Data structures and algorithms in the C++ Weeks 7&8

standard library

Algorithms and Data Structures in C++

Algorithms and Data Structures

♦  A key to successful programming

♦  A core subject of computer science taking a full semester
♦  Just teaching the C++ standard library also takes a full semester

♦  Very important for CSE (RW) but there is no special course

♦  I will spend a few weeks on algorithms and data structures in C++
♦  Read a book to learn more, e.g.:

Adam Drozdek “Data Structures and Algorithms in C++” (Brooks/Cole,
2001)
♦  Read a C++ text book (Stroustrup, Lipman) to learn the details of data
structures and algorithms
♦  Use and practice data structures and algorithms in the Penna model

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Complexity analysis

♦  Answers the question “How does the time needed for an algorithm
scale with the problem size N?”
♦  Worst case analysis: maximum time needed over all possible inputs
♦  Best case analysis: minimum time needed
♦  Average case analysis: average time needed
♦  Amortized analysis: average over a sequence of operations

♦  Usually only worst-case information is given since average case is

much harder to estimate.

The O notation

♦  Is used for worst case analysis:


An algorithm is O(f (N)) if there are constants c and N0, such that for
N≥ N0 the time to perform the algorithm for an input size N is
bounded by t(N) < c f(N)

♦  Consequences
♦  O(f(N)) is identically the same as O(a f(N))
♦  O(a Nx + b Ny) is identically the same as O(Nmax(x,y))
♦  O(Nx) implies O(Ny) for all y ≥ x

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The Ω and Θ notations

♦  Ω is used for best case analysis:


An algorithm is Ω(f (N)) if there are constants c and N0, such that
for N≥ N0 the time to perform the algorithm for an input size N is
bounded by t(N) > c f(N)

♦  Θ is used if worst and best case scale the same


An algorithm is Θ(f (N)) if it is Ω(f (N)) and O(f (N))

Time assuming 1 billion operations per second

Complexity N=10 102 103 104 105 106

1 1 ns 1 ns 1 ns 1 ns 1 ns 1ns

ln N 3 ns 7 ns 10 ns 13 ns 17 ns 20 ns

N 10 ns 100 ns 1 µs 10 µs 100 µs 1 ms

N log N 33 ns 664 ns 10 µs 133 µs 1.7 ms 20 ms

N2 100 ns 10 µs 1 ms 100 ms 10 s 17 min

N3 1 µs 1 ms 1 s 17 min 11.5 d 31 a

2N 1 µs 1014 a 10285 a 102996 a 1030086 a 10301013 a

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Which algorithm do you prefer?

♦  When do you pick algorithm A, when algorithm B? The complexities are

listed below

Algorithm A Algorithm B Which do you pick?

O(ln N) O(N)
O(ln N) N
O(ln N) 1000 N
ln N O(N)
1000 ln N O(N)
ln N N
ln N 1000 N
1000 ln N N

Complexity: example 1

♦  What is the O, Ω and Θ complexity of the following code?


double x;

std::cin >> x;

std::cout << std::sqrt(x);

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Complexity: example 2

♦  What is the O, Ω and Θ complexity of the following code? 


unsigned int n;


std::cin >> n;

for (int i=0; i<n; ++i)

std::cout << i*i << “\n”;

Complexity: example 3

♦  What is the O, Ω and Θ complexity of the following code?


unsigned int n;


std::cin >> n;

for (int i=0; i<n; ++i) {

unsigned int sum=0;

for (int j=0; j<i; ++j)

sum += j; 

std::cout << sum << “\n”;

}

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Complexity: example 4

♦  What is the O, Ω and Θ complexity of the following two segments?

♦  Part 1:

unsigned int n;

std::cin >> n;

double* x=new double[n]; // allocate array of n numbers

for (int i=0; i<n; ++i)

std::cin >> x[i];


♦  Part 2:

double y;

std::cin >> y;

for (int i=0; i<n; ++i)

if (x[i]==y) {

std::cout << i << “\n”;

break;

}


Complexity: adding to an array (simple way)

♦  What is the complexity of adding an element to the end of an

array?
♦  allocate a new array with N+1 entries
♦  copy N old entries
♦  delete old arrray
♦  write (N+1)-st element

♦  The complexity is O(N)

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Complexity: adding to an array (clever way)

♦  What is the complexity of adding an element to the end of an

array?
♦  allocate a new array with 2N entries, but mark only N+1 as used
♦  copy N old entries
♦  delete old arrray
♦  write (N+1)-st element

