Computer Networks

Chapter 04
(version May 15, 2007)

Maarten van Steen

Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculty of Sciences
Dept. Computer Science
Room R4.20. Tel: (020) 598 7784
E-mail: [email protected], URL: www.cs.vu.nl/∼steen/

01 Introduction
02 Physical Layer
03 Data Link Layer
04 MAC Sublayer
05 Network Layer
06 Transport Layer
07 Application Layer
08 Network Security

00 – 1 /

Medium Access Sublayer (1/2)

So far: We have discussed the Data Link Layer’s func-
tionality and some protocols related to point-to-point
communication.

A large class of networks is built on top of broadcast

channels: a number of stations that share the same
“wire.” If one station sends, all the others get to hear
it.

What’s the problem: if you’re sharing a channel, then

two stations may decide to start frame transmission
at the same time ⇒ frame collision, which means
rubbish on the wire.

Solution: Allocate the channel to one of the compet-

ing stations.

Problem: You’ll have to use that same channel to fig-

ure out the competition and the allocation.
04 – 1 MAC Layer/4.1 Allocating Channels
 Medium Access Layer (2/2)
Three strategies for channel allocation:

• Exercise no control at all: simply let a station try

to use the channel, and do something when a col-
lision happens. Applied in contention systems.

• Employ a round-robin technique: each station

in turn is allowed to use the channel. Applied in
token-based systems – the station that has the
token may use the channel.

• Let a station place a reservation for the channel.

Used in slotted systems. The problem is how to
make a reservation.

network layer

logical link control layer

data link layer
medium access layer

physical layer

04 – 2 MAC Layer/4.1 Allocating Channels

Contention systems: ALOHA (1/2)

Principle: if you want to send a frame, just do it. If a

collision occurs, finish your current transmission and
retry later.

Note: it’s pretty hard to do any worse than this, but

efficiency is not really that bad:

• Let S be the average number of new frames sub-

mitted during a frame time Tframe (time needed to
transmit a full frame). Poisson distributed.

• Let G be the number of old and new frame sub-

missions during a frame time (G ≥ S). Also Pois-
son distributed:
k ·e−G
P [k frames submitted] = G k!

• Let P0 be the probability that frame does not suffer

from collision ⇒ S = G · P0.

04 – 3 MAC Layer/4.2 Protocols for Multi-Access Channels

Contention systems: ALOHA (2/2)

• When a frame is being sent, it shouldn’t bump into

its predecessor, and shouldn’t be bumped into
by a successor. The predecessor requires Tframe
time, and our frame as well.

• Probability that a frame will not be damaged is

P0 = e−2G

• S = G · e−2G

We can improve a bit by removing some randomness.

in Slotted ALOHA frame transmission can only start
at fixed times:
S (throughput per frame time)

0.40
Slotted ALOHA: S = Ge–G
0.30

0.20

0.10 Pure ALOHA: S = Ge–2G

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0

G (attempts per packet time)

04 – 4 MAC Layer/4.2 Protocols for Multi-Access Channels

CSMA Protocols

Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols do better

than ALOHA: you monitor the channel before and/or
during transmission.

1-persistent Listen whether the channel is free be-

fore transmitting. If busy, wait until it becomes
free and then immediately start your transmission.

Nonpersistent Less greedy – when the channel is

busy, wait a random period of time before trying
again. If you wait too long, the channel utilization
drops.

p-Persistent Used with slotted systems. If you find

the channel idle during the current slot, you trans-
mit with probability p, and defer until next slot with
probability 1 − p. p = 1 is not really good, p = 0
makes you really polite.

04 – 5 MAC Layer/4.2 Protocols for Multi-Access Channels

 Protocol Comparison
0.01-persistent CSMA
1.0
0.9 Nonpersistent CSMA
S (throughput per packet time)

0.8 0.1-persistent CSMA

0.7
0.6 0.5-persistent
CSMA
0.5
Slotted
0.4 ALOHA
0.3 1-persistent
Pure CSMA
0.2
ALOHA
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
G (attempts per packet time)

Question: What are we actually displaying here? Should

the conclusion be that p-persistent protocols are really
good with p ≈ 0?

