, and a different
saw an aggregate volume of more than 1.2 million re- set of tables for serving client data.
quests per second, with incoming RPC traffic of about The preprocessing pipeline uses one table to store raw
741 MB/s and outgoing RPC traffic of about 16 GB/s. imagery. During preprocessing, the imagery is cleaned
Table 2 provides some data about a few of the tables and consolidated into final serving data. This table con-
currently in use. Some tables store data that is served tains approximately 70 terabytes of data and therefore is
to users, whereas others store data for batch processing; served from disk. The images are efficiently compressed
the tables range widely in total size, average cell size, already, so Bigtable compression is disabled.

To appear in OSDI 2006 10


Project Table size Compression # Cells # Column # Locality % in Latency-
name (TB) ratio (billions) Families Groups memory sensitive?
Crawl 800 11% 1000 16 8 0% No
Crawl 50 33% 200 2 2 0% No
Google Analytics 20 29% 10 1 1 0% Yes
Google Analytics 200 14% 80 1 1 0% Yes
Google Base 2 31% 10 29 3 15% Yes
Google Earth 0.5 64% 8 7 2 33% Yes
Google Earth 70 – 9 8 3 0% No
Orkut 9 – 0.9 8 5 1% Yes
Personalized Search 4 47% 6 93 11 5% Yes

Table 2: Characteristics of a few tables in production use. Table size (measured before compression) and # Cells indicate approxi-
mate sizes. Compression ratio is not given for tables that have compression disabled.

Each row in the imagery table corresponds to a sin- The Personalized Search data is replicated across sev-
gle geographic segment. Rows are named to ensure that eral Bigtable clusters to increase availability and to re-
adjacent geographic segments are stored near each other. duce latency due to distance from clients. The Personal-
The table contains a column family to keep track of the ized Search team originally built a client-side replication
sources of data for each segment. This column family mechanism on top of Bigtable that ensured eventual con-
has a large number of columns: essentially one for each sistency of all replicas. The current system now uses a
raw data image. Since each segment is only built from a replication subsystem that is built into the servers.
few images, this column family is very sparse. The design of the Personalized Search storage system
The preprocessing pipeline relies heavily on MapRe- allows other groups to add new per-user information in
duce over Bigtable to transform data. The overall system their own columns, and the system is now used by many
processes over 1 MB/sec of data per tablet server during other Google properties that need to store per-user con-
some of these MapReduce jobs. figuration options and settings. Sharing a table amongst
The serving system uses one table to index data stored many groups resulted in an unusually large number of
in GFS. This table is relatively small (˜500 GB), but it column families. To help support sharing, we added a
must serve tens of thousands of queries per second per simple quota mechanism to Bigtable to limit the stor-
datacenter with low latency. As a result, this table is age consumption by any particular client in shared ta-
hosted across hundreds of tablet servers and contains in- bles; this mechanism provides some isolation between
memory column families. the various product groups using this system for per-user
information storage.
8.3 Personalized Search
9 Lessons
Personalized Search (www.google.com/psearch) is an
opt-in service that records user queries and clicks across In the process of designing, implementing, maintaining,
a variety of Google properties such as web search, im- and supporting Bigtable, we gained useful experience
ages, and news. Users can browse their search histories and learned several interesting lessons.
to revisit their old queries and clicks, and they can ask One lesson we learned is that large distributed sys-
for personalized search results based on their historical tems are vulnerable to many types of failures, not just
Google usage patterns. the standard network partitions and fail-stop failures as-
Personalized Search stores each user’s data in sumed in many distributed protocols. For example, we
Bigtable. Each user has a unique userid and is assigned have seen problems due to all of the following causes:
a row named by that userid. All user actions are stored memory and network corruption, large clock skew, hung
in a table. A separate column family is reserved for each machines, extended and asymmetric network partitions,
type of action (for example, there is a column family that bugs in other systems that we are using (Chubby for ex-
stores all web queries). Each data element uses as its ample), overflow of GFS quotas, and planned and un-
Bigtable timestamp the time at which the corresponding planned hardware maintenance. As we have gained more
user action occurred. Personalized Search generates user experience with these problems, we have addressed them
profiles using a MapReduce over Bigtable. These user by changing various protocols. For example, we added
profiles are used to personalize live search results. checksumming to our RPC mechanism. We also handled