♦  The complexity is O(N), but letʼs look at the next elements added:
♦  mark one more element as used
♦  write additional element

♦  The complexity here is O(1)

♦  The amortized (averaged) complexity for N elements added is
1
(O(N) + (N −1)O(1)) = O(1)
N

The standard C++ library

♦  consists of several parts

♦  standard C library, same as in C
♦  string class
♦  I/O streams
♦  numeric classes
♦  complex
♦  numeric_limits
♦  valarray
♦  …
♦  former STL (“standard template library”)
♦  Containers (data structures) and algorithms
♦  iterators
♦  generic algorithms
♦  Many other useful classes

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The string and wstring classes

♦  are very useful class to manipulate strings

♦  string for standard ASCII strings (e.g. “English”)
♦  wstring for wide character strings (e.g. “日本語”)

♦  Contains many useful functions for string manipulation

♦  Adding strings
♦  Counting and searching of characters
♦  Finding substrings
♦  Erasing substrings
♦  …

♦  Since this is not very important for numerical simulations I will not
go into details. Please read your C++ book

The pair template

♦  template <class T1, class T2> class pair {


public:

T1 first;

T2 second;

pair(const T1& f, const T2& s)

: first(f), second(s)

{}

};


♦  will be useful in a number of places

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Data structures in C++

♦  We will discuss a number of data structures and their implementation

in C++:

♦  Arrays: ♦  Trees

♦  C array ♦  map
♦  vector ♦  set
♦  valarray ♦  multimap
♦  deque ♦  multiset

♦  Linked lists: ♦  Queues and stacks

♦  list ♦  queue
♦  priority_queue
♦  stack

The array or vector data structure

♦  An array/vector is a consecutive range in memory

♦  Advantages
♦  Fast O(1) access to arbitrary elements: a[i] is *(a+i)
♦  Profits from cache effects
♦  Insertion or removal at the end is O(1)
♦  Searching in a sorted array is O(ln N)

♦  Disadvantage
♦  Insertion and removal at arbitrary positions is O(N)

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Slow O(N) insertion and removal in an array

♦  Inserting an element
♦  Need to copy O(N) elements

a b c d e f g h

a b c d x e f g h

♦  Removing an element
♦  Also need to copy O(N) elements

a b c d e f g h

a b c e f g h

Fast O(1) removal and insertion at the end of an array

♦  Removing the last element

♦  Just change the size
♦  Capacity 8, size 6: a b c d e f spare
elements
♦  Capacity 8, size 5: a b c d e

♦  Inserting elements at the end

♦  Is amortized O(1)
♦  first double the size and copy in O(N): a b c d

a b c d e
♦  then just change the size:
a b c d e f

a b c d e f g

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The deque data structure (double ended queue)

♦  Is a variant of an array, more complicated to implement

♦  See a data structures book for details

♦  In addition to the array operations also the insertion and removal at

beginning is O(1)

♦  Is needed to implement queues

The stack data structure

♦  Is like a pile of books

♦  LIFO (last in first out): the last one in is the first one out

♦  Allows in O(1)
♦  Pushing an element to the top of the stack
♦  Accessing the top-most element
in out
♦  Removing the top-most element

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The queue data structure

♦  Is like a queue in the Mensa

♦  FIFO (first in first out): the first one in is the first one out

♦  Allows in O(1)
♦  Pushing an element to the end of the queue
♦  Accessing the first and last element in
♦  Removing the first element

out

The priority queue data structure

♦  Is like a queue in the Mensa, but professors are allowed to go to

the head of the queue (not passing other professors though)

♦  The element with highest priority (as given by the < relation) is the first
one out
♦  If there are elements with equal priority, the first one in the queue is
the first one out

♦  There are a number of possible implementations, look at a data

structure book for details

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The linked list data structure

♦  An linked list is a collection of objects linked by pointers into a one

-dimensional sequence

head tail

♦  Advantages
♦  Fast O(1) insertion and removal anywhere
♦  Just reconnect the pointers

♦  Disadvantage
♦  Does not profit from cache effects
♦  Access to an arbitrary element is O(N)
♦  Searching in a list is O(N)

The tree data structures

♦  An array needs
♦  O(N) operations for arbitrary insertions and removals
♦  O(1) operations for random access
♦  O(N) operations for searches
♦  O(ln N) operations for searches in a sorted array

