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924 views704 pagesIntroduction To The Finite Element Method - J.N.REDDY
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/ 704
AN INTRODUCTION
TO THE
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD McGraw-Hill Series in Mechanical Engineering
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McGraw-Hill, Ine
Princeton Road, S-1
Hightstown, NJ 08520 AN INTRODUCTION
TO THE
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
Second Edition
J.N. Reddy
Oscar 8. Wyatt Chair in Mechanical Engineering
Texas Ad&M University
College Station, Texas 77843
McGraw-l Hill, I Inc.
New Yok tous San Rrancico Auckland, Bogott
Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Milan Montceal
Now Delt Pus Sun Juan Singupre Syanoy Tokyo Teron “TA pet
“This book was set in Times Roman.
‘The editors were John J. Corrigan and John M. Morrss;, Ro aa
the production supervisor was Louie Karan
"The cover wat designed by Joseph Gillian {0
Project supervision was done by The Universities Press
R. R. Donnelley & Sors Company was printer and binder.
TAILFSRE1993.—wuretsomamy
Aa arodacten fe tte semeat
inna
269154
[AN INTRODUCTION 10 THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
Copytight © 1993, 1984 by MeGraw-Hil, In. All ights reserved. Printed i the United
‘States of America, Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976,
to part ofthis publication may be reproduced o distributed in any form or by any
Ticens of stored in a data base or retrieval sytem, without the prior written permission
‘of the publisher.
294567890 DOCMOC 99876549
ISBN 007-051355-4
Library of Congress Cataloging
edly, 1. N. Joba N.)
"An introduction t0 the finite element method/J. N. Reddy.—2nd
ed.
pe cm—{MeGraw-Hil series in mechanical engineering)
Incies bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-97.051355-4
1, Finite element method, 1. Series.
TAMTESRE 1993 -
(6207 0013153520 9.29532 ABOUT THE AUTHOR
N, Reddy is the inaugural holder of the Oscar S. Wyatt, Jr, Endowed Chair
‘Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M’ University. Prior to the current
‘appointment, he was the Clifton C. Garvin Chaired Professor of Engineering
Science and Mechanics at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
After receiving his Ph.D. in Applied Mechanics in 1974, he joined Lockheed
Missiles and Space Company in Huntsville, Alabama, as a rescarch scientist.
In 1975, he joined the School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Nuclear
Engineering at the University of Oklahoma. In 1980, he was appointed as a
professor of Engineering Science and Mechanics at Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University
Dr. Reddy has authored and coauthored over 150 journal papers and
seven books on the theory and applications of the finite element method in
solid and structural mechanics, fiuid mechanics and heat transfer, and on the
development of refined theories and finite element models of laminated
composite plates and shells.
Dr. Reddy has taught many short courses on the finite element method to
induistry and government, and has received Certificates of Teaching Excellence
from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
Dr. Reddy serves on the editorial boards of a dozen journals, including
Journal of Applied Mechanics, Meccanica, International Journal for Numerical
Methods in Engineering, International Journal of Numerical Methods in Fluids,
Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics, and Journal of Composites Technology and
Research, He has received the College of Engineering Research Award from
the University of Oklahoma and the Alumni Research Award from the
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Dr. Reddy was awarded
the 1989 Walter L. Huber Research Prize of the American Society of
Engineers and 1992 Worcester Reed Warner Medal of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers. He is a Fellow of the American Academy of Mectan-
, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the American Society of
ivil Engineers, and the Aeronautical Society of India.
vii To My FAMILY
‘Aruna, Anita, and Anil CONTENTS
Preface to the Second Edition xvii
Preface to the First Edition xix
Part 1 Preliminaries
1 Introduction 3
1.1 General Comments 3
1.2. Historical Background 5
5
5
6
13 1 Concept of the Finite Element Method
General Comments
Approximation of the Circumference of a Circle
Approximate Determination of the Center of Mass 8
Solution of Differential Equati 10
Some Remarks 3
1.4 The Present Study 15
1.5. Summary 15
References for Additional Reading 16
2. Integral Formulations and Variational Methods 18
2.1 Need for Weighted-Integral Forms 18
2.2 Some Mathematical Concepts and Formulze 20
2.2.1 Boundary, initial, and Eigenvalue Problems 20
2.2.2 Integral Relations 2
2.23 Functionals 26
2.2.4 The Variational Symbol 2
2.3. Weak Formulation of Boundary Value Problems 28
23.1. Introduction 28
2.3.2 Weightcd-Integral and Weak Formulations 28
2.3.3 Linear and Bilinear Forms and Quadratic Functionals 33
234 Examples 35 x
‘contests
2.4 Variational Methods of Approximation
2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2. The Rayleigh-Ritz Method
24:3. The Method of Weighted Residuals
25 Summary
Problems
References for Additional Reading
Part 2. Finite Element Analysis of
One-Dimensional Problems:
3 Second-Order Boundary Value Problems
3.41. Introduction
3.2. Basic Steps of Finite Element Analysis
3.2.1 Model Boundary Value Problem
3.2.2. Discrotization of the Domain
3.2.3 Derivation of Element Equations
3.2.4 Connectivity of Elements
32.5 Imposition of Boundary Conditions
3.2.6. Solution of Equations
3.2.7. Postprocessing of the Sotution
3.2.8 Radially Symmetric Problems
3.3 Applications
33.1 Heat Transfer
33.2 Fluid Mechanies
3.3.3. Solid Mechanics
3.4. Summary
Problems
References for Additional Reading.
