Bioactive Compounds in Foods

BLUK145-Gilbert March 5, 2008 22:30
Bioactive Compounds in Foods
Bioactive Compounds in Foods Edited by John Gilbert and Hamide Z. Senyuva.

© 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, ISBN: 978-1-4051-5875-6
i

Edited by
John Gilbert
Central Science Laboratory, Sand Hutton, York, UK
Hamide Z. Şenyuva
Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK),
Ankara Test and Analysis Laboratory (ATAL), Ankara, Turkey
iii
This edition first published 2008

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Bioactive compounds in foods/edited by John Gilbert, Hamide Z. Şenyuva.

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-4051-5875-6 (hardback : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 1-4051-5875-1 (hardback : alk. paper)
1. Food–Analysis. 2. Food–Toxicology. 3. Food contamination.
4. Bioactive compounds I. Gilbert, John. II. Senyuva, Hamide Z.
TX545.B56 2008
664 .07–dc22
2007038437
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Set in 10/12 pt, Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India

Printed in Singapore by Markono Print Media Pte Ltd
1 2008
For the cover:

Brown mushrooms photo c Alan Dunlop-Walters – Fotolia.com
French fries photo
c Anette Linnea Ras mussen – Fotolia.com
Golden maize photo c AGphotographer – Fotolia.com
Mixed vegetables photo c Michelle Marsan – Fotolia.com
Mussels photo c Alison Bowden – Fotolia.com
iv
Contents
Contributors xv
PART ONE: NATURAL TOXICANTS 1
1 Introduction 3
John Gilbert and Hamide Z. Şenyuva
1.1 Different perceptions of chemicals in food 3
1.2 Residues and contaminants in foods 4
1.3 Natural toxicants in foods 5
1.4 Developments in analytical methodology 6
1.5 Emerging risks 7
1.6 Bioactive compounds in foods 8
2 Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids 10
Colin Crews and Rudolf Krska
Summary 10
2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 The pyrrolizidine alkaloids 11
2.3 Occurrence 12
2.3.1 Formation and function 13
2.4 Exposure 13
2.4.1 Contamination of foods 14
2.4.2 Pyrrolizidines in herbal preparations 15
2.5 Regulations 17
2.6 Toxicity and metabolism 17
2.6.1 General toxicity 17
2.6.2 Metabolism 18
2.6.3 Carcinogenicity and mutagenicity 18
2.7 Analytical methods 19
2.7.1 Extraction 20
2.7.2 Gas chromatography 20
2.7.3 High performance liquid chromatography 21
2.7.4 Other methods 22
Conclusions 24
References 24
vi Contents
3 Glucosinolates 31
Ruud Verkerk and Matthijs Dekker
Summary 31
3.1 Introduction 31
3.2 Nature and occurrence 32
3.3 Biosynthesis 33
3.3.1 Amino acid modification 34
3.3.2 Conversion of amino acids 34
3.3.3 Secondary transformations 35
3.4 Hydrolysis 35
3.4.1 Myrosinase 35
3.4.2 Hydrolysis products 36
3.5.1 Total glucosinolates 38
3.5.2 Individual glucosinolates 38
3.5.3 Breakdown products 40
3.6 Biological effects 40
3.6.1 Anticarcinogenicity 40
3.6.2 Toxicity 42
3.7 Taste versus health 43
3.8 Responses to stress factors 44
3.9 Effects of processing 44
Conclusions 47
References 47
4 Phycotoxins in Seafood 52
John W. Leftley and Fiona Hannah
Summary 52
4.1 Introduction 52
4.2 Causative and vector organisms 52
4.3 Classification of phycotoxins 55
4.4 The saxitoxin (STX) group (PSP) 55
4.4.1 The toxins causing PSP: the saxitoxin family 58
4.4.2 Toxic effects 60
4.5 The okadaic acid (OA) group (DSP) 61
4.5.1 The toxins causing DSP: okadaic acid and the dinophysistoxins 64
4.6 The domoic acid (DA) group (ASP) 68
4.6.1 The toxins causing ASP (DAP): domoic acid and its isomers 69
4.7 The azaspiracid (AZA) group (AZP) 69
4.7.1 The toxins causing AZP: the azaspiracids 70
4.8 The brevetoxin (BTX) group (NSP) 74
4.8.1 The toxins causing NSP: the brevetoxins 74
Contents vii
4.9 The ciguatera toxin (CTX) group (CFP) 75

4.9.1 The toxins causing CFP 76
4.9.2 Toxic effects of CTXs 77
4.10 Other phycotoxins 77
4.10.1 The pectenotoxin group 77
4.10.2 The yessotoxin group 78
4.10.3 The cyclic imine group 80
4.10.4 The cyanobacterial toxins 82
4.10.5 Miscellaneous phycotoxins 83
4.11 Detection of phycotoxins in seafood and algae 83
4.11.1 Assays and analyses 84
4.11.2 Mammalian bioassays 85
4.11.3 Instrumental (physico-chemical) analysis 86
4.11.4 In vitro assays 87
4.12 Depuration of phycotoxins 88
4.12.1 Natural depuration 88
4.12.2 Studies on cooking as a method of depuration 89
4.12.3 The effects of freezing and chilling 91
4.13 Monitoring and regulation 92
4.13.1 Phytoplankton monitoring 92
4.13.2 Monitoring of shellfish tissues for toxicity 93
4.13.3 Risk analysis 93
4.14 Future prospects 96
4.15 A note on the IOC harmful algal bloom programme 96
Acknowledgements 97
References 97
5 Mushroom Toxins 110

Jana Hajslová and Vera Schulzova
Summary 110
5.1 Introduction 110
5.2 Poisonous mushrooms 112
5.2.1 Amatoxins, phallotoxins and virotoxins 112
5.2.2 Orellanine 116
5.2.3 Muscarine 117
5.2.4 Ibotenic acid and muscimol 118
5.2.5 Psilocybin, psilocin 119
5.2.6 Coprine 121
5.3 Edible mushrooms 122
5.3.1 Gyromitrin 122
5.3.2 Agaritine and other phenylhydrazines 125
References 129
6 Mycotoxins 134
Keith A. Scudamore
Summary 134
viii Contents

6.1.1 Mycotoxins and their study 134
6.1.2 Mycotoxins and fungi 136
6.1.3 Sampling and detection 137
6.1.4 Significance and control 142
6.2 Aflatoxins 142
6.2.1 Chemical properties 142
6.2.2 Analytical methods 143
6.2.3 Occurrence in raw materials and processed foods 144
6.2.4 Toxicology 145
6.2.5 Regulation and control 146
6.3 Ochratoxin A 146
6.4 Deoxynivalenol and the trichothecenes 149
6.5 Zearalenone 153
6.6 Fumonisins 155
6.7 Patulin 157
6.8 Other mycotoxins 159
6.8.1 Citrinin 159
6.8.2 Sterigmatocystin 160
6.8.3 Cyclopiazonic acid 160
6.8.4 Moniliformin 161
6.8.5 Alternaria toxins 161
References 162
Contents ix
7 Phytoestrogens 173
Don Clarke and Helen Wiseman
Summary 173
7.2 The structure of phytoestrogens 173
7.3 Occurrence and levels in plant materials 174
7.3.1 Defining phytoestrogens by class and structure 174
7.3.2 Compositional databases 176
7.3.3 Factors affecting isoflavone content in soya 176
7.3.4 Other possible phytoestrogens 178
7.4 Measurement of individual phytoestrogens 184
7.4.1 Traditional approaches 184
7.4.2 Mass spectrometry 185
7.4.3 Immunoassays 187
7.4.4 Online bioactivity assays 187
7.5 Measurement of oestrogenicity 188
7.6 Oestrogen receptors 191
7.6.1 Introduction 191
7.6.2 Receptors – ERα and ERβ 191
7.6.3 Oestrogen receptor-binding assays 192
Conclusions 193
References 193
8 β-Carboline Alkaloids 199

Tomás Herraiz
Summary 199
8.2 Chemistry, synthesis, and formation of β-carboline alkaloids 200
8.3 Analysis of β-carboline alkaloids 202
8.3.1 Sample preparation 202
8.3.2 Chromatographic analysis and detection 203
8.4 Occurrence of β-carboline alkaloids in foods and exposure 206
8.4.1 THβCs in foods 206
8.4.2 βCs in foods 210
8.5 Factors influencing the presence of β-carbolines in foods 212
8.6 Biological activity and toxicology of β-carbolines 214
Conclusions and future directions 218
Acknowledgments 218
References 218
PART TWO: MAN-MADE COMPONENTS 225
9 Naturally Occurring Nitrates and Nitrites in Foods 227

Mari Reinik, Terje Tamme and Mati Roasto
Summary 227
x Contents
9.2 Methods of analysis 229

9.2.1 Sampling and storage 231
9.2.2 Extraction 231
9.2.3 Spectrophotometric methods 232
9.2.4 Chromatographic methods 233
9.2.5 Other methods 234
9.3 Incidence and levels of occurrence 235
9.3.1 Vegetables 235
9.3.2 Fruits 239
9.3.3 Milk and dairy products 240
9.3.4 Cereals and bread 242
9.3.5 Fresh meat 242
9.3.6 Drinking water 243
9.4 Toxicity of nitrate and nitrite 244
9.5 Dietary exposure 245
9.6 Regulations 246
Conclusions 246
References 247
10 Acrylamide in Heated Foods 254

Vural Gökmen and Hamide Z. Şenyuva
Summary 254
10.2 Mechanism of formation in foods 255
10.2.1 Mechanistic pathways 255
10.2.2 Formation in foods during thermal processing 257
10.2.3 Kinetic modelling 262
10.3.2 Chromatographic separation 272
10.3.3 Detection 273
10.3.4 Colour spectrophotometer 274
10.3.5 Computer vision-based image analysis 275
10.3.6 Near-infrared spectrophotometer 279
10.4 Occurrence in foods and exposure assessments 279
10.5 Biological effects 280
10.6 Methods to reduce formation in foods 283
10.6.1 Potato products 283
10.6.2 Bakery products 284
References 285
11 Furan in Processed Foods 291

Imre Blank
Summary 291
Contents xi
11.2 Formation and mechanisms 292

11.2.1 Model studies 292
11.2.2 Formation mechanisms 295
11.2.3 Food products 299
11.2.4 Mitigation concepts 302
11.3 Levels of occurrence and exposure 305
11.3.1 Data collection 305
11.3.2 Coffee 306
11.3.3 Baby food and other dietary sources 307
11.3.4 Domestic cooking 308
11.3.5 Dietary exposure 310
11.4.2 Sampling methods 313
11.4.3 GC-MS analysis 314
11.4.4 Method validation 315
11.4.5 On-line monitoring 318
Concluding remarks 318
References 320
12 Chloropropanols and their Fatty Acid Esters 323

Colin G. Hamlet
Summary 323
12.1.1 Historical perspective: 1979–2000 323
12.1.2 Scope of chapter 325
12.2 Toxicology 326
12.2.1 3-MCPD 326
12.2.2 Dichloropropanols 326
12.2.3 Chloroesters 327
12.3.1 Chloropropanols 327
12.4 Occurrence 335
12.4.1 Chloropropanols 335
12.5 Mechanisms and precursors 342
12.5.1 From hydrochloric acid and glycerol/acylglycerols 342
12.5.2 From hypochlorous acid and allyl alcohol 342
12.5.3 Formation in thermally processed foods and ingredients 342
12.5.4 Mechanisms involving enzymes 345
12.5.5 Other mechanisms of interest 346
12.6 Reactions of Chloropropanols 346
12.6.1 Stability of MCPDs 346
12.6.2 Reactions of 3-MCPD 346
12.7 Mitigation 346
xii Contents
12.8 Exposure 347

12.8.1 3-MCPD 348
12.9 Regulatory status 350
Conclusions and future prospects 350
References 351
13 Heterocyclic Amines 358

Mark G. Knize and James S. Felton
Summary 358
13.2 Formation of heterocyclic amines 359
13.2.1 Model systems 361
13.2.2 Conditions for formation in meats 362
13.2.3 Food sample analysis 363
13.3 Sample extraction 363
13.3.1 Chromatography and detection 364
13.3.2 Mass spectrometry 365
13.3.3 GC/MS 365
13.3.4 LC/MS 365
13.3.5 High pressure LC-MS/MS 366
13.3.6 Capillary electrophoresis 366
13.4 Incidence and occurrence 366
13.4.1 Pan residues and food flavors 368
13.4.2 Modifying cooking practices to reduce the formation of
heterocyclic amines 368
13.5 Exposure assessement 369
13.6 Risk 371
13.7 Regulations 371
Conclusion 371
Acknowledgments 372
References 372
14 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 378

Laura Cano-Lerida, Martin Rose and Paul Walton
Summary 378
14.1 Occurrence and mechanism of formation 378
14.1.1 Definition 378
14.1.2 Sources of PAHs 378
14.1.3 Sources of PAHs in foods 379
14.1.4 Environmental fate and degradation 381
14.2.1 Current status 382
14.2.2 Analytical methods – forward look 384
Contents xiii
14.3 PAHs in food, exposure assessment and health effects 388

14.3.1 PAHs in food and dietary intake 388
14.3.2 Health effects and risk assessments 390
14.4 Regulations 393
References 394
Index 401
Color plate section between pages 224 and 225

Contributors
I. Blank C. Hamlet
Nestle Product RHM Technology Ltd, The Lord Rank
Technology Center, Orbe, Centre, High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire,
Switzerland UK
L. Cano-Lerida F. Hannah
Johnson Matthey Catalysis, University of London, University Marine
Chilton, Billingham, Biological Station, Millport, Isle of
UK Cumbrae, Scotland, UK
D. Clarke T. Herraiz
Central Science Laboratory, Sand Hutton, Spanish Council for Scientific Research,
York, UK Juan de la Cierva, Madrid,
Spain
C. Crews
Central Science Laboratory, Sand Hutton, M. Knize
York, UK University of California, Lawrence
Livermore Program, National Laboratory,
M. Dekker Biology & Biotechnology Research
Department of Agrotechnology and Livermore, CA, USA
Food Science, Wageningen University,
Wageningen, R. Krska
The Netherlands Christian Doppler Laboratory for
Mycotoxin Research, Center for Analytical
J. Gilbert Chemistry, Department for
Central Science Laboratory, Sand Hutton, Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University
York, UK of Natural Resources and Applied Life
Sciences, Konrad Lorenz,
V. Gökmen Tulln, Austria
Food Engineering Department,
Hacettepe University, J. W. Leftley
Ankara, Turkey Scottish Association for Marine Science,
Oban, Argyll, Scotland, UK
J. Hajslová and Integrin Advanced Biosystems Ltd,
Institute of Chemical Technology, Marine Resource Centre, Barcaldine,
Prague, Czech Republic Argyll, Scotland, UK
xvi Contributors
M. Reinik H. Şenyuva
Estonian Health Protection Inspectorate, Scientific and Technological Research
Tartu Laboratory, Tartu, Estonia Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK),
Ankara Test and Analysis Laboratory
(ATAL), Ankara, Turkey
M. Roasto
Department of Food Science and Hygiene,
T. Tamme
Estonian University of Life Sciences,
Department of Food Science and
Kreutzwaldi, Tartu, Estonia
Hygiene, Estonian University of Life
Sciences, Kreutzwaldi, Tartu,
M. Rose Estonia
Central Science Laboratory, Sand Hutton,
York, UK R. Verkerk
Department of Agrotechnology and
Food Science, Wageningen
V. Schulzova
University, Wageningen, The
Institute of Chemical Technology.,
Netherlands
Prague, Czech Republic
P. Walton
K. Scudamore Department of Chemistry, University of
KAS Mycotoxins, Taplow, Maidenhead, York, Heslington,
Berks, UK York, UK
BLUK145-Gilbert February 28, 2008 18:8
Plate 1 Wild plants of Echium vulgare in New Zealand. A rich monofloral source of nectar and pyrrolizidine
alkaloids. Photo courtesy of Barrie Wills. (Reprinted with permission from Betteridge et al. in Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry, 53, 1894–1902, Figure 4. Copyright 2005 with permission from the American Chemical
Society.)

1
15.0
1.0
Normalized acrylamide (C/Cmax) 12.0

0.8 Normalized acrylamide (C/Cmax)
CIE redness (a*)

CIE redness (a*) 9.0
0.6
6.0
0.4
3.0
0.2 0.0
0.0 −3.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Frying time (min)
t (min) 0 1 3 5 8 10 15 30 45 60
Plate 2 Change of acrylamide concentration and CIE redness parameter a* in potato chips during frying at
170◦ C. (Reprinted from Gökmen, V., ¸Senyuva, H.Z., Dülek, B. and Çetin, A.E. Computer vision-based image
analysis for the estimation of acrylamide concentrations of potato chips and french fries. Food Chemistry, 101,
791–798. Copyright 2006b with permission from Elsevier.)
7×104
F
Furan
6×104
200
5×104 m/z 39
m
Temperature (°C)
m/z 47
Counts (cps)
m/z 69 150
4×104 m/z 95
F
Formic acid
m/z 97
3×104 Furfural m/z 113
m/z 115 100
2×104
1×104 50
0
40 60 80
Time (min)
Plate 3 PTR-MS traces of selected ions obtained by heating ascorbic acid at 200◦ C. Some of these traces were
identified by coupling with GC-MS after trapping the headspace on Tenax R
tubes. (Reprinted with permission
from Märk, J., Pollien, Ph., Lindinger, Ch., Blank, I. and Märk, T., Quantitation of furan and methylfuran formed
in different precursor systems by proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry, Journal of Agricultrual and Food
Chemistry, 54, 2786–2793, copyright 2006, American Chemical Society.)
2
Part One
Natural toxicants

1
1 Introduction
John Gilbert and Hamide Z. Şenyuva
1.1 DIFFERENT PERCEPTIONS OF CHEMICALS IN FOOD

There are several different ways in which non-essential substances in foods can be categorised.
They might be thought of as ‘naturally occurring’ and therefore as intrinsic components of the
foods. These substances are thus difficult to avoid without stopping consumption of the food in
question. Alternatively these non-essential chemicals might be ‘man-made’ in terms of their
source and therefore their presence in food might be deemed avoidable. Another simplistic
way of looking at these substances could be as being either ‘chemical’ or ‘biological’ in origin.
To the non-scientist the notion of something present in food, which is described as being
chemical (man-made) tends to be thought of in emotive terms and deemed as being highly
undesirable. In contrast and quite irrationally the notion of anything ‘naturally-occurring’
in foods is thought of as being benign, simply because it is ‘natural’. Thus, by this logic
substances of biological origin are felt to be safer than those of chemical origin. It is this
superficial categorisation which results in public wariness concerning pesticides and additives
in foods (thought of as man-made chemicals), and yet less concern, for example, regarding
natural toxicants such as mycotoxins thought of as natural being of biological origin.
There are also other dimensions which compound the public misunderstandings when
trying to gauge the true significance of these non-essential substances in foods. The fact that it
is not the consumption of any chemical substance which is important, but it is the total amount
consumed which is critical, is a simple concept but one often ignored and sometimes difficult
to communicate. Additionally, substances have different biological effects depending on the
dose, some being beneficial at perhaps low levels of intake but harmful at higher exposure
levels. Some substances might be benign for some sectors of the population and harmful for
others (e.g. those suffering from intolerance or allergenic reactions).
All food additives must have a demonstrated essential function and necessarily undergo
a rigorous scientific safety evaluation before they can be approved for use. Assessments
are based on reviews of all available toxicological data in both humans and animal mod-
els. From the available data, the maximum level of additive that has no demonstrable
effect is determined. Additives are used to carry out a variety of functions which are often
taken for granted. Foods are inevitably subjected to many environmental conditions, such as
temperature changes, oxidation and exposure to micro-organisms, which can change their
original composition. Food additives play a key role in maintaining the food qualities and
characteristics that consumers demand, keeping food safe, wholesome and appealing from
farm-to-fork.
There are also examples of where increased consumption of a food item is desirable from
a beneficial dietary perspective (e.g. increased consumption of oily fish) but exposure to

4 Bioactive Compounds in Foods
contaminants contained in the fish need to be minimised. How do you balance the beneficial
effects in reducing heart disease from high fish consumption against the negative effects of
dioxin/PCB exposure, and decide on an optimum level of consumption of fish. Unfortunately,
the science is not yet sufficiently well enough developed to answer these questions and a
pragmatic approach is therefore needed. There is thus an apparent complexity in terms of the
significance of chemicals in foods. This complexity has proved very difficult to communicate
to the general public, and has been one of the issues underlying the many and various food
scares of recent years.
1.2 RESIDUES AND CONTAMINANTS IN FOODS

‘Man-made’ or chemical contaminants can be those that occur as a result of deliberate
treatment of the food supply, e.g. pesticides and veterinary drugs. In these two cases these
chemicals are described as ‘residues’ implying that the detectable amounts are a remaining
proportion (albeit small) of that used in the treatment process, i.e. ‘residues’. These residues
are well understood toxicologically and are well regulated, with such low-level residues as
occurring in foods, generally being kept to a minimum. Authorisation of the use of pesticides
and veterinary drugs is based on good practice (e.g. good agricultural practice) limited to
maximum residue limits (MRLs) to levels which are unavoidable and toxicologically in-
significant. Thus, if good agricultural practice (GAP) is followed, minimal levels of pesticide
residues occur in fruit and vegetables. Similarly, minimal levels of veterinary drug residues
should be detectable if correct withdrawal times are observed between treatment of animals
with permitted drugs and the eventual slaughter of the animal.
Other man-made chemicals in foods might be derived from environmental sources or might
result from adventitious occurrence during processing or might result from transfer from food
packaging materials. In these cases the substances are described as chemical contaminants
rather than residues. Or in the case of contamination by migration from packaging they are
described (in the USA) as ‘indirect food additives’. At least in principle these sources of
contamination can be eliminated or controlled.
Environmental contaminants are probably the more difficult to control and efforts have to
be focussed on reducing the sources, i.e. reducing emissions into the environment, which can
take many years to achieve. Thus, many years after PCBs were banned, these contaminants
are still found in the food chain as a result of their long-term persistence. Some metals in the
environment are the result of release into water supplies through industrial activity such as
mining, and some chemicals such as dioxins and furans are a result of waste disposal through
incineration or through uncontrolled industrial activity. In general, as countries become more
developed and industrialised there is a greater use of a wider variety of chemicals in all
walks of life, with greater possibilities of discharge into the environment. Polybrominated
dioxins and furans (substances used as flame retardants), perfluorinated carboxylic acids such
as perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) used as industrial
surfactants, fabric protectors and in teflon coatings are just a few of a growing list of ‘new’
chemicals that have gained widespread use and eventually are being found in biological
samples and appearing in the food chain. Many of these contaminants (e.g. phthalates),
which are still in widespread use, have become ubiquitous making it almost impossible to
find biological samples free of contamination.
Contamination during food production and processing can occur from a variety of sources
from the point of harvest of an agricultural product, through transport, storage and during
Introduction 5
subsequent food preparation and processing operations. This type of contamination can be
very difficult to predict, as every point in the food chain represents a potential contamination
source, thus should be thought as critical control point (CCP). The hazard analysis critical
control point (HACCP) approach adapted from use for microbiological prevention is now
frequently used by the food industry in an analogous way to control chemical, physical and
biological contamination.
Food packaging contamination (or migration as it is known) of low-molecular-weight
compounds is an important problem of plastics packaging and other materials intended to
come into contact with food products. Migration itself is controllable and depends on the
type of packaging material, the intimacy of contact, temperature and duration of contact. This
is a highly regulated area, where only substances which are authorised, are permitted to be
used as monomers or starting materials for the manufacture of polymers or as additives in
polymer systems for food packaging. In the EU, this positive list is supplemented by limits
on maximum residual levels in the packaging as well as migration limits applied to the foods
(or food simulants). In the USA, a slightly different approach is applied using ‘packaging
usage factors’ and ‘food consumption factors’ but the result is the same tight system of
regulatory approval. These regulations are being progressively extended to cover all other
types of food contact materials such as can coatings, paper and board, cookware etc. although
despite these controls there are nevertheless sudden ‘surprises’ in terms of contaminants like
2-isopropyl-thioxanthone (ITX) which provides an example of a typical unanticipated ‘food
scare’.
Together these sources of contamination can result in several hundred possible chemi-
cals that might enter the food supply and all these need to be understood, monitored and
controlled.
1.3 NATURAL TOXICANTS IN FOODS
Whilst there is no problem in categorising residues in foods and no problem in categoris-

ing those chemicals identified from the above sources as being contaminants, there are a
group of substances which although thought of as undesirable might also be regarded as
‘naturally occurring’. In this ‘natural’ category of chemicals in foods are those which are
‘inherent constituents’ and these relate primarily to plants and fungi (mushrooms). Some-
times these substances are referred to as ‘natural toxins’ or ‘natural toxicants’. Some of these
toxic constituents might be detoxified during processing, e.g. during preparation or cooking.
Practices have evolved over time to ensure that only suitable plants are selected for human
consumption that are free of such toxicants or they are detoxified when suitably prepared.
The presence of lectins (also known as hemagglutinins) in various beans is a good example
where detoxification occurs when the beans are heated at above 90◦ C for a short time. The
lectins are proteins which are heat-denatured, but can otherwise cause agglutination of red
blood cells and may negatively influence nutrient absorption. Eating these beans uncooked
or after ‘slow cooking’ at only low temperatures can lead to toxic effects. Similarly for fungi,
only those free of harmful components have over time been identified and thus selected for
human consumption.
There is also another category of substances, which are natural in food in the sense that they
are an inevitable consequence of preparing the food and are thus unavoidable. Some of these
substances are not present in the food in its raw state and are only formed during processing,
frequently as a result of heat treatment. Some of these substances are simply formed during
normal high temperature cooking (e.g. furan and acrylamide), and are products of browning
reactions in the food. Non-enzymic browning or Maillard browning is the reaction which
leads to the development of highly desirable colour and flavours in cooked foods, as well
as minor amounts of undesirable substances. Other substances such as polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a result of processes like pyrolysis and can result during cooking
such as barbequing, or can result from deliberate smoking of foods to develop desirable
flavours.
1.4 DEVELOPMENTS IN ANALYTICAL METHODOLOGY
Much of the concern with the presence of chemicals in foods whether residues, contaminants
or ‘natural toxicants’ has arisen in recent years because of our improved ability to detect and
identify trace levels in foods. Unfortunately this improved analytical capability has not been
matched by our ability to interpret these results in terms of potential harm to human health.
Over the past 25 years there have been astonishing developments in analytical techniques
which have enabled monitoring of a significantly greater number of trace levels of chemicals in
foods, at lower and lower levels with an increasing degree of confidence both in accuracy and
precision. Combined gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS) is now routinely used
for the analysis of volatile and semi-volatile residues and contaminants. Bench-top GC/MS
instruments have become significantly more reliable, fast scanning and data acquisition have
improved as has sensitivity. Multi-residue GC/MS of more than 100 pesticide residues at
ng/g (ppb) sensitivity in a single chromatographic run is now routine.
Although not yet quite at the same stage of widespread accessibility, combined liquid
chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC/MS) has also developed into being a sensitive and
robust technique. Developments in LC/MS have had an even greater impact in the food safety
area opening up the possibilities of determining previously intractable substances which lack
chromophores and previously precluded detection by HPLC.
This trend is set to continue in the future with the introduction of a new generation of fast
scanning, highly sensitive, accurate mass, time-of-flight mass spectrometers coupled to either
GC or HPLC (GC/TOFMS or LC/TOFMS). These instruments offer new possibilities of rapid
screening of crude food extracts against constructed databases of residues or contaminants
enabling identification of target compounds with a high degree of confidence. Tentative
identification of novel contaminants will also be possible based on accurate mass information
which can be more rigorously confirmed by resorting to more sophisticated quadrupole time-
of-flight mass spectrometer (QTOF-MS) tandem instruments.
The widespread use of GC/MS and LC/MS and the constant push towards measuring lower
and lower levels of residues and contaminants has meant that chemicals previously below
limits of detection are now being determined in foods, and new previously unrecognised
contaminants are being found. Unfortunately our ability to assess the significance of these
very low levels of contaminants in the food supply has not advanced at the same pace as
the analytical techniques. The significance of long-term low-level exposure to trace levels
of chemicals from foods is generally unknown, except where there is clear evidence of
carcinogenicity. The effects of complex mixtures of chemicals (cocktail effects) are even
more difficult to assess. There is generally a tendency to error on the side of caution and apply
the ‘precautionary principle’ in risk assessment. However, this approach is not particularly
helpful when the chemical in question is either an unavoidable inherent component or is
intrinsically linked to flavour formation in cooked foods.
Introduction 7
1.5 EMERGING RISKS

Recognising the damage which has been done over the past 20 years not only in economic
terms with problems like bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in beef, but also in
terms of public confidence in the food supply, enormous efforts have been made to avoid
similar problems in the future. The notion of ‘emerging risks’ has been coined and work has
been undertaken to try to identify risks in advance, as a means of anticipating future food
safety problems. The definition of ‘emerging’ covers known risks that previously occurred,
subsided and are now re-occurring; risks that are of growing concern as exposure patterns
change; risks that are now only just being seen because of developments in science; and risks
that emerge from changes in food and agricultural production. In a European Food Safety
Authority (EFSA) project EMRISK a number of case studies were examined to try to see what
lessons could be learnt from previous experiences. In this project the release of unauthorised
genetically modified organism (GMO) material into the food chain (the StarlinkTM incident
in the USA), intoxication from increased consumption of botanical products (e.g. star anise
tea), illegal use of antibiotics in production of shrimps and the use of ‘natural’ pesticides
provided a range of case studies each with different lessons to be learnt.
An EU FP6 project called Go-Global. (http://www.goglobalnetwork.eu/default.aspx) was
started in 2007. This project aims to develop a global food safety network and amongst other
tasks will focus upon the issue of emerging risks in the food chain. The project aims to col-
lect information from a variety of sources about changes of any sort that can be anticipated
that might have an impact on the food chain. The project is looking particularly at trends
and priorities in research activities as well as at economic and other drivers. From publicly
available sources the intention is to examine how research funding is being spent and to look
and see whether such funding is likely to lead to changes in agricultural production, changes
in food handling, changes in food processing, changes in food preservation etc. The initial
collection of information will provide some mapping of the areas of responsibility within the
public sector (Government) and the sources of funding within each geographical area using
websites, research strategies and any key contacts, thus providing a virtual network and can
be used in the future for updating. Some of the research areas might provide indications
of any obvious trends, e.g. any trend towards increased funding in any particular area or
might identify any obvious drivers (e.g. increased costs need to reduce waste) that are sig-
nificant in influencing research priorities. Some of the areas that might be considered are as
follows:
1. Changes in the environment – trends in environmental pollution (increased/reduced),

changes in climate (temperature/rainfall) that might impact on types of agricultural
production – new diseases, new crops
2. Changes in agricultural production methods – more/less use of agrochemicals – changes
in use of agrochemicals
3. Changes in type of crops and livestock being produced – trends in production
4. Changes in patterns of export/import of agricultural products and processed foods
5. Changes in handling practices for agricultural products
6. Changes in food processing methods – new food preservation techniques
7. Changes in food packaging – new packaging technologies
As an example across the EU there have been moves to reduce pesticide usage, and to in-
crease organic production, which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic fertilisers and
pesticides, plant growth regulators, and livestock feed additives. There has been increased
production of certain crops like rapeseed due to subsidies but increased dependence on im-
ported foods from outside the EU. The food industry has responded to consumer demands
for ‘fresher’, more natural foods by reducing the use of food additives, e.g. chemical preser-
vatives, and moving towards shorter shelf-life and minimally processed foods. Consumers
are being more adventurous in their tastes and habits and new food products and new styles
are being introduced. Growing concern with health has led to interest in functional foods and
totally new products are being introduced, together with increased consumption of herbal
remedies (botanicals).
All of these changes can potentially have an impact in terms of levels of contaminants,
natural toxicants and process contaminants in foods. New varieties of crops or growing crops
under different climatic conditions might affect the levels of glucosinolates or phytoestrogens.
Climate change can mean that mycotoxins previously only seen in tropical regions of the
world start to infect crops in temperate climates, e.g. aflatoxins were found in 2005 in maize
in Italy leading to elevated aflatoxin M1 levels in milk. Changes in sea temperatures impact on
populations of dinoflagellates leading to increased incidence of phycotoxins and identification
of novel toxins in seafood products. Changes in food processing conditions may lead to
increased levels of processing contaminants like acrylamide or indeed formation of novel
biologically active compounds not previously recognised. Ant ‘horizon scanning’ which
needs to be undertaken on a global scale might provide insights into changes and help to
anticipate these ‘emerging risks’ so that remedial action can be taken before they develop
into a food scare.
1.6 BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS IN FOODS

