IIT - Project Report On Modulation (New-Main)
IIT - Project Report On Modulation (New-Main)
On
MODULATION
Submitted To
MAEER’S
MIT SCHOOL OF TELECOM MANAGEMENT
By
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN MANAGEMENT
PGDM (Telecom)
OCTOBER-2010
Course Name
INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
(IIT)
MAEER’S
MIT SCHOOL OF TELECOM MANAGEMENT
(MITSOT), PUNE
1
DECLARATION
I, Mr. PRANIL ANIL INGOLE, PRN No: 101033 hereby declare that this
Integrated Project Report On ‘MODULATION’ is the record of authentic work
carried out by me during the period from SEP-2010 to OCT-2010 and has not
submitted earlier to any University or Institute for the award of any
degree/diploma etc.
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CONTENTS
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Introduction
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Definition: Modulation refers to the structure of audio and video signal, the
standard protocol for sound production, mixture and transmission. It is the
signalling level of a reproduction and recording system. Amplitude Modulation
and Frequency Modulation are common categories of modulation.
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possible to keep the frequency content of the transferred signal as close as
possible to the centre frequency (typically the carrier frequency) of the passband.
When coupled with demodulation, this technique can be used to, among other
things, transmit a signal through a channel which may be opaque to the baseband
frequency range (for instance, when sending a telephone signal through a fibre-
optic strand).
Types of Modulation
There are basically two types of modulation processes they are, Analog
modulation and Digital modulation. Analog modulation can again done on
various basis like by varying amplitude, phase & frequency i.e. amplitude
modulation, phase modulation, frequency modulation & space modulation
respectively. Similarly digital modulation can be achieved by various methods
like FSK, ASK, MFSK, PSK, MSK, PPM, TCM, OFDM etc.
ASK
Frequency modulation
(FM)
PSK
Phase modulation
(PM)
QAM
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Analog Modulation: The altering of a carrier by an analog signal either by
varying its amplitude, phase or frequency.
Aim of Modulation
Modulation is defined as the characteristics of the carrier wave, which is varied in
accordance with that of the instantaneous value of the message signal. The reason
why carrier signal is modulated with that of the original message signal is that,
the addition of carrier signal will help us in conveying the information to the
receiver side. We can impose the information on the carrier, so that we are able to
alter the frequency and vary the signal strength, by adjusting the carrier signal. So
the variation of the carrier wave in accordance with the message signal is called
as modulation.
The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog
passband channel, for example over the public switched telephone network
(where a band-pass filter limits the frequency range to between 300 and 3400
Hz), or over a limited radio frequency band.
The aim of digital baseband modulation methods, also known as line coding, is to
transfer a digital bit stream over a baseband channel, typically a non-filtered
copper wire such as a serial bus or a wired local area network.
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Need for Modulation:
Signal to noise ratio is optimized here which results in less noise, thanks to
the modulation.
The main reason for modulation is to make sure that effective radio
transmission takes place.
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AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Introduction
Forms of AM
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vibrations in the receiver diaphragm, thus closely reproducing the frequency and
loudness of the sounds originally heard at the transmitter.
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ITU Designations
5
Mathematical Representation 0
AM Signal:
-5
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
s(t)= Ac [1+ k*m(t)] coswct
1
-1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Modulating signal:
1
m(t)
0
-1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Carrier Signal:
c(t)= Ac coswc t
Modulation Index
So if h = 0.5, the carrier amplitude varies by 50% above and below its
unmodulated level, and for h = 1.0 it varies by 100%. To avoid distortion in the
A3E transmission mode, modulation depth greater than 100% must be avoided.
Practical transmitter systems will usually incorporate some kind of limiter circuit,
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such as a VOGAD, to ensure this. However, AM demodulators can be designed
to detect the inversion (or 180 degree phase reversal) that occurs when
modulation exceeds 100% and automatically correct for this effect.