4 Bending of Beams
4.1 Introduction
42. The Euler-Bernouli Beam Element
42.1 Governing Equation
42.2. Disertization ofthe Domain
Derivation of Element Equ:
‘Assembly of Element Equatio
‘of Boundary Conditions
427
42:8 Examples
4.3. Plane Truss and Euler—Bernoulli Frame Elements
44 The Timoshenko Beam and Frame Elements
44.1 Governing Equations
44.2 Weak Form
Postprocessing of the Solution
443. Finite Element Model
4.5. Inclusion of Constraint Equations
4.6 Summary
eesesss
oa
0
9
95
95
103
105
uy
13
wt
128
ua
3
3
143
143
144
14a
1st
154
156
158
160
167
a
7
m
178
187
11 comms xi
Problems 192
References for Adéitional Reading 198
Finite Element Error Analysis 199
5.1. Approximation Errors 19
5.2. Various Measures of Erors 200
533. Convergence of Solution 21
514 Accuracy ofthe Solution 202
5.5. Summary 207
Problems 207
References for Additional Reading 208
Eigenvalue and Time-Dependent Problems 209
6.1. Eigenvalue Problems 209
6.14 Introduction 208
642. Formulation of Eigenvalue Problems 210
6.13 Finite Element Models 213
6.1.4 Applications 216
6.2 Time-Dependent Problems ns
6.2.1 Introduction 224
62.2. Semidscrete Finite Element Models 225
62.3 Time Approximations 7
6.2.4 Mass Lomping m2
62.5 Applications 23
63 Summary eos
Problems 261
References for Additional Reading 245
Numerical Integration and Computer
Implementation 246
2A Tzoparametric Formulations and Nomeres! Integration 246
7AM Background 246
712 Natural Coordinates 248
74.3 Approximation of Geometry 29
714 Isoparametsic Formulations 251
7.1.5 Numerical Integration 251
72. Computer Implementation 238
72:1 Introductory Comments 258
General Outtine 239
Preprocessor 260
CCaleulation of Flement Matrices (Processor) 262
‘Assembly of Element Equations (Processor) 265
Imposition of Boundary Conditions (Processor) 261
Solution of Equations and Postprocessing 26
13. Applications of the Computer Program FEMIDV2 200
TBA General Comments 20
73.2 Mlustrative Examples m
7.4 Summary 286
Problems 281
References for Additional Reading 291 xii cones
Part 3. Finite Element Analysis of
Two-Dimensional Problems
8 Single-Variable Problems
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Boundary Value Problems
8.2.1. ‘The Model Equation
8.2.2 Finite Flement Discretization
‘Weak Form
Finite Element Model
Interpolation Functions
Evaluation of Element Matrices and Vectors.
‘Assembly of Element Equations
Postprocessing.
‘Axisymmetric Problems
‘An Example
8.3 Some Comments on Mesh Generation and Imposition
‘of Boundary Conditions
83.1 Discretization of a Domain
83.2 Generation of Finite Element Data
8.3.3 Imposition of Boundary Conditions
84 Applications
1 Heat Transfer
8.4.2 Fluid Mechanics
8.4.3. Solid Mechanics
8,5. Eigenvalue and Time-Dependent Problems
85.1 Introduction
8.5.2 Parabolic Equations
8.5.3 Hyperbolic Equations
8.6 Summary
Problems
References for Additional Reading
9 Interpolation Functions, Numerical Integration,
and Modeling Considerations
9:1. Library of Elements and Interpolation Functions
9.1.1 Introduction
9.12 Triangolar Elements
9.43 Rectangular Elements
911.4 The Serendipity Elements
9.2. Numetial Integration
9.2.1 Preliminary Comments
922 Coordinate Transformations
9.2.3 Integration over a Master Rectangular Element
9.2.4. Integration over a Master Teiangular Blement
9.3. Modeling Considerations
93.1 Preliminary Comments
9°32 Element Geometries
93.3 Mesh Generation
9.3 Load Representation
94 Summary
334 10
i
Problems
References for Additional Reading
Plane Elasticity
10.1. Introduction
10.2, Governing Equations
10.2.1 Assumptions of Pane Elasticity
102.2 Basie Equations
10.3. Weak Formulations
103.4 Preliminary Comments
10:32. Peiniple of Virtual Displacements in Matrix Form
10.33 Weak Form ofthe Governing Differential
Equations
10.4. Finite Blement Model
10.4.1. Matrix Form ofthe Modet
1042. Weak Form Model
10.4.3 Bigenvalue and Transient Problems
10.5. Evaluation of Integrals
10.6 Assembly and Boundary and Initial Conditions
10.7 Examples
10.8 Summary
Problems
References for Additional Reading
Flows of Viscous Incompressible Fluids
AL1 Preliminary Comments
11.2 Governing Equations
11.3 Velocity-Pressure Finite Blement Model
11.4 Penalty-Finite Element Model
11.4.1 Penalty Function Method
11.4.2. Formulation of the Flow Problem as a Constrained
Problem
References for Additional Reading
Bending of Elastic Plates
12.1 Introduction
122. Classical Plate Model
12.2.1 Displacement Field
12.2.2 Virtual Work Statement
12.2.3 Finite Element Model
12.3 Shear Deformable Plate Model
12.3.1 Displacement Field
32.3.2 Virtual Work Statement
12.3.3 Finite Element Model
12.3.4 Shear Locking and Reduced Integration
12.4 Bigenvalue and Time-Dependent Problems
516
516
317
518
S19 xiv comers
12.5. Examples sa
12.6. Summary 52
Problems 329