This book was originally intended as a second edition of ‘Natural Toxicants in Food’ edited
by David Watson in 1998. However, when the scope of the book was discussed it became
apparent that there was a need to produce more than just an update. We did decide to retain
and update chapters on pyrrolizidine alkaloids, and glucosinolates, where there have been
analytical advances, which have impacted in these areas. Similarly, there have been substan-
tial advances both in the mycotoxin and phycotoxin areas in identifying new toxins and in
studying increased occurrence, which justified an update of these two chapters. These areas
have been complemented by a new chapter on ‘mushroom toxins’, which is of increasing
interest with growing demand for wild fungi and increased consumption of raw mushrooms.
We have added a completely new chapter on phytoestrogens in foods reflecting the growing
interest in the new sources of phytoestrogens and the interest in health benefits of consump-
tion. We have also added a chapter on the natural occurrence of nitrates and nitrites in foods,
which represents an important dietary source of naturally occurring undesirable substances
but frequently overlooked. It would be impossible to cover all aspects of natural toxicants in
a single book and inevitably we have had to be selective. We have not covered the impor-
tant area of glycoalkaloids nor cyanogens from plant sources. There are also a whole range
of antinutritional factors in foods such as enzyme inhibitors, antivitamins, mineral binding
agents and goitrogenic compounds which would need to be included in a comprehensive trea-
tise. Similarly other plant toxins such as coumarins, furocoumarins, saponins, lupin alkaloids,
oxalates, methylxanthines and glycyrrizin have not been covered.
The area of carboline alkaloids in foods is less well known than many other areas of pro-
cessing contaminants and a new chapter on this subject has been included in this book. These
Introduction 9
THβC and βC alkaloids occur in foods under a wide range of concentrations and distribution
patterns. They exhibit a broad range of biological activities including antimicrobial, antivi-
ral, antiparasitic, antioxidant, neuroactive, citotoxic and neurotoxic actions. Consequently,
their presence in foods and the diet is of considerable interest. These alkaloids form under
mild conditions in foods resulting from a non-enzymatic Pictet-Spengler cyclisation during
food production, processing and storage. Their formation depends on an array of biological,
chemical and technological factors, and although in this book we have characterised them
as ‘naturally occurring’, they equally in some respects might be thought of as processing
contaminants. Heterocyclic amines in foods again have tended to be under-recognised in
terms of importance as processing contaminants and this deficiency has been rectified by de-
voting a chapter to this topic. Although polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been
known for many years, as contaminants derived from pyrolysis, there has been a renewed
interest in terms of the extent of PAH contamination of foods in general. Regulatory limits
set by the EU and developments in methodology justified inclusion of a chapter on PAHs in
this book. 3-Monochloropropane-diol has been long recognised as a processing contaminant,
originally the focus being on its origin from hydrolysed vegetable protein. However, in recent
years other foods and other mechanisms of formation have been identified as have a growing
list of chloropropanol and chloroesters in foods. By adding separate up-to-date reviews on
acrylamide and on furan in foods, which are both relatively new topics of interest, for the
first time in we have linked together ‘inherent toxicants’ and ‘heat processing contaminants’
together in one book. This links together both inherent constituents and processing derived
chemicals recognising both classes as being ‘bioactive’ but not distinguishing beneficial or
detrimental bioactivity. This drawing together of the two areas also recognises (as discussed
in the sections above) that they are both in a sense ‘natural’ and the difficulty in both instances
of prevention of occurrence in foods.
2 Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids
Colin Crews and Rudolf Krska
Summary
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids occur as natural secondary metabolites of a very large number of
plants found in a range of climates. Very many compounds share the pyrrolizidine skeleton
and are toxic to varying degrees to animals and to humans, causing liver disease and in some
cases cancers. The chemistry of the formation and particularly the metabolism of pyrrolizidine
alkaloids has been studied in some detail. The alkaloids appear to have a function of protecting
the plant from predators although some insects are able to ingest the toxins, without harm,
for their own defense.
The exposure of humans to pyrrolizidine alkaloids is of great interest as it can take many
forms, ranging from mass poisonings by contaminated grain through low-level intake in
honey made from pyrrolizidine-containing plants to the deliberate consumption of herbal
teas and medicines.
A growing awareness of this threat to human health and our greater understanding of the
metabolic processes have been made possible by major technological advances in methods
of analysis, particularly in the combination of high performance liquid chromatography
and mass spectrometry. This highly sensitive and specific technique, supported by improved
extraction procedures and complementary methods, has allowed us to improve our knowledge
of human exposure and is gradually leading to the implementation of advice and regulations
which will help protect future generations from the effects of these widespread toxins.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Among the many chemical compounds ingested when plants are consumed, the alkaloids
perhaps have the most potent action on bodily function. These effects are often harmful, but
sometimes can also be beneficial or desired, leading to the intentional ingestion of many
alkaloid-containing plants as medicines or intoxicants. Consumption of toxic alkaloids in
some plants elicits a response that may be delayed by years and in this circumstance the
toxicity of the plant might be unobserved or denied by the subject.
Alkaloids are basic nitrogenous compounds in which the nitrogen is usually contained
within a heterocyclic ring system. Their functions in the plant are relatively poorly under-
stood but are possibly linked to a protective function as they appear to act as feeding deterrents
to a wide range of animals, from insects to herbivorous mammals. The potent pharmacological
action of the alkaloids has led to intensive study and a wealth of literature has been established;

Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids 11
recent reviews include those of Cooper-Driver (1983), Cheeke (1989), Rizk (1991a),
Hartmann (1991), and Huxtable (1992).
The alkaloids are widely distributed, occurring in some 20% of flowering plants. However,
this chapter will concentrate on the group of alkaloids that is perhaps of greatest significance
to humans, the pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which occur in a wide variety of food plants. With the
exception of the ubiquitous caffeine these are the naturally occurring alkaloids most likely
to be ingested in foodstuffs.
2.2 THE PYRROLIZIDINE ALKALOIDS

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are toxic secondary metabolites of a wide variety of plants found in
various environments throughout the world, from the colder temperate climates to sparsely
vegetated hot dry regions. Plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids have been responsible
for numerous outbreaks of poisoning of livestock on several continents and continue to cause
serious economic damage. Although most of the respective pasture-contaminating plants are
unpalatable to grazing animals, they may be foraged in times of food shortage or ingested via
contaminated silage. In recent years, pyrrolizidine alkaloids have been identified as causing
human deaths in less developed countries as a result of contamination of cereal crops and
harvested seed, and they have been suspected of causing illness following intentional ingestion
as vegetables and in the form of herbal remedies. Several authors have described specific
aspects of pyrrolizidine chemistry and toxicity or have given overviews: some of the more
comprehensive reviews have been presented by Bull et al. (1968), Peterson and Culvenor
(1983), Mattocks (1986), World Health Organisation (1988), Rizk (1991b), Stegelmeier et al.
(1999), and Fu et al. (2001).
The pyrrolizidine structure is based upon two fused five-membered rings that share a
bridgehead nitrogen atom, forming a tertiary alkaloid. The nitrogen atom is very often present
as the oxide. In nature the rings are most frequently substituted with a hydroxymethylene
group at position C-1 and a simple hydroxyl group at position C-7, forming a structure
known as a necine base. The bases most commonly encountered are heliotridine, retronecine,
supinidine, and otonecine; the structures of which are shown in Fig. 2.1.
OH OH
HO HO
C7 C7
N N
Heliotridine Retronecine
OH OH
HO O
H
N N
CH 3
Supinidine Otonecine
Fig. 2.1 The major bases of the pyrrolizidine alkaloids.

H HO CH 3 OH
CH 3 H3 C
H3 C O OH
H O
O CH 3
O CH 3 O
O CH 3
O O OH
N N
Senecionine Echimidine
H CH2OH H OH
HO
O H3C OH
H3C
CH3
O O
O CH3
O HO O H
N N
Riddelliine Lycopsamine
Fig. 2.2 Typical pyrrolizidine alkaloids.
The necine base alcohols are normally esterified with any of a series of characteristic
(necic) acids to form pyrrolizidine alkaloids. The esterification may be in the form of C-1
mono-esters, open-chain diesters or, more frequently, a macrocyclic diester. The substituting
acids are mostly highly branched chains of five to ten carbon atoms substituted with methyl,
methylene, hydroxyl and/or keto groups, producing several relatively complex alkaloids.
Summaries of the structures of many of the pyrrolizidine alkaloids, especially those most
commonly associated with human toxicity, have been assembled by Rizk (1991b), Hartmann
and Witte (1995), and Roeder (1995). Over 350 pyrrolizidine alkaloids have so far been
identified and characterized, not including the N-oxide forms. Examples of some important
representatives are shown in Fig. 2.2.
2.3 OCCURRENCE
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are found mainly in the families Compositae (Asteraceae), Borag-
inacea, and Leguminosae, but also in Apocyanacae, Ranunculacae, and Scrophulariacae.
The genera Senecio, Eupatorium, Symphytum, Cynoglossum, Heliotropium, and Crotalaria
contain the species most frequently associated with human illness. These genera are widely
distributed throughout different climates and their pyrrolizidine alkaloid-containing species
could comprise as much as 3% of the world’s flowering plants (Smith and Culvenor, 1981).
Comprehensive lists of plants containing unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids have been pub-
lished (Smith and Culvenor, 1981; Mattocks, 1986; Rizk, 1991b; Hartmann and Witte, 1995).
Each species contains an unusually characteristic range of pyrrolizidine alkaloids and a spe-
cific ratio of free base to N-oxide (Molyneux and James, 1990). Some species may contain
essentially only a single pyrrolizidine alkaloid, notably riddelliine in Senecio riddelli, but
most contain over five.
Alkaloid content varies between species, plant organ, site, and season, and can be up to
several percent of the plant’s dry weight. In general, levels are considerably higher in roots
than in leaves and they are higher in buds, inflorescences and young leaves than in older
leaves, and lower still in stems. In some species, notably Crotalaria, high levels (up to 5%
dry weight) are often found in the seed (Johnson and Molyneux, 1984; Johnson et al., 1985),
presenting a serious threat to health in cases of contamination of grain intended for human
consumption. Several necine bases lack the 1,2-unsaturation and their alkaloids are relatively
nontoxic. These saturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids may be found associated with their toxic
counterparts in particular species, but they are much less widespread.
2.3.1 Formation and function

The biosynthetic routes of some of the major pyrrolizidine alkaloids have been studied in
detail (Hartmann and Ober, 2000). In the biosynthesis of the base retronecine, depending on
plant species, either L-ornithine or L-arginine or both are combined to form two molecules
of putrescine, and the biosynthesis proceeds via homospermidine.
The necic acids are synthesized from the α-amino acids L-valine, L-leucine, L-isoleucine,
and L-threonine by a route compiled by Roeder (1995). These reactions occur in the roots
of the plant where the primary product in most species studied is the N-oxide (Hartmann
and Toppel, 1987; van Dam et al., 1994). The oxide is much more water-soluble than the
base and can be transported within the plant. The mechanism and purpose of pyrrolizidine
alkaloid transport are not yet well understood, but the alkaloids are specifically channeled
via the phloem to the younger leaves and flowering parts of the plant, where they accumu-
late. The purpose of this is possibly to provide important tissues with a deterrent towards
herbivores. Many grazing animals avoid eating plants that contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids,
although sheep and goats have some tolerance. Some insects, particularly certain moths and
butterflies, accumulate the toxins, which they can then use as a defense against predators or as
intermediates in the production of substituted carbonyl pyrrolizidines that act as pheromones.
Concise and informative reviews have been published describing the varied functions and
uses of pyrrolizidine alkaloids by insects (Boppré, 1990; Hartmann and Witte, 1995).
2.4 EXPOSURE
The two most significant sources of exposure of humans to pyrrolizidine alkaloids are the acci-
dental contamination of foodstuffs and the intentional ingestion of plants containing the alka-
loids in the form of culinary vegetables or herbal medicines. The incidence of pyrrolizidine
poisoning of humans has probably been underestimated owing to the lack of association
between plants and disease, poor recognition of chronic effects, and the time lag between in-
gestion and the appearance of symptoms in subacute poisoning (Roitman, 1983). Many plants
that contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids are deliberately consumed as food or herbal remedies in
all parts of the world and reports of toxins in materials are increasing in number (Mattocks,
1986; Hirono, 1993; Roeder, 1995, 2000; Bertram et al., 2001; Fu et al., 2002b).
2.4.1 Contamination of foods

Direct accidental contamination of grain with seed from pyrrolizidine alkaloid-containing
plants occasionally leads to a major incident. The plants usually responsible are Heliotropium
lasiocarpum, H. popovii and H. europaeum which grow well with wheat (Prakash et al., 1999).
In 1976 in Afghanistan over 20% of a population of 7200 villagers who had consumed wheat
contaminated with the seed of Heliotropium showed signs of liver disease (Mohabbat et al.,
1976). The wheat had been consumed over a period of 2 years with an estimated minimum
intake of 1.5 g of the alkaloid in the form of the N-oxide. In the previous year, contamination
of local grain heavily contaminated with seeds of Crotalaria species was responsible for the
death of 28 patients from 67 people affected in four villages in India (Tandon et al., 1976).
A more recent outbreak (1992–1993) was precipitated by a famine and a delay in the wheat
harvest which allowed growth of Heliotropium within the wheat crop. It has been documented
in some detail (Chauvin et al., 1994).
The use of plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids as foods is limited mostly to Japan
where Petasites, Tussilago, Symphytum, and Farfugium are consumed (Hirono, 1993); how-
ever, there is a paucity of information on the exposure to the alkaloids from these sources.
Contamination of foods on a smaller scale occurs where there is an intermediate agent
between the plant source and the foodstuff. Examples of this are the transfer of pyrrolizidine
alkaloids from plants into milk by herbivores, into eggs via chickens, and into honey by bees.
Contamination of milk and its effects on suckling animals has been reviewed by Panter
and James (1990), most studies not showing serious effects on the offspring. The proportion
of pyrrolizidine alkaloids passed into milk from goats fed Senecio jacobaea (ragwort) was
determined to be about 0.1% of that ingested (Deinzer et al., 1982); however, there is evidence
that water-soluble metabolites (Eastman et al., 1982) and pyrrolizidine N-oxides (Candrian
et al., 1991) are present. With the pooling of milk samples being widespread practice, any
risk to health is probably confined to the consumption of milk from individual animals and
particularly species such as goats, which are comparatively willing to eat pyrrolizidine-
containing plants (Molyneux and James, 1990).
In a report of contamination in hens’ eggs, levels of a number of pyrrolizidines in eggs laid
by hens accidentally poisoned with seeds of Heliotropum and other pyrrolizidine-containing
plants reached about 40 μg per egg (Edgar and Smith, 2000).
Relatively high concentrations (up to 4 mg/kg) of pyrrolizidines have been measured in
honey produced from S. jacobaea (Deinzer and Thompson, 1977; Crews et al., 1997) and
Echium plantagineum (Culvenor et al., 1981). Pioneering studies into this problem have been
carried out in Australia at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisa-
tion (CSIRO) where the occurrence of a range pyrrolizidine alkaloids from Heliotropium and
Echium have recently been confirmed in Australian honeys at levels of about 2 mg/kg (Beales
et al., 2004; Betteridge et al., 2005). In cases where honey is contaminated, the plant respon-
sible is usually the predominant nectar source, during its flowering season, in the locality of
the hives (Fig. 2.3). There is therefore considerable potential for the localized contamination
of honey. Transfer has been associated with the nectar but pollen, which is actively collected
by bees and is a constituent of honey, has also been shown to be a major site of pyrrolizidine
alkaloid storage in the plant (Boppré et al., 2005). Honeys produced in study hives situated
adjacent to sites in the UK where Senecio jacobaea flowered were found to contain Senecio
pollen, and alkaloids at concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 0.06 mg/kg (Crews et al., 1997).
Human exposure to pyrrolizidine alkaloids from contaminated honey is considered to
be a problem and has been reviewed in detail (Edgar et al., 2002). A wide range of
plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids make a significant contribution to honey production
Fig. 2.3 Wild plants of Echium vulgare in New Zealand. A rich monofloral source of nectar and
pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Photo courtesy of Barrie Wills. For a color version of this figure, please see Plate
1 of the color plate section that falls between pages 224 and 225. (Reprinted with permission from Bet-
teridge et al. in Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 1894–1902, Figure 4. Copyright 2005 with
permission from the American Chemical Society.)
world-wide. Europeans eat an average of about 1 g of honey per capita per day but some
consumers, including infants in the UK (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1995),
and in Australia (Edgar et al., 2002), can consume far more than this.
Another potential dietary source of pyrrolizidine alkaloids is oil obtained from borage
seed, Borago officinalis, which is popular in Europe on account of its high content of the
beneficial gamma-linolenic acid. However, the pyrrolizidine content of this plant is very
low (Larson et al., 1984; Lüthy et al., 1984) and that of its oil even lower (Wretensjo and
Karlberg, 2003). The European borage should not be confused with the various and more
toxic colloquially named borages derived from Echium species found in New Zealand.
Numerous reports of poisonings directly related to herbal teas and similar products have
been published (Weston et al., 1981; Kumana et al., 1985; Margalith et al., 1985; Ridker
et al., 1985; Culvenor et al., 1986; Ridker and McDermott, 1989). The practice in Jamaica
of brewing teas from uncultivated plants for medicinal purposes (bush teas) has been asso-
ciated with epidemics of pyrrolizidine poisoning (Bras et al., 1954). However, government
campaigns there have led to a reduction in the frequency of these incidents.
2.4.2 Pyrrolizidines in herbal preparations

Increasing interest in “alternative” therapies and herbal medicines in Europe and the USA
has led to preparations of pyrrolizidine alkaloid-containing plants being made widely
Fig. 2.4 Herbal products sold in the UK derived from pyrrolizidine-containing plants.
available commercially and publicized for their health-giving properties. Comfrey (Sym-
phytum officinale), in particular, has long been a popular herb in Europe and the USA.
Preparations of comfrey in the form of dried leaves, dried root, and root powder tablets and
capsules, often mixed with other herbs, have been sold with active promotion of the plant’s
supposed healing and digestive properties. Some examples of herbal products sold in the UK
which are derived from plants likely to contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids are shown in Fig. 2.4.
They include tinctures and flowers from coltsfoot (Tussilago) and teas, leaf, and root material
from comfrey, with the latter bearing a suitable health warning.
Herbal preparations of Symphytum, Tussilago, Borago, and Eupatorium, in the form of
leaf, root powders, tablets and root extract tinctures, sold in the UK in 1994 were surveyed
for pyrrolizidine alkaloid content (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1994). Com-
frey (Symphytum) tablets contained up to 5000 mg/kg and root powders up to 8300 mg/kg
of pyrrolizidine alkaloids, giving estimated potential intakes in excess of 35 mg/day. Com-
frey and borage (Borago) leaf preparations intended for consumption as teas contained less
than 100 mg/kg total pyrrolizidine alkaloids. About 50% of the total acetyllycopsamine and
symphytine but only about 5% of the lycopsamine were extracted into the water on brew-
ing comfrey leaf teas, possibly due to binding of the more polar lycopsamine to the plant
tissue.
A survey of comfrey leaf and root products sold in the USA in 1989 showed them to contain
up to 1200 mg/kg of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (Betz et al., 1994). Teas prepared from comfrey
root and leaf showed preferential extraction of acetyllycopsamine and acetylintermedine
over lycopsamine and intermedine. Later studies confirmed that pyrrolizidine alkaloids were
present in many comfrey preparations sold in the USA (Altamirano et al., 2005). In one case
where the N-oxides were reduced prior to determination the level of symphytine measured
increased from 0.1 to 1 mg/L (Oberlies et al., 2004).
More recently, political changes in China have made aspects of Chinese culture more
accessible to the West and this has raised the popularity of traditional Chinese remedies.
This activity has been followed by studies of the composition of such medicines which has
revealed that of the wide range of herbal plants used in China, about 50 have so far been
identified as containing toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids (Zhao et al., 1989; Roeder, 2000; Fu
et al., 2002b).
The misidentification of plants is an additional risk to consumers of vegetables and herbs.
This is particularly likely to occur where the intended plant is closely related to a more toxic
species. For example, Sperl et al. (1995) reported a poisoning case in which Adenostyles
had been gathered and consumed in place of the less toxic Tussilago. Similar and additional
problems of herbal products have been described by Huxtable (1990a).
2.5 REGULATIONS
Regulations and recommendations have been introduced in some countries in attempts to limit
human exposure. Regulations introduced in Germany by the Federal Health Bureau (Germany
Federal Health Bureau, 1992) limit the tolerable pyrrolizidines in herbal medicines to levels
providing less than 1 μg per day orally based on an assessment of genotoxic carcinogenicity,
reduced to 0.1 μg per day when used for over 6 weeks. The regulations are notable for the
fact that the limits can easily be exceeded by consumption of contaminated foods such as
eggs and honey, nevertheless similar limits are likely to be adopted across Europe (Roeder,
2000). Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) has set a provisional exposure level
of 1 μg/kg body weight per day and advised heavy consumers not to eat honey from Echium
plantagineum every day (FSANZ, 2004). Herbal preparations containing comfrey root were
removed voluntarily from the market in the UK (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food,
1994) and in the USA (FDA).
2.6 TOXICITY AND METABOLISM

2.6.1 General toxicity
The toxicity and metabolism of pyrrolizidine alkaloids have been studied and reviewed
(McLean, 1970; Mattocks, 1986; Winter and Segall, 1989; Huxtable, 1990b; Segall et al.,
1991; Cheeke and Huan, 1995). The main details are given here.
Ingestion of pyrrolizidine alkaloids has long been associated with severe damage to the
liver. The hepatic veins become blocked by a build up of connective tissue, a condition known
as veno-occlusive disease. Giant cells, which are dysfunctional, develop in the liver through
the intense antimitotic activity of pyrrolizidine alkaloids preventing the completion of cell
division. The condition frequently leads to death. The symptoms have been shown to be
identical to those of Budd–Chiari syndrome, an illness characterized by thrombosis of the
hepatic veins that leads to enlargement of the liver, ascites, and portal hypertension (Bull
et al., 1968; McLean, 1970).
Long-term, sub-lethal doses of pyrrolizidine alkaloids are usually associated with cattle
exposed during grazing to plants containing them or with humans who habitually take herbal
medicines. Long-term exposure to low levels of pyrrolizidine alkaloids may cause cumulative
damage to body organs and cancer, but even exposure to high levels is not necessarily fatal.
Toxicity is associated with unsaturation of the pyrroline ring, the presence of one or two
hydroxyl groups on the pyrroline ring, esterification of one or both of these groups, and
branching of the esterifying acid chain (Prakash et al., 1999).
2.6.2 Metabolism
Bioactivation of pyrrolizidine alkaloids is required to produce toxicity, and this is effected by
P450 enzymes. Activation of toxins in the liver results from the formation of polar compounds
that are conjugated to glutathione. This produces hydrophilic compounds that can be readily
excreted, the intended effect being detoxification. In the case of pyrrolizidine alkaloids some
of these metabolites are highly reactive and toxic.
The metabolic reactions are hydrolysis to the parent base and acids, oxidation by mi-
crosomal oxygenases to form the N-oxide, and dehydrogenation to form pyrroles. This is
represented diagrammatically in Fig. 2.5. Hydrolysis forms necines and necic acids with no
toxicity. Dehydrogenation forms pyrrole esters which are highly reactive and toxic to the liver,
and which can also be hydrolyzed to alcoholic pyrroles having mutagenic and carcinogenic
activity (Prakash et al., 1999). Pyrroles can bind to tissue nucleophiles such as glutathione
and DNA.
The relative toxicity of pyrrolizidine alkaloids towards different animals varies dramati-
cally between animal species. Guinea pigs, hamsters, gerbils, and quails show considerable
resistance (Cheeke and Pierson-Goeger, 1983; Cheeke, 1994). Differences in available es-
terase and oxygenase enzymes are believed to be related to the variability in toxicity towards
different animal species and sexes. Experiments showing that metabolic detoxification path-
ways vary according to the animal species and the alkaloid involved have been summarized
by Cheeke (1994) and Prakash et al. (1999). These variations are most likely to be due to dif-
ferences between the animals’ P450 enzyme systems, which catalyze the pyrrole production
reactions and the conjugation reactions at different relative rates in different species (Cheeke
and Huan, 1995).
Pyrrolizidine N-oxides have the same toxicity in principle as their bases but as these
are considerably more hydrophilic it would be expected that their rapid excretion would
make them far less important as toxins. However, it has been shown recently that their
carcinogenicity on oral administration equals that of the parent alkaloid (Chou et al., 2003).
2.6.3 Carcinogenicity and mutagenicity

There is considerable evidence from animal studies using plants and isolated compounds, and
from determination of DNA adducts, that pyrrolizidine alkaloids have carcinogenetic activity
(Cook et al., 1950; Schoental, 1968; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1983).
An extensive investigation has been made showing the genotoxicity and carcinogenicity of
a typical pyrrolizidine alkaloid, riddelliine (Chan, 1993), and the subject has been summa-
rized in reviews by Fu et al. (2001, 2002a). Considerable progress has been made towards
understanding the mechanisms in more detail. For example, adducts identified from the reac-
tion of the toxic metabolite dehydroretronecine (derived from riddelliine) with calf thymus
DNA have been isolated and separated by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC),
O O
O O
OH
N O OH
Hydrolysis
Necine base Necic acid
O O
O O
N-oxidation
O O
O O O O
Senecionine N-oxide
N N
Senecionine O
O
Oxidation,
dehydration O
O
O O Dehydrosenecionine
OH
Nu N
+
Nu O
Nu O
DHP
(6,7-dihydro-7-dihydroxy-
N 1-hydroxymethylpyrrolizine)
N
DHP protein and DNA adducts
Fig. 2.5 Metabolic pathways for the pyrrolizidine alkaloid senicionine. Adapted from Stegelmeier et al.
(1999), Prakash et al. (1999), and Fu et al. (2002b).
characterized, and identified as identical to those from rats treated with riddelliine (Fu et al.,
2001; Yang et al., 2001).
2.7 ANALYTICAL METHODS

Several authors have reviewed analytical methodology for pyrrolizidine alkaloids with con-
centration on their determination in certain sample types, e.g. plants (Roeder, 1999), honey
(Edgar et al., 2002), and human liquids and tissues (Stewart and Steenkamp, 2001).
The methods include visualization by color reaction, thin layer chromatography (TLC),
gas chromatography (GC), and HPLC. In recent years, HPLC with tandem mass spectromet-
ric detection has come to prominence in this as in many other fields. These, and some other
extraction and determination methods are described below. Quantitative analysis has long
been compromised by a lack of commercially available pure standards. Only monocrotaline,
retrorsine, and senecionine are readily available commercially and preparative isolation tech-
niques, which have been based mainly on countercurrent chromatography (Kim et al., 2001)
or multiple development TLC (Mroczek et al., 2006), remain rather cumbersome.
2.7.1 Extraction
Extraction of pyrrolizidine alkaloids from plant materials, medicines, biological materials,
and food has usually followed two routes, based on the use of mid-polarity solvents such as
chloroform, or the use of acidified alcohol or water. In the former the material is extracted
using a Soxhlet apparatus or by soaking and/or boiling, and the organic solution obtained can
be reduced in volume easily by evaporation. Even so, subsequent solution in acid has often
been used to enable reduction of the N-oxides to free bases by addition of zinc dust. The
acid solution obtained by either approach can be washed with nonpolar organic solvent to
remove lipids, and made strongly alkaline with ammonia to enable partition of the alkaloids
back into organic solution for analysis.
Solid phase extraction (SPE) columns have been used to purify plant and food extracts
containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Those based on diatomaceous earth have been applied to
plants (Witte et al., 1993; Mossoba et al., 1994) and to honey (Crews et al., 1997). Ergosil, a
surface-treated silica gel, preferentially binds certain classes of alkaloids and allows isolation
and concentration of free base pyrrolizidine alkaloids while pigments and interfering peaks
are easily washed out (Gray et al., 2004). SPE cartridges containing strong cation exchange
medium have been applied to the extraction of pyrrolizidine alkaloids from plant tissues
(Chizzola, 1994; Mroczek et al., 2002), and from honey (Beales et al., 2004; Betteridge
et al., 2005). Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are recovered from these columns with methanol
containing dissolved ammonia. The cation-exchange SPE columns offer a major advantage
when combined with HPLC separation in that the alkaloid free bases and N-oxides can be
isolated and chromatographed directly in a single run without prior reduction of the oxides.
Where reduction techniques are preferred, zinc dust, which requires several hours to
complete may decompose and parts of the N-oxides (Stelljes et al., 1991) can be replaced
by sodium dithionite as the salt (Crews et al., 1997) or bound to a resin (Chizzola, 1994;
Colegate et al., 2005).
2.7.2 Gas chromatography

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids can be determined directly by GC of organic solutions of the free bases
or their derivatives (Lüthy et al., 1981; Deinzer et al., 1982; Bicchi et al., 1985, 1989a; Kelley
and Seiber, 1992; Witte et al., 1993; Conradie et al., 2005). Witte et al. (1993) demonstrated
that about 100 pyrrolizidine alkaloids can be separated and identified without derivatization
using GC with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) in combination with retention time data on a low
polarity methylpolysiloxane stationary phase (OV-1, DB-1). More polar stationary phases
such as 50% phenylmethylpolysiloxane (DB-17), have also been applied to the separation of
pyrrolizidine alkaloids (Stelljes et al., 1991).
An alternative approach in which total levels of pyrrolizidine alkaloids are determined

is to subject the alkaloids to mild hydrolysis and determine the retronecine base by gas
chromatography after derivatization (Hovermale and Craig, 1998).
GC/MS with tandem MS detection has been used less, and mainly in the examination of
metabolites (Winter et al., 1988; Schoch et al., 2000). Chemical ionization (CI) techniques
have similarly found limited application (Lüthy et al., 1981; Bicchi et al., 1989a; Mossoba
et al., 1994). As an alternative to MS for retrieving molecular-specific information, GC has
been coupled to matrix isolation/Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, which uses the
characteristic fingerprint region of the FTIR spectra for compound identification (Bicchi
et al., 1989b; Mossoba et al., 1994). Still, unequivocal identification was only obtained either
when reference standards were available, or when GC/MS was used for confirmation.
The alkaloids are usually analyzed without derivatization but peak shape and resolu-
tion are improved by derivatization, which also reduces decomposition in the injector. The
most frequently used derivatives are the trimethylsilyl ethers formed by reaction with bis-
(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA) but reaction with methane or butane boronic acids
is also very useful, alkyl boronates readily forming stable cyclic derivatives across pairs of
hydroxyl groups that are in reasonably close proximity. Winter et al. (1988) presented a
method for the simultaneous determination of parent alkaloids, N-oxides, and hydrolytic
metabolites by analyzing their trimethylsilyl derivatives with tandem MS and GC/MS.
2.7.3 High performance liquid chromatography

Analytical methods for pyrrolizidine alkaloids based on HPLC separation offer several ad-
vantages over GC, including the possibility to simultaneously determine the free bases, the
thermally labile N-oxides and pyrrolizidine alkaloid metabolites. HPLC methods are used
for both analysis and semi-preparative isolation of pyrrolizidine alkaloids. For these pur-
poses, various reversed-phase (RP) column materials, e.g. C18 (Lin et al., 1998; Cui and
Lin, 2000; Mroczek et al., 2004a), C8 (Parker et al., 1990), phenyl (Kedzierski and Buhler,
1986; Crews et al., 1997), and cyano-bonded (Brown et al., 1994) packing materials have
been used, usually with either a basic binary mobile phase comprising ammonium hydroxide
and acetonitrile, or an acidic mobile phase consisting of formic/acetic acid or their ammo-
nium salts in methanol or acetonitrile. Gray et al. (2004) systematically investigated the
performance of some C18 , C8 , and phenyl packing materials under different mobile phase
compositions with regard to peak shape and resolution. In order to overcome the problem of
peak asymmetry with RP columns, Mroczek et al. (2002) successfully applied ion-pairing
to the separation of pyrrolizidine alkaloids with various structures (N-oxides, free bases,
otonecine-based pyrrolizidine alkaloids).
Several HPLC methods have been reported for pyrrolizidine alkaloid analysis (Kedzierski
and Buhler, 1986; Brown et al., 1994; Mroczek et al., 2002), but conventional UV detectors
lack the requisite sensitivity and specificity. An alternative to UV detection for pyrrolizidine
alkaloids not having chromophores in their structure was presented by Schaneberg et al.
(2004) who used evaporative light scattering detection (ELSD) for the simultaneous deter-
mination of nine pyrrolizidine alkaloids and N-oxides including the poorly UV-sensitive
heliotrine. However, MS is the detector of choice in terms of specificity and sensitivity.
Various interfaces have been used to couple LC to MS such as thermospray (TSP) (Ndjoko
et al., 1999), atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) (Crews et al., 1997; Beales
et al., 2004; Gray et al., 2004; Mroczek et al., 2004a, 2006), electrospray ionization (ESI)
(Lin et al., 1998; Altamirano et al., 2005; Betteridge et al., 2005; Boppré et al., 2005;
Colegate et al., 2005), and thermabeam (TB) (Mroczek et al., 2004b). A helpful review
has been published by Sherma (2003), who summarized the state-of-the-art in HPLC/MS
techniques currently in use for the analysis of botanical medicines and dietary supplements.
Currently, atmospheric pressure ionization (API) techniques, i.e. ESI and APCI, are pre-
eminent. These are both “soft” ionization techniques that provide molecular weight but no
structural information as the degree of fragmentation is low. Structural information may be
obtained with API interfaces by collision-induced dissociation (CID), which can be either
accomplished in the ion source of single-stage MS (in-source CID) or, more elegantly, with
multiple-stage or tandem MS using triple quadrupole (TQ) or ion trap (IT) instruments.
The TB interface also provides structural information by creating a desolvated analyte
“particle beam” from the LC effluent that may subsequently be ionized by electron impact
(EI) ionization, however, at much less sensitivity than e.g. TQ instruments. Mroczek et al.
(2004b) used LC/EI-MS with a TB interface to screen plant extracts for toxic pyrrolizidine
alkaloids. Lin et al. (1998) used a quadrupole instrument to obtain structural information
of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in blood samples from rats by performing both in-source CID
(CID-HPLC/MS) and fragmentation of parent ions in the collision cell (HPLC/MS/MS).
The coupling of HPLC with IT-MS and with MS/MS via API interfaces has found wide
application in analysis on account of the many experimental possibilities this type of instru-
mentation offers (Beales et al., 2004; Wuilloud et al., 2004; Mroczek et al., 2004a, 2006;
Boppré et al., 2005; Colegate et al., 2005), and fragmentation patterns have been described
for a large number of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in the cited publications. An example of HPLC
combined with MS applied to the analysis of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in honey is shown in
Fig. 2.6.
2.7.4 Other methods