♦  A list needs
♦  O(1) operations for arbitrary insertions and removals
♦  O(N) operations for random access and searches

♦  What if both need to be fast? Use a tree data structure:

♦  O(ln N) operations for arbitrary insertions and removals
♦  O(ln N) operations for random access and searches

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A node in a binary tree

♦  Each node is always linked to two child nodes

♦  The left child is always smaller
♦  The right child node is always larger

d s

A binary tree

♦  Can store N=2n-1 nodes in a tree of height n

♦  Any access needs at most n = O(ln N) steps

♦  Example: a tree of height 5 with 12 nodes

root
m
branch
d s

b g n x

a i w y

z leaf

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Unbalanced trees

♦  Trees can become unbalanced a

♦  Height is no longer O(ln N) but O(N)
♦  All operations become O(N) b

c
♦  Solutions
♦  Rebalance the tree d
♦  Use self-balancing trees
e
♦  Look into a data structures book to learn more
f

Tree data structures in the C++ standard

♦  Fortunately the C++ standard contains a number of self-balancing

tree data structures suitable for most purposes:
♦  set
♦  multiset
♦  map
♦  multimap

♦  But be aware that computer scientists know a large number of

other types of trees and data structures
♦  Read the books
♦  Ask the experts

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The container concept in the C++ standard

♦  Containers are sequences of data, in any of the data structures

♦  vector<T> is an array of elements of type T

♦  list<T> is a doubly linked list of elements of type T
♦  set<T> is a tree of elements of type T

…

♦  The standard assumes the following requirements for the element

T of a container:
♦  default constructor T()
♦  assignment T& operator=(const T&)
♦  copy constructor T(const T&)
♦  Note that assignment and copy have to produce identical copy:

in the Penna model the copy constructor should not mutate!

Traversing an array and a linked list

♦  Two ways for traversing an array
 ♦  Traversing a linked list

♦  Using an index: template <class T> struct Node

{

T elem; // the element

T* a = new T[size]; Node<T>* next; // the next Node
for (int n=0;n<size;++n) };
cout << a[n];

template<class T> struct List
♦  Using pointers: {

Node<T>* first;
};
for (T* p = a; List<T> l;
p !=a+size;
 …
++p)
 for (Node<T>* p=l.first;

cout << *p; p!=0; 

p=p->next)

cout << p->elem;


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Generic traversal

♦  Can we traverse a vector and a

list in the same way?

♦  Instead of ♦  Instead of
for (T* p = a; for (Node<T>* p=l.first;

p !=a+size;
 p!=0; 

++p)
 p=p->next)

cout << *p; cout << p->elem;

♦  We want to write ♦  We want to write

for (iterator p = a.begin(); for (iterator p = l.begin();

p !=a.end();
 p !=l.end();

++p)
 ++p)

cout << *p; cout << *p;

Implementing iterators for the array

template<class T> 
 ♦  Now allows the desired syntax:

class Array {

public:

typedef T* iterator;
 for (Array<T>::iterator p =
typedef unsigned size_type;
 a.begin();
Array();
 p !=a.end();

Array(size_type);
 ++p)

cout << *p;
iterator begin() 

{ return p_;}
 ♦  Instead of

iterator end() 

{ return p_+sz_;}

for (T* p = a.p_;
private:
 p !=a.p_+a.sz_;

T* p_;
 ++p)

size_type sz_;
 cout << *p;
};

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Implementing iterators for the linked list

template <class T>
 template<class T> 


struct LI {
 class List {

Node<T>* p;
 Node<T>* first;

LI(Node<T>* q) :p(q) {}
 public:

typedef LI<T> iterator;

LI<T>& operator++() 

{ p=p->next;}

iterator begin() 

{ return iterator(first);}

T* operator ->() 

{ return &(p->elem);}

iterator end() 

{ return iterator(0);}

T& operator*() 

};
{ return p->elem;}


bool operator!=(const LI& x) 
 ♦  Now also allows the desired syntax:

{ return p!=x.p;}

for (List<T>::iterator p = l.begin();
// more operators missing …
 p !=l.end();

}; ++p)

cout << *p;

Iterators

♦  have the same functionality as pointers


♦  including pointer arithmetic!