References for Adsitional Reading, 331
13 Computer Implementation 533
BAL Introduction 533
13.2. Preprocessor 38
13.3._Elemont Computations: Processor 535
13 Applications ofthe Computer Progrom FEM2DV2 540
134.1 Inoduetion 540
15.42 Description of Mesh Genrators 548
13.43 Applications (Hvstrative Examples) ssi
13.5. Summary 563
Problems 570
References for Additional Reading 575
Part 4 Advanced Topics
14 Weighted-Residual Finite Element Models,
and Finite Blement Models of Nonlinear
and Three-Dimensional Problems 319
14.1 Introduction 51
142. Alternative Formulations 5380
14.2.1. Introductory Comments 580
1422 Weighted-Residual Finite Element Models 530
Mixed Formulations 590
ar Problems 594
‘General Comments 504
Large Deftection Bending of (Euler~Bernoull)
Beams 595
14.3.3 Solution Methods for Noalinear Algebraic
Equations 397
14.34 The 2-D Novier-Stokes Equations 598
14.4, Three-Dimensional Problems 599
14.5. Summary oo
Problems a
References for Additional Reading 606
Appendixes
Appendixes
1 Fortran Listing of FEMIDV2 oo
2 Fortran Listing of FEM2DV2 640
Index - 679 PREFACE TO THE
SECOND EDITION
‘This second edition has the same objectives as the first, namely, an
introduction to the finite element method as applied to linear, one- and
two-dimensional problems of engineering and applied sciences. ‘The revisions
are mainly in the form of additional details, expansion of the topics discussed,
and the addition of a few topics to make the coverage more complete.
‘The major organizational change from the first edition is the division of
its five chapters into fourteen chapters here. These chapters are grouped into
four parts. This reorganization should aid instructors in selecting suitable
material for courses. Other organizational changes include putting problem
sets at the ends of the chapters, providing a chapter summary for each, and
reviewing pertinent cquations and text in each chapter instead of referring to
several chapters back. In addition, example problems in Chapters 3 and 8 are
presented in separate sections on heat transfer, fluid flow, and solid mechanics.
‘Additional details are provided on the construction of the weak forms,
time approximations (0.g., accuracy and stability of schemes, and mass
lumping), alternative finite element formulations, and nonlinear finite element
models. The new topics include sections on trusses and frames, the Timosh-
enko beam clement, eigenvalue problems, and classical plate bending ele~
ments. All these changes are also reflected in the revised computer programs
FEMIDV2 and FEM2DV2 (revised versions of the FEMID, FEM2D and
PLATE programs in the first edition). Therefore the sections on computer
implementation and applications of FEMIDV2 and FEM2DV? have also been
modified extensively. These changes are accompanied by the addition of
several figures, tables, and examples.
‘These extensive changes have resulted in a second edition that is 60%
larger. In the interest of keeping the cost of the book within reasonable limits
Po xvi PREFACE 10 THB SECOND EDITION
retaining the basic approach and technical details, certain portions of the
original manuscript have been omitted. More specifically, answers to selective
problems have been included at the end of the problem statements themselves,
rather than in a separate section. Interested readers and instructors can obtain
‘copy of the excutable programs on a diskette from the author. Fortran source
programs can also be purchased from the author.
‘There is no doubt that this edition is more complete and thorough than
the first. It can be used as a textbook for an introductory and/or intermediate
level course on the finite element method at senior undergraduate as well as
graduate levels. Students of engincering and applied sciences should feel
‘comfortable with the coverage in the book,
‘The author gratefully acknowledges help in reading the manuscript and
suggestions for constructive changes from several colleagues. ‘These include:
Hasan Akay, Purdue University at Indianapolis, Norman Knight, Jr, Clemson
University; J. K. Lee, Ohio State University; William Rule, University of
‘Alabama; Martin Sadd, University of Rhode Island; John Whitcomb, Texas
A&M University, and the author’s research students: Ronald Averill, Filis
Kokkinos, Y. S. N. Reddy, and Donald Robbins. It is a great pleasure to
acknowledge typing of the manuscript by Mrs Vanessa McCoy, without whose
patience and cooperation this work would not have been completed.
JN. Reddy PREFACE TO THE
FIRST EDITION
‘The motivation which led to the writing of the present book has come from my
many years of teaching finite-element courses to students from various fields of
engincering, meteorology, geology and geophysics, physics, and mathematics.