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has long been used for the determination and confirma-
tion of the structure of pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Comprehensive collections of 1 H NMR (Logie
et al., 1994) and 13 C NMR (Molyneux et al., 1982; Roeder, 1990) data derived from stud-
ies of a large number of pyrrolizidine alkaloids have been published. Both approaches have
been used quantitatively (Pieters and Vlietinck, 1985, 1987; Pieters et al., 1989a), and they
have been compared with GC and HPLC methods by Pieters et al. (1989b) and Pieters and
Vlietinck (1986). The proton NMR spectra of plant extracts are often complex and quantifi-
cation difficult, therefore, 1 H NMR is better suited for the determination of total pyrrolizidine
alkaloid levels while 13 C NMR, with its better resolving power, can be used for quantitative
analysis of individual pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Quantitative results of chromatographic and
NMR methods show good agreement, but low sensitivity and long accumulation times of
NMR measurements pose main disadvantages and limit its application to sample extracts
with high pyrrolizidine alkaloid content and rather large sample sizes of about 10 mg. An
interesting method using direct online coupling between HPLC, MS, and 1 H NMR was de-
veloped for the detection and identification of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in crude plant extracts
where HPLC/1 H NMR analysis delivered complementary information to MS that helps to
distinguish isomeric structures (Ndjoko et al., 1999). However, due to low sensitivity, higher
amounts of extract (mg instead of μg) need to be injected to obtain good quality onflow
HPLC/1 H NMR spectra.
During the past decade, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) have become
generally accepted and used for pyrrolizidine alkaloid analysis (Roeder, 1999; Than et al.,
2005). Various ELISAs have been developed for screening different matrices for a range of
RT:1.32–15.75
NL:
130 3.79E7
Base Peak
120
m/z=
200.
200.0–
110
500.0 MS
100 yu210504c
Non PA co-extractives 6 q39

90
80 Unidentified PA-
70
2
like extractives
60
50 5
1 3
40
4
30 IS
20
10
0
130
NL:
120 8.16E7
Base Peak
110
IS m/z=
200.
200.0–
100 500.0 MS
yu290705c
90
q244
80
70
60
1
50
5
40
30
6
20 3
10
2
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Fig. 2.6 HPLC ESI MS chromatogram showing about 2500 μg of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (and their
N-oxides) per kg in two Echium vulgare honey samples. IS, internal standard (senecionine for the
top chromatogram and heliotrine for the bottom). The alkaloids identified included (1) echimidine, (2)
echimidine-N-oxide, (3) vulgarine-N-oxide, (4) acetyl echimidine-N-oxide, (5) echivulgarine, and (6)
echivulgarine-N-oxide.
pyrrolizidine alkaloids, with the aim of achieving high sensitivity (detection limits in the
ng and pg range), high sample throughput, simplicity, and reliability. Pyrrolizidine alkaloid
molecules, however, are generally too small to react as immunogens. They have to be linked to
larger complexes by forming N -hydroxysuccinimide derivatives via the alkaloids’ hydroxyl
groups and subsequent protein conjugates via the succinic acid ester group in order to create a
reasonable immune response (Zuendorf et al., 1998; Lee et al., 2001). Roseman et al. (1996)
developed a different approach by using quaternary pyrrolizidinium salts as immunogens.
Most ELISAs are competitive assays using polyclonal antibodies (Roeder and Pflueger,
1995; Roseman et al., 1996; Lee et al., 2001), although some work has been published
on monoclonal antibodies (Zuendorf et al., 1998). As the pyrrolizidine alkaloid antibodies
usually do not effectively cross-react with the respective N-oxides an additional reduction
step during sample preparation is required to enable determination of the total pyrrolizidine
alkaloid content.
A relatively large number of color reactions can indicate the presence of pyrrolizidine
alkaloids. The simpler reactions are not specific, detecting all alkaloids or tertiary ones.
Some more complex procedures have much improved specificity. The techniques have been
well summarized by Roeder (1999). Quantitative determination of pyrrolizidine alkaloids by
spectrophotometry commonly applies a color reaction that involves pyrrole formation and
subsequent reaction with Ehrlich or Mattocks reagent (4-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde) and
allows the determination of pyrrolizidine alkaloids at concentrations levels down to 1 μg/g

(Mattocks, 1967a; Bartkowski et al., 1997). The same color reactions are used to visual-
ize pyrrolizidine alkaloids on TLC plates (Mattocks, 1967b; Huizing and Malingre, 1981;
Chizzola, 1994). Alternatively, Dragendorff’s iodoplatinate reagent can be used which shows
less specificity but ten times higher sensitivity than Mattocks reagent (Parvais et al., 1994).
Various TLC methods have been published, applying different plates and solvent systems
(Roeder, 1999). However, separation efficiency of TLC is low, thus limiting its application
mainly to screening purposes. For unambiguous determination of multi-component extracts
that contain more than six alkaloids, more efficient separation methods such as GC and HPLC
are necessary. Although sensitivity and specificity of photometric and TLC techniques cannot
compete with that of GC and HPLC, color reactions offer an easy and fast screening method
that indicate the presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in a sample down to low μg per kg levels.
Conclusions
Despite our increasing knowledge of their chemistry and toxicity, pyrrolizidine alkaloids
continue to be a significant threat to human health. Their plant sources flourish through their
diversity and lack of palatability to grazing animals. Education of people in the developing
countries has reduced their exposure to harmful traditional herbal medicines. Conversely,
a revival of interest in natural and alternative therapies has led to the commercial sale of
toxic plant preparations in the more developed countries. The scale of the threat caused by
the consumption of pyrrolizidine-containing herbs and vegetables will only be realized fully
once the genotoxic action and chronic low-dose toxicity of the major alkaloids are understood
more thoroughly. The risk of large-scale poisoning through cereal contamination, however,
clearly remains serious in view of the continuing practice of consuming poor quality grain
in times of drought and famine.
Investigations into the metabolism of pyrrolizidine alkaloids, the mechanism of their
toxicity and their genotoxic activity proceed apace, driven by an increased awareness of their
potential for causing disease and the availability of ever more sophisticated techniques for
studying the action of toxic chemicals at the cellular and sub-cellular level. Because of the
great variety of pyrrolizidine alkaloid structures and the diversity of their effects in different
species such studies will continue for a long time.
Such studies have benefited greatly in recent years by substantial increases in the perfor-
mance of analytical instrumentation, particularly in the fields of NMR and HPLC/MS. The
recent advances should make a substantial contribution to our understanding of the magnitude
of the pyrrolizidine problem and guide the way to the setting and enforcement of sensible
regulations governing human and animal exposure to these important toxicants.
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3 Glucosinolates
Ruud Verkerk and Matthijs Dekker
Summary
Glucosinolates are amino acid-derived secondary plant metabolites found exclusively in cru-
ciferous plants. The majority of cultivated plants that contain glucosinolates belong to the
family of Brassicaceae such as Brussels sprouts, cabbage, broccoli and cauliflower. These are
the major source of glucosinolates in the human diet of which about 120 different glucosino-
lates have been characterized. Glucosinolates and their breakdown products are of particular
interest because of their nutritive and antinutritional properties, their potential adverse effects
on health, their anticarcinogenic properties and finally the characteristic flavour and odour
they give to many vegetables. This chapter reviews the biosynthesis, nature and occurrence of
glucosinolates, their stability in biological systems, analysis and biological effects including
toxicity.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Glucosinolates are amino acid-derived secondary plant metabolites found exclusively in

cruciferous plants. These sulfur-containing glycosides occur at highest concentrations in the
families Resedaceae,Capparaceae and Brassicaceae.
The majority of cultivated plants that contain glucosinolates belong to the family of Bras-
sicaceae. Mustard seed, used as a seasoning, is derived from B. nigra, B. juncea (L.) Coss
and B. hirta species. Vegetable crops include cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts
and turnip of the B. oleracea L., B. rapa L., B. campestris L. and B. napus L. species. Kale
of the B. oleracea species is used for forage, pasture and silage. Brassica vegetables such as
Brussels sprouts, cabbage, broccoli and cauliflower are the major source of glucosinolates
in the human diet. They are frequently consumed by humans from Western and Eastern cul-
tures (McNaughton and Marks, 2003). In the Netherlands, the average consumption of these
vegetables is more than 36 g Brassica per person per day (Godeschalk, 1987). The typical
flavour of brassica vegetables is largely due to glucosinolate-derived volatiles.
Glucosinolates and their breakdown products are of particular interest in food research
because of their nutritive and antinutritional properties, the adverse effects of some glucosi-
nolates on health, their anticarcinogenic properties and finally because they are responsible
for the characteristic flavour and odour of many vegetables (Mithen et al., 2000). The versa-
tility of these compounds is also demonstrated by the fact that glucosinolates are quite toxic
to some insects and therefore could be included as one of many natural pesticides. However,
a small number of insects, such as the cabbage aphids, use glucosinolates to locate their

favourite plants as feed and to find a suitable environment to deposit their eggs (Barker et al.,
2006). Furthermore, glucosinolates show antifungal and antibacterial properties (Fahey et al.,
2001).
There are currently about 120 different glucosinolates characterized, of which only a
limited number have been investigated thoroughly. A considerable amount of data on levels
of total and individual glucosinolates is now available. The levels of total glucosinolates
in plants may depend on variety, cultivation conditions, climate and agronomic practice,
while the levels in a particular plant vary between the parts of the plant. Generally the same
glucosinolates occur in a particular sub-species regardless of genetic origin, and in most
species only between one and four glucosinolates are found in relatively high concentrations.
Glucosinolates themselves are chemically stable and biologically inactive while they
remain separated within sub-cellular compartments throughout the plant. However, tissue
damage caused by pests, harvesting, food processing or chewing initiates contact with the
endogenous enzyme myrosinase which leads to hydrolysis releasing a broad range of biolog-
ically active products such as isothiocyanates (ITCs), organic cyanides, oxazolidinethiones
and ionic thiocyanate on enzymatic degradation by myrosinase in the presence of water. The
anticarcinogenic mechanisms by which these compounds may act include the induction of
detoxification enzymes and the inhibition of the activation of promutagens/procarcinogens
(Wattenberg, 1992; Dragsted et al., 1993; Jongen, 1996; Mithen et al., 2000).
Glucosinolate breakdown products exert a variety of toxic and antinutritional effects in
higher animals amongst which the adverse effects on thyroid metabolism are the most thor-
oughly studied (Tripathi and Mishra, 2007). Tiedink et al. (1990, 1991) investigated the role
of indole compounds and glucosinolates in the formation of N -nitroso compounds in vegeta-
bles. These studies revealed that the indole compounds present in Brassica vegetables can be
nitrosated and thereby become mutagenic. However, the nitrosated products are stable only
in the presence of large amounts of free nitrite.
3.2 NATURE AND OCCURRENCE

The chemistry and occurrence of glucosinolates and their breakdown products have been
reviewed extensively by Fahey et al. (2001).
Several glucosinolates are isolated in the pure state. The first crystalline glucosinolate was
isolated from the seed of white mustard in 1830 and since then the elucidation of their struc-
tures and chemistry has continued (Gildemeister and Hofmann, 1927). The common structure
of glucosinolates is shown in Fig. 3.1. The side chain determines the chemical and biologi-
cal nature of glucosinolates. They are considered to be (Z )-cis-N -hydroximinosulfate esters
possessing a side chain R and a sulfur-linked D-glucopyranose moiety. Natural glucosinolates
contain exclusively a β-D-glucopyranosyl linkage (Blanc-Muesser et al., 1990).
The side chain of the glucosinolates is variable and is the basis for their structural het-
erogenity and for the biological activity of the enzymatic and chemical breakdown products.
S C6 H11 O5
R C
−
N O SO3
Fig. 3.1 General structure of glucosinolates.

Glucosinolates 33
Table 3.1 Glucosinolates commonly found in Brassica vegetables.
Trivial name Chemical name (side chain R)
Aliphatic glucosinolates
Glucoiberin 3-Methylsulfinylpropyl
Progoitrin 2-Hydroxy-3-butenyl
Sinigrin 2-Propenyl
Gluconapoleiferin 2-Hydroxy-4-pentenyl
Glucoraphanin 4-Methylsulfinylbutyl
Glucoalyssin 5-Methylsulfinylpentyl
Glucocapparin Methyl
Glucobrassicanapin 4-Pentenyl
Glucocheirolin 3-Methylsulfonylpropyl
Glucoiberverin 3-Methylthiopropyl
Gluconapin 3-Butenyl
Indole glucosinolates
4-Hydroxyglucobrassicin 4-Hydroxy-3-indolylmethyl
Glucobrassicin 3-Indolylmethyl
4-Methoxyglucobrassicin 4-Methoxy-3-indolylmethyl
Neoglucobrassicin 1-Methoxy-3-indolylmethyl
Aromatic glucosinolates
Glucosinalbin p-Hydroxybenzyl
Glucotropaeolin Benzyl
Gluconasturtiin 2-Phenethyl
Table 3.1 gives an overview of the most commonly found glucosinolates in Brassica vegeta-
bles, however an extensive list of 120 different glucosinolates identified in higher plants has
been described by Fahey et al. (2001).
Glucosinolates are prevalent in about 16 botanical families of the order Capparales, such
as the Capparaceae, Brassicaceae, Caricaceae and Resedaceae (Fahey et al., 2001). For the
human diet, representatives of the Brassicaceae are of particular importance as vegetables
(e.g. cabbage, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cauliflower), root vegetables (e.g. radish, turnip
and swede), leaf vegetables (e.g. rocket salad) and seasonings and relishes (e.g. mustard,
wasabi) and sources of oil (Holst and Williamson, 2004). They occur in all parts of the
plants, but in different profiles and concentrations. Usually, a single plant species contains
up to four different glucosinolates in significant amounts while, as many as 15 different
glucosinolates can be found in the same plant. The highest concentrations are usually found
in the seeds, except for indol-3-ylmethyl and N -methoxyindol-3-ylmethyl glucosinolates,
which are rarely found in seeds (Tookey et al., 1980). Several reviews have presented and
discussed the variation in glucosinolate composition and profiles of various representatives
of the Brassicaceae. Occurrence and concentrations of glucosinolates vary according to
difference in species and varieties, tissue type, physiological age, environmental conditions
(agronomic practices, climatic and ecophysiological conditions), presence of pest infestation
(Rosa et al., 1997; Fahey et al., 2001; Holst and Williamson, 2004; Schreiner, 2005).
3.3 BIOSYNTHESIS
The pathway of glucosinolate biosynthesis has been studied since the 1960s and the iden-
tity of many intermediates, enzymes and genes involved is now known. The biosynthesis of
glucosinolates was recently reviewed extensively by Halkier and Gershenzon (2006). Knowl-
edge of biosynthetic pathways of glucosinolates has increased as research advanced from tra-
ditional in vivo feeding studies and biochemical characterization of the enzymatic activities
in plant extracts to identification and characterization of the biosynthetic genes encoding the
involved enzymes. Especially the studies of glucosinolates in the model plant Arabidopsis
facilitated the progress.
Kjaer and Conti (1954) suggested that amino acids may be natural precursors of the
aglycone moiety of glucosinolates based on the similarities between the carbon skeletons of
some amino acids and the glucosinolates. This hypothesis was confirmed by studies of the
different biosynthetic stages. Most of these studies involved the administration of variously
labelled compounds (3 H, 14 C, 15 N or 35 S) to plants and the assessment of their relative
efficiencies as precursors on the basis of the extent of incorporation of isotope into the
glucosinolate. The classification of glucosinolates as shown in Table 3.1 depends on the amino
acid from which they are derived; aliphatic glucosinolates derived from alanine, leucine,
isoleucine, methionine or valine; aromatic glucosinolates derived from phenylalanine or
tyrosine; and indole glucosinolates are derived from tryptophane (Sørensen, 1990).
The biosynthesis of glucosinolates from amino acids can be divided into three separate
steps. The first step is the chain elongation of aliphatic and aromatic amino acids by inserting
methylene groups into their side chains. Second, the metabolic modification of the amino
acids (or chain-extended derivatives of amino acids) takes place via an aldoxime intermedi-
ate. The same modifications also occur in the biosynthetic route of cyanogenic glycosides.
However, the co-occurrence of glucosinolates and cyanogenic glycosides in the same plant
is very rare (an example is Carica papaya). The biosynthesis of the cyanogenic glycosides
has been elucidated in more detail by Halkier and Lindberg-Møller (1991) and by Koch
et al. (1992). Third, following the formation of the aldoxime, the glucosinolate is formed by
various secondary transformations such as S-insertion, glucosylation and sulfation. Further
modification of the side chain can occur in the formed glucosinolate by, for example, oxida-
tion and/or elimination reactions. The different steps in the synthesis are discussed below in
more detail.
3.3.1 Amino acid modification

The glucosinolates can be divided into two groups by origin: those derived from common
amino acids and those derived from modified amino acids. The modification of common
amino acids is mainly in the form of side chain elongation. A general route for this was pro-
posed by Kjaer (1976). Various enzymes are involved in these steps (Halkier and Gershenzon,
2006). The parent amino acid is deaminated to form the corresponding 2-oxo acid. Next is a
three-step cycle of (i) condensation with acetyl-CoA, (ii) isomerization and (iii) oxidation–
decarboxylation to yield a 2-oxo acid with one more methylene group than the starting com-
pound. The resulting chain-extended 2-oxo acid can undergo additional chain-elongation
cycles, each adding one further methylene group, or, following transamination, can enter the
glucosinolate core biosynthetic pathway. Up to nine elongation cycles are known to occur in
plants.
3.3.2 Conversion of amino acids

The glucosinolate core pathway converts the amino acid to an S-alkylthiohydroximate via
two consecutive reactions that are catalysed by structurally specific cytochrome P450s,
Glucosinolates 35
R CH COOH R CH R −
C S
NH2 NOH NOH
Amino acid Aldoxime Thiohydroximic acid
R C S Glucose R C S Glucose
NOH −
N OSO3
Desulfoglucosinolate Glucosinolate
Fig. 3.2 The simplified biosynthesis of the glucosinolate core structure.
encoded by the CYP79 and CYP83 gene families. C-S lyase activity results in the for-
mation of thiohydroximates that are converted to desulfo-glucosinolates by a non-specific
S-glucosyltransferase. The final glucosinolate is produced by sulfation by one of three
structurally specific sulfotransferases. Subsequently, various secondary side-chain modifica-
tions can occur, including oxidation, hydroxylation, alkenylation, acylation or esterification
(Halkier and Gershenzon, 2006).
3.3.3 Secondary transformations

The formed parent glucosinolate is subject to a wide range of further modifications of the
R group. The R group of glucosinolates derived from methionine (and chain-elongated ho-
mologs) is especially subject to further modifications, such as the stepwise oxidation of the
sulfur atom in the methylthioalkyl side chain leading to methylsulfinylalkyl and methylsul-
fonylalkyl moieties. Methylsulfinylalkyl side chains can be further modified by oxidative
cleavage to produce alkenyl or hydroalkenyl chains. These reactions are of biological as well
as biochemical interest because they influence the direction of glucosinolate hydrolysis and
the resulting activity of the hydrolysis products (Halkier and Gershenzon, 2006).
The simplified biosynthetic pathway for glucosinolates is shown in Fig. 3.2 (based on
Halkier and Gershenzon, 2006).
3.4 HYDROLYSIS
As mentioned before, hydrolysis products rather than intact glucosinolates are responsible
for the various biological effects. Most glucosinolates are chemically stable and to lesser
extent thermal stable. Therefore, hydrolysis is mainly enzymatically driven by the endogenous
enzyme myrosinase. Upon consumption of intact glucosinolates without the presence of active
myrosinase (e.g. cooked vegetables) glucosinolates can also be hydrolysed by ß-glucosidases
from the intestinal flora (Shapiro et al., 1998, 2006).
3.4.1 Myrosinase
Myrosinase (thioglucoside glucohydrolase EC 3.2.3.1) is the trivial name for the enzyme (or
group of enzymes) responsible for the hydrolysis of glucosinolates. All plants that contain
glucosinolates also contain myrosinase. Myrosinase is widely distributed, occurring in my-

rosin cells of seeds, leaves, stems and roots of glucosinolate-containing plants and the activity
appears to be higher in the young tissues of the plant (Bones and Rossiter, 1996).
Myrosinases have generally been well characterized by various approaches such as an-
alytical gel electrophoresis, immunohistochemical techniques, light microscopy and elec-
tron microscopy (Buchwaldt et al., 1986; Thangstad et al., 1990). The various studies have
demonstrated the presence of several myrosinase isoenzymes (MacGibbon and Allison, 1970;
Buchwaldt et al., 1986). Different patterns were found depending on whether the extracts
were made from the leaf, stem, root or seed. Little is known about the substrate specificity of
myrosinase isoenzymes. There are two myrosinases isolated by James and Rossiter (1991)
that degrade different glucosinolates at different rates. However, both isoenzymes show high-
est activity against aliphatic glucosinolates and least activity against indole glucosinolates.
Members of a given class of glucosinolates are degraded at approximately the same rate in
vitro. It is also possible that the specificity is affected by associated factors like epithiospec-
ifier protein, myrosinase-binding protein or other myrosinase-associated proteins or compo-
nents. Myrosinase activity varies by plant species, organ and stage of development (Bones,
1990), but activity is also affected by seasonal conditions and climatic factors (Charron et al.,
2005).
Ascorbic acid has been shown to modulate myrosinase activity in some species; it inhibits
at high concentrations and activates at low levels. Activation appears to be the result of a
conformational change in the protein structure, leading to an enhanced reaction rate when
the effector-binding sites are occupied (Ohtsuru and Hata, 1973).
The complexity of the glucosinolate/myrosinase system indicates an important role in cru-
ciferous plants (Bones and Rossiter, 1996). The glucosinolate/myrosinase system may have
several functions in the plant: (i) plant defence against fungal diseases and pest infestation;
(ii) sulfur and nitrogen metabolism; and (iii) growth regulation.
Plant breeding strategies over past decades have concentrated on reducing the glucosinolate
content of rapeseed to improve the acceptability of rapeseed meal and meet the increasingly
stringent requirements of the rapeseed processing industry. One approach to reducing the un-
desired breakdown products of glucosinolates would be to change the amount of myrosinase
available for hydrolysis of the glucosinolates.
3.4.2 Hydrolysis products

Hydrolysis products of glucosinolates contribute significantly to the typical flavour of Bras-
sica vegetables. Myrosinase catalyse the hydrolysis of glucosinolates by splitting off the
glucose. The unstable aglucone (thiohydroxymate-O-sulfonate) then eliminates sulfate by a
Lossen rearrangement (Fig. 3.3). The structure of the resulting products depends on a variety
of factors. Whether ITCs or nitriles are formed depends on the specific glucosinolates, the part
of the plant where they are located, the treatment of plant material before the hydrolysis of
glucosinolates and conditions during hydrolysis, especially pH. Isothiocyanates are usually
produced at pH 5–7, while nitriles are the major degradation products under acidic conditions.
Most hydrolysis products are stable except for glucosinolates possessing a ß-hydroxylated
side chain; ß-hydroxy-ITCs are unstable and spontaneously cyclise to oxazolidine-2-thiones
(e.g. goitrin). Indole glucosinolates such as glucobrassicin form unstable ITCs and undergo
further hydrolysis to give 3-indolemethanol, 3-indoleacetonitrile and 3,3 diindolylmethane
and subsequently condenses into dimers, trimers or tetramers (Holst and Williamson, 2004).
Glucosinolates 37
R S
Glc
N −
OSO3
Glucose
Myrosinase
R SH
N −
OSO3
ESP R S C N
R N C S
Isothiocyanate ESP Thiocyanate
when R = when R =
R C N
Nitrile n
OH
n
S
N
Epithionitrile
N C S
OH
Oxazolidine- O NH
2-thione
Fig. 3.3 Outline of glucosinolate hydrolysis (from Halkier and Gershenzon, 2006). ESP, epithiospecifier
protein; R, variable side chain. Reprinted with permission, from the Annual Review of Plant Biology, Volume
57, copyright 2006, by Annual Reviews www.annualreviews.org
Hanley et al. (1990) isolated an indole isothiocyanate from neoglucobrassicin degradation

under specific experimental conditions. Epithioalkanes are produced from the hydrolysis of
alkenyl glucosinolates when myrosinase co-occurs with a labile protein known as epithiospec-
ifier protein (ESP), a small protein that is not ubiquitous in the Cruciferae (Matusheski et al.,
2006).

Understanding the involvement of glucosinolates and their biological active breakdown prod-
ucts in the many different scientific fields requires the development of rapid, reliable and re-
producible methods for their identification and quantification. However, rarely does a method
provide rapidity, simplicity, sensitivity and accuracy to discriminate among all compounds of
interest. Especially since there occur a large amount of different glucosinolates in Brassicas
and the fact that each glucosinolate can produce different breakdown products makes their
analysis very complicated.
Analytical methods can be divided into those for total glucosinolates, individual glucosi-
nolates and the breakdown products. Over the past four decades, increased knowledge of the
diversity of the glucosinolates, their enzymatically released products and factors influencing
their release have led to a multiplicity of analytical methods. Griffiths et al. (1998) and Kiddle
et al. (2001) have presented an extensive overview of the wide variety of analytical methods
of glucosinolates in plant tissue.
Since glucosinolates coexist with myrosinase in the plant, processes like grinding or cutting
of fresh tissue in the presence of water will initiate a rapid hydrolysis of these compounds.
For analysis of intact glucosinolates, inhibition of myrosinase activity is therefore essential.
Before disruption of the material, samples should be completely dried by freeze-drying or
frozen in liquid nitrogen. The use of aqueous methanol for extraction, in combination with
high temperatures, also inhibits myrosinase (Heaney and Fenwick, 1993).
3.5.1 Total glucosinolates

Glucosinolates yield equimolar amounts of glucose on hydrolysis with myrosinase. This is
true for almost all glucosinolates and spectroscopic methods for total glucosinolates based
on the measurement of enzymatically released glucose or sulfate are relatively rapid and
simple to apply (Schnug, 1987; Heaney et al., 1988). Van Doorn et al. (1998) described a
more specific determination of the glucosinolates sinigrin and progoitrin by raising antisera
to these glucosinolates.
Measuring total glucosinolate levels has received less attention because of the great
progress in analytical methodology for individual glucosinolates that leads to much more
useful information. However, the high costs and labour input required for obtaining glucosi-
nolate data is a serious hinder to generating large sets of samples, which is usually necessary
in screening breeding programmes. Therefore, the use of fast analytical techniques such as
near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) result in many advantages since analysis can be carried
out with a considerable saving of time and at relative low costs. This technique has mostly
applied for glucosinolate content in seeds of Brassica vegetables where these compounds
are present in significant higher concentrations than those usually found in leaves (Velasco
and Becker, 1998; Font et al., 2004). Font et al. (2005) have described the quantification of
glucosinolates in leaves of Brassica napa by NIRS. They demonstrated the potential of NIRS
for predicting the total glucosinolate content as well as the major individual glucosinolates
found in B. napus.
3.5.2 Individual glucosinolates

For more detailed analysis, researchers have used either HPLC-MS analysis for intact glu-
cosinolates or GC-MS analysis for the hydrolysis products. GC-MS can be very sensitive,
Glucosinolates 39
but has some limitations as some glucosinolate side chains (e.g. indolyl or hydroxylated side
chains) produce poorly volatile or unstable breakdown products.
Spinks et al. (1984) developed a reverse-phase HPLC method for quantitative analysis of
desulfoglucosinolates which is, hitherto, most widely used. This method uses an on-column
enzymatic desulfation treatment of plant extracts followed by HPLC detection of the resulting
desulfoglucosinolates. For the analysis, desulfobenzyl or desulfosinigrin is used as internal
standard and relative response factors are determined with purified standards. Validation
of chromatographic profiles takes place by correspondence of glucosinolate retention times
with standardized rapeseed extracts or other available standards. The intact glucosinolates
can be analysed directly by HPLC, although this often gives a poor resolution. Desulfation
results in better separation and cleaner samples and also makes the compounds easier to
analyse by HPLC or mass spectrometric techniques. HPLC systems using a photodiode
array (PDA) detector are very sensitive allowing detection of glucosinolate levels in the
nano-molar range. Whilst spectral data of individual desulfoglucosinolates will allow initial
confirmation of structural class, addition of MS detection increases the discriminatory power
of the technique even further (Kiddle et al., 2001).
Nowadays, mass spectrometry has become a powerful technique for quantification of
bioactive compounds in complex biological matrices; however, most methods were qualita-
tive. Griffiths et al. (1998) reported a liquid chromatography–atmospheric pressure chemical
ionization–mass spectrometric (LC-APCI/MS) method for determining quantitatively desul-
foglucosinolates.
Song et al. (2005) described the quantitative analysis of glucosinolates in vegetable extracts
and blood plasma by negative ion electrospray LC-MS/MS.
Both LC-thermospray-MS and LC-APCI-MS have been employed for desulfoglucosi-
nolates (Mellon et al., 2002; Song et al., 2005) and the latter has been found to give the
best sensitivity, with at least an order of magnitude improvement over UV detection and
the added advantage of structural confirmation from the mass spectrum. The sensitivity can
be further improved by the use of synthetic per-deuterated desulfoglucosinolates as internal
standards.
Tian et al. (2005) improved the LC-APCI/MS method by using liquid chromatography–
electrospray ionization–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI/MS/MS). This method has the
advantage that the glucosinolates do not require desulfonation before the analysis, while the
detection limits are 10-fold lower compared to conventional HPLC methods.
Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-
TOF MS) was introduced in 1987 and developed for use with nonvolatile and large
biomolecules (Karas et al., 1987). It has some advantages over other methods including
speed of analysis, high sensitivity, good tolerance toward contaminants, and the ability to
analyse complex mixtures. MALDI-TOF MS thus has potential for the analysis of plant
metabolites, both in the plant itself and in foodstuffs, as a profile of the sample can be ob-
tained in only a few minutes (Karas, 1996). Botting et al. (2002) applied MALDI-TOF for the
characterization of a number of intact glucosinolates. The method was used for crude plant
extracts to rapidly examine glucosinolate profiles. The method is much faster compared to
LC-MS methods and required far less sample, but has the drawback of not being a quantitative
analysis method.
One of the major problems in the analysis of glucosinolates is the paucity of high purity
chromatographic standard glucosinolates available to researchers. Only a limited number of
glucosinolates are commercially available. The glucosinolate 2-propenyl (sinigrin) is not a
suitable internal standard because of the presence of this compound in most brassicaceous
plants. On the other hand, benzylglucosinolate (glucotropaeolin) is commonly not present in