04 – 6 MAC Layer/4.2 Protocols for Multi-Access Channels

CSMA w/Collision Detection (1/2)

Improvement: sense the channel, but immediately
stop transmission when you detect a collision. Eth-
ernet works like this.

1. Listen to see whether the channel is free. Trans-

mission is delayed until the channel is no longer
used.

2. During transmission, keep listening in order to de-

tect a collision. If a collision occurs, transmission
immediately stops.

3. If a collision occured, wait a random period of

time, and proceed with the first step again.

Contention
to slots

Frame Frame Frame Frame

Transmission Contention Idle

period period period
Time
04 – 7 MAC Layer/4.2 Protocols for Multi-Access Channels
 CSMA w/Collision Detection (2/2)
Problem: how big should the contention period be?
A B

FA
Tprop
ε 2Tprop − ε

FB

time

distance
A B

A started sending a frame

B started sending a frame time

Tprop
B detects that its frame collides with another frame

2Tprop − ε
A detects that its frame has collided with another frame

04 – 8 MAC Layer/4.2 Protocols for Multi-Access Channels

Collision Free Protocols

Bit-map: the contention period contains N slots. If

station k wants to transmit a frame, it transmits a 1 dur-
ing the kth slot. The highest-numbered station goes
first.

Frames
8 Contention slots 8 Contention slots 1 d
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 1 1 1 3 7 1 1 1 5 1 2

04 – 9 MAC Layer/4.2 Protocols for Multi-Access Channels

 Collision Free Protocols (1/2)

Binary Countdown: In the contention period a total

of log2 N bits can be transmitted. Each station trans-
mits its number (bit by bit), and stops as soon as it
detects a higher-numbered contender:

Bit time
0 1 2 3

0 0 1 0 0 – – –

0 1 0 0 0 – – –

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 –

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

Result 1 0 1 0

Stations 0010 Station 1001

and 0100 see this sees this 1
1 and give up and gives up

04 – 10 MAC Layer/4.2 Protocols for Multi-Access Channels

Limited-Contention Protocols (1/2)

Principle:

Contention systems are good when there’s not much

going on – a station can immediately transmit a frame.
We do some repairing when things go wrong.

Collision-free systems are good when there’s gener-

ally a lot of traffic – a station first has to get the chan-
nel explicitly before frame transmission. We do a lot
of work avoiding collisions.

What we really want is the contention strategy dur-

ing light loads, and collision-free strategy during rush
hours.

04 – 11 MAC Layer/4.2 Protocols for Multi-Access Channels

Limited-Contention Protocols (2/2)

A solution: Dynamically regulate the number of com-

peting stations during a contention period. If there’s a
collision during the kth slot, divide the contenders into
two groups.

The first group gets to try it again during the next slot
(k + 1). If no collisions occur then, the second group
gets a try during the slot after that (k + 2). Otherwise,
the first group is split up again.

Note: if there’s not much traffic, the first station will be

immediately allowed to transmit a frame. With a lot of
traffic, the strategy reduces to the bit-map protocol.

04 – 12 MAC Layer/4.2 Protocols for Multi-Access Channels

Wavelength Division (1/2)

Principle: if you have a lot of bandwidth, just divide
the channel into sub-channels, and dynamically allo-
cate the sub-channels. Used in fiber optics.

• Each station gets two channels: one control chan-

nel for handling incoming requests, one for the
actual data transfer.
• Each channel repeatedly carries a fixed series of
slots. The data channel contains a status slot car-
rying info on free slots in its control channel.
m time slots
for control
Station
A's control channel is
XX X X XX X X ● ● ●
used by other stations
A to contact A
S S

n time slots for data plus 1 for status

XXX X X X XX XX ● ● ●
B's control channel
B Used by B to
S B's data channel transmit data

XX XX XX XX ● ● ●
C's control channel
C
S C's data channel λ

X X XX X X XX ● ● ●
D's control channel
D
S D's data channel

Time

04 – 13 MAC Layer/4.2 Protocols for Multi-Access Channels

 Wavelength Division (2/2)

• In order to contact a station A, you first read its

status slot from the data channel to see which
control slot is unused. You then put a transmis-
sion request in a free control slot.

• If the transmission request is accepted, you can

send data on your own data channel that will be
picked up by A. You put the data in a specific slot,
and tell A which slot that is.