‘The experience gained as a supervisor and consultant to students and
colleagues in universities and industry, who have asked for explanations of the
various mathematical concepts related to the finite-element method, helped me
introduce the method as a variationally based technique of solving differential
equations that arise in various fields of scicnce and engineering. The many
discussions I have had with students who had no background in solids and
structural mechanics gave rise to my writing « book that should fill the rather
unfortunate gap in the literature.
“The book is designed for senior undergraduate and first-year graduate
students who have had a course in linear algebra as well as in differential
‘equations. However, additional courses (or exposure to the topics covered) in
mechanics of materials, fluid flow, and heat transfer should make the student
feel more comfortable with the physical examples discussed in the book,
In the present book, the finite-element method is introduced as a
variationally based technique of solving differential equations. A. continuous
problem described by a differential equation is put into an equivalent
variational form, and the approximate solution is assumed to be a linear
combination, ¥ ¢@;, of approximation functions g,. The parameters c, are
determined using the associated variational form. The finite-element method
provides a systematic technique for deriving the approximation functions for
simple subregions by which a geometrically complex region can be repre-
sented. In the finite-element method, the approximation functions are piece-
wise polynomials (i.e., polynomials that are defined only on a subregion, called
an clement). PRRPACE To THE FIRST EDITION
‘The approach taken in the present book falls somewhere in the middle of
the approaches taken in books that are completely mathematical and those
approaches that are more structural-mechanics-oriented. From my own ex-
perience as an engineer and self-taught applied mathematician, I know how
Unfortunate outcomes may be arrived at if one follows a “formula” without
deeper insight into the problem and its approximation, Even the best theories
lead ultimately to some sort of guidelines (e.g., which variational formulation
is suitable, what kind of element is desirable, what is the quality of the
approximation, etc.). However, without a certain theoretical knowledge of
variational methods one cannot fully understand various formulations, finite-
clement models, and their imitations.
Tin the present study of variational and finite-element methods, advanced
mathematics are intentionally avoided in the interest of simplicity. However, a
minimum of mathematical machinery that seemed necessary is included in
Chapters 1 and 2. In Chapter 2, considerable attention is devoted to the
construction of variational forms since this exercise is repeatedly encountered
in the finite-clement formulation of differential equations. The chapter is
‘concerned with two aspects: first, the selection of the approximation functions
that meet the specified boundary condtions; second, the technique of obtaining
algebraic equations in terms of the undetermined parameters, Thus, Chapter 2
not only equips readers with certain concepts and tools that are needed in
Chapters 3 and 4, but it also motivates them to consider systematic methods of
constructing the approximation functions, which is the main feature of the
finite-element method.
In introducing the finite element method in Chapters 3 and 4, the
traditional solid mechanics approach is avoided in favor of the “differential
equation” approach, which has broader interpretations than a single special
casc. However, when specific examples are considered, the physical back-
ground of the problem is stated, Since a large number of physical problems are
described by second- and fourth-order ordinary differential equations (Chapter
3), and by the Laplace operator in two dimensions (Chapter 4), considerable
attention is devoted to the finite-element formulation, the derivation of the
interpolation functions, and the solution of problems described by these
equations. Representative examples are drawn from various fields of engineer-
ing, especially from heat transfer, fluid mechanics, and solid mechanics, Since
this book is intended to serve as a textbook for a first course on the
finite-element method, advanced topics such as nonlinear problems, shells, and
three-dimensional analyses are omitted,
Since the practice of the finite-clement method ultimately depends on
one’s ability to implement the technique on a digital computer, examples and
exercises are designed to let the reader actually compute the solutions of
various problems using computers. Ample discussion of the computer im-
plementation of the finite-element method is given in Chapters 3 and 4. Three
model programs (FEMID, FEM2D, and PLATE) are described, and their
application is illustrated via several examples. The computer programs are very
‘easy to understand because they are designed along the same lines as the PREEACE TO THE FiRST EDITION XIX
theory presented-in the book. The programs are available for mainframe and
IBM PC compatibles from the author for a small charge.
Numerous examples, most of which are applications of the concepts to
specific problems in various fields of engineering and applied science, are
provided throughout the book. The conclusion of the examples are indicated
by the symbol ll. At approprate intervals in the book an extensive number of
exercise problems is included to test and extend the understanding of the
concepts discussed. For those who wish to gain additional knowledge of the
topics covered in the book, many reference books and research papers are
listed at the end of each chapter.
‘There are several sections that can be skipped in a first reading of the
book (such sections are marked with an asterisk); these can be filled in
wherever needed later. The material is intended for a quarter or a semester
course, although it is better suited for a semester course.
‘The following schedule of topics is suggested for a first course using the
present textbook:
Undergraduate Graduate
Chapter 1 Self-study Chapter 1 Self-study
Chapter 2 Section 2.1 (self) Chapter 2. Section 2.1 (self)
Section 2.2 Section 2.2
Sections 2.3.1-2.3.3, Section 2.3
Chapter 3. Sections 3.1-3.4 Chapter 3 Sections 3.1-3.7
Sections 3.6-3.7
Chapter 4 Sections 4.1-4.4 Chapter 4 Sections 4.1-4.8
Section 4.7
Sections 4.8.1-4.8.4 Chapter 5 Term Paper
Due to the intimate relationship between Sections 3.5 and 4.6, 3.6 and 4.7, and
3.7 and 4.8, they can be covered simultaneously. Also, it is suggested! that
Sections 3.6 and 3.7 (hence, 4.7 and 4.8) be covered after Section 3.2.