Brassicas and has been used as an internal standard.
3.5.3 Breakdown products

The application of HPLC to the investigation of glucosinolate breakdown products has been
limited due to the volatility of many compounds. Furthermore, thiocyanates and nitriles are
not detectable spectrometrically.
Isothiocyanates and nitriles can be analysed by GC, HPLC with UV detection may be used
for analysis of oxazolidinethiones and indoles. Quinsac et al. (1992) developed a method for
analysing oxazolidinethiones in biological fluids with a high degree of selectivity. However,
HPLC finds most use in the analysis of intact glucosinolates or desulfoglucosinolates. For
identification and confirmation of structures both techniques can be coupled to mass spec-
trometry. Mass spectroscopy has proved to be an important tool in the identification and
structural elucidation of glucosinolates and their breakdown products.
Zhang et al. (1992a) developed a spectroscopic quantitation of organic ITCs. Under mild
conditions nearly all organic ITCs react quantitatively with an excess of vicinal dithiols to
give rise to five-membered cyclic condensation products, with release of the corresponding
free amines. The method can be used to measure 1 nmol or less of pure ITCs or ITCs in crude
mixtures.
Song et al. (2005) reported an LC-MS/MS method for the analysis of ITCs and amine
degradation products. Isothiocyanates were pre-derivatized and quantified by positive ion
electrospray LC-MS/MS.
3.6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Since there is a large number of a different type of glucosinolates and different possible
pathways for hydrolysis, a broad range of hydrolysis products can be found in various food
sources. All these compounds show distinctive, concentration-dependent biological activities
varying from acute toxicity to anticarcinogenic properties. The consumption of vegetables
and fruits has always been seen as health promoting. The protective effect of Brassica veg-
etables against cancer has been suggested to be due in part to the relatively high content of
glucosinolates. The presence of glucosinolates distinguishes them from other vegetables. Be-
sides their beneficial health effects, some glucosinolates and breakdown products also show
toxicological effects. The toxicity of glucosinolates, mainly determined by the aglycones,
has been described in many studies.
3.6.1 Anticarcinogenicity
The most extensively studied mechanism for inhibition of carcinogenesis by glucosinolate-
derived hydrolysis products are the modulation of the antioxidant potential, enhancement of
detoxification mechanisms and the induction of apoptosis in undifferentiated cells (Mithen
et al., 2000).
Carcinogenesis is a multi-stage process in which at least three distinct phases can be
recognized: initiation, promotion and progression. At each stage of the carcinogenic process
there can be intervention. Wattenberg (1985) proposed a system of classification of dietary
anticarcinogens based on the stage of carcinogenesis at which they act. Anticarcinogens
Glucosinolates 41
Table 3.2 Protection against chemical carcinogenesis in rat and mouse

organs by a variety of isothiocyanates and glucosinolates.
Protective isothiocyanates
α-Naphthyl-NCS, β-naphthyl-NCS
Phenyl-[CH2 ]n -NCS, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10
PhCH(Ph)CH2 -NCS, PhCH2 CH(Ph)-NCS
CH3 [CH]n -NCS, where n = 5, 11
CH3 [CH2 ]3 CH(CH3 )-NCS
Sulforaphane, CH3 S(O)[CH2 ]4 -NCS
2-Acetylnorbornyl-NCS (three isomers)
Protective glucosinolates
Indolylmethyl glucosinolate (glucobrassicin)
Benzyl glucosinolate (glucotropaeolin)
4-Hydroxybenzyl glucosinolate (glucosinalbin)
Carcinogens employed
3 -Methyl-4 -dimethylaminoazobenzene
4-Dimethylaminoazobenzene
N-2-Fluorenylacetamide, acetylaminofluorene
7,12-Dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)
Benzo[a]pyrene
Methylazoxymethanol acetate
N-Nitrosodiethylamine
4-(Methylnitroamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK)
N-Nitrosobenzylmethylamine (NBMA)
N-Butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)nitrosamine
Tumour target organs
Rat: liver, lung, mammary gland, bladder, small intestine/colon, oesophagus
Mouse: lung, forestomach
Source: Talalay and Zhang (1996).
can then be divided into three major classes. The first consists of compounds that prevent
the formation of carcinogens from precursor substances. The second class is called blocking
agents. These have been found to be effective when given immediately before or during
treatment with chemical carcinogens. The third class, called suppressing agents, is thought
to act by preventing the progression of initiated cells to fully transformed tumour cells.
Isothiocyanates that arise in plants as a result of enzymatic cleavage of glucosinolates by
the endogenous enzyme myrosinase are attracting increasing attention as chemical and dietary
protectors against cancer. Their anticarcinogenic activities have been demonstrated in rodents
(mice and rats) with a wide variety of chemical carcinogens (Table 3.2). The anticarcinogenic
effects of ITCs can be explained by two different mechanisms. The first, a blocking effect,
involves induction of Phase II enzymes, including quinone reductase in the small intestinal
mucosa and liver (Zhang et al., 1992b; Talalay and Zhang, 1996). These enzymes are involved
in the detoxification in the body of foreign compounds (xenobiotics). Increased activity will
therefore block exposure of target tissues to DNA damage (Fimognari and Hrelia, 2007). The
second mechanism, a suppressing effect, involves suppression of tumour development via
deletion of damaged cells from colonic mucosal crypts through the induction of programmed
cell death (apoptosis). Smith et al. (1996) showed that dietary supplementation with the
glucosinolate sinigrin, or its breakdown product allyl isothiocyanate, can protect against
chemically-induced colorectal carcinogenesis by stimulation of apoptosis.
The most characterized isothiocyanate is sulforaphane because of its ability to simulta-

neously modulate multiple cellular targets involved in cancer development (Fimognari and
Hrelia, 2007).
The evidence for anticarcinogenic effects of Brassica vegetables in humans is strongly
supported by evidence obtained from epidemiological and human intervention studies as well
as with experimental animals. Verhoeven et al. (1996) reviewed 7 cohort studies and 87 case–
control studies and showed an inverse correlation between the consumption of individual
Brassica vegetables and the risk of lung, stomach and second primary cancers. Broccoli
consumption in particular shows a uniform protective effect, with no contrary evidence in
any study. Consumption of Brassica vegetables, which might be expected to yield high levels
of indoles and ITCs, was particularly strongly associated with a lower risk of colon cancer.
Brennan et al. (2005) showed that the protective effects of a diet rich in cruciferous vegetables
towards the occurrence of lung cancer is strongly dependent on the human genetic background
(GSTM1 and GSTT1 background). Reduction of risks up to 72% was reported in this study.
High intake of glucoraphanin can be obtained by the consumption of broccoli sprouts. The
effect of this intake is studied in clinical trials now (Shapiro et al., 2006).
3.6.2 Toxicity
Initially, glucosinolates were studied because of their potentially deleterious effects. A lot
of attention was given to removal of glucosinolates from dietary sources and animal feed by
breeding (‘double zero’ rapeseed) and processing of plant material.
In the field of animal production it is well-known that ingestion of substantial amounts
of glucosinolates may result in a variety of toxic and antinutritional effects. The fodder and
seed meals of genus Brassica such as crambe, kale, mustard, rape, cabbage and turnips are
the main source of glucosinolates in animal diets. Major deleterious effects of glucosinolates
ingestion in animals are reduced palatability, decreased growth and production. Nitriles are
known to affect liver and kidney functions. The ITCs interfere with iodine availability, whereas
5-vinyl-2-oxazolidinethione (VOT) is responsible for the morphological and physiological
changes of the thyroid. Other adverse effects of glucosinolate metabolites are goitrogenicity
and mutagenicity. Deleterious effects of glucosinolates are greater in non-ruminant animals
compared to ruminants. Also, in general, young animals appear to be more sensitive to
glucosinolates than adults or older animals. Animal species are affected in different degrees
of severity; pigs are more severely affected by dietary glucosinolates than rabbits, poultry
and fish (Tripathi and Mishra, 2007).
The oil meal of Brassica origin is a good source of protein for animal feeding but its glu-
cosinolate content limits its efficient utilization. Presently, very low-glucosinolate rapeseed
varieties are available that contain less than 25 μmol g−1 of total glucosinolates. Furthermore,
various processing techniques were applied to remove glucosinolates in order to minimize
their deleterious effects on animals. Most of these methodologies, like microwave irradiation,
micronization and extrusion, included hydrolysis or decomposition of glucosinolate before
feeding (Tripathi and Mishra, 2007). Also, a reduction in glucosinolate content could be
obtained by autoclaving rapeseed meal for 1.5 hours (Mansour et al., 1993), treatment of
meal with Cu2+ and the use of ammonia in conjugation with other processing (Keith and
Bell, 1982). During seed processing most glucosinolate breakdown products are formed.
The degree of degradation depends on seed properties and on processing conditions such as
moisture level, pressure and temperature (Mawson et al., 1993).
Glucosinolates 43
In principle, glucosinolate breakdown products can be capable of inducing goitrogenic

effects in humans, but there is little or no epidemiological evidence that this is an important
cause of human disease. Experimentally, consumption of 150 g of Brussels sprouts in the
diets of adult volunteers had no effect on their levels of thyroid hormones (McMillan et al.,
1986).
The current evidence suggests that normal consumption of glucosinolate containing veg-
etables does not damage human health. In contrast, beneficial effects are prevailing. On the
other hand, there is a need for further studies (e.g. human intervention studies) because the
growing interest in the anticarcinogenic properties of glucosinolates and the possibility that
this may lead to increased human exposure to these compounds raises important questions
about the balance of adverse and beneficial effects of Brassica vegetables or derived products
with enhanced levels.
3.7 TASTE VERSUS HEALTH

Many health-protective dietary phytonutrients found in vegetables are bitter, acrid or astrin-
gent and therefore aversive for consumers. As a result, the food industry routinely removes
these compounds from plant foods through selective breeding and various debittering pro-
cesses (Drewnowski and Gomez-Carneros, 2000). This poses an interesting dilemma for
designing healthy foods (e.g. functional foods) because increasing the content of bitter phy-
tonutrients for health may not always be accepted by consumers. Also, several of the glucosi-
nolates play an important role in the characteristic flavour and odour of Brassica vegetables.
It has been shown that the glucosinolates sinigrin and progoitrin are involved in the bitterness
observed in Brussels sprouts (Fenwick et al., 1983). Van Doorn et al. (1998) confirmed the
role of sinigrin and progoitrin in taste preference by using taste trials with samples of Brus-
sels sprouts. It appeared that consumers preferred Brussels sprouts with a low sinigrin and
progoitrin content. In cabbage, sinigrin is an abundant glucosinolate that gives a pungent and
bitter flavour. The stronger flavour in the heart of the cabbage is consistent with the presence
of greater amounts of sinigrin found in cabbage heads. Low levels of 2-propenyl ITCs formed
from sinigrin result in a flat and dull product (Rosa et al., 1997). Pungency and bitterness
caused by glucosinolate breakdown products play a role in the taste preference of consumers
and are therefore important quality factors for Brassica vegetables and derived products.
It has been shown that the flavour and nutritional properties of Brassica vegetables could
be improved by using molecular markers in selecting specific glucosinolate lines in breeding
programmes (Campos-De Quiroz and Mithen, 1996). Developing vegetables less susceptible
to diseases, less attractive to insects and with desirable agronomic storage and sensory char-
acteristics by manipulating the glucosinolate levels resulted in crops with greater commercial
value (Borek et al., 1994; Brown and Morra, 1995).
In general, studies on phytonutrients and health rarely consider the taste of vegetables and
other plant-based foods. Glucosinolates and ITCs are regarded as dietary protectors against
cancer. However, the protection capacity, ascribed to inducing detoxifying enzyme, has been
linked to concentrations of bitter glucosinolates such as sinigrin, progoitrin, glucobrassicin
and glucoraphanin.
Various promising approaches are available to enhance levels of health-protective phytonu-
trients in Brassica vegetables and derived products, like engineering plant foods or processes
in the production chain. However, when it comes to bitter phytonutrients, the demands of
good taste and good health could be difficult to overcome or even be wholly incompatible.
Therefore, it is proposed to consider sensory factors and food preferences when studying
phytonutrients and health (Drewnowski and Gomez-Carneros, 2000).
3.8 RESPONSES TO STRESS FACTORS
Glucosinolates and their breakdown products are considered to function as part of the plant’s
defence against insect attack and to act as phagostimulants (Chew, 1988).
There is now considerable information on the importance of glucosinolates in insect–plant
interactions. However, less is known about the influence of biotic factors on glucosinolate
metabolism in plants. It has been demonstrated that attack by aphids (Lammerink et al., 1984),
root flies (Birch et al., 1990, 1992) and flea beetles (Koritsas et al., 1991), changes both the
total concentration of glucosinolates in different plant tissues and the relative proportions of
aliphatic and aromatic compounds.
Other examples of stress-induced increases in levels of glucosinolates are mechanical
wounding and infestation (Koritsas et al., 1991), methyl jasmonate exposure (Doughty et al.,
1995), and grazing (Macfarlane Smith et al., 1991) for intact plants or UV-irradiation (Monde
et al., 1991) and chopping (Verkerk et al., 2001) for vegetables after harvesting. Apparently,
besides a breakdown mechanism for glucosinolates, an induction mechanism of glucosinolate
biosynthesis by stress factors is present in brassica vegetables.
3.9 EFFECTS OF PROCESSING

Many steps in the food supply chain, such as breeding, cultivation, storage, processing and
preparation of vegetables, may have an impact on levels and thus intake of glucosinolates
(Dekker et al., 2000). Brassica vegetables are, prior to consumption, subjected to different
ways of processing, culinary as well as industrial. Culinary treatments of Brassica vegeta-
bles such as chopping, cooking, steaming and microwaving have received more attention in
past years and have been shown to affect the glucosinolate content considerably. Typically,
post-harvest physical disruption of the plants such as chewing, chopping, blending, juicing,
cooking, freezing/thawing, and high temperature leads to loss of cellular compartmentaliza-
tion and subsequent mixing of glucosinolates and myrosinase to form ITCs. This influences
the levels of glucosinolates, the extent of hydrolysis and the composition, flavour and aroma
of the final products.
Culinary processing of Brassica vegetables has complex influences on the food matrix
affecting the level of glucosinolates:
r Enzymatic hydrolysis by myrosinase

r Myrosinase inactivation
r Cell lysis and leaching of glucosinolates, breakdown products and myrosinase in cooking
water
r Thermal degradation of glucosinolates and their breakdown products
r Increase of the chemical glucosinolate extractability
r Loss of enzymatic co-factors (e.g. ascorbic acid, iron)
Chopping of fresh plant tissues creates optimal conditions for myrosinase and a high degree
of glucosinolate hydrolysis can be expected. In contrast to these expectations and reported
Glucosinolates 45
findings, Verkerk et al. (2001) observed elevated levels of all indole and some aliphatic glu-
cosinolates after chopping and prolonged exposure of Brassica vegetables to air of different
kinds. In white cabbage a 15-fold increase of 4-methoxy and 1-methoxy-3-indolylmethyl
glucosinolates was noted after 48 hours storage of chopped cabbage. Chopping and storage
of broccoli vegetables resulted in a strong reduction of most glucosinolates, except for 4-
hydroxy- and 4-methoxy-3-indolylmethyl glucosinolates, which increased 3.5- and 2-fold,
respectively. It was hypothesized that chopping triggers a de novo synthesis of glucosino-
lates, especially indolyl GS, by mimicking pest damage as defence mechanism in harvested
Brassica vegetables.
Low-temperature storage processes such as freezing and refrigerating can alter the
metabolism of glucosinolates. Freezing without previous inactivation of myrosinase results
in an almost complete decomposition of glucosinolates after thawing (Quinsac et al., 1994).
Ciska and Pathak (2004) have studied the fermentation process of white cabbage and
further storage. During fermentation all glucosinolates were hydrolysed within 2 weeks
resulting in 15 products of glucosinolate degradation such as thiocyanates, ITCs, cyanides,
nitriles, indole compounds and others. Ascorbigen formed from glucobrassicin was found to
be a dominating compound in fermented cabbage, reaching levels of about 14 μmol 100 g−1 .
The content of breakdown products in fermented cabbage depends, besides on the content of
the native glucosinolates in raw cabbage, on physicochemical properties such as volatility,
stability and reactivity in an acidic environment and microbiological stability (Ciska and
Pathak, 2004).
Boiling of Brassica vegetables in water reduces glucosinolate levels significantly, mostly
by leaching into the cooking water and thermal degradation. The amount of losses depends on
the sort of vegetable, cooking time, ratio vegetable/water and also on the type of glucosinolate
(Rosa and Heaney, 1993; Ciska and Kozlowska, 2001; Vallejo et al., 2002; Oerlemans et al.,
2006).
Interestingly, microwave preparation of Brassica vegetables resulted in high retention of
glucosinolates (Verkerk and Dekker, 2004; Song and Thornalley, 2007). Moreover, Verkerk
and Dekker (2004) observed an increase in glucosinolate levels for red cabbage associated
with the applied energy input. They ascribed these findings to an increased extractability of
glucosinolates by thermal treatment.
Steaming and stir-frying as a culinary treatment of vegetables seem to be milder processes
since high retention of glucosinolates appeared to occur, mainly as a result of limited leaching
and thermal degradation (Rungapamestry et al., 2006; Song and Thornalley, 2007).
During industrial processing of Brassica vegetables (e.g. canning), the thermal treat-
ment can affect glucosinolate levels considerably. Oerlemans et al. (2006) described thermal
degradation of individual glucosinolates in red cabbage. Degradation of all the identified glu-
cosinolates occurred when heated at temperatures above 100◦ C. The indole glucosinolates
4-hydroxy-glucobrassicin and 4-methoxyglucobrassicin appeared to be most susceptible to
thermal degradation, even at temperatures below 100◦ C. Canning, the most severe heat treat-
ment, will result in substantial thermal degradation (73%) of the total amount of glucosinolates
(Table 3.3).
It is evident that processing can result in a strong decrease or increase of glucosinolates
which could influence the properties, such as flavour and anticarcinogenicity, of brassica
vegetables.
The variation in glucosinolate profile and content of consumed products due to variation
in the entire vegetable supply chain (breeding, growing, storage, processing, and preparation)
has been shown to be enormous. The level of glucosinolates varies over 100-fold in consumed
Table 3.3 Predicted effects of three different thermal treatments (blanching, cooking, canning) on the
residual percentage of glucosinolates in red cabbage as a result of thermal degradation.
Initial Blanching Cooking Canning

concentration (3 min, 95◦ C) (40 min, 100◦ C) (40 min, 120◦ C)
(μmol/100 g FW) (%) (%) (%)
Glucoiberin 14.8 100 94 18

Progoitrin 23.8 100 93 38
Sinigrin 14.7 100 91 12
Glucoraphanin 48.2 100 90 15
Gluconapin 36.9 100 93 53
4-Hydroxyglucobrassicin 1.9 93 26 3
Glucobrassicin 8.8 99 72 1
4-Methoxyglucobrassicin 1.6 97 48 1
Total aliphatic gls 138.4 100 92 29
Total indole gls 12.34 98 62 2
Total gls 150.8 100 89 27
Reproduced from Oerlemans, K., Barrett, D.M., Bosch Suades, C., Verkerk, R. and Dekker, M. Thermal degradation of
glucosinolates in red cabbage. Food Chemistry, 95, 19–29. Copyright 2006 with permission from Elsevier.
vegetable products (Dekker and Verkerk, 2003). The effect of this variation on the health
protecting effect for humans was simulated by a Monte Carlo approach by calibrating this
protective effect to reported epidemiological studies (Fig. 3.4). These simulations predicted
that increasing the average level of glucosinolates by 3-fold through optimization of the food
Product
intake
Component Risk of
intake cancer
Content in
final product Cancer y/n
‘Fate of Life’
Consumer factor
processing
Industrial
processing
Content in
raw material
Fig. 3.4 Schematic scheme for the Monte Carlo simulations. (Reproduced from Dekker, M. and Verkerk,
R. Dealing with variability in food production chains: A tool to enhance the sensitivity of epidemiological
studies on phytochemicals. European Journal of Nutrition, 42, 67–72. Copyright 2003 with kind permission
from Springer Science and Business Media.)
Glucosinolates 47
supply chain could reduce the number of colon cancer cases by 45% (Dekker and Verkerk,
2003).
Conclusions
Glucosinolate research has been expanded from toxicological areas into the health-promoting
areas. Much of this research nowadays is focused on the potential effects of glucosinolates,
and their breakdown products, on biological processes associated with cellular damage and
cancer prevention. Recent publications in the area of nutrigenomics show more insight into
the effects of these compounds on gene expression related to health protection. Analysis of
the effects of the supply chain on the delivery of glucosinolates to consumers shows enormous
potential for optimization of the levels of these compounds in the final food products. The role
and mechanisms of action of glucosinolates and their products in protecting plants against
fungal and insect attack and the allelochemical effects on behaviour, health and growth of
other species is another important area of research.
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4 Phycotoxins in Seafood
John W. Leftley and Fiona Hannah
Summary
Phycotoxins, produced by microscopic marine algae, may contaminate shellfish and fish,
causing illness in humans, and are a world-wide problem. This chapter covers their origin,
distribution, classification, aspects of their toxicology, methods of analysis and statutory
regulation.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Contamination of seafood with phycotoxins and the resultant effects on human health is a
world-wide problem and research into all aspects of these compounds is being conducted in
many countries. Consequently, there is a plethora of data and it is possible here to give only
an overview of the principal phycotoxins. Of the literature cited in this chapter, the reader is
referred especially to three comprehensive publications: Anderson et al. (2001), Hallegraeff
et al. (2004) and van Egmond et al. (2004), the first two produced by the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO (see Section 4.15) and the latter by the UN
Food and Agriculture Organization, each of which amplify many of the topics covered below.
In addition, detailed information on the chemistry and pharmacology of phycotoxins can be
found in Botana (2007).
4.2 CAUSATIVE AND VECTOR ORGANISMS

The organisms that produce the phycotoxins described here are certain genera of unicellular
algae, usually photosynthetic, which may be planktonic (free floating or swimming) or ben-
thic, i.e. live on surfaces of, for example, plants and corals, or in or on marine sediments. With
the exception of the diatoms that produce the toxins that cause amnesic shellfish poisoning
(ASP), almost all the other toxic algae discussed here are dinoflagellates (Table 4.1). Detailed
accounts of the taxonomy of the algae implicated in phycotoxin poisoning have been given by
Steidinger (1993) and in part II of Hallegraeff et al. (2004). The phycotoxins can be regarded
as secondary metabolites and their taxonomic distribution, biosynthesis and significance in
the food chain have been reviewed by Shimizu (1996).
Seafood poisoning is often associated with the occurrence of algal ‘blooms’, where the
microscopic algae may reach sufficient density to produce a visible discolouration of the wa-
ter. These blooms, not necessarily toxic, are a natural phenomenon and occur when there is

BLUK145-Gilbert
Table 4.1 Phycotoxin poisoning: causative and vector organisms, clinical symptoms and treatment.
Paralytic shellfish Diarrhetic shellfish Amnesic shellfish Azaspiracid shellfish Neurotoxic shellfish Ciguatera fish poisoning
poisoning (PSP) poisoning (DSP) poisoning (ASP) poisoning (AZP) poisoning (NSP) (CFP)
Causative organisms
February 28, 2008
Dinoflagellates Dinoflagellates Diatoms Dinoflagellates Dinoflagellates Dinoflagellates

Alexandrium catenella Dinophysis acuminata Amphora coffeaeformis Protoperidinium Karenia brevis (= Gambierdiscus toxicus
Alexandrium minutum Dinophysis acuta Nitzschia crassipes Gymnodinium breve ? Coolia spp.
4:34
Alexandrium tamarense Dinophysis fortii navis-varingica Ptychodiscus brevis) (US) ? Ostreopsis spp.
Dinophysis norvegica Pseudo-nitzschia spp.a Karenia spp. (New ? Prorocentrum spp.
Gymnodinium Prorocentrum lima Zealand)
catenatum
Pyrodinium bahamense
Raphidophytesb
Chattonella antiqua
C. marina
Fibrocapsa japonica
Heterosigma akashiwo
Vector organismsc
Shellfish and Shellfish, e.g. clams, Shellfish and Shellfish. Only mussels Shellfish, e.g. clams, Carnivorous fishes, mainly
crustaceans, e.g. mussels and scallops crustaceans, have so far caused mussels, oysters and barracudas, groupers, jacks,
clams, cockles, e.g. clams, crabs and human intoxication. whelks. Humans may sea bass, snappers and
gastropods, lobsters, mussels Azaspiracids have also also be affected by direct surgeon fish which feed on
mussels, oysters, been detected in contact with the toxic herbivorous fish that inhabit
scallops and whelks oysters, Manila clams, algae via sea spray or coral reefs
scallops and razor fish swimming
Effect and symptoms
Neurotoxic Gastrointestinal Neurotoxic No neurotoxic Neurotoxic Complex, primarily
disturbance symptoms have been neurotoxic
reported
(continued)
Phycotoxins in Seafood
53
Table 4.1 (continued)
54
Paralytic shellfish Diarrhetic shellfish Amnesic shellfish Azaspiracid shellfish Neurotoxic shellfish Ciguatera fish poisoning
poisoning (PSP) poisoning (DSP) poisoning (ASP) poisoning (AZP) poisoning (NSP) (CFP)
BLUK145-Gilbert
Mild case
Within 30 min: tingling After 30 min to a few After 3–5 h: nausea, Similar to those for After 3–6 h: chills, Symptoms develop within
sensation or numbness hours (seldom more vomiting, diarrhoea, DSP – diarrhoea, headache, diarrhoea, 12–24 h of eating fish.
around lips, gradually than 12 h): diarrhoea, abdominal cramps nausea, vomiting, muscle weakness; Gastrointestinal symptoms:
spreading to face and nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps, muscle and joint pain; diarrhoea, abdominal pain,
neck; prickly sensation abdominal pain chills – in the limited nausea and vomiting; nausea, vomiting
in fingertips and toes; number of cases irritation to eyes and
February 28, 2008
headache, dizziness, reported nasal membranes where

nausea, vomiting and direct contact with algae
diarrhoea
4:34
Extreme case
Muscular paralysis; Chronic exposure may Decreased reaction to None to date Paraesthesia; altered Neurological symptoms:
pronounced respiratory promote tumour deep pain; dizziness, perception of hot and numbness and tingling of
difficulty, choking formation in the hallucinations, cold; difficulty in hands and feet; cold objects
sensation; death, digestive system confusion; short-term breathing; double vision; feel hot to touch; difficulty in
through respiratory memory loss, trouble in talking and balance; low heart rate and
paralysis may occur sometimes permanent; swallowing blood pressure; rashes;
within 2–24 h after seizure; damage to death in some extreme cases
ingestion hippocampus in brain; through respiratory failure
coma; death in some
extreme cases
Average fatality rate
1–14% 0% 3% 0% to date 0% <1%
Treatment
Patient has stomach Intravenous infusion of None at present other None at present. Support as required No antidote or specific
pumped and is given electrolytes. Recovery than life support Activated charcoal treatment is available;
artificial respiration. No after 3 days irrespective systems if required recommended neurological symptoms may
lasting effects of medical treatment (Poisindex) last for months and years;
calcium and mannitol may
help relieve symptoms
a
A list of Pseudo-nitzschia spp. known to produce DA is given in Fehling et al. (2004) and see also van Egmond et al. (2004).
b
Brevetoxins have been detected in these algae but they have not yet been implicated in NSP (Onoue and Nozawa, 1989).
c
For a comprehensive list of affected species of shellfish, see van Egmond et al. (2004).
Updated from Leftley and Hannah (1998). See also Backer et al. (2004).
Phycotoxins in Seafood 55
a particular combination of physical and chemical conditions that allows rapid growth of the
organisms (Reynolds, 2006). Blooms of harmful algae are often confusingly referred to as ‘red
tides’, although the actual colour of the water may be either red, brown or green (Anderson,
1994). The incidence of harmful algal blooms appears to be increasing all over the world
(Hallegraeff, 2004), but it remains to be established whether this apparent increase is
due to increased vigilance by the many countries that have monitoring programmes (see
Section 4.13) or is a genuine phenomenon caused by as yet unknown factors, or is a combi-
nation of both.
Bivalve shellfish are the most common vectors of phycotoxins other than in ciguatera
fish poisoning (CFP) (Table 4.1). This is because they are filter feeders and naturally ingest
any phytoplankton or particles to which they may be attached and thereby concentrate any
toxins in their tissues. The shellfish that have been most studied as regards accumulation of
algal toxins are those consumed directly by humans, such as clams and mussels (Fernández
et al., 2004b). However, the importance of carnivorous gastropods and crustaceans as vectors
should not be ignored. Shumway (1995) has provided comprehensive data on the occurrence
of phycotoxins in these organisms.
4.3 CLASSIFICATION OF PHYCOTOXINS

The traditional way of grouping phycotoxins, which is still widely used, has been according
to the poisoning syndromes that they engender in humans. It has become apparent, however,
that this classification is inadequate – for example, regarding the classification of pecteno-
toxins (PTXs) and yessotoxins (YTXs) with the diarrhetic toxins, as discussed in Section
4.10.2.2. The trend is to move to a classification of the phycotoxins based on their chemical
taxonomy rather than the toxic symptoms they produce, as discussed by Quilliam (2004a)
and see also Hess (2007). A Working Group of the Codex Alimentarius Commission of
the UN FAO and WHO (Anon., 2006a; Toyofuku, 2006) has endorsed that view. Quilliam
(2004a) suggests that this approach would permit seafood safety to be regulated in relation to
permissible concentrations of specific toxins rather than on the result of specific assays, as is
already the case with other environmental contaminants such as mycotoxins. It would allow
a choice of appropriate validated analytical methods, ranging from rapid screening tests to
mass spectrometry, as reviewed in Section 4.11.
In line with these suggestions, the toxins described below are categorized according to
their structural affinities.
4.4 THE SAXITOXIN (STX) GROUP (PSP)

Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) is caused by the ingestion of one or more of a group
of basic, water-soluble, nitrogenous toxins originating from dinoflagellates belonging to the
genera Alexandrium, Gymnodinium and Pyrodinium (Table 4.1). A comprehensive list of
shellfish known to be affected is given in van Egmond et al. (2004).
PSP has been recognized for centuries but its cause was first understood only in the
twentieth century (Kao, 1993). On a global scale PSP is the most common and widespread
of the phycotoxin syndromes, as is the occurrence of PSP toxins in seafood (Fig. 4.1a).
Up to 1993, there were about 2500 cases of human intoxication recorded throughout the
world (Kao, 1993) and more cases are reported each year. The consequences of PSP can be
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.1 The global distribution of the reported occurrence in seafood of the toxins causing (a) paralytic
shellfish poisoning (PSP); (b) diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP). Black dots • indicate the location. After
Anderson et al. (see Acknowledgements). See also maps in van Egmond et al. (2004).
very severe. For example, in Guatemala in 1987 about 186 people were admitted to hospital
after ingesting PSP toxins, 26 of whom subsequently died. In Alaska 66 outbreaks of PSP
occurred between 1973 and 1994, causing 143 human intoxications, including two fatalities.
Detailed accounts of all aspects of PSP can be found in Kao (1993) and van Egmond et al.
(2004).
Although dinoflagellates are undoubtedly the source of the PSP toxins, certain bacteria
are also known to produce these compounds and the possible role of prokaryotes in PSP has
(c)
(d)
Fig. 4.1 The global distribution of the reported occurrence in seafood of the toxins causing (c) amnesic
shellfish poisoning (ASP); (d) azaspiracid shellfish poisoning (AZP). Black dots • indicate the location. After
come under scrutiny. Some photosynthetic cyanobacteria, for example, are a source of the PSP
toxin saxitoxin as well as other unrelated toxins (see Section 4.10.4). It has been found that
some marine bacteria produce saxitoxins, including bacteria associated with dinoflagellates
that produce similar toxins (Shimizu et al., 1996; Gallacher et al., 1997; Uribe and Espejo,
2003; Azanza et al., 2006). The exact relationship between these bacteria and dinoflagellates
as regards toxin production remains to be clearly determined (Shimizu et al., 1996; Kodama
et al., 2006).
(e)
(f)
Fig. 4.1 The global distribution of the reported occurrence in seafood of the toxins causing (e) neuro-
toxic shellfish poisoning (NSP); (f) ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP). Black dots • indicate the location. After
4.4.1 The toxins causing PSP: the saxitoxin family

More than 20 toxins in the saxitoxin group are known to exist at present, all of which are
water-soluble. The basic molecule is a tetrahydropurine substituted at various positions, as
shown in Fig. 4.2a. The specific toxicity of these compounds varies. For example, the most
potent are the carbamate toxins (saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin and the gonyautoxins GTX-1 to
GTX-4), which are 10–100 times more toxic than the N-sulfocarbamoyl derivatives, the B
and C toxins (Cembella et al., 1993; Wright, 1995). Relative toxicities of the saxitoxin family
as determined by the mouse bioassay (see Section 4.11) are given in van Egmond et al. (2004).
(a) R4
H
R1 NH
N
+
NH2
NH
NH2+ N
OH
OH
R3
R2
N
O
R4= 2HN O R4= SO3-
C R4= OH R4=H
C
O
R1 R2 R3 O
Carbamate N-sulfo-carbamoyl Decarbamoyl Deoxy-decarbamoyl
toxins toxins toxins toxins
H H H STX GNTX5(B1) dcSTX doSTX
H H OSO3− GNTX2 C1 dcGNTX2
H OSO3− H GNTX3 C2 dcGNTX3
OH H H neoSTX GNTX6(B2) dcneoSTX doneoSTX
OH H OSO3− GNTX1 C3 dcGNTX1 doGNTX1
OH OSO3− H GNTX4 C4 dcGNTX4
(b)
CH 3
O OH
H R3
O O CH 2
HO
O O O
CH 3 OH
OR 1 CH 3 O O
OH CH 3 R2
R1 R2 R3
O k a d a i c a c id ( O A ) H H CH3
D i n o p h y s is t o x in - 1 ( D T X 1 ) H C H3 C H3
D i n o p h y s is t o x in - 2 ( D T X 2 ) H C H3 H
D i n o p h y s is t o x in - 3 ( D T X 3 ) acyl C H3 C H3
Fig. 4.2 (a) The chemical structures of the saxitoxin group (from van Egmond et al., 2004). (b) The
chemical structures of the okadaic acid group (from van Egmond et al., 2004).
PSP toxins may form up to 0.2% of the wet weight of PSP-toxic dinoflagellates and
the most predominant toxins are usually the sulfated derivatives (Laycock et al., 1994).
However, some of these compounds may undergo degradation or biotransformation after
being assimilated by shellfish and other organisms (Cembella et al., 1994; Oshima, 1995;
Wright, 1995; Bricelj et al., 1996) and novel derivatives are reported from time to time (Negri
et al., 2003; Llewellyn et al., 2004). Intoxicated shellfish found in cold or temperate waters
most commonly contain the sulfated C toxins GTX-2 and -3 and also saxitoxin (Wright,
1995).
(c)
CH3 CH3
COOH COOH
H CH3
COOH COOH
N COOH N COOH
CH3 H
H H
Domoic acid C5'-Diastereomer
CH3
COOH CH3 CH2
HOOC COOH
CH3 CH3
COOH HOOC COOH
CH3
N COOH
N COOH H N COOH
H H
Isodomoic acid A Isodomoic acid B
Isodomoic acid C
COOH
CH3
COOH CH3 CH3
CH3
CH3 CH3
COOH COOH
COOH COOH
N COOH N COOH
N COOH
H H
H
Isodomoic acid F
Isodomoic acid D
Isodomoic acid E
CH3
HOOC
CH3
CH3
COOH
COOH
H 3C
COOH
N
COOH N COOH
H
H
Isodomoic acid G Isodomoic acid H
Fig. 4.2 (c) The chemical structures of the domoic acid group (from van Egmond et al., 2004).
4.4.2 Toxic effects