Note: there’s still a lot of competition. If two senders

say that there’s data in slot #4 for station A, one of
the slots will not be read – A can only read from one
channel at a time.

04 – 14 MAC Layer/4.2 Protocols for Multi-Access Channels

Wireless Networks
Basic idea: Often, there are a number of base sta-
tions connected through guided media. A base sta-
tion can communicate with a mobile computer. The
mobile computers use radio/infrared signals for com-
munication.

Problem: There can be subtle interference:

A B C D A B C D

Radio range

(a) (b)

Issue (a): How can C be prevented from trying to

transmit something to B? In that case it will ruin any
receipt by B (hidden station problem).

Issue (b): How can we tell C that it is allowed to trans-

mit to D, because this will not interfere with the com-
munication from B to A? (exposed station problem).
04 – 15 MAC Layer/4.2 Protocols for Multi-Access Channels
 Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance
Range of A's transmitter Range of B's transmitter

C A RTS B D C A CTS B D

E E

(a) (b)

• A first sends a Request To Send (RTS).

• B answers with a Clear To Send (CTS).

• C hears only RTS and can freely transmit, know-

ing it will not interfere with A’s transmission.

• D hears only the CTS and keeps still for otherwise

it would interfere with B’s reception.

04 – 16 MAC Layer/4.2 Protocols for Multi-Access Channels

802.3 (or Ethernet)

Ethernet stands for a near implementation of the IEEE
802.3 protocol. It is CSMA/CD based (sense the chan-
nel, wait until idle, and backoff when you detect a col-
lision).
Name Cable Max. dist. Nodes/Seg.
10Base5 Thick coax 500 m 100
10Base2 Thin coax 200 m 30
10Base-T Twisted pair 100 m 1024
10Base-F Fiber optics 2000 m 1024

Note: 10Base-T is popular as it can make use of tele-

phone lines, and is easy to maintain when it comes to
cable breaks (cables go to hubs).

Controller

Controller
Transceiver Twisted pair
Transceiver + controller
cable
Core Vampire tap

Transceiver Connector
Hub
(a) (b) (c)

04 – 17 MAC Layer/4.3 Ethernet

 Manchester Encoding
Problem: We can’t just send straight binary codes
across the wire, because stations can’t distinguish a
0 from an idle line.

Solution: use an encoding scheme in which a volt-

age transition occurs during every bit time (Manch-
ester Encoding):

Bit stream 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1

(a) Binary encoding

(b) Manchester encoding

(c) Differential
Manchester encoding

Transition here Lack of transition here

indicates a 0 indicates a 1

Question: Where do we sense the cable?

Question: What is an advantageous side-effect of

having a transition for every bit?
04 – 18 MAC Layer/4.3 Ethernet

802.3 Frame Layout

Bytes 8 6 6 2 0-1500 0-46 4

Destination Source Check-

(a) Preamble Type Data Pad
address address sum

Destination Source Check-

(b) Preamble Length Data Pad
address address sum

Preamble: Seven times 10101010 is used to synchro-

nize the receiver’s clock with that of the sender.
Start: Just a delimiter to tell that the real info is now
coming.
Address: Generally 48-bit fields. Leftmost bit indi-
cates ordinary or group addresses. Second bit
indicates global or local address.
Length: Ranges from 0-1500. Frames should always
be at least 64 bytes. See book for the details. Can
also indicate type: what to do with this frame?
Pad: you got it...
Checksum: Calculated over the data field. CRC-based.

04 – 19 MAC Layer/4.3 Ethernet

 Switched 802.3 LANs
Problem: As more stations are added, traffic will go
up, and so will the possibility of collisions ⇒ the net-
work will saturate.

Solution: Divide the network into separate sub-LANs

and connect them through a switch:
Switch
Connector
To hosts

Ethernet
Hub To hosts

To hosts

10Base-T
connection
To the host computers

Question: Are we really improving things here?

Note: A switch will maintain its own table to see how

it should forward incoming frames from one port to
another (more on this later).
04 – 20 MAC Layer/4.3 Ethernet

Fast Ethernet
Problem: Ethernet by itself was too slow, and new al-
ternatives (optics) were just too expensive (they were
okay for backbones, but not for basic LAN segments).