The author wishes to thank all those students and colleagues who have
contributed by their advice and criticism to the improvement of this work. The
author is also thankful to Vanessa McCoy for skillful typing of the manuscript,
to Mr, N. S, Putcha and Mr. K. Chandrashekhara for proofreading the pages,
and to the editors Michael Slaughter and Susan Hazlett for their help and
cooperation in publishing the mauscript.
JN, Reddy
Tejashowina vadheetamasthe
(May what we study be well studied) PART.
1
PRELIMINARIES CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL COMMENTS
Virtually every phenomenon in nature, whether biological, geological, or
mechanical, can be described with the aid of the laws of physics, in terms of
algebraic, differential, or integral equations relating various quantities of
interest. Determining the stress distribution in a pressure vessel with oddly
shaped holes and numerous stiffeners and subjected to mechanical, thermal,
and/or acrodynamic loads, finding the concentration of pollutants in seawater
or in the atmosphere, and simulating weather in an attempt to understand and
predict the mechanies of formation of tornadoes and thunderstorms are a few
examples of many important practical problems.
‘Most engineers and scientists studying physical phenomena are involved
with two major tasks:
1, Mathematical formulation of the physical process
2, Numerical analysis of the mathematical model
The mathematical formulation of a physical process requires background in
related subjects (€.g., laws of physics) and, most often, certain mathematical
tools, The formulation results in mathematical statements, often differential
3 4 etnananres
equations, relating quantities of interest in the understanding and/or design of
the physical process. Development of the mathematical model of a process is
achieved through assumptions concerning how the process works. In a
humerical simulation, we use a numerical method and a computer to evaluate
the mathematical model and estimate the characteristics of the process.
While the derivation of the governing equations for most problems is not
unduly difficult, their solution by exact methods of analysis is formidable
task. In such cases, approximate methods of analysis provide alternative means
Of finding solutions. Among these, the finite difference method and the
variational methods such as the Rayleigh~Ritz and Galerkin methods are most
frequently used in the literature.
Tn the finite difference approximation of a differential equation, the
derivatives in the latter are replaced by difference quotients (or the function is
expanded in a Taylor series) that involve the values of the solution at discrete
mresh points of the domain, The resulting algebraic equations arc solved, after
imposing the boundary conditions, for the values of the solution at the mesh
points.
Tn the solution of a differential equation by a variational metbod, the
equation is put into an equivalent weighted-integral form and then the
approximate solution over the domain is assumed to be a linear combination
(Ech) of appropriately chosen approximation functions ¢, and undetermined
cosffcients, ¢, ‘The coefficients c, are determined such that the integral
Statement equivalent to the original differential equation is satisfied. Various
variational methods, e.g., the Rayleigh-Ritz, Galerkin, and least-squares
methods, differ from each other in the choice of the integral form, weight
functions, and/or approximation functions. A more complete discussion of
variational methods will be given in Chapter 2. They suffer from the
Gisadvantage that the approximation functions for problems with arbitrary
domains are difficult to construct.
"The finite element method overcomes the disadvantage of the traditional
variational methods by providing a systematic procedure for the derivation of
the approximation functions over subregions of the domain, The method is
endowed with three basic features that account for its superiority over other
competing methods. First, a geometrically complex domain of the problem
represented as a collection of geometrically simple subdomains, called finite
tlements, Second, over each finite element, the approximation functions are
derived using the basic idea that any continuous function can be represented
by a linear combination of algebraic polynomials. Third, algebraic relations
among the undetermined coefficients (i.e., nodal values) are obtained by
satisfying the governing equations, often in a weighted-integral sense, over
‘each element. Thus, the finite element method can be viewed, in particular, as
an element-wise application of the Rayleigh-Ritz or weighted-residual meth-
‘ods. In it, the approximation functions are often taken to be algebraic
polynomials, and the undetermined parameters represent the values of the
olution at a finite number of preselected points, called nodes, on the
boundary and in the interior of the element. The approximation funetions are wtropverion
derived using concepts from interpolation theory, and are therefore called
interpolation functions. One finds that the degree of the interpolation functions
depends on the number of nodes in the element and the order of the differential
equation being solved.