The symptoms of PSP poisoning in humans are very characteristic and range from a tingling
sensation or numbness as a result of mild intoxication to death through respiratory paralysis
in extreme cases (Table 4.1). At the biochemical level the effect of the saxitoxin family,
especially saxitoxin itself, is well understood. They act by blocking very specifically both
neuronal and muscular sodium channels, thereby affecting transmission of nerve impulses and
(d)
O
R1
R2
R3
R1
5 H
A
HO B O H
O 10 O
H C D OH
20
O
3
HC R2
R3
15 HHO
O E
25 R4
R4
H H
40
N
35 H
O CH3
3
HC I H
GO
O F
CH3 30
H
CH3
R1 R1R2 R
R32 RR4 3 R4
azaspiracid (AZA) H H CH3 H
azaspiracid-1 (AZA-1) H CH3 H H
azaspiracid-2
azaspiracid-2 (AZA2)
(AZA-2) H CHCH3 CH
CH33 HH H
3
azaspiracid-3
(AZA-3) H H H HH HH H
azaspiracid-4
(AZA-4) OHH H HH HOH H
azaspiracid-5 (AZA5) H H H OH
azaspiracid-5 (AZA-5) H H H OH
azaspiracid-6 (AZA-6) CH3 H H H
azaspiracid-7 (AZA-7) H CH3 OH H
azaspiracid-8 (AZA-8) H CH3 H OH
azaspiracid-9 (AZA-9) CH3 H OH H
azaspiracid-10 (AZA-10) CH3 H H OH
azaspiracid-11 (AZA-11) CH3 CH3 OH H
Fig. 4.2 (d) The chemical structures of the azaspiracid group (figure adapted from van Egmond et al.,
2004). The structures for AZ-6 to -11 are as suggested by James et al. (2004). See also Nicolaou et al.
(2006).
muscle contraction (Table 4.2). Detailed accounts of the mechanism of action of saxitoxin and
the related toxins can be found in Baden and Trainer (1993), Kao (1993) and Llewellyn (2006).
Studies on the toxicity and pharmacokinetics of saxitoxin on various laboratory animals
have been reviewed by van Egmond et al. (2004). The acute toxicity of saxitoxin to mice
(LD50 , μg kg−1 body weight [b.w.]) via various routes is given as: oral 260–263, intravenous
2.4–3.4 and intraperitoneal (i.p.) 9.0–11.6. By contrast, the LD50 (i.p.) for mice of sodium
cyanide is 10 mg kg−1 b.w. (Kao, 1993).
4.5 THE OKADAIC ACID (OA) GROUP (DSP)

Three disparate groups of lipophilic polyether compounds originally made up the family
of diarrhetic (or diarrhoeic) shellfish toxins: okadaic acid (OA) and the dinophysistoxins
(DTXs), the pectenotoxins (PTXs) and yessotoxin (YTX) and its derivatives. The original
collective term ‘diarrhetic shellfish toxins’ for the group is a misnomer since only OA and
the DTXs and possibly a few of the PTXs are actually diarrhetic, whereas most of the PTXs
and the YTX group have different physiological effects (Table 4.2 and see Section 4.10.2.2).
There is a strong body of opinion that the PTXs and YTXs should be removed from the group
(Aune et al., 2002; Anon., 2004, 2006a; Quilliam, 2004a) and they are therefore dealt with
separately in Section 4.10.
(e) OH
H
CH3 CH3
CH3 H H O
H3C J
O H H H R
I
H O O
B C D O H
F H
O G O H
A O H O E
H O H
H H H
O H
Type 1 (A) brevetoxins: PbTx-1, R = CH2C(=CH2)CHO

PbTx-7, R = CH2C(=CH2)CH2OH
PbTx-10, R = CH2CH(CH3)CH2OH
HO
R
H3C K
O O
H J
H
H
CH3 CH3 CH3 H I
H H O H
H CH3 O O
O O
E F G H
B C H
A D
O O
O O O H
H CH3
H H H H
CH3
Type 2 (B) brevetoxins: PbTx-2 R = CH2C(=CH2)CHO

PbTx-2 R = CH2C(=CH2)COOH (oxidized)
PbTx-3 R = CH2C(=CH2)CH2OH
PbTx-8 R = CH2COCH2Cl
PbTx-9 R = CH2CH(CH3)CH2OH
PbTx-5 the K-ring acetate of PbTx-2
PbTx-6 the H-ring epoxide of PbTx-2
Fig. 4.2 (e) The chemical structures of the brevetoxin group (from van Egmond et al., 2004).
Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) in humans is caused primarily by eating shellfish,

such as mussels and clams contaminated with OA and/or DTXs, which originate mainly from
certain species of the dinoflagellate genus Dinophysis (Table 4.1).
The global distribution of DSP toxins (OA and DTX toxins) in shellfish is shown in Fig.
4.1b and see van Egmond et al. (2004). This is the second most widespread intoxication of
humans and shellfish caused by algae. As regards OA and the DTXs, the predominant toxin
may vary according to geographic region. For example, OA is normally the major toxin in
most of Europe whereas DTX-1 usually predominates in Japanese and Canadian shellfish,
(f) HO
R
H3C K
O O
H J
H
H
CH3 CH3 CH3 H I
H H O H
H CH3 O O
O O
E F G H
C H
A B D
O O
O O O H H
H H CH3
H H
CH3
H
N
BTX-B1
BTX-B1 R=
R= SO3Na
O
O NH2
S OH
OH O
BTX-B2 R=
O NHCH3(CH2)12CO or CH3(CH2)14CO
S
OH
OH O
BTX-B4 R=
(g)
HO
COOH
H3C K
O O
H J
H
H
CH3 CH3 CH3 H I
H O H
H CH3 O O
O OR O
E F G H
C H
A B D
O O
O O O H H H CH3
H H H
CH3
Fig. 4.2 (f) The chemical structures of the brevetoxin analogues BTX-B1, -B2 and -B4 isolated from con-
taminated shellfish (from van Egmond et al., 2004). (g) The chemical structure of the brevetoxin analogue
BTX-B3 isolated from contaminated shellfish (from van Egmond et al., 2004).
(h) CH3
H CH3
H
HO CH3 H O OH
O I H
H H O
H H O
H H O O
O O H H H
O 52
M
A E O H
5 H
O O H H 3C R2
H H O H H CH3
R1 H
OH H
R1 R2
P-CTX-1: 1CH OHCHOH
2 OH
P-CTX-3 (P-CTX-2): 1CH OHCHOH H
2
P-CTX-4B (P-CTX-4A); CH2CH
1 H
CH3
H CH3
H
HO CH3 H O OH
O
I H
H H O
H H O
H H O O H
O O H O 49 M
A E O H
H H
1
O O H H3C
H O H CH3
H H H
HO
P-CTX-3C
CH3
H H
HO CH3 O H OH
O I CH3
OH H H O H
H H
H H O O
O O H H O
E O H H H M H
1
O O H O
H O H H CH3 O
H H N
CH3 56 OH
HO
C-CTX-1 (C-CTX-2)
Fig. 4.2 (h) The chemical structures of Pacific (P) and Caribbean (C) ciguatoxins (CTXs). The energetically
less favoured epimers, P-CTX-2 (52-epi P-CTX-3), P-CTX-4A (52-epi P-CTX-4B) and C-CTX-2 (56-epi C-
CTX-1) are indicated in parentheses (from van Egmond et al., 2004). 2,3-Dihydroxy P-CTX-3C and 51-
hydroxy P-CTX-3C have also been isolated from Pacific fish (Lewis, 2001).
and in Ireland DTX-2 predominates (Quilliam and Wright, 1995; Carmody et al., 1996) and
has subsequently been found in France, Spain, Norway, Portugal and the UK (Hess, 2008).
A wide-ranging review of DSP has been provided by van Egmond et al. (2004).
4.5.1 The toxins causing DSP: okadaic acid and the

dinophysistoxins
Okadaic acid and dinophysistoxins (DTXs), the latter so named because they occur in the
dinoflagellate genus Dinophysis (see Table 4.1), are acidic compounds (Fig. 4.2b (p. 59)
(i) CH 3 O
CH3
O O
1 7
O O
OH O OH O
OH CH3 O
CH 3
O R
O
O CH 3 CH 3
R C -7
p e c te n o to x in -1 (P T X 1 ) C H 2O H R
p e c te n o to xin -2 (P T X 2 ) CH3 R
p e c te n o to xin -3 (P T X 3 ) CHO R
p e c te n o to xin -4 (P T X 4 ) C H 2O H S
p e c te n o to xin -6 (P T X 6 ) COOH R
p e c te n o to xin -7 (P T X 7 ) COOH S
CH3 O
CH3
HO O
1 7
O O
O
OH OH
OH O
OH CH3 O
CH3
O CH3
O
O CH3 CH3
C-7
pectenotoxin-2 seco acid (PTX2SA) R
7-epi-PTX2SA S
Fig. 4.2 (i) The chemical structures of some of the pectenotoxin group (from van Egmond et al., 2004).
See also Halim and Brimble (2006).
and see Quilliam, 2004a). The most important of this group of toxins as regards shellfish
contamination are OA, DTX-1 and DTX-2, which may occur singly or together. The polyether
backbone of OA, DTX-1 and DTX-2 may be acylated with a range of saturated and unsaturated
fatty acids from C14 to C22 in the digestive glands of various shellfish to produce a mixture
of compounds with diarrhetic activity, collectively known as ‘DTX-3’ (Quilliam and Wright,
1995; Wright, 1995; Quilliam, 2004a; van Egmond et al., 2004). In addition to bivalves, there
is evidence that fatty acid esters of OA can be produced in the digestive gland of Brown crabs
(Cancer pagurus) (Torgersen et al., 2005).
Two OA derivatives, DTX-4 and DTX-5a and -b, which are unusual in being water-soluble,
have been isolated from the benthic dinoflagellates Prorocentrum lima and P. maculatum (Hu
et al., 1995b,c; Quilliam et al., 1996). They possess an aliphatic side chain containing hydroxyl
and sulfate groups and in the case of DTX-5 an amide moiety. Quilliam (2004a) suggests
that DTX-4 and -5 have not been detected in shellfish because of the action of esterases.
(j)
R n
1 yessotoxin
HO 2 homoyessotoxin
CH3
HO 1 45-hydroxyyessotoxin
CH3 HO 2 45-hydroxyhomoyessotoxin
COOH
1 carboxyyessotoxin
HO 2 carboxyhomoyessotoxin R
CH3
H
O
HO 1 45,46,47 trinoryessotoxin H
H
CH3 O
H CH3
O
1 42,43,44,45,46,47,55-heptanor-41-oxo YTX
O
2 42,43,44,45,46,47,55-heptanor-41-oxohomo YTX
H OH
H
H O
H
H O CH3
CH3 H H
H H H
NaO3SO O O
( ) O
n
O CH3
O O CH3
NaO3SO
H H H H H
OH
OSO3Na
O
H CH3
O
H OH
adriatoxin H
H O
H
H O CH3
CH3 H H
H H H
NaO3SO O O
O
O CH3
O O CH3
NaO3SO H H H H H
Fig. 4.2 (j) The chemical structures of some of the yessotoxin group and of adriatoxin (from van Egmond
et al., 2004). See also Bowden (2006) and Hess and Aasen (2007).
4.5.2 Toxic effects

The symptoms of DSP in humans are summarized in Table 4.1. Gastrointestinal disturbance is
the main effect and the symptoms usually disappear within 3 days. Studies on the pathological
effects of OA and DTXs as well as the PTXs and YTXs (see Section 4.10) have been confined
mainly to suckling and adult mice and to rats – detailed accounts can be found in Terao et al.
(1990a,b, 1993), Aune and Yndestad (1993) and in van Egmond et al. (2004). The acute
toxicities (LD50 , μg kg−1 b.w.) to mice of OA, DTX-1 and DTX-3 are 200, 160 and 500
respectively (Fernández et al., 2004a). Aune et al. (2007) demonstrated that DTX-2 has
about 60% of the toxicity of OA when estimated by the mouse bioassay (i.p. injection) and
an enzyme inhibition assay showed good correspondence.
Table 4.2 Sites of action and primary physiological effects of the major classes of phycotoxins subject
to governmental regulation in Europe and elsewhere.
Toxin Site of action Primary physiological effects
Saxitoxin group Site 1 on voltage-dependent Block sodium ion influx in neuronal and
sodium channels muscular sodium channel. Prevents
propagation of the action potential essential
for conduction of nerve impulses and
contraction of muscles. Peripheral nervous
system particularly affected in vertebrates
Okadaic acid Catalytic subunit of protein Inhibit protein phosphorylase phosphatases
group: OA, DTXs phosphorylase phosphatases type Tumour promoters
and derivatives 1 and 2A
Pectenotoxins Not known Hepatotoxic. Damage to cytoskeleton, e.g.
F-actin depolymerization to cells in vitro
Yessotoxins Not known. Possible interaction Cardiotoxic
with calcium channels reported
Azaspiracids Not known Affects liver, pancreas, thymus, spleen and
gastrointestinal tract and T and B lymphocytes
in rodents. AZA-1 has effects on cytoskeleton
(F-actin). Effects on intracellular calcium in
cells in vitro. See Tables 4.3 and 4.4
Domoic acid Ionotropic class of glutamate Binds to glutamate receptors, i.e. competes
receptors in central nervous with glutamate; receptor-induced
system depolarization and excitation
NSP toxins Site 5 on voltage-dependent Induce channel-mediated sodium ion influx;
sodium channels depolarizes isolated muscle and nerve cells
Ciguatera toxins: Site 5 on voltage-dependent Opening of sodium channels at resting
Ciguatoxin sodium channels potential and inability of open channels to be
inactivated during subsequent depolarization
Maitotoxin Calcium channels Calcium ion influx, which may lead to cell
death
Table updated from Leftley and Hannah (1998). See also Hampson and Manalo (1998), Burgess and Shaw (2001), van
Egmond et al. (2004), Arias (2006), Bowden (2006) and Llewellyn (2006).
Intraperitoneal and oral doses of OA and DTXs cause marked changes in the small intes-
tine, such as fluid accumulation and distension. Ultrastructural changes include degeneration
of the intestinal absorptive epithelium. Terao et al. (1990a,b, 1993) also observed liver dam-
age in rats and mice given i.p. and oral doses of OA and DTX-1. The effects of purified
OA and DTX-1 on freshly prepared rat hepatocyte cells have been observed using light and
electron microscopy (Aune et al., 1991). OA and DTX-1 produced dose-dependent changes
including blebbing of the cell surface and overall irregular shape.
Severe injuries to the intestinal mucosa of mice were observed within an hour of oral
administration. OA injected into ligated loops of rat intestine produced progressive damage
to the villi within 15 minutes and the degree of damage was dose-dependent. OA and DTX-1
induced liver damage in mice and rats after oral as well as i.p. administration. DTX-1 and
DTX-3 also induced damage to the epithelium in the small intestine after both oral and i.p.
dosing (van Egmond et al., 2004).
A number of in vitro cytotoxicity studies have been carried out with various cell lines.
Among the most significant findings were that protein and DNA synthesis in monkey kidney
cells (Vero line) were both inhibited by OA in a concentration-dependent manner and it was
concluded that the first and main site of action of OA was protein synthesis (van Egmond
et al., 2004). OA administered to human intestinal epithelial cells (T84 line) increased the
paracellular permeability and it was suggested that this might contribute to the diarrhetic
effect of DSP toxins (Tripuraneni et al., 1997).
The main concern about OA and the DTX toxins as regards human health is their role as
potent tumour promoters. An effect of OA and DTX-1 on mouse skin was to induce ornithine
carboxylase, an enzyme associated with various cancers that is known to be involved in
signal transduction pathways involved in cell proliferation. OA has been observed to induce
ornithine decarboxylase in rat stomach and also enhanced neoplastic changes in rat stomach
after it had been pre-treated with a carcinogen (van Egmond et al., 2004).
The possible effects of chronic exposure to these toxins in humans still have to be estab-
lished (Aune and Yndestad, 1993; van Egmond et al., 2004). An epidemiological study was
carried out in France to investigate digestive cancer mortality in coastal regions related to
consumption of seafood contaminated by DSP toxins. A very tenuous link was established
between possible exposure to DSP toxins via seafood and some digestive cancers, mainly in
men (Cordier et al., 2000).
At a biochemical level OA and DTXs are powerful inhibitors of protein phosphatases PP1
and PP2 and 2A, which are important in regulating many important metabolic processes in
eukaryotic cells, including cell proliferation (Table 4.2).
4.6 THE DOMOIC ACID (DA) GROUP (ASP)

Amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) was first recognized in 1987 on Prince Edward Island, on
the east coast of Canada, when a serious incident occurred in which there were four human
fatalities and over 100 cases of acute poisoning following the consumption of blue mussels
(Mytilus edulis). ASP derives its name from the fact that one of the recognized symptoms of
the poisoning is amnesia (Table 4.1). Several of the severely affected cases during the initial
incident still suffered memory loss 5 years later (Todd, 1993). As amnesia is not always
present, the syndrome is also sometimes referred to as domoic acid poisoning (DAP) (van
Egmond et al., 2004). The toxin responsible was identified as DA, a water-soluble, non-
protein amino acid that was found to originate from the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia multiseries
(syn. Pseudo-nitzschia pungens f. multiseries) (Ravn, 1995; Wright, 1995). This was the
first recorded incidence of a diatom species being implicated in shellfish intoxication. Other
diatoms are now known to produce DA and these are listed in Table 4.1.
Another, less serious, outbreak affecting humans occurred near Monterey Bay, California,
in 1991. It was traced to razor clams. Prior to this incident the deaths of cormorants and
pelicans in the area had been shown to be due to the consumption of anchovies that had
accumulated DA after feeding on a bloom of diatoms composed of Pseudo-nitzschia australis
(Wright, 1995). Deaths of sea lions off the Californian coast were similarly linked to a toxic
bloom of this species (Scholin et al., 2000).
Reports of DA in seafood products (predominantly shellfish and crabs) were initially
confined to North America (Alaska, Bay of Fundy, British Columbia, California, Oregon,
Prince Edward Island and Washington) while less significant concentrations were found
in Australia, Europe, Japan and New Zealand (Hallegraeff, 2004). In 1999, a prolonged
shellfishery closure was enforced in UK waters as a result of the presence of significant levels
of DA (Gallacher et al., 2001). High concentrations of DA are now a recurrent problem in
UK and other European countries (van Egmond et al., 2004). Significant amounts of DA have
also been found in the benthic diatom Nitzschia navis-varingica in Korea, the Philippines
and Japan (Kotaki et al., 2000, 2004). The global occurrence of DA in seafood is shown in
Fig. 4.1c.
Following the initial outbreaks in Canada and the US the regulatory authorities in those
countries introduced monitoring and control measures and since then no serious cases of ASP
have been reported. For reviews of DA and DA poisoning see Todd (1993) and van Egmond
et al. (2004).
4.6.1 The toxins causing ASP (DAP): domoic acid and its isomers
Domoic acid (DA) is a water-soluble, acidic, non-protein amino acid. At least 10 isomers of
DA, some of which are shown in Fig. 4.2c (p. 60), have been isolated (Quilliam, 2004b; van
Egmond et al., 2004) but only DA and its 5 -epi-diasteromer are thought to be of toxicological
significance (Hess, 2008).
4.6.2 Toxic effects

The major symptoms of ASP are summarized in Table 4.1. These are gastrointestinal (abdom-
inal cramps and diarrhoea) and neurological (crippling headaches and short-term memory
loss) (Perl et al., 1990).
The pathological effects of DA have been studied in rodents and cynomologous monkeys
(summarized in Jeffery et al., 2004 and van Egmond et al., 2004). Intraperitoneal injection
of mussel extract containing DA in mice produced symptoms such as scratching, tremors
and seizures at both lethal and sublethal doses (Iverson et al., 1989; Grimmelt et al., 1990).
The LD50 of DA was approximately 2.5–3.5 mg kg−1 b.w. Much higher doses of DA (35–
60 mg kg−1 b.w.) were required to produce similar responses when orally administered.
Necrosis of the hippocampal region in rat brain has been observed as well as a number of
physiological effects on neurons (Baden and Trainer, 1993; Jeffery et al., 2004). Similar
neurotoxic responses were observed in monkeys to those seen in rodents and evidence of
neuronal degeneration was also found in structures of the thalamus as well as the hippocampus
(Schmued et al., 1995).
At the biochemical level, DA acts competitively with glutamic acid as a neurotrans-
mitter and has an antagonistic effect at several types of glutamate receptors, specifically
the kainate and alpha-amino-5-methyl-3-hydroxyisoxazolone-4-propionate (AMPA) recep-
tors where high specific affinity for DA relative to glutamate was recorded (Hampson and
Manalo, 1998). For detailed reviews see Jeffery et al. (2004) and van Egmond et al. (2004).
4.7 THE AZASPIRACID (AZA) GROUP (AZP)

The family of toxins causing azaspiracid shellfish poisoning (AZP) are the most recently
discovered of the marine phycotoxins in shellfish that pose a potentially serious hazard to
human health. The toxins were isolated and characterized following a number of poisonings of
humans in the Netherlands in 1995 due to consumption of mussels (Mytilus edulis) imported
from the west coast of Ireland. Symptoms of diarrhoea and vomiting were similar in many
respects to DSP but analysis of the shellfish tissue revealed insignificant amounts of DSP
toxins (Furey et al., 2003). The behaviour of mice used in the bioassay of the contaminated
shellfish was different from that normally observed for DSP (van Egmond et al., 2004).
Subsequently, a new family of toxins, the azspiracids (AZAs), was isolated from Irish
mussels. Studies on natural phytoplankton gathered from the areas where contaminated mus-
sels originated indicated that the source of the AZA is almost certainly the dinoflagellate
Protoperidinium crassipes, previously thought to be inocuous. Phytoplankton from affected
areas were collected and individual cells of various genera picked out and pooled for analysis.
Dinophysis spp. contained the expected DSP toxins but AZAs were not detected (James et al.,
2003). Twiner et al. (2005) caution that laboratory culture studies are still needed to confirm
this. The dinoflagellate is phagotrophic and the AZAs could originate from prey organisms.
Other Protoperidinium spp. may prove to contain the toxins.
Following the incident in the Netherlands, poisonings occurred in Ireland in 1997, Italy
and France in 1998 and in the UK in 2000 (James et al., 2004; Anon., 2006b). In each case
the cause was consumption of shellfish originating from the west coast of Ireland. Since then
development of improved analytical techniques and rigorous monitoring for AZAs by the
Irish authorities has ensured that there have been no further poisonings.
AZAs have so far been found in shellfish in NW Europe and sites on the Atlantic seaboard
of France, Spain and most recently of Morocco (Taleb et al., 2006) (Fig. 4.1d, p. 61).
In Ireland, the toxins have been detected in a range of shellfish: mussels (Mytilus edulis),
oysters (Crassostrea gigas), scallops (Pecten maximus), cockles (Cardium edule), Manila
clams (Ruditapes phillipinarum) (Furey et al., 2003) and small amounts in razor fish (Ensis
siliqua) (Hess et al., 2001). The toxins have also been detected in mussels from SW Norway,
Eastern England, Galicia in Spain and Morocco, and in scallops from Brittany (James et al.,
2004). AZAs were also identified in Norwegian Brown crabs (Cancer pagurus) in 2005
(Anon., 2006b). The AZAs may prove to be more widespread as they become included in
national monitoring programmes.
4.7.1 The toxins causing AZP: the azaspiracids

In common with other lipophilic phycotoxins, the AZAs have an elongated fused polyether
ring backbone. They also contain a nitrogen atom but differ from other nitrogenous phy-
cotoxins such as gymnodimine and prorocentrolide (see Section 4.10.3) in having a cyclic
amine instead of a cyclic imine group (Fig. 4.2d). Among other unique features the AZAs
have several separate spirocyclic linkages (fusion of aliphatic rings where fusion occurs at
a single atom) and a terminal carboxyl group (James et al., 2004; van Egmond et al., 2004;
Nicolaou et al., 2006). The unique structural characteristics of the AZAs are discussed in
detail by James et al. (2004) who point out that, as a consequence of the carboxyl and amino
terminal groupings in AZA-1, the molecule can exist as a zwitterion at physiological pH and
this may facilitate its absorption and uptake.
The principal AZAs present in contaminated shellfish in Europe are the parent compound
AZA-1 and its 8-methyl (AZA-2) and 22-desmethyl (AZA-3) analogues (Fig. 4.2d). AZA-1
is usually predominant with lesser amounts of AZA-2 and AZA-3 (James et al., 2004) but the
latter two are reported to be more toxic to mice than AZA-1, the lethal dose (i.p.) of AZA-1
being 200 μg kg−1 b.w. whilst that for AZA-2 and -3 being 110 and 140 μg kg−1 b.w. (Ofuji
et al., 1999) respectively. These three compounds are regarded as being a potential danger to
human health.
Table 4.3 Effects of azaspiracids observed in vivo.
Study Observed effects Reference
Oral administration of purified Multiple organ damage: necrosis in the Ito et al. (2000)
AZA-1 in mice. Progressive lamina propria of the small intestine
changes observed over 24 h and in lymphoid tissues such as thymus,
at doses of 500, 600 and spleen and Peyer’s patches, T and B
700 μg kg−1 body weight (b.w.) lymphocytes damaged, fatty changes
observed in the liver
Oral administration of purified Slow recoveries from injuries: erosion Ito et al. (2002)
AZA-1 in mice and chronic effects and shortened villi persisted in the
observed; 25 mice were stomach and small intestine for >3
administered AZA-1 twice at doses months: oedema, bleeding, and
300–450 μg kg−1 b.w. and infiltration of cells in the alveolar wall of
recovery processes from severe the lung for 56 days; fatty changes in
injuries observed the liver for 20 days; necrosis of
lymphocytes in the thymus and spleen
for 10 days
Oral administration of purified Nine out of 10 mice at 50 μg kg−1 and Ito et al. (2002)
AZA-1 in mice and chronic effects 3 out of 10 at 20 μg kg−1 became so
observed: low doses of AZA weak that they were sacrificed before
equivalent to 50, 20, 5 and completion of 40 injections. All these
1 μg kg−1 b.w. were administered mice showed interstitial pneumonia and
twice a week up to 40 times to shortened small intestinal villi. Lung
four groups of mice tumours were observed in 4 mice: 1 out
of 10 at 50 μg kg−1 and 3 out of 10 at
doses of 20 μg kg−1 . Tumours were not
observed in 11 mice treated at lower
doses and in 19 control mice.
Hyperplasia of epithelial cells was
observed in the stomach of 6 mice out
of 10 at doses of 20 μg kg−1
Microinjection of AZA-1 into Dose-dependent effect of purified Colman et al. (2005)
Oryzias latipes (Japanese medaka AZA-1 observed. Doses of >40 pg
fish) embryos AZA-1 per egg caused within 4 days
reduced somatic growth and yolk
absorption with delayed onset of
pigmentation and blood circulation;
heart rate lower in ovo and success of
hatching decreased
Eight other hydroxy analogues, which are thought to arise from metabolism in shellfish of
the parent compounds, have been characterized (Fig. 4.2d). Two of these hydroxy analogues,
AZA-4 and -5, were reported by Ofuji et al. (2001) to be less toxic than AZA-1 by a factor of
2–5 as estimated by the mouse bioassay (i.p.). Other AZA congeners have been discovered
and are under investigation (Hess, 2008).
4.7.2 Toxic effects

Studies on mice have shown pathological changes to various organs that differ from those
known to be caused by DSP toxins and also prolonged exposure of mice to the toxins caused
widespread organ damage. Teratogenic effects in fish embryos have also been observed
(Table 4.3).
72
BLUK145-Gilbert
Table 4.4 Effects of azaspiracids observed in vitro.
AZA congener Cell type Positive effects Reference
AZA-1 Neuroblastoma cells Decrease in F-actin concentration Román et al. (2002)

AZA-1 Human lymphocytes Increase in Ca2+ concentration and cAMP Román et al. (2002)
AZA-1 Seven mammalian cell lines Cytotoxicity (measured by cell viability) effects on all cells, which was both Twiner et al. (2005)
February 28, 2008
concentration and time dependent. Human T lymphocytes and rat epithelial

pituitary cells particularly sensitive. In T lymphocytes arrangement of F-actin
fibrils affected along with loss of pseudopodia
4:34
AZA-1 Murine spinal cord and frontal Inhibition of bioelectrical activity Kulagina et al. (2006)
cortex neuronal networks
AZA-1 Two human epithelial cell lines: Nanomolar concentrations reduced MCF-7 cell division and impaired cell-cell Ronzitti et al. (2007)
MCF-7 and CACO-2 adhesion; affected the intracellular pool of the adhesion molecule E-cadherin
causing accumulation of E-cahedrin fragments (EC50 0.47 nM) – these effects
found to be indistinguishable from those of yessotoxin in the same
experimental system. Comparison of effects of AZA-1 in MCF-7 and Caco-2
cells found to be identical to those caused by YTX in same system
AZA-1 Primary murine neuronal cultures AZA-1 increased cytosolic Ca2+ concentration and decreased cell viability. Vale et al. (2007)
Effects of various ring fragments of AZA-1 were examined. The effect of AZA on
cytosolic Ca2+ was found to depend on the presence of the ABCD or ABCDE
ring domains but only the complete molecule induced neurotoxic effects
AZA-1 Three human cell lines: colon AZA-1 induced rearrangement of stress fibres (actin filament bundles) and the Vilariño et al. (2006)
carcinoma (CACO-2), lung loss of focal adhesion points in neuroblastoma and CACO-2 cells. The
carcinoma (NCI-H460) and microtubule cytoskeleton was unaltered by AZA-1, but cell shape and internal
neuroblastoma (BE(2)-M17) morphology were affected. The toxin inhibited growth of lung carcinoma and
neuroblastoma cells. Fifteen different fragments and/or stereomers of AZA-1
were tested for cytoskeletal rearrangement and cell growth inhibition. None
had any activity, except for ABCD-epi-AZA-1, which was toxic
BLUK145-Gilbert
AZA-1 Human neuroblastoma Morphological and cytoskeletal changes were observed 24 h after addition of Vilariño et al. (2007)
(BE(2)-M17) toxin, with no recovery after its removal. Two fragments and a stereomer of
AZA-1 were used to analyse the structure–activity relationship. Only
ABCD-epi-AZA-1 had a similar effect to AZA-1. AZA-1 appeared to bind
irreversibly to its cellular target, needing moieties located in the ABCDE and
FGHI rings of the molecule. AZA-1 induced activation of caspases (an early
February 28, 2008
indicator of apoptosis), but these proteases were not the cause of cyto-skeleton
disarrangement induced by AZA-1
4:34
AZA-2 and AZA-3 Human lymphocytes Effect on cytosolic Ca2+ concentration and increase in concentration of cAMP Román et al. (2004)
AZA-4 Human T lymphocytes Apparent inhibition of plasma membrane Ca2+ store-operated channels, an Alfonso et al. (2005)
effect distinct from that of other AZA congeners previously observed
AZA-1 to -5 and Human lymphocytes Modulation of cytosolic Ca2+ concentrations; effect on cytosolic pH by some Alfonso et al. (2006)
open ring congeners; synthetic analogues had little significant effect
synthetic
analogues
73
A paper by the Food Standards Agency of Ireland (Anon., 2001) points out shortcomings
in some of the studies on mice: the numbers studied were small and a ‘no observable effect
limit’ was not determined. Also, the doses used were high, equivalent to a human eating
several kg of highly toxic shellfish at one sitting. The maximum permissible concentration
of AZAs in shellfish tissue has been set by the European Commission at 160 μg kg−1 (see
Table 4.7).
Comparatively little is known about the action of AZAs at the cellular and biochemical
level. A number of in vitro studies have been carried out and are summarized in Table 4.4.
Several of these studies have demonstrated an effect on F-actin, an important component of
the cytoskeleton, and on intracellular calcium concentrations and on Ca2+ channels. However,
work by Ronzitti et al. (2007) on the effect of AZA-1, OA and YTX (see Section 4.10.2)
on F-actin and E-cadherin in two human epithelial cell lines, MCF-7 (breast cancer) and
CACO-2 (colon cancer), showed that AZA-1 had little effect on F-actin. E-cadherin plays
a role in cell–cell adhesion and abnormal regulation and functionality of the protein has
been observed in human cancers. AZA-1 caused accumulation of E-cadherin fragments
(the molecule lacking the intracellular domain, i.e. the part that interacts with the interior
of the cell). The accumulation was time- and dose-dependent (EC50 of 0.47 nM) and was
not due to depolymerization of F-actin. The effects of AZA-1 and YTX on the two cell
lines in this experimental system were identical, and apparently also in other in vitro systems
reported in the literature, prompting the suggestion that AZA-1 and YTX may share molecular
mechanisms in defined conditions.
James et al. (2004) have pointed out that AZAs may co-occur with DSP toxins and, since
the latter are tumour promoters whilst AZAs appear to initiate tumours (Ito et al., 2002), this
has implications for human health and warrants further study.
4.8 THE BREVETOXIN (BTX) GROUP (NSP)

Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), sometimes also referred to as neurological shellfish
poisoning (Cembella et al., 2004), is caused by ingestion of a group of lipophilic polyether
toxins, the brevetoxins (PbTXs – originally so abbreviated because of their origin in the
alga Ptychodiscus brevis), produced by the naked dinoflagellate Karenia brevis (synonyms
Gymnodinium breve and Ptychodiscus brevis). As well as being present in shellfish, the
brevetoxins may also affect humans directly through contact with these algae causing asthma-
like symptoms when inhaled as an aerosol from sea spray (Table 4.1). Dense blooms of this
alga have caused large-scale fish kills as well as mortalities in birds, marine mammal and
other marine species (Tester et al., 2000; Lansberg, 2002).
Prior to 1993, the incidence of NSP was restricted to the Gulf of Mexico, the east coast of
Florida, and occasionally the coast of North Carolina (van Egmond et al., 2004). An outbreak
of NSP occurred in New Zealand in 1993 and affected 180 people. The causative organism
was similar but not identical to K. brevis (Jasperse, 1993; Hallegraeff, 2004) and several
Karenia species have been implicated here (Haywood et al., 2004). The global distribution
of NSP toxins is shown in Fig. 4.1d.
4.8.1 The toxins causing NSP: the brevetoxins

The brevetoxins (BTXs) comprise a group of lipophilic polyethers that are similar in some
ways to ciguatoxins (see Figs. 4.2e, 4.2f and 4.2h, pp. 62–64). The BTXs are grouped as
type A or B, based on the backbone structures of BTX-1 and BTX-2 respectively (Fig. 4.2e).
Three Type-A BTXs and six Type-B have so far described (Baden et al., 2005). In addition,
BTX analogues have been isolated from contaminated shellfish during a NSP incident in New
Zealand (details in van Egmond et al., 2004) and the chemical structures of these, BTX-B1,
-B2, -B3 and -B4, are shown in Figs. 4.2f and 4.2g. Various shellfish appear to exhibit different
metabolism of the BTXs, with BTX-B1 only present in cockles (Austrovenus stutchburyi)
while -B2, -B3 and -B4 have been found in green shell mussels (Perna canaliculus) and a
study of Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) from the Gulf of Mexico revealed further
BTX analogues (Wang et al., 2004).
BTXs are also found in four species of algae other than dinoflagellates: Chattonella
antiqua, C. marina, Fibrocapsa japonica and Hetrosigma akashiwo, all of which belong to
the class Raphidophyceae. Although these algae have caused fish deaths they have not yet
been implicated in human poisonings (van Egmond et al., 2004).
4.8.2 Toxic effects

Some of the symptoms of NSP are similar to those seen in mild cases of PSP and usually
resolve within a few days (Table 4.1). The symptoms include nausea, cramps, paraesthesias
of lips, face and extremities, weakness and difficulty in movement, paralysis, seizures and
coma.
The physiological action of the brevetoxins is well understood and is similar to that
of the ciguatoxins. They act specifically on site-5 voltage-dependent sodium channels and
induce influx of sodium ions into affected cells (Table 4.2). For example, PbTx-3 inhibits the
inactivation of Na+ channels and prolongs the mean open time of these channels (Jeglitsch
et al., 1998). Detailed descriptions of the pharmacological action of the BTXs can be found
in Baden and Trainer (1993), Premazzi and Volterra (1993) and van Egmond et al. (2004).
Brevenal, a fused-ring polyether aldehyde, and its dimethyl acetate derivative have been
isolated from Karenia spp. cells. These compounds appear to act in an antagonistic way to
BTXs, possibly moderating their effect (Bourdelais et al., 2004, 2005).
4.9 THE CIGUATERA TOXIN (CTX) GROUP (CFP)

Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) in humans is caused by ingestion of a complex group of
polyether toxins, the ciguatera toxins (CTXs), which accumulate in the flesh of fish, living
on and around tropical coral reefs. The name ciguatera is derived from the Spanish word
cigua, the common name given to small marine snails reputed to cause indigestion and the
name became transposed to the intoxication arising from eating reef fish (van Egmond et al.,
2004; Yasumoto, 2005). The occurrence of CFP toxins in fish in a specific area is often
sporadic; a given species of fish caught in one area may have a high level of toxicity but the
same species nearby may be relatively free of toxin (Lehane and Lewis, 2000). A list of fish
species associated with ciguatera is given in van Egmond et al. (2004).
CFP is concentrated mainly in tropical and subtropical areas, especially islands, in a band
between latitudes 35◦ N and 35◦ S (see Fig. 4.1f), and is a serious public health problem in
those countries, where fish constitute the main source of dietary protein. With the advent
of rapid air transport, CFP may now occur in countries outside those latitudes to which
contaminated fish are exported, or symptoms may develop in tourists after they have returned
home. Often misdiagnosed and under-reported, over 25,000 people are affected by CFP
each year but it is rarely fatal. For detailed accounts of CFP, see Yasumoto and Satake
(1996), Yasumoto (1998), Lewis (2001), Lehane and Lewis (2000) and Nicholson and Lewis
(2006).
4.9.1 The toxins causing CFP

4.9.1.1 The ciguatoxins
These are lipid-soluble polyether compounds consisting of 13–14 rings fused by ether link-
ages into a rigid, ladder-like structure. The origin of the toxins is the dinoflagellate Gam-
bierdiscus toxicus (Lewis and Holmes, 1993). These dinoflagellates produce less polar and
less potent CTXs such as P-CTX-4B (formerly known as gambiertoxins or GT-4B) that
are transformed into more polar CTXs in the liver of fish by oxidative metabolism and
spiroisomerization (Nicholson and Lewis, 2006). Recently, other Gambierdiscus spp. have
been proposed as causative agents of ciguatera but their toxicity remains to be investigated
(Nicholson and Lewis, 2006). CTXs undergo various biotransformations (mainly oxidation)
as they pass up the food chain through various fish. This results in numerous CTX congeners,
up to 23 in the Pacific region (Yasumoto, 2005) and the polar (more oxidized) forms have
been found to be the more toxic of these (Lehane and Lewis, 2000).
Three structurally distinct CTX families occur in the Pacific Ocean, the Caribbean region
and in the Indian Ocean (Hamilton et al., 2002) and the letters P-, C- and I- are used as a
prefix to indicate the origin of the CTX homologue. The structures of several Pacific and
Caribbean CTXs are shown in Fig. 4.2h.
The main Pacific CTXs, P-CTX-1, P-CTX-2 and P-CTX-3, are present in fish in variable
amounts (Lehane and Lewis, 2000). Variation in toxin structure is seen mainly at both ends of
the toxin molecules and occurs as a result of oxidation (Naoki et al., 2001; Yasumoto et al.,
2001). C-CTX-1 is less polar than the equivalent P-CTX-1. The latter is the major toxin in
carnivorous fish and if found in quantities >0.1μg kg−1 fish it is considered to pose a health
risk (de Fouw et al., 2001).
The regional differences, together with the transformations taking place within the food
chain, may help to explain the wide range of clinical symptoms that has been observed with
this intoxication (see Bagnis, 1993 and also Lehane and Lewis, 2000).
Detailed information on the isolation and structure of CTXs can be found in Legrand et al.
(1992), Lewis et al. (1991, 1994), Yasumoto and Satake (1996) and Yasumoto (2005).
4.9.1.2 The maitotoxins

Maitotoxin (MTX) is a water-soluble compound that is often associated with CTXs in the
viscera of herbivorous fish. It is one of the most potent marine toxins known, with an LD50
in mice of 0.17 μg kg−1 b.w. when administered i.p. (Baden and Trainer, 1993). Murata
et al. (1994) isolated MTX from cultures of the dinoflagellate G. toxicus and determined
its structure and partial stereochemistry. It is a large and complex bisulfated molecule (MW
3422 Da) containing 32 ether rings, not all of which are contiguous. The complete structure
and stereochemistry of MTX have been determined by Nonomura et al. (1996) and Zheng
et al. (1996). Relatives of MTX, MTX-2 and -3, have been identified by mass spectrometry
(Lewis et al., 1994). MTXs are thought to play only a minor role in ciguatera poisoning
because of the low concentrations found in herbivorous fish and their low oral potency (Lewis,
2001).
4.9.2 Toxic effects of CTXs

The symptoms produced by CFP toxins are complex and the effects may be long lasting (Table
4.1). They fall into the main categories of gastrointestinal, neurological, cardiovascular and
diffuse pain. At the ultrastructural level, CTXs cause microscopic oedema of neural tissue
(Bagnis, 1993) and CTX-1B causes nodal swelling in frog myelinated nerve fibres (Benoit
et al., 1996). Light and electron microscopy showed that i.p. or oral administration of P-CTX-
1 or P-CTX-4C to male mice also causes swelling and focal necrosis on cardiac myocytes,
the adrenal medulla and autonomic nerves (Terao et al., 1991).
CTXs act by binding to, and causing persistent activation of, the voltage-gated sodium
channels (Arias, 2006). This results in an influx of sodium ions, cell depolarization and the
appearance of spontaneous action potentials in excitable cells. As a consequence of increased
sodium permeability, the plasma membrane is unable to maintain the internal environment
and volume control of the cell. This results in alteration of bioenergetic mechanisms, cell and
mitochondrial swelling and bleb formation on cell surfaces (van Egmond et al., 2004).
The high toxicity of MTX is explained by the fact that it activates both voltage-sensitive
and receptor-operated calcium channels in the plasma membrane of cells, resulting in calcium
influx and ultimately cell death due to calcium overload. The biochemical and physiological
effects of CTXs are summarized in Table 4.2. Detailed reviews can be found in Baden and
Trainer (1993), Yasumoto and Satake (1996), van Egmond et al. (2004) and Nicholson and
Lewis (2006).
4.10 OTHER PHYCOTOXINS

All the toxins described so far are those that are of major concern to the regulatory authorities
and the pectenotoxins and yessotoxins, described below, are also currently included with
these. In addition, there are also a number of other phycotoxins that are found in seafood that
are not presently subject to regulation, although some are under review.
4.10.1 The pectenotoxin group

The pectenotoxins are a group of neutral macrolide polyether lactones so named because they
were first isolated from the Japanese scallop Patinopecten yessoensis. Halim and Brimble
(2006) have reviewed the chemistry of the molecules. There are at least 14 members of the
PTX family presently known, two of which, PTX-5 and -10, remain to be fully characterized.
PTX-4 and PTX-7 are stereomers of PTX-1 and -6 respectively. PTX-8 and -9 appear to be
chemical artefacts, not having been identified in any natural products.
PTX-2 appears to be the parent compound as it has only been found around the world
in various species of the dinoflagellate genus Dinophysis: D. acuta (New Zealand, Norway,
Spain and Ireland), D. acuminata (Norway and New Zealand), D. caudata (Spain), D. fortii
(Japan and Italy), and D. rotundata (Norway) and never in shellfish (Wilkins et al., 2006).
PTX-12, which occurs as two diasteromers, has been isolated from Dinophysis spp., mussels
(Mytilus edulis) and cockles (Cerastoderma edule) in Norway (Miles et al., 2004b). PTX-11
(34S hydroxypectenotoxin-2), PTX-13 and -14 have all been isolated from Dinophysis acuta
in New Zealand (Miles at al., 2006; Suzuki et al., 2006).
It is thought that PTX-1, -3 and -6 are derived from PTX-2 by oxidative enzymatic reactions
in the hepatopancreas of shellfish. Shellfish also hydrolyse PTX-2 to the less toxic open-ring
compound PTX-2 seco acid, which epimerizes non-enzymatically to 7-epi-PTX-2 seco acid.
The seco acids of PTX-12 have been detected in Norwegian shellfish (Miles et al., 2004b).
Three series of fatty acid esters of PTX-2 seco acid and 7-epi-PTX-2 seco acid have also
been detected in Irish blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) (Wilkins et al., 2006). The structures of
some of the PTX family, including the PTX-2 seco acids are shown in Fig. 4.2i (p. 65); see
also Halim and Brimble (2006).
4.10.1.1 Toxic effects

Pectenotoxins have not been unequivocally associated with human intoxication. In two inci-
dents in Australia PTX-2 seco acid and 7-epi-PTX-2 seco acid were detected in shellfish that
caused poisonings with symptoms similar to those of DSP (Table 4.1) (Burgess and Shaw,
2001) but the cause was subsequently shown to be due to OA esters also present (Anon.,
2004).
In mice the lethal dose (μg kg−1 b.w.) by i.p. injection of various PTXs is reported to be:
PTX-1 250, PTX-2 230–260, PTX-3 350, PTX-4 770 and PTX-6 500 (van Egmond et al.,
2004). In contrast, mice given oral doses of PTX-2 and PTX-2 seco acid up to 5000 μg kg−1
b.w. showed no signs of toxicity although by the i.p. route the LD50 for PTX-2 was
219 μg kg−1 (Miles et al., 2004a).
Zhou et al. (1994) studied the effect of PTX-1 on chick embryo liver cells and found that
it caused actin accumulation at the cell peripheries and cytoplasm, due to disruption of actin
microfilaments within myofibrils, and microtubules were reduced in number and lost their
radial arrangement. The damage was reversible if the cells were exposed to a concentration
<0.5 μg mL−1 PTX-1 for less than 4 hours. Salmon and rat hepatocytes exposed to 2 μM
PTX-1 underwent apoptosis, with changes (chromatin hypercondensation and cell shrinkage)
observed within an hour. The salmon cells were more sensitive (Fladmark et al., 1998).
PTX-2 was found to have significant cytotoxic effects on a number of human cancer cell
lines the most marked effect being on lung (A-549), colon (HT-29) and breast (MCF-7).
A number of other lines (breast, melanoma, CNS, colon, lung, renal and ovarian) showed
variable sensitivity with a 100-fold range in LC50 (Jung et al., 1995).
PTX-6 caused depolymerization of F-actin in neuroblastoma cells, which was time- and
dose-dependent, with a half-maximal effect at ca. 700 nM at 24 hours (Leira et al., 2002).
Other cytotoxic effects have been discussed in Burgess and Shaw (2001) and van Egmond
et al. (2004).
4.10.2 The yessotoxin group

Yessotoxin, so called because it was originally isolated from Patinopecten yessoensis, re-
sembles the BTXs and CTXs in that it has contiguously fused ether rings (Fig. 4.2j, p. 66)
but differs in that it has a longer backbone of 47 carbon atoms, a terminal side chain of
nine carbons, two sulfate esters and lacks carbonyl groups (Murata et al., 1987; Takahashi
et al., 1996). Twenty-two structural analogues have so far been isolated variously from the
dinoflagellates Protoceratium reticulatum and Lingulodinium polyedrum and from shellfish,
including the congener adriatoxin, which is thought to be a shellfish metabolite (Bowden,
2006). A glycoyessotoxin that contains a β-arabinofuranose moiety has been isolated from
P. reticulatum (Paz et al., 2006). Some of the YTX family are shown in Fig. 4.2j; see also
Bowden (2006) and Hess and Aasen (2007).
YTXs have been found in shellfish in Japan (Murata et al., 1987; Satake et al., 1996), the
Adriatic (Ciminiello et al., 1997) and also in Norway (Aasen et al., 2005b) where YTX has
also been found to occur simultaneously in mussels with DTX-1 (Lee et al., 1988) and with
OA esters (Torgersen et al., 2005).

Terao et al. (1990a,b) studied the effect of intraperitoneal injection of YTX and desulfated
YTX (dsYTX) on mice. YTX was found to affect the heart whereas the dsYTX targeted
the liver and pancreas. At a dose of >300 μg kg−1 b.w. YTX affected the heart muscle
cells within 3 hours of administration. After 24 hours dsYTX had not affected the heart but
caused marked fatty degeneration and intracellular necrosis in the liver and pancreas. Also,
the concentration in the liver of triglycerides was 60-fold and phospholipids double those
of mice treated with YTX. At this dose level mice died after 3 hours with YTX and after
24 hours with dsYTX. Oral administration of 500 μg kg−1 b.w. of YTX had no discernible
effect whereas mice given dsYTX showed fatty degeneration of the liver (van Egmond et al.,
2004).
Aune et al. (2002) compared intraperitoneal and oral toxicity of YTX to mice. By in-
traperitoneal injection YTX was highly toxic (lethal dose in the range 100–214 μg kg−1 b.w.)
whereas oral doses equivalent to 10 mg kg−1 b.w. were not lethal. At that dose swelling of
heart muscle cells was observed and the minimum oral dose of YTX producing observable
effects was 2.5 mg kg−1 b.w.
In human lymphocytes, YTX was observed to produce a calcium influx through certain
channels sensitive to specific inhibitors and this Ca2+ entry was not affected by OA. YTX
also produced an inhibition of capacitative Ca2+ entry produced by emptying of internal
calcium stores. The inhibitory effect of YTX was dependent on the time of its addition. It
was suggested that YTX may interact with calcium channels in a way similar to BTXs and
MTX (de la Rosa et al., 2001).
YTX has a powerful neurotoxic effect on cultured rat cerebellar neurons. The concentration
of YTX that produced a 50% decrease in neuronal survival at 48 hours was ca. 20 nM (Pérez-
Gómez et al., 2006). Other toxicological studies have been reviewed by van Egmond et al.
(2004) and Bowden (2006).
4.10.2.2 Diarrhetic effects of pectenotoxins and yessotoxins

The PTXs and YTxs were originally included with the OA group of toxins because they
are often found associated with them and thought to cause DSP. However, the evidence
that PTXs have a diarrhetic effect is contradictory. In bioassays carried out with purified
PTX-2 or PTX-2 SA neither was overtly toxic to mice by the oral route at doses up to
5000 μg kg−1 b.w. and no diarrhoea was seen to be caused by either compound (Miles et al.,
2004a). Similarly, no signs of toxicity were recorded in mice following an oral dose of purified
PTX-11 equivalent to 5000 μg kg−1 b.w. No diarrhoea was observed in animals administered
with PTX-11 either orally or by i.p. injection (Suzuki et al., 2006).
Contrary evidence has been presented by Ito (2006) who observed the diarrhetic effects
of OA and PTX-2 delivered orally in mice and rats. In mice, both toxins at sublethal doses
produced tissue damage in the small intestine after 60 minutes, characterized by oedema with
OA and vacuolation of epithelial cells with PTX-2. Maximum fluid accumulation occurred
after 90 minutes, after which there was rapid recovery. The minimum adverse effect doses
were estimated to be 75 μg kg−1 b.w. for OA and 400 μg kg−1 b.w. for PTX-2. When
administered singly, OA at 50 μg kg−1 b.w. and PTX2 at 300 μg kg−1 b.w. did not result
in fluid accumulation but when co-administered they appeared to have a synergistic effect.
Rats showed a greater tolerance to the toxins. Both OA and PTX-2 diluted in saline caused
intestinal fluid accumulation at 400 μg kg−1 b.w. and above. The minimum effective dose
for OA was lowered to 200 μg kg−1 when triolein oil was used as carrier and that for PTX-2
lowered to 300 μg kg−1 b.w. when 2% lecithin-water was the carrier.
YTXs have not been shown to be diarrhetic. When YTX was given orally by gavage to
four-day old suckling mice at doses of 0.1, 0.2 and 0.4 μg per mouse as a 1% suspension
in Tween R
60 solution, no intestinal fluid accumulation was observed after 4 hours. When
equivalent doses of OA or DTX-1 were given they all produced fluid accumulation (Ogino
et al., 1997). Aune et al. (2002) did not observe diarrhoea in mice given YTX both i.p. and
orally, even at an oral dose of 10 mg kg−1 b.w. See also van Egmond et al. (2004) and Bowden
(2006).
Another significant difference between the DSP toxins and PTXs and YTXs is their
effect on protein phosphatases. Luu et al. (1993) found PTX-1 and PTX-6 to be inactive
against protein phosphatases PP1 and PP2A and YTX does not inhibit PP2A (Bowden,
2006), whereas the DSP toxins are potent inhibitors of protein phosphatases.
The occurrence of PTXs and YTXs in shellfish is still subject to regulation within the
European Union (EU) (see Table 4.7) and in other countries, but there are moves to deregulate
these toxins as discussed in Section 4.13.
4.10.3 The cyclic imine group

4.10.3.1 The spirolides
These toxins were first detected and identified in shellfish in Canada in 1995 after mouse
bioassays indicated the presence of possibly unknown toxins. These proved to be a novel
group of macrocyclic imines with a spiro-linked tricyclic ether ring system and an unusual
seven-membered spiro-linked cyclic iminium moiety and were named spirolides (SPXs) (Hu
et al., 1995a, 1996a, 2001). The structures of some of the group are shown in Quilliam
(2004a). Spirolides A to D are bioactive whereas E and F, which have open cyclic imine rings
and are found only in shellfish, are not (Fernández et al., 2004a).
The source of the SPXs was identified as the dinoflagellate Alexandrium ostenfeldii
(Cembella et al., 2000). Studies on the biosynthesis of 13-desmethyl spirolide C in this
dinoflagellate using stable isotope labelled precursors have shown that most of the C atoms
in this congener are derived from polyketides and that glycine is incorporated intact into the
cyclic imine moiety (MacKinnon et al., 2006a).
SPXs have been found to be widespread in W European waters. In Norway, they have been
detected in natural phytoplankton dominated by A. ostenfeldii and also in mussels (Aasen
et al., 2005a). The main spirolide was shown to be 20-methyl spirolide G. Subsequently, a
complex mixture of fatty acid esters of 20-methyl spirolide G were detected in Norwegian
mussels (Aasen et al., 2006). These esters are the products of toxin metabolism by the shellfish
in the same way that they produce fatty acid acyl esters of DSP toxins. Cultures of two clonal
isolates of A. ostenfeldii from Danish waters were found to contain 13-desmethyl spirolide
C and two new SPXs, 13,19-didesmethylspirolide C and spirolide G. The latter was the first
spirolide to be isolated that contained a 5:6:6-trispiroketal ring system and it may prove to
have different toxicological properties compared to other SPXs (MacKinnon et al., 2006b).
Small amounts of 13-desmethyl spirolide C were detected in mussels and other shellfish in
NW Spain (González et al., 2006). In Italy, 13-desmethyl spirolide C has been identified in a
cultured isolate of A. ostenfeldii from the N Adriatic (Ciminiello et al., 2006) and in France,
spirolide C was detected in shellfish from the Atlantic coast of S Brittany (Amzil et al., cited
in Hess, 2008).

Pathological studies of some SPXs on rats and mice following i.p. injection have been under-
taken involving histological examination of the internal organs and brain and some biomarkers
for neural injury visualized by immuno-histochemistry and transcriptional analysis. The ef-
fect of the toxins appeared to be species-specific and confined to the brain. In mice the brain
stem and hippocampus appeared to be major targets for the toxins but not in rats. Transcrip-
tional analysis in rat brain showed major changes in biomarkers for neuronal injury, including
those related to converting stimuli into intracellular changes in neurons, whereas there were
no similar changes in mice (Gill et al., 2003).
Studies with mice using a mixture of SPXs of predominantly 13-desmethyl spirolide C
showed the lethal dose given i.p. to be 40 μg kg−1 b.w. and the lethal oral dose to be about
25 times greater (Fernández et al., 2004a). These compounds have not been implicated in
any human intoxication (Fernández et al., 2004a) and there is currently no regulatory limit
for cyclic imines in shellfish for human consumption but the situation is under review (Hess,
2008).
4.10.3.3 The gymnodimines

Gymnodimine was first isolated from oysters in New Zealand and the dinoflagellate Gymno-
dinium sp. (Seki et al., 1995, 1996; Mackenzie et al., 1996). The molecule is composed of
a 16-membered carbocyclic ring, a butenolide ring and a cyclic imine. B and C analogues
have been isolated (for structures see Quilliam, 2004a). Although gymnodimine was at one
time subject to regulation in New Zealand (Fernández et al., 2004a), it has now been dereg-
ulated (Hess, 2008). The LD50 of gymnodimine for mice is reported to be 96 μg kg−1 b.w.
(i.p.) and by oral administration 755 μg kg−1 b.w. Mice showed no signs of toxicity when it
was administered in food that provided a dose equivalent to ca. 7.5 mg kg−1 b.w. (Munday
et al., 2004). Consequently, gymnodimine is not now considered a hazard to human health
(Munday et al., 2004), rather it is considered to be an interference in the mouse bioassay for
other lipophilic toxins (Hess, 2008).
4.10.3.4 The prorocentrolides

The toxic macrocycle lactone, prorocentrolide (PC), was isolated from the benthic dinoflag-
ellate Prorocentrum lima (Torigoe et al., 1988) where it co-occurs with OA and DTX-1. The
molecule includes a C27 macrolide and a hexahydroisoquinoline in its unique structure. PC
was found to be lethal to mice at a dose (i.p.) of 400 μg kg−1 b.w. A sulfated analogue of
PC, prorocentrolide-B, was isolated from a tropical strain of Prorocentrum maculosum (Hu
et al., 1996b). It killed mice by i.p. injection but the critical amount was not reported. Below
the critical dose the mice recovered completely.
Spiro-prorocentrimine (SPC), has been isolated from an isolate of Prorocentrum sp.,
strain PM08, from Taiwan. It is a spiro-linked cyclic imine with an ortho, para-disubstituted
3’-cyclohexene in addition to its macrolide skeleton (Lu et al., 2001). Mouse toxicity as-
says of SPC indicated an LD99 (i.p.) of 2.5 mg kg−1 b.w. These workers also isolated the
PC analogues, 4-hydroxyprorocentrolide and 14-O-acetyl-4-hydroxyprorocentrolide from a
Taiwanese strain of P lima, PL01.
None of the prorocentrolides has yet been implicated in human intoxication.
4.10.3.5 The pinnatoxins

The pinnatoxins consist of a 20-membered ring with 5,6-bicyclo, 6,7-azaspiro and 6,5,6-
triketal moieties in their structure and four congeners, A, B, C and D have been described
(Uemura et al., 1995; Chou et al., 1996; Kuramoto et al., 2004; Quilliam, 2004a). The
toxins originate from the bivalve Pinna spp., such as P. muricata, which occurs in tropical
and temperate shallow zones of the Pacific and Indian oceans. The adductor muscle of
this shellfish is eaten in China and Japan, where it is reported to cause food poisoning.
Because extracts from the digestive glands of a number of Pinna spp. produce the same acute
symptoms in mice as does the muscle tissue from the shellfish it has been suggested that
Pinna spp. become toxic as the result of feeding on organisms such as toxic dinoflagellates.
The toxin from P. attenuata may possibly be a Ca2+ channel activator (Kuramoto et al.,
2004).
4.10.4 The cyanobacterial toxins

Various cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) produce a number of potent toxins. One major group
comprises the microcystins and the nodularins, which are peptides, and cylindrospermopsin,
a cyclic guanidine alkaloid, all of which are hepatotoxic. A second major group is made
up of neurotoxins including the alkaloids anatoxin-a and homoanatoxin-a, a guanidinium
phosphate ester, anatoxin-a(s), that inhibits the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, and also some of
the saxitoxin family, such as saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin, C toxins and gonyautoxins (Carmichael
and Falconer, 1993; Negri and Jones, 1995).
Blooms of toxic cyanobacteria are predominantly a freshwater phenomenon, although
they may also occur in estuarine and marine environments (Long and Carmichael, 2004).
Such blooms have caused illness and death in livestock. The effects of cyanobacterial toxins
on human health through potable water supplies and recreational use of affected fresh water
are well documented (Carmichael and Falconer, 1993; Codd et al., 1999, 2005; Chorus et al.,
2000; Kuiper-Goodman et al., 1999).
The potential for intake of cyanobacterial toxins with food exists but there are few clinical
reports of such poisoning. Measurement of cyanobacterial toxins in foodstuffs is recom-
mended, however, particularly in crustaceans and shellfish harvested from waters with high
cyanobacterial concentrations (Falconer, 1993). Vasconcelos (1995) found in an experimental
study that mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) could accumulate microcystin when exposed
to the toxic estuarine cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa. Microcystins have been found
to accumulate in freshwater and marine mussels (Eriksson et al., 1989; Chen et al., 1993).
Falconer et al. (1992) found cyanobacterial toxins present in edible mussels (Mytilus edulis)
harvested in an estuary containing toxic Nodularia species.
Severe food poisoning episodes have been recorded after ingestion of the edible red
seaweed Gracilaria sp. contaminated with a toxin similar to aplysiatoxin, a contact irritant,
which was thought to have been produced by the cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula growing
on the surface of the red seaweed (Nagai et al., 1996; Yasumoto, 2005). Toxins from Lyngbya
were implicated in fatalities following consumption of marine turtle meat in Madagascar

(Yasumoto, 2005).
There is evidence that chronic exposure to some cyanobacterial toxins may promote
tumours (Falconer, 1991; Falconer and Humpage, 1996; Kuiper-Goodman et al., 1999) and
this has increased awareness of these compounds.
4.10.5 Miscellaneous phycotoxins

There are many other toxic compounds that are known to occur in marine microalgae, for
example palytoxin, which is normally associated with fish poisonings in the tropics. It is a
huge and complex molecule (MW ca. 3300 Da) and is amongst the most potent non-peptide
toxins known, being about 10 times more potent than tetrodotoxin. It acts by binding to
Na+ /K+ -ATPase and opening the ion channel. It has been reported to be associated with
algae causing nuisance blooms in the Mediterranean and has been detected by bioassay in
shellfish in Greece, although it is not thought to be a danger to human health (Hess, 2008).
The primary source is thought to be members of the dinoflagellate genus Ostreopsis. The
palytoxin analogue, ostreocin, was isolated from O. siamensis (Usami et al., 1995). Also, the
palytoxin analogues, mascarenotoxin-A and -B, have been isolated from blooms of Ostreopsis
mascarenensis in the Indian Ocean and it is suggested that they could be a cause of palytoxin
poisoning (Lenoir et al., 2004).
Prorocentin, a novel polyketide, has been isolated from an OA-producing strain of P. lima
by Lu et al. (2005). It is reported to be a C35 polyketide chain with four methyl groups,
has an all-trans triene moiety, an epoxide, a furan ring, and trans-fused/spiro-linked tricyclic
ether rings. It is suggested that it may share part of its biosynthetic pathway with OA. The
compound showed inhibitory activity against human malignant melanoma and human colon
adenocarcinoma cell lines. The biosynthesis of the polyketide toxins has been reviewed by
Shimizu (2003).
The amphidinolides are family of toxic 26- and 27-membered toxic macrocycles that
originate from the dinoflagellate genus Amphidinium. Amphidinol W, for example, is reported
to exhibit cytotoxicity to murine lymphoma cells in vitro with an IC50 of 3.9 μg mL−1
(Kobayashi et al., 2003 and see Kobayashi and Tsuda, 2004).
Gymnocins A and B, which are cytotoxic polyethers, occur in Karenia (Gymnodinium)
mikimotoi (Satake et al., 2002, 2005. Cooliatoxin, found in Coolia montis (Holmes et al.,
1995) may in fact be dsYTX as its molecular weight was reported to correspond to a mono-
sulfated analogue of YTX (Bowden, 2006).
Although most of these toxins have not been implicated in human poisonings they may
possibly be present in the food chain and some of them, such as the gymnocins, are ichthytoxic.
The structure and occurrence of some of these toxins have been reviewed by Yasumoto (1990),
Premazzi and Volterra (1993), Shimizu (1996, 2003) and Kobayashi and Tsuda (2004).
4.11 DETECTION OF PHYCOTOXINS IN SEAFOOD

AND ALGAE
Only a general overview of the methodology of detection (summarized in Table 4.5) is
provided here. In-depth coverage of all the topics touched upon can be conveniently found in
a single volume (Hallegraeff et al., 2004), which gives both theoretical and practical details.
Table 4.5 Summary of assays and analytical methods used to detect phycotoxins.
Toxin group In vivo assaysa In vitro assaysb Physico-chemical analysesc

√ √
Saxitoxins
R
Mouse Cultured mouse HPLC (3)
Fly neuroblastoma cells (2) Capillary electrophoresis (4)
Locust (1) Immunoassay R
Liquid chromatography-mass
Receptor binding spectrometry (LC-MS)
Okadaic Mouse (four variants) Cultured mouse HPLC
acid, DTXs neuroblastoma cells (5) LC-MS (6) (7)
Rat Enzyme inhibition (protein UPLC-MS (8)
phosphatases PP1 and 2A) Capillary electrophoresis
Immunoassay R
Pectenotoxins Mouse LC-MS (6) (7)