♦  iterator a,b; cout << b-a; // # of elements in [a,b[


♦  exist in several versions

♦  forward iterators … move forward through sequence
♦  backward iterators … move backwards through sequence
♦  bidirectional iterators … can move any direction
♦  input iterators … can be read: x=*p;
♦  output iterators … can be written: *p=x;


♦  and all these in const versions (except output iterators)

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Container requirements

♦  There are a number of requirements on a container that we will

now discuss based on the handouts

Containers and sequences

♦  A container is a collection of elements in a data structure

♦  A sequence is a container with a linear ordering (not a tree)

♦  vector
♦  deque
♦  list

♦  An associative container is based on a tree, finds element by a key

♦  map
♦  multimap
♦  set
♦  multiset

♦  The properties are defined on the handouts from the standard

♦  A few special points mentioned on the slides

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Sequence constructors

♦  A sequence is a linear container (vector, deque, list,…)

♦  Constructors
♦  container() … empty container
♦  container(n) … n elements with default value
♦  container(n,x) … n elements with value x
♦  container(c) … copy of container c
♦  container(first,last) … first and last are iterators
♦  container with elements from the range [first,last[

♦  Example:
♦  std::list<double> l;

// fill the list

…

// copy list to a vector

std::vector<double> v(l.begin(),l.end());

Direct element access in deque and vector

♦  Optional element access (not implemented for all containers)

♦  T& container[k] … k-th element, no range check
♦  T& container.at(k) … k-th element, with range check
♦  T& container.front() … first element
♦  T& container.back() … last element

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Inserting and removing at the beginning and end

♦  For all sequences: inserting/removing at end

♦  container.push_back(T x) // add another element at end
♦  container.pop_back() // remove last element

♦  For list and deque (stack, queue)

♦  container.push_first(T x) // insert element at start
♦  container.pop_first() // remove first element

Inserting and erasing anywhere in a sequence

♦  List operations (slow for vectors, deque etc.!)

♦  insert (p,x) // insert x before p
♦  insert(p,n,x) // insert n copies of x before p
♦  insert(p,first,last) // insert [first,last[ before p
♦  erase(p) // erase element at p
♦  erase(first,last) // erase range[first,last[
♦  clear() // erase all

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Vector specific operations

♦  Changing the size

♦  void resize(size_type)
♦  void reserve(size_type)
♦  size_type capacity()
♦  Note:
♦  reserve and capacity regard memory allocated for vector!
♦  resize and size regard memory currently used for vector data

♦  Assignments
♦  container = c … copy of container c
♦  container.assign(n) …assign n elements the default value
♦  container.assign(n,x) … assign n elements the value x
♦  container.assign(first,last) … assign values from the range
[first,last[
♦  Watch out: assignment does not allocate, do a resize before!

The valarray template

♦  acts like a vector but with additional (mis)features:

♦  No iterators
♦  No reserve
♦  Resize is fast but erases contents

♦  for numeric operations are defined:


std::valarray<double> x(100), y(100), z(100);


x=y+exp(z);


♦  Be careful: it is not the fastest library!

♦  We will learn about faster libraries later

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Sequence adapters: queue and stack

♦  are based on deques, but can also use vectors and lists
♦  stack is first in-last out
♦  queue is first in-first out
♦  priority_queue prioritizes with < operator
♦  stack functions
♦  void push(const T& x) … insert at top
♦  void pop() … removes top
♦  T& top()
♦  const T& top() const
♦  queue functions
♦  void push(const T& x) … inserts at end
♦  void pop() … removes front
♦  T& front(), T& back(), 

const T& front(), const T& back()

list -specific functions

♦  The following functions exist only for std::list:

♦  splice
♦  joins lists without copying, moves elements from one to end of the other
♦  sort
♦  optimized sort, just relinks the list without copying elements
♦  merge
♦  preserves order when “splicing” sorted lists
♦  remove(T x)
♦  remove_if(criterion)
♦  criterion is a function object or function, returning a bool and taking a const T& as
argument, see Penna model
♦  example:
bool is_negative(const T& x) { return x<0;}
♦  can be used like
list.remove_if(is_negative);

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The map class

♦  implements associative arrays

♦  map<std::string,long> phone_book;

phone_book[“Troyer”] = 32589;

phone_book[“Heeb”] = 32591;

if(phone_book[name])

cout << “The phone number of “ << name << “ is “ 

<< phone_book[name];

else

cout << name << “\’s phone number is unknown!’;
♦  is implemented as a tree of pairs
♦  Take care:
♦  map<T1,T2>::value_type is pair<T1,T2>
♦  map<T1,T2>::key_type is T1
♦  map<T1,T2>::mapped_type is T2
♦  insert, remove, … are sometimes at first sight confusing for a map!

