Chapter 2 – Transformers

BEE 4123
Electrical Machines & Drives
Module Outlines

1.
1.Why
Why Transformers
Transformersare
areImportant
Importantto
toModern
Modern Life?
Life?
2.
2.Types
Typesand
and Construction
Construction of
of Transformers
Transformers
3.
3.The
TheIdeal
IdealTransformer
Transformer
4.
4.Theory
Theoryof
ofOperation
Operationof
ofReal
Real1-
1-Transformers
Transformers
5.
5.The
TheEquivalent
Equivalent Circuit
Circuit of
of aaTransformer
Transformer
6.
6.Transformer
Transformer Voltage
VoltageRegulation
Regulation and
andEfficiency
Efficiency
7.
7.Three-Phase
Three-PhaseTransformers
Transformers
Why Transformers are Important to
Modern Life?
 The transformer is one of the most useful
electrical devices. It can:
 raise or lower the voltage or
current in an ac circuit,
 isolate circuits from one another,
and
 change the impedance of the
load as seen by the source, thus
enable load matching which
results in maximum power
transfer.
Why Transformers are Important to
Modern Life?
 transmit electrical energy over great distances
and to distribute it to the end-users.
 The transformer gives to ac a feature lacking in
dc power systems, i.e. efficiently change ac
voltage from small amplitudes to large amplitudes
and vice versa.
 In general, the higher the voltage, the more
insulation and switching costs, but less current
used, so lower I2R loss and greater efficiency
results.
Types & Construction of Transformers
 Power Transformers, classified into 2 types of
cores:
 Core Form
 Shell Form

Core Form
Shell Form
Types & Construction of Transformers

 Potential Transformer
 Sampling a high voltage and produce a low
secondary voltage proportionally.
 To handle very small current.
 Current Transformer
 Provide much smaller secondary current than but
directly proportional to its primary current.
The Ideal Transformer

 Assumptions made for an ideal transformer:

 It is infinitely easy to set up a magnetic flux in the core.

(Alternatively we could say that the core permeability is
infinite; the reluctance of the core is zero; the
magnetizing current required is zero).
 No magnetic flux leaks out between the two windings
(that is, all the flux links all the turns)
 The winding resistance is zero, and
 There is no hysteresis or eddy-current power loss in the
core
The Ideal Transformer

 Current, voltages and flux in an unloaded ideal

transformer

mm 
NNpp  iP(t) m iS(t)
EEpp 
22
vP(t) Ep NP NS Es vS(t)
NNs mm 

EEs  s
s
22
The Ideal Transformer

 Turn ratio, a
NNpp VVpp IIs
aa   s
NNss VVss IIpp

 Power, P
PPin VVp IIp cos
in

p p cos pp sinpp
QQinin VVppIIppsin

PPout  V I cos 
out  Vss Iss cos ss
QQout  V I sin 
out  Vss Iss sin ss

SSin VVp IIp VVs IIs SSout

in p p s s out
The Ideal Transformer
 Transferring impedances through a transformer (load
matching)
VVP aaVVSS 22 V
ZZPP  P  aa VSS
IIPP IISS  IISS ZZPP aa22 ZZload
  load
 aa 

IIPP IISS
aa

VVacac VVPP VVSS ZZload

load
The Ideal Transformer

 Thévenin equivalents of transformer circuit

IIP
P
 Equivalent circuit when
secondary impedance is
VVac VVP aa2Z
2 load
ac P Zload
transferred to primary side and
ideal transformer eliminated

IIS
S
 Equivalent circuit when
primary source is transferred
VVS ZZload
VVac/a/a
ac S load to secondary side and ideal
transformer eliminated
Example
A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V 60-Hz
generator supplying a load Zload = 4 + j3  through a
transmission line of impedance Zline = 0.18 + j0.24 . Answer
the following questions:
a) If the power system is exactly as described above, what
will the voltage at the load be? What will the transmission
line losses be?
b) Suppose a 1:10 step up transformer is placed at the
generator end of the transmission line and a 10:1 step down
transformer is placed at the load end of the line. What will
the load voltage be now? What will the transmission line
losses be now?
Theory of Operation of
Real Single-Phase Transformers
 Practical transformers differ from ideal
transformers in several ways:
 Resistance of the windings
 Flux leakage between the windings, leading to
inductive reactance effects
 The magnetizing current is not zero (but it may be as
little as 3% of the load currents).
 There is power loss in the iron core, due to hysteresis
and eddy current effects.
 Capacitive effects are present in high voltage
transformers, affecting their ability to withstand strikes
of lightning.
Theory of Operation of
Real Single-Phase Transformers
M