UPLC-MS (8)
Yessotoxins Mouse MCF cells with slot-blot HPLC
procedure (9) LC-MS (6) (7)
Immunoassay R
(10) UPLC-MS (8)
Capillary electrophoresis (11)
√ √
Domoic acid Mouse (has been Immunoassay (ELISA)
R
* HPLC (13)
used but insensitive) Immunobiosensor (12) LC-MS (7)
Receptor binding Capillary electrophoresis (14)
Azaspiracids Mouse Antibodies available, could LC-MS (6) (7)
be used for method UPLC-MS (8)
development (15)
Brevetoxins Mouse Cultured mouse LC-MS
neuroblastoma cells Capillary electrophoresis
Immunoassay
Receptor binding
Ciguatoxins
Ciguatoxin Mouse Immunoassay R∗
(16) HPLC
Receptor binding Ionspray-MS
Maitotoxin Mouse HPLC
Ionspray-MS
a
See Fernández et al. (2004a); b see Cembella et al. (2004), Lewis (2004); c see Quilliam (2004a,b), Luckas et al.
(2004), Lewis (2004).
√
= AOAC International Official Method of Analysis (OM); R = Test kits commercially available; ∗ = see text Section
4.11.4.
Details of all the above methods, including many practical protocols, can be found in one reference manual (Hallegraeff
et al., 2004) in which all the above articles (a,b,c ) appear. Numbers in parentheses indicate additional references describing
methodology: (1) Cook et al. (2006); (2) Okumura et al. (2005); (3) Lawrence et al. (2005); (4) Wu et al. (2006); (5)
Leira et al. (2003); (6) Stobo et al. (2005); (7) McNabb et al. (2005); (8) Fux et al. (2007)§; (9) Pierotti et al. (2007);
(10) Briggs et al. (2004); (11) de la Iglesia et al. (2007); (12) Traynor et al. (2006); (13) Lopez-Rivera et al. (2005); (14)
Kvasnicka et al. (2006); (15) Forsyth et al. (2006); (16) Campora et al. (2006). See also van Egmond et al. (2004).
§ This method has also been used for analysis of cyclic imines (see text Section 4.10.3).
Another useful source of information regarding current developments is the annual report on
marine and freshwater toxins by the Committee on Natural Toxins and Food Allergens of the
Association of Official Analytical Chemists International, e.g. Hungerford (2005, 2006).
4.11.1 Assays and analyses

Sullivan (1993) has drawn a useful distinction between assays and analyses for toxins. An
assay is a method that produces a single response from the collective responses of all the
individual components. Thus, it indicates overall toxicity but does not identify which toxins
are present and their relative abundance. An example is the mouse bioassay discussed below.
An analysis is a method that attempts to differentiate the various specific components present
in a mixture and to quantify them individually, for example the separation and quantification
of PSP and DSP toxins by high performance liquid chromatography.
4.11.2 Mammalian bioassays

The mouse bioassay is presently the mainstay for detecting phycotoxins and is recognized as
the standard reference method for PSP, DSP, NSP and ciguatera toxins in most countries that
carry out monitoring for these toxins. The basic procedure involves i.p. injection of an extract
of the sample containing the toxin and observing the symptoms. There are recommended
strains and weights of mice, and the protocol varies depending on the toxins being assayed
(van Egmond et al., 1992, 2004; Sullivan, 1993; Lewis, 2004; Fernández et al., 2004a). Four
variants of the mouse bioassay for DSP are in use and a rat bioassay is also employed for the
detection of these toxins (Fernández et al., 2004a).
Article 5 of a European Commission Decision dated 15 March 2002 (see Section 4.13
and Table 4.7), laying down rules relating to maximum permitted levels of certain biotoxins
and methods of analysis for marine bivalve molluscs and other seafood states: ‘When the
results of the analyses performed demonstrate discrepancies between the different methods,
the mouse bioassay should be considered as the reference method’.
4.11.2.1 Disadvantages of the mouse bioassay

The mouse bioassay has a number of disadvantages, which have been summarized by Sullivan
(1993):
(i) Presence of multiple toxins: Samples often contain more than one member of a family of
toxins, each of which may have a different degree of toxicity, as is normally the case with
PSP, DSP, NSP and ciguatera toxins. The bioassay therefore provides only a measure of
the total toxicity, which is expressed relative to the effects of a reference toxin. This is
adequate for toxicity monitoring but can provide no indication of the relative amounts of
individual toxins in the sample. An additional problem that has been recognized is the
presence of ‘side toxins’, i.e. toxins that have been extracted that may cause symptoms in
mice, or are detected by other bioassays, but which are not related to the toxin(s) actually
being assayed (Luu et al., 1993; Zhao et al., 1993; Amzil et al., 1996; Mackenzie et al.,
1996).
(ii) Inherent variability: This can exceed ±20% of the true value compared to chromato-
graphic techniques, which have a variability of <10%.
(iii) Route of administration of the toxin: Intraperitoneal injection bypasses the gastro-
intestinal tract, the normal route of exposure to phycotoxins in humans, and its functions
(absorption, metabolism and distribution), which may be important in decreasing or
increasing the toxicity of the food.
(iv) Public opposition: There is growing public opposition, including militant action, to the
use of animals for experimental purposes.
A strong scientific case against the use of the mouse bioassay for monitoring phycotox-
ins, particularly in mussels, has been presented by the German Federal Institute for Risk
Assessment (Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung [BfR]) and the German National Reference
Laboratory for the Control of Marine Biotoxins (Anon., 2005a,b).
It has been recognized internationally for some time that there is an urgent need to replace
mouse bioassays for phycotoxins with other methods. What are required for monitoring
seafoods for public health reasons are rapid, specific and relatively inexpensive assays that can
be used to screen large numbers of samples, ideally ‘at the dock-side’, and can be undertaken
by relatively unskilled personnel (see Mackintosh et al., 2002). Where such assays indicate
the presence of toxins above the regulatory limit they can be validated by accurate and precise
reference methods. Much has been done in recent years towards achieving these goals, but
relatively few methods have been developed to a stage where they have gained international
acceptance and also been designated as an Official Method (OM) by the Association of
Official Analytical Chemists International (AOAC).
4.11.3 Instrumental (physico-chemical) analysis

Instrumental analyses for phycotoxins have been developed using such methods as HPLC
(Table 4.5). There are standard HPLC analyses for PSP and DSP toxins using sensitive fluo-
rescence detection and for DA using UV detection. AOAC International has to date validated
two HPLC methods – for PSP toxins, OM 2005.6 (Lawrence et al., 2005; Hungerford, 2006)
and DA, OM 1991.26 (cited in Quilliam, 2004b). An advantage of fluorescence detection
used with HPLC is that it can be more sensitive than mass spectrometry.
The method of choice for detailed analysis of phycotoxins is liquid chromatography-mass
spectrometry (LC-MS) as evidenced by many of the papers cited in this chapter. Quilliam
(2004a) concluded that, for lipophilic toxins, LC-MS is the most comprehensive and efficient
technique, meeting all the needs of both monitoring and research laboratories. He lists many
points in favour, including universal detection capability, high sensitivity, high selectivity and
specificity, precision and accuracy, wide linear range of response, ability to separate complex
mixtures and to deal with structural diversity, and minimal sample preparation.
LC-MS methods have been developed for screening for a range of lipophilic toxins si-
multaneously, for example OA, DTX-1 and -2, YTX, homoYTX, 45-hydroxy-YTX, 45-
hydroxyhomo-YTX, PTX-1 and -2 and azaspiracid-1, -2 and -3 (Stobo et al., 2005). A
method using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) has been
developed that is highly sensitive and specific for hydrophilic DA group toxins as well
as DSP toxins and a wide range of other lipophilic algal toxins and metabolites found in
shellfish (McNabb et al., 2005). Hess (2008) has briefly reviewed current developments
in LC-MS technology, the main one being the use of tandem mass spectrometry used in
association with UPLC (ultra-performance liquid chromatography) that operates at very
high pressure and facilitates sample resolution and speed of throughput (see Fux et al.,
2007).
There are a number of problems associated with instrumental analyses, for example the
high initial capital cost of the equipment, especially for MS. Lengthy clean-up procedures
may be required, especially for lipophilic toxins, and this limits the rate of throughput. For
fluorescence detection by HPLC, e.g. PSP toxins, the appropriate fluorescent derivatives
must be prepared and some of these may be unstable (see for example Lawrence et al., 2005).
Details of analytical protocols and discussions of associated problems can be found in Luckas
et al. (2004), Quilliam (2004a,b), Lewis (2004) and Lawrence et al. (2005).
There is a shortage of pure analytical standards for some phycotoxins (Quilliam, 2004a),
although this problem is being addressed by the international community (Hess, 2008). The
problems of obtaining fit-for-purpose shellfish reference materials for internal and external
quality control in the analysis of phycotoxins have been discussed by Hess et al. (2006).
4.11.4 In vitro assays

4.11.4.1 Cytotoxicity assays
Cytotoxicity assays using tissue culture microplate techniques have been developed for PSP,
NSP and CFP toxins and for the DSP toxins; details can be found in Cembella et al. (2004)
and see Table 4.5.
One problem with cytotoxicity assays is that they can respond to non-specific inhibitors.
Tissue extracts are ‘dirty’ and may contain substances that affect the assay. For example, zinc
in some mussel extracts can be toxic to mice and is presumably also toxic to cultured cells
(Sullivan, 1993). Manger et al. (1995) observed non-specific toxic effects with crab viscera
extracts but the problem was overcome by dilution. Another problem is that these assays may
respond to known and unknown ‘side toxins’ also present in the sample, such as some of
those described in Section 4.10.
4.11.4.2 Receptor binding assays

The PSP, NSP, ASP and CFP toxins all share a common property in that they bind very specif-
ically to certain receptor sites (Table 4.2). A number of binding assays for these toxins have
been developed that exploit this property. They use synaptosome preparations from animal
brains and usually measure competition for the specific binding sites between a radioactive
substrate and the toxin(s) in the sample (Table 4.5). The objection to using animal prepa-
rations may be overcome by using cloned receptor proteins (Goldin et al., 1986; Cembella
et al., 2004). Binding assays are sensitive, specific and represent an integrated measure of
the potencies of a mixture of a family of toxins such as PSP. Good correlations have been
obtained between the standard mouse bioassay and binding assays for PSP toxins and the
NSP toxin, BTX (Cembella et al., 2004).
4.11.4.3 Immunoassays
Cembella et al. (2004) have discussed some of the problems encountered in developing
immunoassays, such as the lack of pure toxins for conjugation and the low antigenicity of some
of the lower molecular weight toxin molecules. Also, antibodies are usually prepared from a
single purified toxin, such as saxitoxin, whereas natural samples may contain several closely
related derivatives and the antibody may show limited cross-reactivity to these compounds. A
novel approach to this problem has been the use of laboratory synthesized hapten-containing
rings F-I of AZA to generate antibodies that crossreact with AZAs via their common C28-C40
domain. The antibodies had a similar affinity for AZA-2, -3, and -6 as they did for AZA-1
and they may prove suitable for analysis of AZAs in shellfish samples (Forsyth et al., 2006).
A similar approach has been used to generate antibodies to ciguatoxin CTX-1 (Lewis, 2004)
and has been suggested for gymnodimines (Kong et al., 2005).
Both monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies have been produced to various phycotoxins
and these have been visualized using techniques such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assays (ELISA) (Cembella et al., 2004) and plasmon resonance (Traynor et al., 2006). A
number of immunoassays have been developed for some of the PSP, DSP and NSP toxins
and ciguatoxin (Table 4.5) and some of these are available commercially. An integrated ELISA
screening system has been used for monitoring DA, BTX, OA and STX group toxins found in
New Zealand shellfish (Garthwaite et al., 2001). An ELISA kit for DA (ASP) manufactured
by Biosense R
(http://www.biosense.com) has been validated by AOAC International as a
First Action Official Method, number 2006.02.
Rapid qualitative tests suitable for various phycotoxins have been developed suitable
for ‘dockside’ use, for example Cigua-Check R
(http://cigua.oceanit.com) for CTXs (Lewis,

R
2004) and MIST-Alert (http://www.jellett.ca) for STX group (PSP) toxins (see Mackintosh
et al., 2002; Cembella et al., 2004; Inami et al., 2004). The MIST-Alert R
assay for STXs has
been approved by the US Food and Drugs Administration.
In general, immunoassays for phycotoxins are many times more sensitive than instrumental
methods. Provided problems of low cross-reactivity and false positives can be overcome,
this type of assay can be useful both for initial rapid screening of suspect samples and for
quantitative laboratory use.
4.11.4.4 Enzyme inhibition assays for OA group toxins

Enzyme inhibition assays have been developed for OA and DTX-1 based on the fact that
they are potent inhibitors of protein phosphatases PP1 and PP2A. A radioisotope assay
involving 32 P and PP1 and PP2A was developed by Holmes (1991). It involves HPLC prior
to the assay to resolve phosphatase inhibitors into discrete fractions, since the assay responds
to all phosphatase inhibitors. The method can quantify OA and DTX-1. Luu et al. (1993)
subsequently applied Holmes’ assay to identify DSP toxins in cultures of the dinoflagellate
Prorocentrum lima in natural populations of phytoplankton and in mussels obtained both
from Holland and from Canada. The most interesting result was that at least six phosphatase
inhibitors distinct from known DSP toxins were found in mussel extracts. These did not
include PTXs and YTX, which were found to be inactive against PP1 and 2A.
A protein phosphatase assay for OA and DTX-1 in shellfish extracts using PP2A and
32
P was described by Honkanen et al. (1996a,b) who highlighted the problems involved in
using 32 P and PP2A. A non-radioactive colorimetric assay using PP1 has been described
that can detect OA and DTX-1 with a limit of about 1.5 ng total toxin per gram of mussel
hepatopancreas (Nunez and Scoging, 1997). A PP2A assay and two HPLC methods were
compared to the mouse bioassay by Ramstad et al. (2001) and it was concluded that all three
methods would be suitable for replacing the mouse bioassay. These enzyme assays can also
be used to detect microcystins from cyanobacteria (Cembella et al., 2004).
The main problem, then, with protein phosphatase assays for OA and DTX-1, is that they
respond to all phosphatase inhibitors in crude extracts. Two other disadvantages are the use
of 32 P, which can be avoided by using a colorimetric end-point but with lower sensitivity –
although a more sensitive fluorometric method has been developed (Mountfort et al., 1999,
2001) – and the relative scarcity and expense of the enzymes.
4.12 DEPURATION OF PHYCOTOXINS

4.12.1 Natural depuration
If shellfish contaminated with phycotoxins are left for sufficient time they will depurate
(detoxify) themselves naturally once the causative algae are no longer present in the water.
Some of the extensive literature on this subject has been reviewed by Fernández et al. (2004b)
and by van Egmond et al. (2004), the latter covering all the major toxins responsible for PSP,
DSP, ASP and NSP.
In order to speed up depuration, the affected shellfish may be harvested and moved to a site
where the water is free of toxic algae. However, this is not always a satisfactory solution as the
rates of depuration vary greatly between species and on the type of toxin they carry, as well as
physical factors. Fernández et al. (2004b) have provided a comprehensive compilation of the
approximate retention times taken for a number of phycotoxins to fall below either statutory
limits or levels of detection in a wide range of shellfish. These times range from 2 days to
more than 2 years. In general, shellfish depurate PSP toxins relatively slowly and various
methods of enhancing depuration have been tried with limited success, including variation in
temperature or salinity, chlorination, ozonation and electrical stimulation (Fernández et al.,
2004b).
4.12.2 Studies on cooking as a method of depuration

Both domestic and commercial cooking have been studied as ways of reducing toxicity (Table
4.6), primarily for bivalve shellfish contaminated with PSP toxins, and have been shown to
be largely ineffective. Most of the seafood toxins causing human intoxication are heat stable.
The main effect of boiling or pre-cooking with steam (e.g. domestic cooking and some
commercial canning), seems to be to leach out and dilute the water-soluble PSP toxins in
the tissues. Since a good proportion of the cooking liquor is discarded this lowers the total
concentration of toxins in the shellfish (Quayle, 1969; Prakash et al., 1971; Berenguer et al.,
1993; Vieites et al., 1999). Cooking by retorting (110◦ C for 80 min or 122◦ C for 22 min) of
PSP-contaminated clams was reported to reduce significantly the concentration of toxins in
tissues, for example from >1800 μg STX-eq. 100 g−1 tissue to <9 μg STX-eq. 100 g−1 in
the digestive gland (Noguchi et al., 1980a,b).
Following various studies on cooking of the Mediterranean cockle (Acanthocardia tuber-
culatum) the European Commission issued a Decision (EC) 96/77 (see note at the end of
reference section) applying to Spain which permits heating as a means of partially detoxify-
ing cockles contaminated with PSP. Harvesting of A. tuberculatum when PSP levels in the
edible parts are >80 μg STX-eq. 100 g−1 tissue but <300 μg STX-eq. 100 g−1 . If analy-
sis of the heated product shows that the amount of STX is below the EU statutory limit of
800 μg kg−1 then the cockles may be marketed and sold for human consumption (Anderson
et al., 2001; van Egmond et al., 2004). Fernández et al. (2004b) emphasize that the effective-
ness of canning as a means of reducing PSP toxin levels below the statutory limit depends
on the initial toxicity and so must be used with caution.
Ohta et al. (1992) investigated the effect of extrusion processing on various tissues of
contaminated clams mixed with defatted soya protein. Extrusion was carried out at 130◦ C
and 170◦ C and at elevated pressures. This considerably reduced the toxin content of the
mixture, by up to 82% at 130◦ C and up to 97% at 170◦ C. The reduction in moisture content
of the mixture after heating was only 1–2% so the decrease in toxicity did not appear to be due
to leaching. HPLC analysis of the uncooked mixture showed it contained gonyautoxins-1,
-2, -3 and -4 and saxitoxin, but after processing at either of the two temperatures it contained
only saxitoxin, which has a higher specific toxicity. Nagashima et al. (1991) examined the
thermal stability of PSP toxins under various conditions. Scallop homogenates showed little
residual toxicity after heating to 120◦ C for 2 hours, whereas the toxicity of oyster homogenates
doubled when heated to 100◦ C for up to 2 hours and then declined linearly on further heating.
90
BLUK145-Gilbert
Table 4.6 The effects of cooking and freezing on the phycotoxin content of some shellfish.
Toxin group Organism Process Effect on toxin content in tissues References
Saxitoxins (STXs) American lobster (Homarus Cooking Reduction Lawrence et al. (1994),
americanus) Watson-Wright et al. (1991)
Butter clams (Saxidomus giganteus) Cooking Reduction Quayle (1969)
February 28, 2008
Freezing Minimal effect Quayle (1969)

Mediterranean cockle Cooking Reduction Berenguer et al. (1993)
(Acanthocardia tuberosum)
4:34
Mussels (Mytilus edulis) Cooking Reduction Prakash et al. (1971)

(Mytilus galloprovincialis) Cooking Reduction Vieites et al. (1999)
Soft clams (Mya arenaria) Cooking Reduction Prakash et al. (1971)
Scallops (Patinopecten yessoensis) Cooking Reduction Noguchi et al. (1980a,b),
Ohta et al. (1992)
Freezing Migration to other tissues Noguchi et al. (1984)
Okadaic acid (OA) Mussels (Mytilus sp.) Cooking No reduction Vernoux et al. (1994)
Domoic acid (DA) Crabs (Cancer magister) Cooking Reduction Hatfield et al. (1995)
Chilling and Migration to other tissues Hatfield et al. (1995)
freezing
Mussels (Mytilus edulis) Cooking Migration from hepatopancreas to McCarron and Hess (2006)
other tissues in whole mussels after
steaming or autoclaving
Scallops (Pecten maximus) Cooking Leaching of up to 30% of toxin into Leira et al. (1998)
packing media
Freezing Migration to other tissues Leira et al. (1998)
Azaspiracids (AZAs) Mussels (Mytilus edulis) Cooking Concentrated in tissue due to loss of Hess et al. (2005)
water from matrix after steaming
The increase in toxicity (as measured by the mouse bioassay) was attributed to chemical
conversion of the toxins to more toxic derivatives.
The DSP toxins contained in mussel tissue are stable to cooking at >95◦ C for 15 minutes,
as estimated by the mouse bioassay (Vernoux et al., 1994). Comparison of raw and cooked
meat showed that heating did not change the concentration of toxins or their partitioning
between the digestive gland (the most toxic organ) and the rest of the meat.
DA in the viscera of Dungeness crabs (Cancer magister) cooked by normal commercial
processes in salt or fresh water could be reduced by up to 67% (Hatfield et al., 1995). After
cooking some DA was detectable in the body or leg meat of raw crabs, although it was not
originally present in these tissues. The majority of the toxin was extracted and diluted into
the cooking liquor.
Changes in DA concentrations in scallops (Pecten maximus) were followed during the
normal commercial canning processes of pickled scallops and scallops in brine following
frozen storage. No significant destruction of DA was observed during the canning process
but the transfer of DA to packing media exceeded 30% of the total toxin content in the canned
product (Leira et al., 1998).
The effect of heat treatment on the DA content of soft tissues of mussels (Mytilus edulis)
was investigated by McCarron and Hess (2006). DA concentrations in whole flesh, hep-
atopancreas and remaining tissue were measured in fresh, steamed and autoclaved mussel
flesh. Relative decreases in DA and tissue fluid following heat treatments of whole flesh
were similar. Concentrations of DA measured pre- and post-treatment were approximately
equal. The concentration of DA in the hepatopancreas decreased but increased in the tissue
remainder indicating that heat treatment caused some organ disruption of the mussels. It was
concluded that heating either by steaming or autoclaving at 121◦ C are not suitable methods
to reduce DA in mussels during commercial processing.
The effect of steaming as a sample pre-treatment of mussels (Mytilus edulis) containing
azaspiracids (AZAs) was investigated by Hess et al. (2005). AZAs were found to be con-
centrated indirectly through the loss of water or juice from the matrix. The cooked shellfish
tissues had a concentration of AZAs twice that of the uncooked shellfish, both for whole flesh
and for digestive gland tissue.
Both CFP toxins in fish tissue and NSP toxins in shellfish are stable to cooking and
boiling (Premazzi and Volterra, 1993; Anderson et al., 2001; van Egmond et al., 2004).
Salting, drying, smoking or marinating do not reduce ciguatoxin in contaminated tissue (van
Egmond et al., 2004).
Fernández et al. (2004b) observed that, with the possible exception of the cooking method
described by Berenguer et al. (1993), ‘. . . there have been no useful methods devised for
effectively reducing phycotoxins in contaminated shellfish. All methods tested to date have
been either unsafe, economically unfeasible or yielded products unacceptable in appearance
and taste’.
4.12.3 The effects of freezing and chilling

There are a few reports on the effects of freezing and chilling on the mobility of water-
soluble toxins in tissues. Quayle (1969) reported an experiment where 32 lots of butter clams
(Saxidomus giganteus) (mean toxicity 74 μg STX-eq. 100 g−1 tissue, range 34–256 μg STX-
eq.) were frozen for 3 months. At the end of that time mouse bioassays showed virtually no
change in toxicity (mean 79 μg STX-eq. 100 g−1 , range 33–342 μg STX-eq.).
Noguchi et al. (1984) examined the distribution of PSP toxicity (measured by the mouse
bioassay) in highly toxic specimens of the clam Patinopecten yessoensis and the effect
of freezing. In unfrozen clams containing very high concentrations of toxins (117 000–
198 000 μg STX-eq. 100 g−1 digestive gland) the concentration in the adductor muscle was
54–234 μg STX-eq. 100 g−1 . In less toxic unfrozen clams containing 18 000–52 200 μg STX-
eq. 100 g−1 digestive gland the adductor muscle, washed or unwashed, was not detectably
toxic. These less toxic specimens were kept frozen (temperature not specified) for 5 months;
when thawed by heating to 100◦ C for 5 minutes or by standing at 17–21◦ C for 4 hours,
the toxicity of the non-washed adductor muscle was <36 μg STX-eq. 100 g−1 but rose to
between 54 and 162 μg STX-eq. 100 g−1 when allowed to thaw slowly at 5◦ C for 24 hours.
When the whole clams were subjected to three freeze-thaw cycles the toxicity of the adductor
muscle rose to 972 μg STX-eq. 100 g−1 , which indicated migration of toxins between tissues.
Shumway (unpublished, cited in Shumway and Cembella, 1993) obtained similar results.
Studies have been carried out on whole cooked Dungeness crab (Cancer magister) where
DA was confined mainly to the viscera; small amounts were also detectable in leg and body
meat. After storage of cooked crabs for 90 days at –23◦ C slightly increased concentrations
of DA were found in the leg and body meat. In cooked crabs held at 1◦ C for 1–6 days there
was evidence of diffusion of toxin from the viscera to the body meat (Hatfield et al., 1995).
Leira et al. (1998) monitored changes in DA levels of toxic in whole scallops (Pecten
maximus) after 60 and 180 days of frozen storage. After 180 days, the concentration of DA
decreased by 43%, mostly in the hepatopancreas, due to diffusion into other tissues.
4.13 MONITORING AND REGULATION

Given that natural depuration and cooking are largely ineffective, the first line of defence
against phycotoxins endangering human health is the monitoring of toxin levels in seafoods
and the implementation of legislation to prevent harvesting and marketing if toxin concen-
trations exceed statutory limits.
Monitoring programmes exist on local, regional and national scales in countries where
phycotoxins are a problem and these have been reviewed by Fernández et al. (2004b). A
valuable reference work is that by Anderson et al. (2001), which provides details for over
20 countries of national management plans, monitoring strategies, toxin tolerance limits,
cost-benefit analyses, responsible authorities and many more useful facts.
In addition to causing public health problems, toxic phytoplankton can have a signifi-
cant effect on the use of coastal waters for mariculture, commercial fisheries and recreation
(Premazzi and Volterra, 1993; Anderson et al., 2001). Given the need to minimize economic
losses and the potential risk to the public caused by these outbreaks, two monitoring strategies
have been used: screening of natural phytoplankton populations for the presence of harmful
species and the regular testing of seafoods.
4.13.1 Phytoplankton monitoring

National strategies and methodologies adopted to monitor harmful algae have been reviewed
in detail by Anderson et al. (2001), van Egmond et al. (2004) and in part III of Hallegraeff
et al. (2004). By itself, phytoplankton monitoring does not provide sufficient protection to
public health but it is often used as an early warning system on which to base intensive
sampling programmes of toxicity testing of shellfish (or finfish) tissue in an area where toxic
species have been detected.
4.13.2 Monitoring of shellfish tissues for toxicity

When shellfish resources are well developed, intensive monitoring has proven cost-effective
and has permitted flexible management so as to optimize the areas of shellfish open to
harvesting and minimize economic loss. Tolerance limits for toxins in seafood have been
established above which harvesting or marketing is prohibited and this approach is discussed
in Fernández et al. (2004b), who also list ‘action levels’ for phycotoxins in seafood used in
various countries. Table 4.7 illustrates the approach taken by the European Union which has
laid down detailed regulations concerning not only the permitted concentrations in seafood
but also the methods of bioassay and analysis. There is still disagreement in some countries
regarding the prescribed bioassays (Anon., 2005a,b). The EU itself is committed to replacing
animal bioassays: ‘Biological methods shall be replaced by alternative detection methods as
soon as reference materials for detecting the toxins . . . are readily available, the methods have
been validated and this Chapter has been amended accordingly’. (Chapter V of Section VI
of Annex III to Regulation (EC) No. 853/2004 – see note in reference section).
4.13.3 Risk analysis

It is never going to be possible to eliminate the possibility of phycotoxins being present in
seafood, hence, for example, the EU regulations to minimize the risk to public health and
the trend is towards risk analysis based on sound scientific data. An example of rigorous risk
analysis is that for azaspiracids carried out by the Food Standards Agency for Ireland (Anon.,
2006b).
Lupin (2004) has defined risk analysis as being composed of three elements: risk assess-
ment, risk management and risk communication. van Egmond et al. (2004) concluded that
risk assessment of phycotoxins has not been carried out in a clear-cut fashion and has become
merged to some extent with risk management, thereby complicating the process. They made
a number of recommendations, including the suggestion that formal risk assessment should
be carried out by international bodies, such as the World Health Organization, and this has
subsequently begun to come about.
A working group (WG) of the Codex Committee on Fish and Fishery Products (CCFFP) of
the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (Anon., 2006a) was convened to consider
the recommendations of an international expert working group (Anon., 2004) and how these
might be incorporated into the ‘Draft Standard for Live and Raw Molluscs and the section of
the Code on Live and (Raw) Bivalve Molluscs’ of the Codex. Among the guiding principles
set for the CCFFP WG were (i) The WG should recommend marine biotoxin levels in a
manner consistent with the approach taken for setting levels for other naturally occurring
toxicants in Codex Standard (compare this with comments made in Section 4.3) and (ii)
that ‘Marine biotoxin standards should not be set where there is a lack of evidence of harm
to humans, either from human clinical data, epidemiological studies or animal voluntary
feeding studies’ with a footnote that ‘Before regulating, where only intraperitoneal studies
exist, these must be complemented by oral studies. Among these, voluntary feeding should
take priority over gavage’.
One of the recommendations of the CCFFP WG was that PTXs and YTXs should be
deregulated (Table 4.7), based on the marked difference in toxicity when administered orally
Table 4.7 Permissible concentrations of toxins in tissue of bivalve molluscs, echinoderms, tunicates and marine gastropods and methods of bioassay or analysis
as prescribed by European Union Legislation in 2006.
94
Parts of Maximum Maximum Relevant EC legal

BLUK145-Gilbert
shellfish soft concentrations concentrations instruments (see

Prescribed method of assay or parts to be permitted by EU recommended by reference section
Toxin group Syndrome analysis (1); see also Table 4.5 analysed legislation FAO/WHO CAC (3) for www URLs)
Hydrophilic
Saxitoxins PSP Bioassay: AOAC mouse bioassay Entire body or any 800 μg kg−1 800 μg kg−1 Directive 91/492/EEC
(STXs) (MBA). This may be carried out in part edible Decision
association, if necessary, with another separately 2002/225/EC (5)
February 28, 2008
method for detecting STX and any of Regulation (EC) No.

its analogues for which standards are 853/2004 (6)
available. If the results are challenged, Regulation (EC) No.
4:34
the reference method must be the 2074/2005 (7)

biological method
Domoic acid ASP HPLC method or any other recognized Entire body or any 20 mg kg−1 20 mg kg−1 Directive 97/61/EC (4)
(DA) method, e.g. ELISA. If the results are part edible Decision
challenged, the reference method separately 2002/225/EC (5)
must be HPLC Regulation (EC) No.
853/2004 (6)
Regulation (EC) No.
2074/2005 (7)
Lipophilic
Okadaic acid DSP Bioassay: Three MBAs and one rat Whole body or 160 μg kg−1 of 160 μg kg−1 of OA Decision
(OA) and Dino- bioassay are prescribed. Choice of hepatopancreas. OA equivalents∗ equivalents 2002/225/EC (5)
physistoxins MBA depends on the particular Specified weights Regulation (EC) No.
(DTXs) lipophilic toxins and the solvents used of these to be used 853/2004 (6)
for extraction. in some MBAs Regulation (EC) No.
Alternative methods may be used 2074/2005 (7)
separately or in combination (HPLC
with fluorimetric detection, LC-MS,
ELISA, enzyme inhibition (PPA) assay)
provided that they are not less effective
than the biological methods and that
their implementation provides an
equivalent level of public health
protection (2)
BLUK145-Gilbert
Azaspiracids AZP Bioassays as for OA/DTX. Alternative Entire body to be 160 μg kg−1 of 160 μg kg−1 – to be Decision
(AZAs) methods (above) must be able to used when single AZA equivalents reviewed as more 2002/225/EC (5)
detect AZA-1, -2 and -3 MBA with acetone data become Regulation (EC) No.
extraction used available 853/2004 (6)
Regulation (EC) No.
2074/2005 (7)
Pectenotoxins DSP? Bioassays as for OA and DTX. As for OA/DTX Included with OA Deregulation Decision
(PTXs) Alternative methods (above) must be equivalents recommended – see 2002/225/EC (5)
February 28, 2008
able to detect PTX-1 and -2 (above∗ ) in total Section 4.13.3 in text Regulation (EC) No.
853/2004 (6)
Regulation (EC) No.
4:34
2074/2005 (7)
Yessotoxins Bioassays as for OA and DTX. As for OA/DTX 1.0 mg kg−1 YTX Deregulation Decision
(YTXs) Alternative methods (above) must be equivalents recommended – see 2002/225/EC (5)
able to detect YTX, 45 OH YTX, homo Section 4.13.3 in text Regulation (EC) No.
YTX and 45 OH homo YTX 853/2004 (6)
Regulation (EC) No.
2074/2005 (7)
Notes: (1) EC Regulation (EC) No. 2074/2005, Annex III. (2) It is stipulated: (a) If new analogues of public health significance are discovered, they should be included in the analysis. (b)
Standards must be available before chemical analysis is possible. (c) Total toxicity shall be calculated using conversion factors based on the toxicity data available for each toxin. (d) The
performance characteristics of these methods shall be defined after validation following an internationally agreed protocol. (3) Codex Alimentarius Commission of the UN Food & Agriculture
Organisation and the World Health Organisation, Joint Food Standards Programme, Codex Committee on Fish and Fisheries Products, Working Group – see Anon. (2006a). (4) Amends
Annex to Directive 91/492/EEC to include domoic acid. (5) Lays down detailed rules for implementation of Directive 91/492EEC as regards maximum levels of specified biotoxins and
methods of analysis. (6) Lays down specific hygiene rules. (7) Amends Reg. 853/2004: Annex 3 details required testing methods – see (1).
95
as compared to i.p. (see Sections 4.10.1 and 4.10.2) and the application of risk factors, with
the proviso that should data become available, the toxicological effects of PTX and YTX to
humans would be reassessed.
A full account of the background to the WG and its detailed recommendations can be
found in Anon. (2006a). In addition, a useful overview of the work of the FAO, WHO
and IOC to provide scientific advice on marine biotoxins has been provided by Toyofuku
(2006).
4.14 FUTURE PROSPECTS