Other tree-like containers

♦  multimap
♦  can contain more than one entry (e.g. phone number) per key

♦  set
♦  unordered container, each entry occurs only once

♦  multiset
♦  unordered container, multiple entries possible


♦  extensions are no problem

♦  if a data structure is missing, just write your own
♦  good exercise for understanding of containers

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Search operations in trees

♦  In a map<K,V>, K is the key type and V the mapped type

♦  Attention: iterators point to pairs

♦  In a map<T>, T is the key type and also the value_type

♦  Fast O(log N) searches are possible in trees:

♦  a.find(k) returns an iterator pointing to an element with key k or
end() if it is not found.
♦  a.count(k) returns the number of elements with key k.
♦  a.lower_bound(k) returns an iterator pointing to the first element
with key >= k.
♦  a.upper_bound(k) returns an iterator pointing to the first element
with key > k.
♦  a.equal_range(k) is equivalent to but faster than

std::make_pair(a.lower_bound(k) , a.upper_bound(k))

Search example in a tree

♦  Look for all my phone numbers:

♦  // some typedefs

typedef multimap<std::string, int> phonebook_t;

typedef phonebook_t::const_iterator IT;

typedef phonebook_t::value_type value_type;


// the phonebook 

phonebook_t phonebook;


// fill the phonebook


phonebook.insert(value_type(“Troyer”,32589));

…


// search all my phone numbers 


pair< IT,IT> range = phonebook.equal_range(“Troyer”);


// print all my phone numbers 


for (IT it=range.first; it != range.second;++it)

cout << it->second << “\n”;


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Almost Containers

♦  C-style array
♦  string
♦  valarray
♦  bitset

♦  They all provide almost all the functionality of a container

♦  They can be used like a container in many instances, but not all
♦  int x[5] = {3,7,2,9,4};

vector<int> v(x,x+5);
♦  uses vector(first,last), pointers are also iterators!

The generic algorithms

♦  Implement a big number of useful algorithms


♦  Can be used on any container

♦  rely only on existence of iterators
♦  “container-free algorithms”
♦  now all the fuss about containers pays off!


♦  Very useful


♦  Are an excellent example in generic programming


♦  We will use them now for the Penna model


Thatʼs why we did not ask you to code the Population class for the
Penna model yet!

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Example: find

♦  A generic function to find an element in a container:

♦  list<string> fruits;

list<string>::const_iterator found =

find(fruits.begin(),fruits.end(),”apple”);

if (found==fruits.end()) // end means invalid iterator

cout << “No apple in the list”;

else

cout << “Found it: “ << *found << “\n”;

♦  find declared and implemented as

♦  <template class In, class T>

In find(In first, In last, T v) {

while (first != last && *first != v)

++first;

return first;

}

Example: find_if

♦  takes predicate (function object or function)

♦  bool favorite_fruits(const std::string& name) 

{ return (name==“apple” || name == “orange”);}


♦  can be used with find_if function:

♦  list<string>::const_iterator found =

find_if(fruits.begin(),fruits.end(),favorite_fruits);

if (found==fruits.end())

cout << “No favorite fruits in the list”;

else

cout << “Found it: “ << *found << “\n”;

♦  find_if declared and implemented as as

♦  <template class In, class Pred>

In find_if(In first, In last, Pred p) {

while (first != last && !p(*first) )

++first;

return first;

}

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Member functions as predicates

♦  We want to find the first pregnant animal:

♦  list<Animal> pop;

find_if(pop.begin(),pop.end(),is_pregnant)


♦  This does not work as expected, it expects

♦  bool is_pregnant(const Animal&);
♦  We want to use
♦  bool Animal::pregnant() const


♦  Solution: mem_fun_ref function adapter

♦  find_if(pop.begin(),pop.end(),

mem_fun_ref(&Animal::pregnant));


♦  Many other useful adapters available

♦  Once again: please read the books before coding your own!

push_back and back_inserter

♦  Attention:
♦  vector<int> v,w;

for (int k=0;k<100;++k){

v[k]=k; //error: v is size 0!

w.push_back(k); // OK:grows the array and assigns

}
♦  Same problem with copy:
♦  vector<int> v(100), w(0);

copy(v.begin(),v.end(),w.begin()); // problem: w of size 0!
♦  Solution1: vectors only
♦  w.resize(v.size()); copy(v.begin(),v.end(),w.begin());
♦  Solution 2: elegant
♦  copy(v.begin(),v.end(),back_inserter(w)); // uses push_back
♦  also push_front and front_inserter for some containers