Solution: Upgrade existing base of LANs (i.e. Eth-

ernets) in such a way that the interfaces remain the
same, but the capacity goes up ⇒ 100 Mbps Ether-
net.

Data formats, interfaces, and protocols are all the same.

That means that we can only drop the bit time from
100 nsec to 10 nsec. Just telling everyone to shorten
their wires won’t really do.

The solution is to use only hubs (10Base-T) and com-

bine it with switching technology. (10Base-T can make
use of telephone lines, and is easy to maintain when
it comes to cable breaks.)
04 – 21 MAC Layer/4.3 Ethernet
 Gigabit Ethernet (1/2)

Because Fast Ethernet may not always be fast enough,

we simply move the decimal point one position and
get Gigabit Ethernet: transfer Ethernet frames at 1000
Mbps.
Name Cable Max. range
1000BASE-SX Fiber 550 m
1000BASE-LX Fiber 5000 m
1000BASE-CX Copper 25 m
1000BASE-T Twisted pair 100 m

Note: Gigabit Ethernet works only in point-to-point

mode, supporting either full duplex (normal case) or
half duplex transmissions. Full duplex requires a switch;
half duplex can be used with hubs.

10 Gbit: Another step further: point-to-point over fiber,

with copper specs being developed.

04 – 22 MAC Layer/4.3 Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet (2/2)

Switch or hub
Ethernet

Computer

Ethernet

(a) (b)

Note: With a switch, there is no need for the CSMA/CD

part! Maximal cable length is determined by signal
strength.

Note: With a hub, the maximal cable length is re-

stricted to 25 m (it used to be 2500 for 10 Mbit Eth-
ernet). To facilitate longer cables, tricks are used:

• Carrier extension: let the hardware extend a frame

to 512 bytes.
• Frame bursting: let the hardware put several frames
into a 512-byte frame.

04 – 23 MAC Layer/4.3 Ethernet

 Wireless LANs

Observation: Wireless LANs need to apply special

techniques to achieve high bandwidth. In brief:

Infrared: Applicable for 1-2 Mbps. Not very popular,

also because sunlight degrades performance.

Frequency hopping: Use 79 channels, each 1 MHz

wide in an unregistered band (i.e., free to be used
by anyone). In effect, frames are sent at different
frequencies each time. Low bandwidth, but good
resistance against security attacks and interfer-
ence from other devices.

High rate direct sequencing: Akin to CDMA - use

11 million chip sequences to get to 11 Mbps (802.11b).

04 – 24 MAC Layer/4.4 Wireless LANs

802.11: Channel Allocation

Problem: How do we solve the hidden/exposed sta-
tion problem: one way or the other, stations should not
be allowed to continuously interfere with each other’s
transmissions.

A wants to send to B B wants to send to C

but cannot hear that but mistakenly thinks
B is busy the transmission will fail

Range Range
of C's of A's
radio radio

A B C A B C
C is A is
transmitting transmitting
C

(a) (b)

Distributed coordination: let the stations figure it out

by using a collision avoidance protocol (CSMA/CA).

Point coordination: There’s a central base station that

controls who goes first.

04 – 25 MAC Layer/4.4 Wireless LANs

 CSMA/CA

Ethernet-like: Sense the channel and send only if it’s

free. Don’t sense the channel during transmis-
sion: if a collision occurred, wait a random time
and try again later.

MACAW Multiple Access w/ Collision Avoidance Wireless:

Send RTS/CTS packets to see where you are and
whether you should defer transmission to avoid
interference with a transmission between two other
stations:

A RTS Data

B CTS ACK

C NAV

D NAV

Time

Network Allocation Vector: It’s a virtual channel

that a station assigns to itself telling it to shut up.

04 – 26 MAC Layer/4.4 Wireless LANs

Point Coordination

Essence: Let a single base station control who gets

to send a frame.

Approach: Send a beacon frame once every 10 or

100 ms. This frame carries information on frequencies
and such, and invites stations to sign up for transmis-
sion.