1.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
‘The idea of representing a given domain as a collection of discrete parts is not
unique to the finite element method. It was recorded that ancient mathe-
maticians estimated the valuc of sr by noting that the perimeter of a polygon
inscribed in a circle approximates the circumference of the latter. ‘They
predicted the value of z to accuracies of almost 40 significant digits by
representing the circle as a polygon of a finitely large number of sides. In
modern times, the idea found a home in aircraft structural analysis, where, for
example, wings and fuselages are treated as assemblages of stringers, skins,
and shear panels, In 1941, Hrenikoff introduced the so-called framework
method, in which a plane clastic medium was represented as a collection of
bats and beams. The use of piecewise-continuous functions defined over a
subdomain to approximate an unknown function can be found in the work of
Courant (1943), who used an assemblage of triangular elements and the
principle of minimum total potential energy to study the St Venant torsion
problem, Although certain key features of the finite element method can be
found in the works of Hrenikoff (1941) and Courant (1943), its formal
presentation is attributed to Argyris and Kelsey (1960) and Turner, Clough,
Martin, and Topp (1956). The term “finite element” was first used by Clough
in 1960. Since its inception, the literature on finite element applications has
grown exponentially, and today there are numerous journals that are primarily
devoted to the theory and application of the method. A review of the historical
developments and the basic theory of the finite element method can be found
in mote than three dozen textbooks that are exclusively devoted to its
introduction and application. The selective finite clement books listed in
References for Additional Reading at the end of this chapter are only for
additional information on certain topics (c.g., three-dimensional problems,
shells, structural dynamics, plasticity, and mathematics of finite elements). For
the beginner, it is not necessary to consult these; the present book provides
complete details of the method as applied to linear field problems, with
‘examples from fuid mechanics, heat transfer, and solid mechanics,
1.3 THE BASIC CONCEPT OF THE
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
1.3.1 General Comments
‘The most distinctive feature of the finite element method that separates it from
others is the division of a given domain into a set of simple subdomains, called
finite elements, Any gcometric shape that allows computation of the solution or
its approximation, or provides necessary relations among the values of the 6 reecmunaxnes
solution at selected points, called nodes, of the subdomain, qualifies as a finite
element. Other features of the method include seeking continuous, often
polynomial, approximations of the solution over cach element in terms of
nodal values, and assembly of element equations by imposing the interelement
continuity of the solution and balance of interelement forces. Here the basic
ideas underlying the finite element method are introduced via two simple
examples:
1, Determination of the circumference of a circle using a finite number of line
segments
2, Determination of the center of mass (or gravity) of an irregular body
‘The first example is an expansion of an article written by the author in 1978 for
fa student magazine at the University of Oklahoma. Ideas. expressed in the
second can be found in books on statics of rigid bodies.
1.3.2. Approximation of the Circumference of a Circle
Consider the problem of determining the perimeter of a circle of radius R (see
Fig. 1.la). Ancient mathematicians estimated the value of the circumference
@
Element
Node
o
Blement fength ke eURE LA
Approximation of the circum
ference ofa ciel by line elements
(@) Gitele of radius (0) vaiform
‘and nonuniform meshes used to
represent the circumference of the
circ; () a typieal element. emopucrion 7
by approximating it by line segments, whose lengths they were able to
measure. The approximate value of the circumference is obtained by summing
the lengths of the line segments used to represent it. Although this is a tri
‘example, it illustrates several (but not all) ideas and steps involved in the finite
element analysis of a problem. We outline the steps involved in computing an
approximate value of the circumference of the citcle. In doing so, we introduce
certain terms that are used in the finite element analysis of any problem.
1. Finite element discretization, First, the domain (j.e., the circumference of
the circle) is represented as a collection of a finite number n of subdomains,
namely, Tine segments. This is called discretization of the domain, Hach
subdomain ie segment) is called an element. ‘The collection of
elements is called the finite element mesh. ‘The elements are connected to
each other at points called nodes. In the present case, we discretize the
circumference into a mesh of five (n= 5) line segments. The line segments
can be of different lengths. When all elements (i, line segments) are of
the same length, the mesh is said to be uniform; otherwise, it is called a
nonuniform mesh (see Fig. 1.15).
Element equations, A typical element (i.e., line segment, Q*) is isolated and
its required properties, ie., length, are computed by some appropriate
means. Let fi, be the length of element 2° in the mesh, For a typical
element 2, h, is given by (see Fig. 1.1c)
‘A, = 2R sin 40, aay
where R is the radius of the circle and @, <1 is the angle subtended by the
line segment. The above equations are called clement equations. Ancient
mathematicians most likely made measurements, rather than using (1.1), to
find fh,
3. Assembly of element equations and solution. The approximate value of the
circumference (or perimeter) of the circle is obtained by putting together
the element properties in a meaningful way; this process is called the
assembly of the element equations. It is based, in the present case, on the
simple idea that the total perimeter of the polygon (assembled elements) is
equal to the sum of the lengths of individual clements:
: m= She a2)
2
Then P, represents an approximation to the actual perimeter, p. If the mesh
is uniform, or h, is the same for each of the elements in the mesh, then
6,=2n/n, and we have
anlar’) as
4. Convergerice and error estimate. For this simple problem, we know the
exact solution: p =2nR. We can estimate the error in the approximation
and show that the approximate solution P, converges to the exact p in the 8 enenaneanies
limit as n>. Consider the typical element 9%. The error in the
approximation is equal to the difference between the length of the sector
and that of the line segment (see Fig. 1-1c):
Be=|Se— hel 4)
Where 5, = RO, is the length of the sector. Thus, the error estimate for an
‘element in the mesh is given by
Qn
=R(2-2sin2 5
#,=R(2-2sin) as)
The total error (called global errar) is given by multiplying E, by 1:
a”
B= 2R(n-nsin2) =24R ~ F, (1.6)
We now show that goes to zero as n>, Letting x = 1/m, we have
and
cos ax"
S38) a2nR (1.7)
ti = te (202222) =n (2
Hence, E, goes to zero as n>, This completes the proof of convergence.