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Penna Population

♦  easiest modeled as
♦  class Population : public list<Animal> {…}
♦  Removing dead:
♦  remove_if(mem_fun_ref(&Animal::is_dead));
♦  Removing dead, and others with probability N/N0:
♦  remove_if(animal_dies(N/N0));
♦  where animal_dies is a function object taking N/N0 as parameter
♦  Inserting children:
♦  cannot go into same container, as that might invalidate iterators:

vector<Animal> children;

for(const_iterator a=begin();a!=end();++a)

if(a->pregnant()) 

children.push_back(a->child());

copy(children.begin(),children.end(),

back_inserter(*this);

The binary search

♦  Searching using binary search in a sorted vector is O(ln N)

♦  Binary search is recursive search in range [begin,end[

♦  If range is empty, return
♦  Otherwise test middle=begin+(end-begin)/2
♦  If the element in the middle is the search value, we are done
♦  If it is larger, search in [begin,middle[
♦  If it is smaller, search in [middle,end[

♦  The search range is halved in every step and we thus need at most
O(ln N) steps

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Example: lower_bound

template<class IT, class T>

IT lower_bound(IT first, IT last, const T& val) {
typedef typename iterator_traits<IT>::difference_type dist_t;
dist_t len = distance(first, last); // generic function for last-first
dist_t half;
IT middle;
while (len > 0) {
half = len >> 1; // faster version of half=len/2
middle = first;

advance(middle, half);// generic function for middle+=half
if (*middle < val) {
first = middle; 

++first;
len = len - half - 1;

}
else

len = half;

}
return first;
}

Algorithms overview

♦  Nonmodifying ♦  Modifying
♦  for_each ♦  transform
♦  find, find_if, ♦  copy, copy_backward
find_first_of ♦  swap, iter_swap,
♦  adjacent_find swap_ranges
♦  count, count_if ♦  replace, replace_if,
♦  mismatch replace_copy,
♦  equal replace_copy_if
♦  fill, fill_n
♦  search
♦  generate, generate_n
♦  find_end
♦  remove, remove_if,
♦  search_n
remove_copy,
remove_copy_if
♦  unique, unique_copy
♦  reverse, reverse_copy
♦  rotate, rotate_copy
♦  random_shuffle

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Algorithms overview (continued)

♦  Sorted Sequences ♦  Set Algorithms

♦  sort,stable_sort ♦  includes
♦  partial_sort, ♦  set_union
partial_sort_copy ♦  set_intersection
♦  nth_element ♦  set_difference
♦  lower_bound, upper_bound ♦  set_symmetric_difference

♦  equal_range
♦  binary_search ♦  Minimum and Maximum
♦  merge, inplace_merge ♦  min
♦  partition, ♦  max
stable_partition
 ♦  min_element
♦  max_element
♦  Permutations ♦  lexicographical_compare
♦  next_permutation
♦  prev_permutation

Exercise

♦  Code the population class for the Penna model based on a

standard container
♦  Use function objects to determine death


♦  In the example we used a loop.

♦  Can you code the population class without using any loop?
♦  This would increase the reliability as the structure is simpler!


♦  Also add fishing in two variants:

♦  fish some percentage of the whole population
♦  fish some percentage of adults only

♦  Read Penna's papers and simulate the Atlantic cod! 


Physica A, 215, 298 (1995)

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standard library

stream iterators and Shakespeare

♦  Iterators can also be used for streams and files

♦  istream_iterator
♦  ostream_iterator


♦  Now you should be able to understand Shakespeare:


int main()

{

vector<string> data;

copy(istream_iterator<string>(cin),istream_iterator<string>(),

back_inserter(data));

sort(data.begin(), data.end());

unique_copy(data.begin(),data.end(),ostream_iterator<string>(cout,"\n"));

}


Summary

♦  Please read the sections on

♦  containers
♦  iterators
♦  algorithms
♦  in Stroustrup or Lippman (3rd editions only!)


♦  Examples of excellent class and function designs

♦  Before writing your own functions and classes:

Check the standard C++ library!
♦  When writing your own functions/classes:

Try to emulate the design of the standard library
♦  Don't forget to include the required headers:
♦  <algorithm>, <functional>, <map>, <iterators>, … as needed

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