04 – 27 MAC Layer/4.4 Wireless LANs

 802.11: Frame Structure (1/3)

Bytes 2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0-2312 4

Frame Dur- Address Address Address Seq. Address Check-

Data
control ation 1 2 3 4 sum

Bits 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Version Type Subtype To From MF Re- Pwr More W O Frame control

DS DS try

Type: Data, control, or management frame

Subtype: Are we dealing with RTS, CTS, an ACK,

etc.

DS: Is the frame entering/leaving the current cell?

MF: Frames are allowed to be fragmented to increase

reliability. This bit tells whether more fragments
are on their way.

04 – 28 MAC Layer/4.4 Wireless LANs

802.11: Frame Structure (2/3)

Bytes 2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0-2312 4

Frame Dur- Address Address Address Seq. Address Check-

Data
control ation 1 2 3 4 sum

Bits 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Version Type Subtype To From MF Re- Pwr More W O Frame control

DS DS try

Retry: Is this a retransmission?

Power: Used by a base station to activate/passivate

a station (important in view of power saving)

More: Additional frames can be expected.

W: Data is encrypted using the Wired Equivalence

Privacy algorithm.

O: Stick to ordered delivery of frames.

04 – 29 MAC Layer/4.4 Wireless LANs

 802.11: Frame Structure (3/3)

Bytes 2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0-2312 4

Frame Dur- Address Address Address Seq. Address Check-

Data
control ation 1 2 3 4 sum

Bits 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Version Type Subtype To From MF Re- Pwr More W O Frame control

DS DS try

Duration: Tells how long the transmission of this frame

will take, allowing other stations to set their NAV
accordingly.

Addresses: Source/destination in a cell; and those

of stations outside the cell when dealing with in-
tercell traffic.

Sequence: Sequence number of this frame. 4 bits

are used to identify a fragment of a frame.

04 – 30 MAC Layer/4.4 Wireless LANs

Broadband Wireless
Goal: Use wireless connection between buildings (e.g.,
avoiding the use of the local loop).

Observation: 802.11 is great for indoor networking,

but is not that good for wireless communication be-
tween buildings:

• Buildings do not move, so much of the mobility

stuff from 802.11 is not needed

• Several computers should be able to make use

of the same “connection” (i.e., it should be broad-
band). 802.11 is intended to support one trans-
mission at a time.

• Broadband connections can be supported by pow-

erful radios (money is less of a problem), making
power management less of an issue.

• We may need to cross longer distances, up to

several kilometers.

04 – 31 MAC Layer/4.5 Broadband Wireless

 802.16: The Basics (1/2)

QAM-64 (6 bits/baud)

QAM-16 (4 bits/baud)

QPSK (2 bits/baud)

Note: At the physical layer, different modulation tech-

niques are used, each leading to different transmis-
sion rates. Typically, 70 Mbps channels can be allo-
cated under ideal circumstances.

04 – 32 MAC Layer/4.5 Broadband Wireless

802.16: The Basics (2/2)

Observation: We need a flexible way to allocate band-
width for downstream and upstream data. It can be
expected that, just as in ADSL, an asymmetric ap-
proach works best.

Solution: Let the base station send out frames con-

taining time slots:

Frame 1 Frame 2 Frame 3

Downstream Upstream Guard time Time slot

Guard time: time used for stations to switch transmis-

sion direction. Number of upstream and downstream
slots can be changed dynamically.

Practice: Users get 10 Mbps upload/download at 10

km distance.
04 – 33 MAC Layer/4.5 Broadband Wireless
 802.16: Frame Structure
Bits 1 1 6 11 2 1 11 16 8 4

E C Header
(a) 0 Type EK Length Connection ID Data CRC
C I CRC

Bits 1 1 6 16 16 8

Header
(b) 1 0 Type Bytes needed Connection ID
CRC

Some observations:

• 802.16 offers connection-oriented services, very

unlike other MAC protocols

• Checksumming the data is optional: the physical

layer uses error correction techniques and there
are no facilities for retransmissions.