Mutual flux Leakage flux

+ LS +
Vp Vs
- LP -
PP MM LP SS MM LSLS
LP

 Faraday’s law
dd  dd
eeind 
ind  dt Since,   eeind NN
dt NN ind dt
dt
Theory of Operation of
Real Single-Phase Transformers
 From the diagram, re-expressed Faraday’s
law:
ddp ddS
VVpp((tt)) NNpp p VVSS((tt))NNSS S
dt
dt dt
dt
ddM ddLP ddMM ddLS
 NNpp M NNpp LP NNS NNS LS
S dt S dt
dt
dt dt
dt dt dt

eP(t) eLP(t) eS(t) eLS(t)

Due to mutual flux

Theory of Operation of
Real Single-Phase Transformers
 Current flows in primary circuit consists of:
 Magnetization current, iM to produce flux in the
transformer core
 Core-loss current, ih+e, to make up for hysteresis
and eddy current losses
 The average flux in the core,
11
 
NNP vvP ((tt))dt
P dt excitation current
P
iiex iim iih e
 If vP(t) = VM cos t, ex m he

1 VVM
  1  VVM cos  t dt  M sin t Wb
NNP  M cos  t dt 
NNP sin t Wb
P P
Theory of Operation of
Real Single-Phase Transformers
Current flows Current
into dotted
end
flows out of
dotted end
Ip Is

Vp Np Ns Load Vs

Nearly zero!
Net MMF in the core,

net NNP iiP NNS iiS 

00
net P P S S
The Equivalent Circuit of A
Transformer
 The losses to be considered in any accurate
model of transformer:
 Copper (I2R) losses – resistive heating losses in the
primary and secondary windings.
 Eddy current losses – resistive heating losses in the
core.
 Hysteresis losses – associated with the rearrangement
of the magnetic domains in core.
 Leakage flux – fluxes LP and LS that escape the core.
The Equivalent Circuit of A
Transformer
 Equivalent circuit of a real transformer
Leakage fluxes

Copper losses

Core-loss current, ih+e

jX RRpp IIstst RRs s jX

jXpp aa jXs s
IImm
IIpp IIs s
VVpp jX
jXmm RRcc NNpp NNs s VVs s
The Equivalent Circuit of A
Transformer
 Transformer model referred to primary voltage
level

jX
jXpp RRpp R
RR
ReqP
eqP
jX
jX 22
aeqP
jX
jXeqPRRs s
aeqP
eqP
jaja22XXs s IIIsIs/a
/a/a
ss/a
eqP
eqP

IImm
IIIpIppp IIpp 222
R
RR =
=
eqP =
ReqP
eqP
eqP R
=RR +a
RPP+a
PP +aR
+a 2RSS
RRSS
V
V
VVpppp jXjXmm RRcjX RRcc aV
aV
aV
aVssss
cjXmm 222
X
XX =
=
eqP =
XeqP
eqP
eqP X
=XX +a
XPP+a
PP +aX
+a 2XSS
X
XSS
The Equivalent Circuit of A
Transformer
 Transformer model referred to secondary voltage level

22 22
jX /a
jXp/a
p R /a
Rp/a R
p RR jX
jX
jXR
jXeqS jX
jXs s IIIsIsss
ReqS
eqS
eqS
eqS R
eqS
ss
eqS
eqS