In summary, it is shown that the circumference of @ circle can be
approximated as closely as we wish by a finite number of piecewise-tinear
functions. As the number of elements is increased, the approximation
improves, i.e., the error in the approximation decreases.
1.3.3 Approximate Determination of the Center of Mass
‘Another elementary example to illustrate the finite element concept is
provided by the calculation of the center of mass of a continuous body. It
should be recalled, from a first course on statics of rigid bodies, that the
calculation of the center of an irregular mass or the centroid of an ieregular
volume makes use of the so-called method of composite bodies, in which a
body is conveniently divided (mesh discretization) into several parts (elements)
‘of simple shape for which the mass and the center of mass (element properties)
can be computed readily. The center of mass of the whole body is then
obtained using the moment principle of Varignon (a basis for the assembly of
element properties):
(my tims be. bm KS mye taka tt Ok (8)
where X is the x coordinate of the center of mass of the whole body, m, is the
mass of the eth part, and %, is the x coordinate of the center of mass of the eth prooucrion 9
att, Similar expressions hold for the y and z coordinates of the center of mass
of the whole body. Analogous relations hold for composite lines, areas, and
volumes, wherein the masses are replaced by lengths, areas, and volumes,
respectively. ,
When a given body is not expressible in terms of simple geometric shapes
(elements) for which the mass and the center of mass can be represented
mathematically, it is necessary to use a method of approximation to represent
the properties of an element, As an example, consider the problem of finding
the centroid (%, 7) of the irregular area (region) showa in Fig. 1,2. The region
can be divided into a finite number of rectangular strips (elements), a typical
element having width h, and height b,. The area of the eth strip is given by
Ae=hzb., The atca A, is an approximation of the true area of the element
because b, is an estimated average height of the clement. ‘The coordinates of
the centroid of the region are obtained by applying the moment principle:
where % and J, are the coordinates of the centroid of the eth element with
respect to the coordinate system used for the whole body. When the center of
‘mass is required, A, in the above equations is replaced by the mass m, = p.A,,
p, being the mass density of the eth element; for a homogeneous body, pe is
the same for all elements.
It should be noted that the accuracy of the approximation will be
improved by increasing the number of strips (decreasing their width) used.
Rectangular elements are used in the present discussion for the sake of
simplicity only; one may choose to use elements of any size and shape that
approximate the given area to a satisfactory accuracy. For example, a
trapezoidal element will require two heights to compute the area:
Ae = thee + bert)
> ante iva
if
/ bl
: [fs
F Ly
FIGURE 1.2
Approximate determination ofthe mass or geometric eentoid ofan ieregular reghon by dividing it
into a set of retangular or trapezoidal subregions. 10 rretnsesanues
where b, and Bq; ate the left and
element.
“The two examples considered above illustrate how the idea of piecewise
approximation is used to approximate irregular geometries and calculate
required quantities. In the first example, the circumference of @ circle is
approximated by a collection of line segments, whose measure is available. In
the second, the geometric centroid or mass centroid of an irregular domain is
focated by approximating its geometry as a collection of strips that allow
computation of their arcas. Rectangles and trapezoids provide examples of the
element geometries. ‘Thus, subdividing a geometrically complex domain into
parts that allow the evaluation of desired quantities is a very natural and
practical approach. ‘The idea can be extended to approximate functions
fepresenting physical quantities. For example, the temperature variation in a
{wo-dimensional domain can be viewed as @ curved surface, and it ean be
approximated over any part of the domain, i.c., over a subdomain or element,
by a function of desired degree. Figure 1.3 shows a cutved surface over a
triangular subregion approximated by a planar surface, i.c., a linear polyno-
mmial, Such ideas form the basis of finite element approximations. ‘The next
example illustrates this idea for a one-dimensional continuous system.
it heights, respectively, of the eth
1.3.4 Solution of Differential Equation
Consider the temperature variation in a composite cylinder consisting of two
coaxial layers in perfect thermal contact (see n from a
(Qwith two insulations) carrying an electric current and heat flow across &
thick-walled composite circular cylindrical tube are typical examples. The
temperature T is a function of the radial coordinate r. The variation of T with r
is, in general, nonuniform. We wish to determine an approximation T(r) to
T(r) over the thicknesses of the cylinder, The exact solution is determined by
solving the differential equation
1d( di
1S (ma (1.98)
coved suntce
L FIGURE 13
= ‘Anprowimeton of curved surface (or @ nonuniform
‘hreton) over 2 angular region by = planar
sree nemopuction 11
FIGURE 1.