To appear in OSDI 2006 11


some problems by removing assumptions made by one the behavior of Chubby features that were seldom exer-
part of the system about another part. For example, we cised by other applications. We discovered that we were
stopped assuming a given Chubby operation could return spending an inordinate amount of time debugging ob-
only one of a fixed set of errors. scure corner cases, not only in Bigtable code, but also in
Another lesson we learned is that it is important to Chubby code. Eventually, we scrapped this protocol and
delay adding new features until it is clear how the new moved to a newer simpler protocol that depends solely
features will be used. For example, we initially planned on widely-used Chubby features.
to support general-purpose transactions in our API. Be-
cause we did not have an immediate use for them, how- 10 Related Work
ever, we did not implement them. Now that we have
many real applications running on Bigtable, we have The Boxwood project [24] has components that overlap
been able to examine their actual needs, and have discov- in some ways with Chubby, GFS, and Bigtable, since it
ered that most applications require only single-row trans- provides for distributed agreement, locking, distributed
actions. Where people have requested distributed trans- chunk storage, and distributed B-tree storage. In each
actions, the most important use is for maintaining sec- case where there is overlap, it appears that the Box-
ondary indices, and we plan to add a specialized mech- wood’s component is targeted at a somewhat lower level
anism to satisfy this need. The new mechanism will than the corresponding Google service. The Boxwood
be less general than distributed transactions, but will be project’s goal is to provide infrastructure for building
more efficient (especially for updates that span hundreds higher-level services such as file systems or databases,
of rows or more) and will also interact better with our while the goal of Bigtable is to directly support client
scheme for optimistic cross-data-center replication. applications that wish to store data.
A practical lesson that we learned from supporting Many recent projects have tackled the problem of pro-
Bigtable is the importance of proper system-level mon- viding distributed storage or higher-level services over
itoring (i.e., monitoring both Bigtable itself, as well as wide area networks, often at “Internet scale.” This in-
the client processes using Bigtable). For example, we ex- cludes work on distributed hash tables that began with
tended our RPC system so that for a sample of the RPCs, projects such as CAN [29], Chord [32], Tapestry [37],
it keeps a detailed trace of the important actions done on and Pastry [30]. These systems address concerns that do
behalf of that RPC. This feature has allowed us to de- not arise for Bigtable, such as highly variable bandwidth,
tect and fix many problems such as lock contention on untrusted participants, or frequent reconfiguration; de-
tablet data structures, slow writes to GFS while com- centralized control and Byzantine fault tolerance are not
mitting Bigtable mutations, and stuck accesses to the Bigtable goals.
METADATA table when METADATA tablets are unavail- In terms of the distributed data storage model that one
able. Another example of useful monitoring is that ev- might provide to application developers, we believe the
ery Bigtable cluster is registered in Chubby. This allows key-value pair model provided by distributed B-trees or
us to track down all clusters, discover how big they are, distributed hash tables is too limiting. Key-value pairs
see which versions of our software they are running, how are a useful building block, but they should not be the
much traffic they are receiving, and whether or not there only building block one provides to developers. The
are any problems such as unexpectedly large latencies. model we chose is richer than simple key-value pairs,
The most important lesson we learned is the value and supports sparse semi-structured data. Nonetheless,
of simple designs. Given both the size of our system it is still simple enough that it lends itself to a very effi-
(about 100,000 lines of non-test code), as well as the cient flat-file representation, and it is transparent enough
fact that code evolves over time in unexpected ways, we (via locality groups) to allow our users to tune important
have found that code and design clarity are of immense behaviors of the system.
help in code maintenance and debugging. One exam- Several database vendors have developed parallel
ple of this is our tablet-server membership protocol. Our databases that can store large volumes of data. Oracle’s
first protocol was simple: the master periodically issued Real Application Cluster database [27] uses shared disks
leases to tablet servers, and tablet servers killed them- to store data (Bigtable uses GFS) and a distributed lock
selves if their lease expired. Unfortunately, this proto- manager (Bigtable uses Chubby). IBM’s DB2 Parallel
col reduced availability significantly in the presence of Edition [4] is based on a shared-nothing [33] architecture
network problems, and was also sensitive to master re- similar to Bigtable. Each DB2 server is responsible for
covery time. We redesigned the protocol several times a subset of the rows in a table which it stores in a local
until we had a protocol that performed well. However, relational database. Both products provide a complete
the resulting protocol was too complex and depended on relational model with transactions.