IImm
aI
aIpppp aI
aI
aI aIpp 222
22 2222
RR
22RR
eqS
eqS
eqS
=
==
= R
R
RRP
P /a
/a
PP/a
/a +R
2+RSS
+R
+RSS
V
V
V /a
/a
/a jX
Vpp/a jXm/a
p
p m /a jX
RjX /a
/a
Rcm/a/a
cm RRc/a
c /a
eqS
222
V
V
VVssss
X
XX ==
eqS =
XeqS
eqS
eqS X
X
=X /a
/a
XPP/a
P
P /a+X
2+XSS
+X
+XSS
The Equivalent Circuit of A
Transformer
 Determining the values of components in the
transformer model using,
 Open-circuit test – secondary winding is open-
circuited and primary winding connected to full-
rated voltage.
 Short-circuit test – secondary winding is short-
circuited and primary winding connected to low
voltage source. The voltage is adjusted until the
current in the short-circuited windings is equal to its
rated value. (Beware)
The Equivalent Circuit of A
Transformer
 Open-circuit test
Wattmeter
Wattmeter iPiP(t)
(t)
AA
++

v(t) vvPP(t)
(t)
v(t) VV
--

 Total excitation admittance,

YYEE GGCC  jB
jBMM
11 11
  jj
RRC XXM
C M
The Equivalent Circuit of A
Transformer
 The magnitude of the excitation admittance referred to
primary circuit,
IIOC
YYE  OC
E VVOCOC

 The open-circuit power factor (PF),

PPOC
PF cos 
PF cos OC
VVOC I OC
OC IOC

 The admittance, YE (with its angle),

IIOC IIOC
YYE      OC   cos 11PF lagging
E V
OC
      cos PF
VOCOC
VVOCOC
The Equivalent Circuit of A
Transformer
 Short-circuit test
Wattmeter
Wattmeter iPiP(t)
(t) iSiS(t)
(t)
AA
++

v(t) vvPP(t)
(t)
v(t) VV
--

 Since v(t) is low voltage, current flowing into excitation branch is

negligible. Series impedances referred to primary,

VVSC
ZZSESE  SC
IISC
SC
The Equivalent Circuit of A
Transformer
 Power factor of the current,
PPSC
cos  SC
PF cos
PF
VVSC I SC
SC ISC
 Overall impedance,
VVSC 00 VVSC
ZZSESE  SC

 SC 
IISC     IISC
SC     SC

 The series impedance ZSE is,

ZZSE RReq  jX
jXeqeq
SE eq

ZZSESE ((RRPP aa22RRSS)) jj((XXPP aa22XXSS))

Transformer Voltage Regulation (VR)
and Efficiency
 Full-load voltage regulation is a quantity that
compares VS, no load and VS, full load.
VVS ,nl VVS , fl
VR
VR S , nl S , fl X 100%
X 100%
VVSS, ,flfl

 At no load, VS=VP/a
VVP //aaVVS , fl
VR
VR P S , fl X 100%
X 100%
VVSS, ,flfl
Transformer Voltage Regulation
and Efficiency

RReqS jX
jXeqS
eqS
IIs s
eqS

aI
aIpp 22
RReqS = R /a +R
eqS = RP/a +RSS
P
VVpp/a/a 22
VVs s
XXeqS = X /a +X
eqS = XP/a +XSS
P

 Phasor diagram is use to determine VR.

VVPP
VVSS RReqeqIISS  jX
jXeqeqIISS
aa
Transformer Voltage Regulation
and Efficiency
VP/a
Lagging pf
 VS jXeqIS
VR=+ve
IS ReqIS

VP/a
jXeqIS Unity pf
IS VS ReqIS VR=+ve

VP/a jXeqIS
IS Leading pf
ReqIS VR=-ve
VS
Transformer Voltage Regulation
and Efficiency
 Transformer efficiency, 
PPout PPout
  out XX100
100%% out XX100
100%%
PPinin PPout  Ploss
out  P loss

 Since Pout = VSIScosS,

VVSSIISS cos
cos
  XX100
100%%
PPCu  P
Cu  P
 V I cos 
core  VSS ISS cos 
core
Example

A 15-kVA 2300/230-V Open circuit Short-circuit

transformer is to be tested to test test
determine its excitation branch
components, its series Voc = 2300 V Vsc = 47 V
impedances and its voltage
regulation. The following test Ioc = 0.21 A Isc = 6.0 A
data have been taken from the
primary side of the transformer. Poc = 50 W Psc = 160 W

a) Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the

high voltage side
b) Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the
low voltage side
c) Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 power factor.