FREQUENCY MODULATION
Introduction
Basically frequency modulation and phase modulation both are the forms of
angle modulation. Angle modulation results whenever the phase angle of a
sinusoidal wave is varied with respect to time. In frequency modulation (FM), the
frequency of the carrier wave is varied as a function of the instantaneous voltage
of the modulating signal. This is illustrated in figure. The amount of frequency
shift off the centre frequency is called the frequency deviation. A peak deviation
of 5kHz (such as used in amateur radio systems) means that the carrier frequency
is shifted in one direction a maximum of 5kHz by the positive going peaks of the
modulating signal and shifted in the opposite direction a maximum of 5kHz by
the negative going peaks of the modulating signal. Total frequency swing is thus
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10kHz. Modulation index
is defined as the ratio of
frequency deviation to
modulating frequency
producing the deviation. If
a 1kHz modulating signal
produces 5kHz of
deviation. the modulation
index is equal to 5.
Considering a maximum
speech frequency of
2.5kHz, the modulation
index equals 2 if the
carrier frequency is driven
to a maximum deviation of 5kHz by that particular speech frequency component.
All this is fine except that the FM signal has sidebands much more complicated
than the AM signal, and which theoretically extend infinitely either side of the
carrier frequency. In practice, we need only to consider the sideband frequencies
which are of significant level. The bandwidth of the significant sidebands
increases both as the modulation index is increased and as the modulating
frequency is increased. The second curve in figure 8 plots the bandwidth of the
significant sidebands as a function of modulation index for a modulating
frequency of 2.5kHz, chosen as the maximum speech frequency. Using both
curves, we see that to get a 10dB signal to noise ratio advantage we need a
modulation index equal to 2. However, to achieve this, we take up a bandwidth of
around 22kHz.
So here is the answer to why FM is restricted essentially to the VHF and UHF
bands. FM gives us a signal to noise ratio advantage over AM, but it takes up
more bandwidth and much more than we are able to accommodate in the
restricted band space of our HF bands. More band space is available on the VHF
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and UHF bands, allowing us to use FM as a popular mode of transmission. On
two metres, for example, we use 25kHz channel spacing to accommodate the
wide bandwidth FM signals.
Modulation Index
As with other modulation indices, this quantity indicates by how much the
modulated variable varies around its unmodulated level. It relates to the
variations in the frequency of the carrier signal:
Applications
Broadcasting
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\
PHASE MODULATION
INTRODUCTION
The top diagram shows the modulating signal superimposed on the carrier wave.
The bottom diagram shows the resulting phase-modulated signal. PM changes the
phase angle of the complex envelope in direct proportion to the message signal.
Suppose that the signal to be sent (called the modulating or message signal) is
m(t) and the carrier onto which the signal is to be modulated is,
Annotated:
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This shows how m(t) modulates the phase - the greater m(t) is at a point in time,
the greater the phase shift of the modulated signal at that point. It can also be
viewed as a change of the frequency of the carrier signal, and phase modulation
can thus be considered a special case of FM in which the carrier frequency
modulation is given by the time derivative of the phase modulation.
,
Where fM = ωm / 2π and h is the modulation index defined below. This is
also known as Carson's Rule for PM.
Modulation index
As with other modulation indices, this quantity indicates by how much the
modulated variable varies around its unmodulated level. It relates to the
variations in the phase of the carrier signal:
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AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING(ASK)
INTRODUCTION
Like AM, ASK is also linear and sensitive to atmospheric noise, distortions,
propagation conditions on different routes in PSTN, etc. Both ASK modulation
and demodulation processes are relatively inexpensive. The ASK technique is
also commonly used to transmit digital data over optical fiber. For LED
transmitters, binary 1 is represented by a short pulse of light and binary 0 by the
absence of light. Laser transmitters normally have a fixed "bias" current that
causes the device to emit a low light level. This low level represents binary 0,
while a higher-amplitude light wave represents binary 1.
There are sharp discontinuities shown at the transition points. These result in the
signal having an unnecessarily wide bandwidth. Band-limiting is generally
introduced before transmission, in which case these discontinuities would be
‘rounded off’. The
bandlimiting may be
applied to the digital
message, or the
modulated signal itself.
The data rate is often
made a sub-multiple of
the carrier frequency.
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This has been done in the waveform of figure above. One of the disadvantages of
ASK, compared with FSK and PSK, for example, is that it has not got a constant
envelope. This makes its processing (eg, power amplification) more difficult,
since linearity becomes an important factor. However, it does make for ease of
demodulation with an envelope detector.