04 – 34 MAC Layer/4.5 Broadband Wireless

Bluetooth

Essence: Bluetooth is to allow very different (portable

and fixed) devices located in each other’s proximity to
exchange information:

• Let very different portable devices (PDA, cellular

phone, notebook) set up connections

• Replace many of the existing cables (headset, key-

board, mouse, printer)

• Provide better wireless connection (handsfree so-

lutions)

• Provide wireless access to Internet entry points

• Relatively high bandwidth: 1 Mbit/second

04 – 35 MAC Layer/4.6 Bluetooth

 Bluetooth Architecture
Piconet 1 Piconet 2

S S

S
S
S

M S M

S
Active S Parked
slave S slave
S S
Bridge slave

Piconet: Group of devices with one master and mul-

tiple slaves. There can as much as 7 active slaves,
but a total of 255 parked ones (i.e., in a power-
saving state).

Scatternet: An interconnected collection of piconets.

04 – 36 MAC Layer/4.6 Bluetooth

DLL Switching (1/2)

Basic idea: we want to interconnect a number of

LANs, rather than having one big one. Two LANs are
connected through a bridge.

• You want to let existing LANs (in departments,

buildings, etc.) as they are. On the other hand,
you do want to connect them.

• When an organization is spread over several build-

ings, it may be cheaper to have a different inter-
connect (e.g., infrared) than coax cable. You may
also have no choice.

• Splitting things up (rather than just tying things

together) may be good for load balancing. There
can be a file server per LAN.

04 – 37 MAC Layer/4.7 Data Link Layer Switching

 DLL Switching (2/2)

• Physical distance sometimes precludes building

one big LAN. For example, UTP 100 Mbps Ether-
net can handle cables only up to 100 m.

• The reliability can be improved: if one part goes

down, the other LAN segments may still operate.

• For security reasons, bridges can check frames,

and refuse to forward those that seem suspicious.

04 – 38 MAC Layer/4.7 Data Link Layer Switching

Bridges: Basics
Host A Host B

Network Pkt Pkt

Bridge

LLC Pkt Pkt Pkt

802.11 Pkt 802.3 Pkt

??????

MAC 802.11 Pkt 802.3 Pkt

Physical 802.11 Pkt 802.11 Pkt 802.3 Pkt 802.3 Pkt

???

802.11 Pkt 802.3 Pkt

Wireless LAN Ethernet

• A packet is passed to the data link layer (LLC

part)

• It is then passed to the MAC layer (specific ac-

cess strategy)

• A bridge converts the stuff above the MAC layer,

in the LLC layer

04 – 39 MAC Layer/4.7 Data Link Layer Switching

 Bridging Problems
Problem: Really great – committees for 802.x invented
different frame formats:

Destination Source Check-

802.3 Length Data Pad
address address sum

Frame Dur- Address Address Address Address Check-

802.11 control Seq. Data
ation 1 2 3 4 sum

E C Header Check-
802.16 0 Type EK Length Connection ID Data
C I CRC sum

• We also have the problem of different transmis-

sion rates. If a higher speed LAN starts pumping
frames on a lower speed one, we’ve got a prob-
lem.

• What should we do if the target LAN can’t ac-

cept the frame length of the source LAN? Splitting
a frame into pieces is often out of the question!
(WHY?)

04 – 40 MAC Layer/4.7 Data Link Layer Switching

Transparent Bridges
Main issue: Can we develop a bridge that intercon-
nects LANs in a completely transparent way, i.e. seems
to turn it into one big LAN?

F G H

Bridge LAN 4

A B B1 C B2 D E

LAN 1 LAN 2 LAN 3

• An incoming frame is simply forwarded to all other

LAN segments connected to the bridge.
• Because an incoming frame contains the source
address, a bridge can gradually get to know through
which interface it can reach a host.
• Use a timeout mechanism to flush all knowledge
a bridge has ⇒ it will gradually build up a fresh
view again

04 – 41 MAC Layer/4.7 Data Link Layer Switching

 Parallel Transparent Bridges (1/2)

Problem: Sometimes LANs are connected by multi-

ple bridges in such a way that we no longer have a
tree, but a graph containing cycles ⇒ we can’t just
forward frames anymore.

Frame copied Frame copied

by B1 by B2
F1 F2
LAN 2

Bridge
B1 B2

LAN 1

F
Initial frame

Question: Why would we use multiple bridges in such

a way that we don’t have a tree anymore?