To appear in OSDI 2006 12


Bigtable locality groups realize similar compression Given the unusual interface to Bigtable, an interest-
and disk read performance benefits observed for other ing question is how difficult it has been for our users to
systems that organize data on disk using column-based adapt to using it. New users are sometimes uncertain of
rather than row-based storage, including C-Store [1, 34] how to best use the Bigtable interface, particularly if they
and commercial products such as Sybase IQ [15, 36], are accustomed to using relational databases that support
SenSage [31], KDB+ [22], and the ColumnBM storage general-purpose transactions. Nevertheless, the fact that
layer in MonetDB/X100 [38]. Another system that does many Google products successfully use Bigtable demon-
vertical and horizontal data partioning into flat files and strates that our design works well in practice.
achieves good data compression ratios is AT&T’s Day- We are in the process of implementing several addi-
tona database [19]. Locality groups do not support CPU- tional Bigtable features, such as support for secondary
cache-level optimizations, such as those described by indices and infrastructure for building cross-data-center
Ailamaki [2]. replicated Bigtables with multiple master replicas. We
The manner in which Bigtable uses memtables and have also begun deploying Bigtable as a service to prod-
SSTables to store updates to tablets is analogous to the uct groups, so that individual groups do not need to main-
way that the Log-Structured Merge Tree [26] stores up- tain their own clusters. As our service clusters scale,
dates to index data. In both systems, sorted data is we will need to deal with more resource-sharing issues
buffered in memory before being written to disk, and within Bigtable itself [3, 5].
reads must merge data from memory and disk. Finally, we have found that there are significant ad-
C-Store and Bigtable share many characteristics: both vantages to building our own storage solution at Google.
systems use a shared-nothing architecture and have two We have gotten a substantial amount of flexibility from
different data structures, one for recent writes, and one designing our own data model for Bigtable. In addi-
for storing long-lived data, with a mechanism for mov- tion, our control over Bigtable’s implementation, and
ing data from one form to the other. The systems dif- the other Google infrastructure upon which Bigtable de-
fer significantly in their API: C-Store behaves like a pends, means that we can remove bottlenecks and ineffi-
relational database, whereas Bigtable provides a lower ciencies as they arise.
level read and write interface and is designed to support
many thousands of such operations per second per server. Acknowledgements
C-Store is also a “read-optimized relational DBMS”,
whereas Bigtable provides good performance on both We thank the anonymous reviewers, David Nagle, and
read-intensive and write-intensive applications. our shepherd Brad Calder, for their feedback on this pa-
Bigtable’s load balancer has to solve some of the same per. The Bigtable system has benefited greatly from the
kinds of load and memory balancing problems faced by feedback of our many users within Google. In addition,
shared-nothing databases (e.g., [11, 35]). Our problem is we thank the following people for their contributions to
somewhat simpler: (1) we do not consider the possibility Bigtable: Dan Aguayo, Sameer Ajmani, Zhifeng Chen,
of multiple copies of the same data, possibly in alternate Bill Coughran, Mike Epstein, Healfdene Goguen, Robert
forms due to views or indices; (2) we let the user tell us Griesemer, Jeremy Hylton, Josh Hyman, Alex Khesin,
what data belongs in memory and what data should stay Joanna Kulik, Alberto Lerner, Sherry Listgarten, Mike
on disk, rather than trying to determine this dynamically; Maloney, Eduardo Pinheiro, Kathy Polizzi, Frank Yellin,
(3) we have no complex queries to execute or optimize. and Arthur Zwiegincew.

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To appear in OSDI 2006 14

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