Encoding
The simplest and most common form of ASK operates as a switch, using the
presence of a carrier wave to indicate a binary one and its absence to indicate a
binary zero. This type of modulation is called on-off keying, and is used at radio
frequencies to transmit Morse code (referred to as continuous wave operation).
More sophisticated encoding schemes have been developed which represent data
in groups using additional amplitude levels. For instance, a four-level encoding
scheme can represent two bits with each shift in amplitude; an eight-level scheme
can represent three bits; and so on. These forms of amplitude-shift keying require
a high signal-to-noise ratio for their recovery, as by their nature much of the
signal is transmitted at reduced power.
Here is a diagram showing the ideal model for a transmission system using an
ASK modulation:
It can be divided into three blocks. The first one represents the transmitter, the
second one is a linear model of the effects of the channel, the third one shows the
structure of the receiver. The following notation is used:
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Different symbols are represented with different voltages. If the maximum
allowed value for the voltage is A, then all the possible values are in the range
[−A, A] and they are given by:
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FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING(FSK)
INTRODUCTION
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) is also known as frequency shift modulation and
frequency shift signalling. Frequency Shift Keying is a data signal converted into
a specific frequency or tone in order to transmit it over wire, cable, optical fibre
or wireless media to a destination point. The history of FSK dates back to the
early 1900s, when this technique was discovered and then used to work alongside
teleprinters to transmit messages by radio (RTTY). But FSK, with some
modifications, is still effective in many instances including the digital world
where it is commonly used in conjunction with computers and low speed
modems. In fact, the contributions of FSK are much more far reaching. For
example, the principle of FSK has laid the path to the development of other
similar techniques such as the Audio Frequency Shift Keying (AFSK) and
Multiple Frequency Shift Keying (MFSK) just to name a few.
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The most basic (binary) form of FSK involves the process of varying the
frequency of a carrier wave by choosing one of two frequencies (binary FSK) in
correspondence to a sequence of digital pulses that constitute the information
signal. Two binary digits are represented by two frequencies around the carrier
frequency. Amplitude remains fixed. In frequency-shift keying, the signals
transmitted for marks (binary ones) and spaces (binary zeros) are,
s1(t)= A cos(ὼ1t+Øc) for 0<t≤T
s2(t)= A cos(ὼ2t+Øc) for 0<t≤T
respectively. This is called a discontinuous phase FSK system, because the
phase of the signal is discontinuous at the switching times.
1 0 1 1 0 0 1
Digital
information
Carrier 1 (frequency
#1)
Carrier 1
(frequency #1)
FSK modulated
signal
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PHASE SHIFT KEYING
INTRODUCTION
Alternatively, instead of using the bit patterns to set the phase of the wave, it can
instead be used to change it by a specified amount. The demodulator then
determines the changes in the phase of the received signal rather than the phase
itself. Since this scheme depends on the difference between successive phases, it
is termed differential phase-shift keying (DPSK). DPSK can be significantly
simpler to implement than ordinary PSK since there is no need for the
demodulator to have a copy of the reference signal to determine the exact phase
of the received signal (it is a non-coherent scheme). In exchange, it produces
more erroneous demodulations. The exact requirements of the particular scenario
under consideration determine which scheme is used. All convey data by
changing some aspect of a base signal, the carrier wave (usually a sinusoid), in
response to a data signal. In the case of PSK, the phase is changed to represent
the data signal. There are two fundamental ways of utilizing the phase of a signal
in this way:
In PSK, the constellation points chosen are usually positioned with uniform
angular spacing around a circle. This gives maximum phase-separation between
adjacent points and thus the best immunity to corruption. They are positioned on
a circle so that they can all be transmitted with the same energy. In this way, the
moduli of the complex numbers they represent will be the same and thus so will
the amplitudes needed for the cosine and sine waves. Two common examples are
"binary phase-shift keying" (BPSK) which uses two phases, and "quadrature
phase-shift keying" (QPSK) which uses four phases, although any number of
phases may be used. Since the data to be conveyed are usually binary, the PSK
scheme is usually designed with the number of constellation points being a power
of 2.