(@) Coaxial (composite) cylinder made of
‘eo diferent materials. (6) Finite element
representation of a radial line of the
liner.
subject to appropriate boundary conditions, for example, insulated at r=
and subjected to a temperature 7, at r= R,:
ar.
ke
ar
atr=Ri TW)=% atr=R, (a.95)
where k is the thermal conductivity, which varies from layer to layer, Ry and R,
are the inner and outer radii of the cylinder, and q is the rate’ of energy
generation in the medium. Note that the temperature is independent of the
circumferential coordinate (because of the axisymmetric geometry, boundary
conditions, and loading), and it has the same variation along any radial line
When it is difficult to obtain an exact solution of the problem (1.9), either
because of complex geometry and material properties or because q(r) is a
complicated function that does not allow exact evaluation of its integral, we
seck an approximate one. In the finite element method, the domain (Rj, R,) is
divided into N subintervals, and the approximate solution is sought in the form
Ti)
S Divi) (Ri THOM) (Rit hy +++ + hyySr Uy = ey(4? = 2e) + 6360 —3x) +1
which satisfies the boundary conditions (2.26) of the problem for any values of
¢ and ¢;. ‘The constants c) and ¢> are to be determined such that the
‘Uy in (2.3) satisfies (2.22) in some sense. If we require
Uy to satisfy (2.2a) in the exact sense, we obtain
Wy PUy
4 Uy = —2ex(e ~ 1) = Bea(x? = 1) —2epx ~ 6,27
de de
0
Since this expression must be zero for any value of x, the coefficients of the
various powers of x must be zero:
1420, +3
(6, +3e:)=0
=9er=0
@=0
4 ey(x?=2r) + 0,00 — 32) +1
‘The above relations are inconsistent; hence, there is no solution to the
equations. On the other hand, we can require the approximate solution U to
satisfy the differential equation (2.2a) in the weighted-integral sense,
f wRde=0 (24a)
where X is called the residual,
#Uy
oo Wy 20 eneunnanses
and ww is called a weight function. From (24a), we obtain as many linearly
independent equations as there arc independent functions for w. For example,
wwe take w=1and w =x, we obtain
0 f AR de = (14 2e1 + 3ea) + 4(-6ey — 3¢2) + Hes — 9a) + Ae
om f de =Se1 26,496) + H6e~36) # Mere +e
or
Joti =1
Jet Ber=t .
which provide two linearly independent equations for cy and ¢z (giving =F
and c= ~'$). °
‘Thus, integral statements of the type in (2.4q) provide means for
obtaining as many algebraic equations as there are unknown coefficients in the
‘approximation. This chapter deals with the construction of different types of
integral statements used in different variational methods, A variational method
js one in which approximate solutions of the type u ~ 3 ¢j¢ + @o are sought,
‘and the coefficients c, are determined, as shown above, using an integral
Statement. The variational methods differ from each other in the choice of the
‘weight function w and the integral statement used, which in turn dictates the
Choice of the approximation functions ¢, In the finite element method, a given
domain is viewed as an assemblage of subdomains (j.c., elements), and an
‘approximate solution is sought over each subdomain in the same way as in
variational methods. Therefore, it is informative to study variational methods
before we study the finite element method.
‘Our goal in this chapter is to illustrate the basic steps in the integral
formulations and the associated approximations of various boundary problems.
‘Toward this goal, we first introduce necessary terminology and notation.
(2.4b)
2.2 SOME MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
AND FORMULAE
2.2.1 Boundary, Initial, and Eigenvalue Problems
DOMAIN AND BOUNDARY. The objective of most analyses is to determine
‘unknown functions, called dependent variables, that satisfy a given set of
differential equations in a given domain or region and some boundary
‘conditions on the boundary of the domain. A domain is a collection of points
in space with the property that if P is a point in the domain then all points
sufficiently close to P belong to the domain, ‘This definition implies that a
domain consists only of internal points. If any two points of the domain can be
joined by a line lying entirely within it then the domain is said to be convex INTEGRAL FORMULATIONS AND VARIATIONAL NETiODS 21
and simply connected, The boundary of a domain is the set of points such that,
jn any neighborhood of each of these points, there are points that belong to
the domain as well as points that do not. Note from the definition that the
points on the boundary do not belong to the domain. We shall use the symbol
to denote an arbitrary domain and T' to denote its boundary.
‘A function of several variables is said to be of class C"(Q) in a domain @
if all its partial derivatives up to and including the mth order exist and are
continuous in . Thus, if fis of class C° in two dimensions then f is continuous
(i.c., af /ax and 5f/ay exist but may not be continuous). The letters x and y
will always be used for rectangular coordinates of a point in two dimensions.
When the dependent variables arc functions of one independent variable
(ay, x), the domain is a line segment (je., one-dimensional) and the
endpoints of the domain are called boundary points. When the dependent
variables are functions of two independent variables (say, x and y), the
(two-dimensional) domain is a surface (most often a plane) and the boundary
is the closed curve enclosing it. It is not uncommon to find problems in which
the dependent variable and possibly its derivatives are specified at points
interior to the domain (e.g., bending of continuous beams)
A differential equation is said to describe a boundary value problem it
the dependent variable and possibly its derivatives are required to take
specified values on the boundary. An initial value problem is one in which the
dependent variable and possibly its derivatives are specified initially (ie., at
time ¢=0). Initial value problems are generally time-dependent problems.
Examples of boundary and initial value problems are given below.
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEM
(2.5)
wad (05)] 26
{TIAL VALUE PROBLEM
pT raunf for 0