04 – 42 MAC Layer/4.7 Data Link Layer Switching

Parallel Transparent Bridges (2/2)

Solution: let the bridges construct a spanning tree
on their own.
A B C
A B C 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
LAN D E F
LAN D E F
5 6 7
Bridge that
G is part of the
5 6 7 spanning tree H J
Bridge that is
Bridge not part of the
8 9
H I J spanning tree

8 9

(a) (b)

• Each bridge broadcasts its ID across the attached

LAN segments. The lowest numbered bridge be-
comes root for that segment.
• A root bridge for a segment knows it can never be
the root for the tree, if it finds out there’s a bridge
with a lower number.

• Bridges advertise their distance to the “real” root

⇒ that’s how we build a spanning tree.

04 – 43 MAC Layer/4.7 Data Link Layer Switching

 From Repeater to Switch
Observation: There’s a lot of confusion when it comes
to placing “connectors” in reference models:

A B C D A B C D A B C D
Host

Hub Bridge Switch

LAN

E F G H E F G H E F G H

(a) (b) (c)

Repeater: Amplifies incoming signal

Hub: Takes an incoming frame and passes it to all

other ports

Bridge: Connects two or more LANs

Switch: Connects several computers (and routes frames

between them)

04 – 44 MAC Layer/4.7 Data Link Layer Switching

From Router to Gateway

Routers: Placed in “classical” networks, and forwards

packets to other routers

Transport gateways: Connects two networks at the

transport layer: go from a TCP connection to an
ATM transport connection.

Application gateway: Connects two different appli-

cation protocols, such as sending SMS messages
to a Web server, or connecting an X.400 mail sys-
tem to an Internet-based mail system.

04 – 45 MAC Layer/4.7 Data Link Layer Switching

 Virtual LANs (1/2)
Observation: Many LANs are organized according
to a physical division of workstations, possibly having
multiple LANs connected by bridges for sake of better
management (and security):

Cable
duct

Hub

Corridor

Switch

Hub

Twisted pair Office

to a hub

Problem: The physical organization may not corre-

spond at all with what would seem logically the best
organization (e.g., based on membership of a depart-
ment).
04 – 46 MAC Layer/4.7 Data Link Layer Switching

Virtual LANs (2/2)

Solution: Adjust the bridges and switches such that

an incoming frame is forwarded only to those outgoing
ports that connect hosts (or LAN segments) belonging
to the same logical group as the sending host:

A B C D A B C D
G W W W
1
3 4 G W
I GW M I M
G W
J N J N
G W
B1 B2 S1 S2
GW G GW W
K O K O
GW G
L L
2
G W G G
E F G H E F G H

(a) (b)

04 – 47 MAC Layer/4.7 Data Link Layer Switching

 Identifying a VLAN (1/2)

Observation: It’s not really important that you know

to which group the sending host belongs, as long as
the frame it is sending has the logical group encoded
in it ⇒ add a tag to frame headers.

Problem: You don’t want existing networks (Ether-

net!) to break down. As a consequence, you need
to apply a trick so that non-VLAN aware frames can
be adjusted to one in which the VLAN is identified by
a tag.

Basic idea: Let bridges and switches make the ad-

justment: add the tag when a frame comes in for the
first time; remove it when it is sent to a non-VLAN
aware host.

04 – 48 MAC Layer/4.7 Data Link Layer Switching

Identifying a VLAN (2/2)

VLAN-aware VLAN-aware Legacy Legacy
end domain core domain end domain PC

Tagged Tagged
frame frame

VLAN-
aware VLAN-aware Switching done Legacy
PC switch using tags frame

04 – 49 MAC Layer/4.7 Data Link Layer Switching

 802.1Q: VLAN Ethernet

Destination Source Check-

802.3 Length Data Pad
address address sum

Destination Source Check-

802.1Q Tag Length Data Pad
address address sum

C
VLAN protocol Pri F VLAN Identifier
ID (0x8100) I

VLAN protocol ID: value 0x8100, by which it is auto-

matically interpreted as a type (correct according
to the 802.3 standard)

VLAN ID: This is what it is all about

CFI: Bit indicating that the payload is an 802.5 frame

that is being tunneled (token ring protocol)

Pri: So, finally, we can introduce QoS into Ethernet

networks.

04 – 50 MAC Layer/4.7 Data Link Layer Switching

04 – 51 MAC Layer/4.7 Data Link Layer Switching