BPSK (also sometimes called PRK, Phase Reversal Keying, or 2PSK) is the
simplest form of phase shift keying (PSK). It uses two phases which are
separated by 180° and so can also be termed 2-PSK. It does not particularly
matter exactly where the constellation points are positioned, and in this figure
they are shown on the real axis, at 0° and 180°. This modulation is the most
robust of all the PSKs since it takes the highest level of noise or distortion to
make the demodulator reach an incorrect decision. It is, however, only able to
modulate at 1 bit/symbol (as seen in the figure) and so is unsuitable for high data-
rate applications when bandwidth is limited.
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2. Quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK)
The implementation of QPSK is more general than that of BPSK and also
indicates the implementation of higher-order PSK. Writing the symbols in the
constellation diagram in terms of the sine and cosine waves used to transmit
them:
This yields the four phases π/4, 3π/4, 5π/4 and 7π/4 as needed. This results in a
two-dimensional signal space with unit basis functions
The first basis function is used as the in-phase component of the signal and the
second as the quadrature component of the signal. Hence, the signal constellation
consists of the signal-space 4 points
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For example, in differentially-encoded BPSK a binary '1' may be transmitted by
adding 180° to the current phase and a binary '0' by adding 0° to the current
phase. Another variant of DPSK is Symmetric Differential Phase Shift keying,
SDPSK, where encoding would be +90° for a '1' and -90° for a '0'.
Using DPSK avoids the need for possibly complex carrier-recovery schemes to
provide an accurate phase estimate and can be an attractive alternative to ordinary
PSK.
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QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
INTRODUCTION
1.Digital QAM
Like all modulation schemes, QAM conveys data by changing some aspect of a
carrier signal, or the carrier wave, (usually a sinusoid) in response to a data
signal. In the case of QAM, the amplitude of two waves, 90 degrees out-of-phase
with each other (in quadrature) are changed (modulated or keyed) to represent the
data signal. Amplitude modulating two carriers in quadrature can be equivalently
viewed as both amplitude modulating and phase modulating a single carrier.
Phase modulation (analog PM) and phase-shift keying (digital PSK) can be
regarded as a special case of QAM, where the magnitude of the modulating
signal is a constant, with only the phase varying. This can also be extended to
frequency modulation (FM) and frequency-shift keying (FSK), for these can be
regarded as a special case of phase modulation.
2.Analog QAM
When using QAM modulation, the transmitted signal will be of the form:
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,
where I(t) and Q(t) are the modulating signals and f0 is the carrier frequency.
Analog QAM is used in NTSC and PAL television systems, where the I- and Q-
signals carry the components of chroma (colour) information. "Compatible
QAM" or C-QUAM is used in AM stereo radio to carry the stereo difference
information.
3.Rectangular QAM
4.Non-Rectangular QAM
The diagram of circular QAM constellation is shown, for 16-QAM. The circular
8-QAM constellation is known to be the optimal 8-QAM constellation in the
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sense of requiring the least mean power for a
given minimum Euclidean distance. The 16-
QAM constellation is suboptimal although
the optimal one may be constructed along the
same lines as the 8-QAM constellation. The
circular constellation highlights the
relationship between QAM and PSK. Other
orders of constellation may be constructed
along similar (or very different) lines. It is
consequently hard to establish expressions for
the error rates of non-rectangular QAM since Constellation diagram for circular
it necessarily depends on the constellation. 16-QAM.
Nevertheless, an obvious upper bound to the
rate is related to the minimum Euclidean distance of the constellation (the
shortest straight-line distance between two points):
Again, the bit-error rate will depend on the assignment of bits to symbols.
Although, in general, there is a non-rectangular constellation that is optimal for a
particular M, they are not often used since the rectangular QAMs are much easier
to modulate and demodulate.
In moving to a higher order QAM constellation (higher data rate and mode) in
hostile RF/microwave QAM application environments, such as in broadcasting or
telecommunications, interference (via multipath) typically increases. Reduced
noise immunity due to constellation separation makes it difficult to achieve
theoretical performance thresholds. There are several test parameter
measurements which help determine an optimal QAM mode for a specific
operating environment. The following three are most significant:
Carrier/interference ratio
Carrier-to-noise ratio
Threshold-to-noise ratio
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References
www.google.com
Electronics For You magazine
Principals of Telecommunication
www.analogmodulationwikipedia.com
www.digitalmodulationwikipedia.com
Fundamentals of Communication
www.modulationencylopedia.com
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