The phycotoxins represent a particularly problematical group of compounds as regards detec-
tion and quantitation in seafood. The original algal toxins may undergo chemical or biological
transformations in the vector organisms and the lack of pure reference material for many of
these variants makes quantitation difficult, although this problem is being addressed (Hess,
2008). The lack of sufficient quantities of pure toxins also hinders toxicological studies. In
this respect, synthetic organic chemists may be of some assistance. The complex stereochem-
istry of many of the larger phycotoxins has long been viewed as a challenge by chemists (see
Halim and Brimble, 2006) and they have achieved some remarkable results, for example,
the total synthesis of AZA-1 (Nicolau et al., 2006), ciguatoxin CTX3C (Inoue et al., 2004)
and of palytoxin carboxylic acid (Kishi, 1989) as well as of fragments of some toxins (see
references in Section 4.11.4.3).
When the molecular structure of some of the lipophilic phycotoxins have been unequivo-
cally determined then there may be a better understanding of the relationship between their
structure and their interactions at cellular and biochemical level, for example toxicity related
to the imine functionality in cyclic imines (Kong et al., 2005), similarities between AZA and
YTX in their action at cellular level (Ronzitti et al., 2007) and observations that the open
ring seco acids of the PTXs are less toxic than their parent compounds (Halim and Brimble,
2006; Ares et al., 2007).
Pharmacologically or chemically dissimilar phycotoxins may occur together, for example
DTX-1 and YTX have been found together in mussels (Lee et al., 1988) and the co-existence
of OA, PTXs, YTXs and AZAs in Norewegian mussels has been observed (Yasumoto and
Aune, unpublished data, cited in van Egmond et al., 2004). PSP and DSP toxins have been
found simultaneously in shellfish (Gago-Martinez et al., 1996). Little is known about chronic
exposure to such mixtures of phycotoxins, for example where possibly carcinogenic AZAs
may occur with tumour promoters such as OA, as discussed by James et al. (2004) and further
research on this topic has been recommended (van Egmond et al., 2004).
4.15 A NOTE ON THE IOC HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOM

PROGRAMME
The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO has long been aware
of the detrimental effects that harmful algal blooms (HAB) can have on national economies
and aims to support research to mitigate these effects on fisheries, aquaculture, human health,
recreation areas and ecosystems (Bernal, 2004). To this end, the IOC maintains a Science and
Communication Centre on Harmful Algae, which serves as an important international channel
of communication for information on many aspects of HAB. The Centre publishes a regular
international newsletter, Harmful Algae News, a best-selling manual on HAB (Hallegraeff
et al., 2004) and other literature and maintains various information databases, including an
international directory of experts. Further information can be obtained from the IOC website
http://www.ioc.unesco.org/hab/.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr Donald Anderson and Ms Judy Kleindinst of the Woods Hole Oceano-
graphic Institution, Massachusetts, USA, for supplying the maps in Figs. 4.1a–4.1f and both
Ir Hans van Egmond of the National Institute of Public Health, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization for permission to reproduce Figs.
4.2a–4.2j. Thanks are also due to Dr Philipp Hess of the Marine Institute, Oranmore, Eire,
for helpful comments.
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Note: How to access the EU legislation cited in Table 4.7 and in Section 4.13.2∗
Go to http://eur-lex.europa.eu./ Access the ‘welcome’ page
Select: ‘simple search’ > ‘search by document number’ > ‘CELEX NUMBER’
Enter the relevant CELEX number given in parentheses below:
Directive 91/492 [31991L0492]
Directive 97/61 [31997L0061]
Decision 96/77 [31996D0077]∗
Decision 2002/225 [32002D0225]
Regulation 853/2004 [02004R0853-20060101]
Regulation 2074/2005 [32005R2074]
5 Mushroom Toxins
Jana Hajslová and Vera Schulzova
Summary
Of almost 10 000 known mushroom species, some are much sought after for human con-
sumption, several are cultivated, but approximately 250 species can cause unpleasant effects
when consumed and a few of them may be responsible for fatal poisoning. In this chapter,
the incidence and levels of occurrence of these biologically active compounds (amatoxins,
phallotoxins, virotoxins, orellanine, muscarine, ibotenic acid, muscimol, psilocybin, psilocin,
coprine, gyromitrin, agaratine and other phenylhydrazines) in poisonous and cultivated mush-
rooms is reviewed. The available analytical methods are summarized and data is reviewed
on exposure assessment of these compounds from mushrooms in the diet.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Human poisonings due to natural toxins is in many cases associated with consumption of
raw or cooked fruiting bodies of mushrooms representing various species of higher fungi.
Currently, there are almost 10 000 mushroom species known, most of them are innocuous,
with some that are sought for their delicious flavour and several of them that are even culti-
vated. However, there are also approximately 250 species that will cause physical discomfort
when consumed; moreover, few of them (often called toadstools) may be responsible for fatal
poisoning. It should be noted, there is no simple rule or test available that would help non-
specialist to distinguish whether the mushroom is edible or poisonous. Typically, collectors
(so called mycophagists) do not have enough expertise in wild mushroom identification and,
therefore, they collect only those species which they know from their own experience and are
able to recognize on the basis of distinct morphological features. Unfortunately, poisonings
due to confusion of edible species with toxic ones are reported every year since some indi-
viduals take unnecessary risk eating species with which they are not familiar. Outbreaks may
occur after ingestion of fresh (raw) toxic species or home processed, e.g. stir-fried, cooked
and/or canned mushrooms. Risk of multiple outbreaks exists when processed (preserved or
frozen) toadstools are carried to another location and consumed at other time.
Mushroom poisonings are generally acute and are manifested by various symptoms. Their
severity and overall prognosis depend on which particular species and what amount (dose
of toxin) was consumed. Typically, poisonous species contain one or more toxic compounds
which are unique to few other ones. Therefore, cases of mushroom poisonings generally
do not resemble each other unless they are caused by the same, or very closely related
mushroom species. Unfortunately, compared to existing relatively comprehensive knowledge

Mushroom Toxins 111
Table 5.1 Overview of major mushroom toxins.
Toxin groups Genus of higher

according to fungi producing
Type of toxicity structure Typical toxic symptoms toxin
Protoplasmic Amatoxins, Nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea abdominal Amanita

poison phallotoxins, pain, kidney and liver failure,
virotoxins hypoglycaemia (for phallotoxins and
virotoxins this applies only when applied
intravenously)
Hydrazines Nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, delirium, Gyromitra
seizures, coma
Orellanine Nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, polydipsia, Cortinarius
polyuria, headache, myalgias
Neurotoxins Muscarine Salivation, urination, tearing, diarrhoea, Amanita, Inocybe,
sweating, vomiting, urination, respiratory Clitocybe
failure
Ibotenic acid, Drowsiness, dizziness followed by Amanita
muscimol hyperactivity, hallucinations, seizures,
twitching
Psilocybin, psilocin Euphoria, hallucinations or fear, rage and Psilocybe
violence
Gastrointestinal Mostly unidentified Nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramping, Agaricus, Amanita,
irritants (poorly described) diarrhoea (may be bloody) Chlorophyllum,
toxins Omphalotus
Disulfiram-like Coprine Symptoms short-lived acute toxic Coprinus
toxins syndromes such as flushing, sweating,
headache, nausea, vomiting, rapid heart
rate, shortness of breath and chest pain
appear only when alcohol is consumed
within 72 h after consumption
on most of natural toxins occurring in common food crops, the chemistry of many of the
mushroom toxins (namely those which are not deadly toxic) has not been fully explored yet.
The lack of comprehensive data makes positive identification of processed mushrooms cases
of intoxication either very difficult or almost impossible. With regard to these limitations,
more than on the basis of structure, mushroom toxins are often classified with regard to their
toxic effects. Using this criterion, listed in Table 5.1 and discussed in within this chapter,
there are characterized four major categories of mushroom toxins.
It should be noted, that both qualitative and quantitative analytical characterization of
mushroom toxins is a very demanding task, which is both complicated and time-consuming,
regardless of whether the fungal fruiting body or biological material such stomach contents,
serum and/or urine, are the subject of examination (the latter samples are collected in case
of poisoning suspicion). The exact chemical natures of most of the toxins that produce the
milder symptoms are unknown. Chromatographic techniques are most common in mush-
room toxins analysis. Thin layer chromatography (TLC) was used in most of older studies,
while more up-to-date methods utilize gas chromatography (GC) and/or high performance
chromatography (HPLC). Although conventional detectors may enable reliable analysis of
some target analytes, the more progress in analysis of both parent compounds and their toxic
breakdown products has been achieved by introduction of mass spectrometry (MS).
In the paragraphs below, the main toxins occurring both in mushrooms known as poisonous
and those representing ‘edible’ species are characterized. The current knowledge on occur-
rence routes, methods of analysis, incidence and levels of occurrence as well as exposure
assessment is presented. Besides general review articles (Faulstich and Wieland, 1992, 2005;
Hajslová, 1995; Spoerke and Rumack, 1994; Wieland and Faulstich, 1983) and other scientific
papers concerned with the most important mushroom toxins, also some official websites (e.g.
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/∼mow/chap40.html; http://calpoison.org/public/mushrooms.html;
http://www.maps.org/research/psilo/azproto.html) were consulted.
5.2 POISONOUS MUSHROOMS

The incidence of accidental ingestion of poisonous mushrooms largely varies over the world
depending on local tradition, life-style, nutritional factors and, obviously, on climatic and
environmental conditions that are related to their occurrence.
5.2.1 Amatoxins, phallotoxins and virotoxins

5.2.1.1 Occurrence route or mechanism of formation
Amatoxins, extremely (deadly) poisonous protoplasmic toxins of some Amanita species,
consist of at least nine similar bicyclic octapeptides shown in Fig. 5.1: α-amanitin, β-amanitin,
1 2
R R
CH
H3 C CH O O
O
NH CH C NH CH C NH CH2 C
C O H2 C NH CH3
5 CH CH
R O 4 CH2 CH3
S NH R C O
H N
CH2 NH
C
O CH NH C CH NH C CH2
CH2 O O
C O
R3
α-amanitin, R1 = CH2OH, R2 = OH, R3 = NH2, R4 = OH, R5 = OH

β-amanitin, R1 = CH2OH, R2 = OH, R3 = OH, R4 = OH, R5 = OH
γ-amanitin, R1 = CH3, R2 = OH, R3 = NH2, R4 = OH, R5 = OH
ε-amanitin, R1 = CH3, R2 = OH, R3 = OH, R4 = OH, R5 = OH
amanin, R1 = CH2OH, R2 = OH, R3 = OH, R4 = H, R5 = OH
amaninamid, R1 = CH2OH, R2 = OH, R3 = NH2, R4 = H, R5 = OH
amanullin, R1 = CH3, R2 = H, R3 = NH2, R4 = OH, R5 = OH
amanullic acid, R1 = CH3, R2 = H, R3 = OH, R4 = OH, R5 = OH
proamanullin, R1 = CH3, R2 = H, R3 = NH2, R4 = OH, R5 = H
Fig. 5.1 Structures of the amatoxins.

Mushroom Toxins 113
1
O O CH 2 R
H3 C 2
CH C NH CH C NH CH CH 2 C CH 2 R
NH H2 C C O OH
C O NH
5 3
R S NH CH R
H N CH 2 C O
C CH NH C CH NH
O O CH
4
HO R
phalloidin, R1 = OH, R2 = H, R3 = CH3, R4 = CH3, R5 = OH

phalloin, R1 = H, R2 = H, R3 = CH3, R4 = CH3, R5 = OH
prophalloin, R1 = H, R2 = H, R3 = CH3, R4 = CH3, R5 = H
phallisin, R1 = OH, R2 = OH, R3 = CH3, R4 = CH3, R5 = OH
phallacin, R1 = H, R2 = H, R3 = CH(CH3)2, R4 = COOH, R5 = OH
phallacidin, R1 = OH, R2 = H, R3 = CH(CH3)2, R4 = COOH, R5 = OH
phallasacin, R1 = OH, R2 = OH, R3 = CH(CH3)2, R4 = COOH, R5 = OH
Fig. 5.2 Structures of the phallotoxins.
γ-amanitin, ε-amanitin, amanullinic acid, amanin, amaninamid, amanullin and proamanullin.

Amatoxins occur often together with hepatotoxic phallotoxins, another group of bicyclic
peptides with seven amino acids in the ring (see Fig. 5.2). They are represented mainly by
phalloidin, other six actin-binding compounds identified until now are prophalloin, phalloin,
phallisin, phallicidin, phallacin and phallisacin.
Virotoxins, represent the third, minor group of cyclic peptides similar to phallotoxins. This
group consists of six monocyclic heptapeptides. The structures of viroidin, desoxyviroidin,
[Ala]viroidin, [Ala]deoxyoviroidin, viroisin and desoxoviroisin are shown in Fig. 5.3 (Vetter,
1998).
5.2.1.2 Methods of analysis

Since botanical identification of the fungus that was eaten is in many poisoning cases impos-
sible, diagnosis and its management is now based on various laboratory methods typically
radioimunoassays (RIA) that were developed for examination of amatoxins (mainly α- and
β-anmanitin) in serum, urine or gastrointestinal fluids. The test kits use either 3H tracer or
125 I tracer. The sensitivity of commercial RIA assays is around 0.1 ng mL−1 for serum and
0.25 ng mL−1 for urine (Gonmori and Yoshioka, 2003).
As an alternative, sensitive HPLC methods employing conventional detectors are available
(Gonmori and Yoshioka, 2003). Also, the possibility to use of capillary zone electrophoresis
(CZE) with photodiode array detection has been demonstrated (Brüggemann et al., 1996).
Nowadays, combined liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC/MS) is a prominent
technique for the comprehensive analysis of amatoxins (and many other mushroom toxins),
both in Amanita fruiting bodies and biological fluids (Drummer, 1999; Maurer et al., 1998,
2000; Zhang et al., 2005). It should be noted, however, that LC/MS availability for routine use
is still limited, actually, most clinical laboratories do not use even the older RIA technique,
O O R
H3 C
CH C NH CH C NH CH CH2 C CH2 OH
NH H2 C C O OH
C O NH
HO CH R
H3 C X NH
N C O
HO C CH NH C CH NH
O CH2 OH O CH
HO CH3
viroidin, X = SO2, R1 = CH3, R2 = CH(CH3)2

deoxyviroidin, X = SO, R1 = CH3, R2 = CH(CH3)2
[Ala1]viroidin, X = SO2, R1 = CH3, R2 = CH3
[Ala1]deoxyviroidin, X = SO, R1 = CH3, R2 = CH3
viroisin, X = SO2, R1 = CH2OH, R2 = CH(CH3)2
deoxyviroisin, X = SO, R1 = CH2OH, R2 = CH(CH3)2
Fig. 5.3 Structures of the virotoxins.
hence the diagnosis based entirely on symptomology and recent dietary history is still common
is many places.
5.2.1.3 Incidence and levels of occurrence

Amanita phalloides, the most poisonous known mushroom (so-called green Death Cap), is
commonly found all over Europe, North America and some other areas with mild climates. It
may contain up to 80 mg kg−1 of fresh tissue α-amanitin and 50 mg kg−1 β-amanitin. These
compounds account in most cases for more than 90% of total amatoxins. In addition to them,
phalloidin is present, its content may approach 100 mg kg−1 . Phalloidin is also found in the
edible (and sought after) Blusher (Amanita rubescens) (Litten, 1975).
Occasionally, a closely related sub-species Amanita phalloides var. verna (in the older pa-
pers misclassified as separate species, A. verna), can be found. Its cup instead of olive green
is pale or even white and the content of amatoxins may be lower compared to green cup.
Another white species, A. virosa (the Destroying Angel), differs from the above poisonous
mushrooms in its toxin pattern: α-amanitin may be completely replaced by amaninamide.
The overall concentration of amatoxins in A. virosa varies in the range 40–200 mg kg−1
fresh tissue (Faulstich, 2005). In this species, also virotoxins are found exclusively. There are
several other fungi genera, such as Galerina and Lepiota, containing amatoxins, nevertheless,
their content is several times lower as compared to previous highly poisonous representa-
tives of Amanitus genus. The distribution of toxins in various tissues of Amanita species was
studied by several groups. In an older study (Enjalbert et al., 1993) Amanita phalloides mush-
rooms representing three specimens at two carpophore development stages were examined.
Substantial differences in the tissue toxin content were found. The ring displayed a very high
level of toxins, whereas the bulb had the lowest toxin content. Compositional differences
in relation to the nature of the tissue were also noted. The highest amatoxin content was
found in the ring, gills and cap, whereas the bulb and volva were the richest in phallotoxins.
Mushroom Toxins 115
Furthermore, variability in the toxin composition was observed, it is assumed that the differ-
ences in the distribution of individual toxins in the tissues might be related to the carpophore
developmental stage. Generally, young fruit body contains lower, and the well-developed fun-
gus higher concentrations of toxins, but their concentrations in certain species are variable,
even among mushrooms collected in the same region (Vetter, 1998). The follow-up study
(Enjalbert et al., 1999) conducted on 25 Amanita phalloides carpophores collected from three
sites in France that differed in their geological and pedological characteristics confirmed the
above conclusions.
5.2.1.4 Exposure assessment

Often the cause of poisoning by these deadly Amanitas is, akin to case of other mushrooms,
i.e. their mistaking for edible species. In this respect white-coloured species are the most
dangerous since they are erroneously considered to be edible Macrolepiota or Agaricus. It
should be emphasized that amatoxins peptides are not destroyed by cooking and can be
kept for years if dried, they will only decompose slowly when exposed to ultraviolet (UV)
light for several months. Regarding detoxification by organisms, unfortunately, no protease
known would cleave the peptide bonds in the cyclic peptide. In other words, the consumer’s
exposure correlates with amount of fresh mushrooms consumed and their content of toxins.
The LOD50 of major amatoxins in Amanita phalloides, α-amanitin and β-amanitin, was in
experiments with mice estimated in the range 0.3–0.6 mg kg−1 of body weight. Given the
estimated lethal dose for humans (0.1 mg kg−1 body weight), a full-grown mushroom (25 g)
will be sufficient to kill a human (Faulstich, 2005).
The major toxic mechanism associated with amatoxins poisoning is the inhibition of RNA
polymerase II, a vital enzyme in cell metabolism. In this way, mRNA synthesis is affected
(amatoxins inhibit protein biosynthesis at the transcriptional level), leading to cell death.
The liver is the principal organ affected, as it is the organ which is first encountered after
absorption in the gastrointestinal symptom, though other organs, especially the kidneys, are
susceptible.
The course of amanitin intoxication has three chronological phases. A latent phase takes
approximately 6–24 hours and rarely exceeds 48 hours. A gastrointestinal phase lasts typically
2–3 days and is associated with abdominal pain, vomiting and diarrhoea causing dehydration,
hypovolaemia, electrolyte and acid–base disorders. The third phase, so called hepatic, begins
36–48 hours after ingestion. Hepatitis becomes clinically evident with the onset of jaundice
on the 3rd–4th day after ingestion; hepatic coma, bleeding and anuria may occur in intox-
icated patients. When liver damage is reversible, patients usually make a slow and steady
recovery. In fatal cases, death occurs within 6–16 days. In spite of improved knowledge of
amatoxins poisoning, fatalities are still relatively high (according to some estimates up to
30%) since there is no specific therapy available (Faulstich and Wieland, 1992; Karlson-
Stiber and Persson, 2003). In total, more than 90% of all fatal cases of mushroom poisoning
in Europe are due to Amanita phalloides.
Compared to amatoxins, phallotoxins are highly toxic to liver cells (Wieland and Govin-
dan, 1974), their intoxication mechanism is believed to be due to the specific binding of the
toxin to F-actin, which subsequently inhibits the depolymerization of F-actin into G-actin.
However, since their absorption from the gastrointestinal tract is not significant, they do not
seem to play a major role in human toxicity. Virotoxins are closely related to phallotoxins
with respect to their structure and toxicity, but they do not exert any acute toxicity after
ingestion in humans (Karlson-Stiber and Persson, 2003).
5.2.2 Orellanine
Orellanine is a nefrotoxin exclusively occurring in mushrooms representing the Cortinarius
genus. The chemical composition of orellanine remained unknown until mid of the 1970s
when it was identified as a hydroxylated bipyridyl-N , N -dioxide (Oubrahim et al., 1998). In
the most stable form of orellanine, the nitrogen atoms are positively charged. It is supposed,
that reactive semi-quinone, see Fig. 5.4, is produced in cells by a peroxidase reaction. The
semi-quinone is a radical that probably causes intracellular depletion of glutathione and
ascorbate as the toxic event. Orellanine is in Cortinarius mushrooms typically accompanied
by the corresponding monooxide, orellinine, which is less toxic. When irradiated by UV
light, non-toxic stable orelline is formed through the loss of N-oxides (Ruedl et al., 1989).

Several analytical methods were developed both for the analysis of mushrooms and biological
samples, such as plasma and renal tissue. In the later case, TLC can be used for separation prior
to proof of the presence of toxins under UV light. Orellanine is visible as navy blue, orellinine
as dark blue, and orelline as light blue fluorescent spots on silica TLC plates (Horn et al.,
1997). Quantitative analysis of orellanine in plasma samples, or in (rat) urine samples, was
performed by two-dimensional TLC on cellulose employing spectrophotometric evaluation
of orelline produced by UV-induced decomposition of orellanine. HPLC was used for the
analysis of orellanine in mushroom extracts (Faulstich, 2005). Very simple and quick methods
for the identification of orellanine in mushroom isolates based in TLC and electrophoresis
was developed by Oubrahim et al. (1997).

The orellanine levels and its tissue distribution were studied in Cortinarius orellanus and
Cortinarius rubellus species (Koller et al., 2002). The analysis of caps showed the content
of toxin to be (expressed on dry weight basis) 9400 mg kg−1 and 7800 mg kg−1 in stems
4800 mg kg−1 and 4200 mg kg−1 , and in spores 3100 mg kg−1 and 900 mg kg−1 , respectively.
In mycorrhiza roots from C. rubellus, the orellanine content was 0.03%. In another study
(Faulstich, 2005), the amount of orellanine was determined as ca. 14 000 mg kg−1 dry weight
in C. orellanus, and 9000 mg kg−1 dry weight in C. speciocissimus.
OH OH O −
O
OH − OH OH
O
O H H O−
+ N + N N + N
N + N N N +
− − H −
O O O
HO HO HO HO
OH O O OH
Fig. 5.4 Structures of orellanine and its degradation products orellinine, orelline and radical semiquinone
of orellanine.
Mushroom Toxins 117

Bipyridines with positively charged nitrogen atoms were already known to be poisonous be-
fore the structure of orellanine was elucidated. At the molecular level, orellanine was shown
to be an inhibitor of alkaline phosphatase (Ruedl et al., 1989). Symptoms of orellanine poi-
soning are typical of renal damage, developing over several days, in some cases up to 2 weeks
after the mushroom meal (Danel et al., 2001). During the latent period, mild gastrointesti-
nal disorders occur, which may be overlooked. Accordingly, patients present themselves at
hospital only at the stage when renal failure has developed. In this respect, orellanin is par-
ticularly insidious. Lethal doses of orellanine are known for the mouse only, corresponding
to 15–20 mg kg−1 body weight for intraperitoneal and 33–90 mg kg−1 body weight for oral
administration (Faulstich, 2005).
5.2.3 Muscarine
L-(+)-Muscarine, [(4R)-4-hydroxy-5-methyl-oxolan-2-yl]methyl-trimethyl-azanium (Fig.
5.5) is a toxic chiral quaternary amine occurring in mainly mushrooms of Clitocybe and
Inocybe genera. Traces of three other stereoisomers (theoretically may exist 8 isomeric sub-
stances), epimuskarin, epiallomuskatin and allomuskarin (Fig. 5.5) were also detected in
these toxic fungi, nevertheless, they possess only low biological activity.

Muscarine can be detected by high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC). Using
Dragendorff reagent, muscarine appears as an orange spot on the plate (Stijve, 1981).
Recently, Wai-cheung et al. (2007) developed a new multi-detection method using HPLC
separation of mushroom toxins employing an HILIC column with amide-based stationary
phase that enables hydrophilic interactions and tandem mass spectrometry (MS-MS) with
electrospray ionization (ESI+) for high sensitive detection. This LC/MS-MS method was
successfully employed to simultaneously separate several polar mushroom toxins, including
amanitins and phallotoxins.

Muscarine is present in all the parts of respective most poisonous genera,Inocybe and Clito-
cybe. In a specimen like I. patouillardi, I. fastigiata, I. geophylla and C. dealbata, it accounts
for 1000–3000 mg kg−1 of dry weight. While Inocybe mushrooms are mycorrhizal on conifers
or broad-leafed trees, Clitocybe mushrooms are saprophytic and grow on forest litter or
grassland humus. Both these genera occur commonly in summer and autumn and have a
worldwide distribution.
HO HO HO HO
+ + + +
N (CH3 )3 N(CH3)3 N(CH3)3
H3C O N(CH3)3
H3C O H3C O H3C O
Fig. 5.5 Structures of muscarine, epimuscarine, epiallomuscarine and allomuscarine.

Small amounts of muscarine, at a maximum of 90 mg kg−1 , are also present in A. mus-

caria. Although this species got its name due to the presence of muscarine (this toxin was for
the first time isolated and identified), the main toxic principle in it is muscimol and its pre-
cursor ibotenic acid (Faulstich, 2005). Harmless levels of muscarine, typically not exceeding
20 mg kg−1 , occur in several other genera, for instance Amanita, Boletus, Hygrocybe,
Lactarius, Mycena and Russula.

Due to certain structural similarity, muscarine mimics the action of the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine at metabotropic receptors that are also known under the name muscarinic
acetylcholine receptors. It should be noted that muscarine is not destroyed by heating during
cooking (Lambert et al., 2000). So when a mushroom meal with a high muscarine content
is ingested, poisoning characterized by profuse sweating, perspiration, salivation, urination,
gastric upset, emesis and lachrymation occurs, and vomiting may occur. Symptoms onset
is soon, typically within 15–30 minutes after ingestion of the mushroom. With large doses,
these symptoms may be followed by abdominal pain, severe nausea, diarrhoea, blurred vi-
sion and laboured breathing. Intoxication generally subsides within 2 hours. The species
such as Amanta muscaria containing less muscarine are only occasionally responsible for
cholinomimetic signs. Generally, fatalities due to muscarine are rare, and are mostly limited
to victims with pre-existing health problems.
5.2.4 Ibotenic acid and muscimol

Ibotenic acid and muscimol are neurotoxins occurring in some species of Amanita
genus, namely Amanita muscaria so called Fly Agaricus and Amanita pantherina,
Panthercap.Ibotenic acid, α-amino-2,3-dihydro-2-oxo-5-oxazoleacetic acid, is isoxazole
from which active species, muscimol, 5-(aminomethyl)-3(2H)-isoxazolone, is originated
through decarboxylation (Fig. 5.6).

Chromatographic methods are most commonly used for the analysis of A. muscaria toxins.
When using TLC and/or paper chromatography, ninhydrin is used for their detection, and
muscinol develops as a yellow spot after heating (Faulstich, 2005). Alternatively, a GC/MS
method can be employed (Tsujikawa, 2006). Recently, an LC/MS-MS method employing
electrospray ionization (ESI) has been used for identification and analysis of these toxins
in selected Amanita mushrooms. Also, LC/UV method after pre-column derivatization with
dansyl chloride has been described (Tsujikawa, 2007).
HO
HO
N COOH
O
N NH2
O NH2
Fig. 5.6 Structures of muscimol and ibotenic acid.

Mushroom Toxins 119

Species containing ibotenic acid and muscinol are widely distributed throughout the planet.
Amanita muscaria but also Amanita pantherina and Amanita gemmata, grow in summer and
autumn under coniferous and deciduous trees, from the lowland up to the sub-alpine zone.
They occur practically all over the temperate and sub-tropical zones of all continents (Seeger
and Stijve, 1978).
It is thought that, in A. muscaria, the layer just below the skin of the cap contains the
highest amount of muscimol, and is therefore the most psychoactive portion. Toxic doses
of ibotenic acid (30–60 mg) and muscimol (ca. 6 mg) can be found in single specimens of
A. muscaria. Commonly, two to four mushrooms of A. muscaria are ingested to produce
mind-altering effects (Faulstich, 2005).
Recently, levels of muscimol and ibotenic acid in Amanita mushrooms naturally grown
and circulated in the drug market have been described (Tsujikawa et al., 2007). The mean
levels of muscimol determined in A. muscaria cap were 156 mg kg−1 (ranging from 46 to
1203 mg kg−1 ) and in stem 178 mg kg−1 (82–292 mg kg−1 ). For ibotenic acid, the mean
content in cap was 863 mg kg−1 (182–1839 mg kg−1 ) and 1125 mg kg−1 in stem (627–
1998 mg kg−1 ).

The consumption of A. muscaria has been associated with various tribal and religious cer-
emonies. Ibotenic acid and muscimol contained in it are potent neurotoxins mimicking the
natural transmitters glutamic acid and aspartic acid on neurons in the central nervous sys-
tem (CNS) with specialized receptors for amino acids. The latter compound is a selective
γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)A agonist, and acts on the CNS in a way similar to diazepam
(Michelot and Melendez-Howell, 2003). Commonly, mind-altering effects are experienced
after eating two to four mushrooms. When ibotenic acid is ingested, a small portion is decar-
boxylated into more biologically active muscimol. To enhance the conversion process, some
individuals have deliberately roasted these mushrooms prior to eating.
Ibotenic acid produces psychedelic effects in human beings at doses in the range of 50–
100 mg. Peak intoxication is reached approximately 2–3 hours after oral ingestion, consisting
of one or all of the following; visual distortions/hallucinations, loss of equilibrium, muscle
twitching (commonly mislabelled as convulsions), and altered sensory perception. These
effects generally last for 6–8 hours, varying with dose and have been shown to lack ‘structured’
hallucinations in most cases, and the effects are frequently compared to a lucid dream state.
The psychoactive dose of muscimol is 15–20 mg.
Patients may appear to be intoxicated, presenting nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. They
have colour hallucinations, slow pulse, hypotension, irritability and lack of coordination.
Children may develop fever and seizures. Fatalities rarely occur in adults, but in children,
accidental consumption of large quantities of these mushrooms may cause convulsions, coma
and other neurologic problems for up to 12 hours.
5.2.5 Psilocybin, psilocin

Psilocybin, 4-phosphoryloxy-N ,N -dimethyl-tryptamine, is a psychedelic pro-drug occurring
in Psilocybe and several other mushroom genera together with a closely related psilocin,
1 2
OR R
4
R N
R3
N
H
Psilocybin, R1 = PO3H2, R2 = CH3, R3 = CH3, R4 = H

Psilocin, R1 = H, R2 = CH3, R3 = CH3, R4 = H
Fig. 5.7 Structures of psilocybin and psilocin.
4-hydroxy-N ,N -dimethyl-tryptamine (see Fig. 5.7). In the body, psylocibin is enzymatically

dephosphorylated by phosphatases yielding pharmacologically active psilocin. This reaction
takes place also under strongly acidic conditions. Generally, psilocin is relatively unstable
in solution due to its phenolic group on the benzene ring at the 4-position in the indole
ring.

For qualitative analysis of psilocybin and psilocin, TLC can be used. The visualization of
toxin spots is obtained either by N ,N -dimethyl-aminobenzaldehyde (Ehlich reagent) or N ,N -
dimethyl aminocinnamic aldehyde. For accurate GC/MS or HPLC employing fluorescence
detector (FLD) or MS detection with electrospray ionization can be used (Bogusz, 2000;
Faulstich, 2005; Saito et al., 2004, 2005). As an alternative, capillary-zone electrophoresis
(CZE) and flow injection analysis (FIA) were reported as methods of choice for the determi-
nation of these toxins in mushroom extracts (Anastos et al., 2005). Several methods such as
HPLC with electrochemical detection (ECD) or DNA-based tests were applied for examina-
tion of biological fluids human plasma and urine for the presence of pisloscybin and psilocin
(the latter compound is excreted as glucuronide) (Faulstich, 2005).

Mushrooms containing these hallucinogenic indole derivatives were known already in the l6th
century in the Mayan culture of ancient Mexico. Species from genera Psilocybe, Conocybe,
Panaeolus and Gymnopilus may contain psilocybin in amounts as high as 2000–16 000
mg kg−1 dry weight, and a second psychoactive component, psilocin, in amounts ranging
from 0 to 10 000 mg kg−1 dry weight (Faulstich, 2005); the average is 5000 and 5000 mg
kg−1 , respectively. The quantity of toxins in the mushrooms can vary widely, depending on
species, phase of growth, mushroom size and drying conditions (both psilocybin and psilocin
are temperature-sensitive). Anastos et al. (2005) found only small content of psylocin and
psylocibin in dried mushrooms Psilocybe subaeruginosa and Hypholoma auranitiaca, also
Saito et al. (2005) reported levels of psylocibin in Psylocybe mushroom lower than 20 mg
kg−1 dried samples. In dry form, the mushrooms are available in the black market in various
countries (Faulstich, 2005).
Mushroom Toxins 121

Psilocybin mushrooms are commonly called ‘magic mushrooms’, or more simply ‘shrooms’,
they are seldom mistaken for food fungi by innocent hunters of wild mushrooms. For recre-
ational and entheogenic use, most common are Psilocybe semilanceata (liberty cap), and
Psilocybe cubensis (golden tops). When ingested, psilocybin is absorbed through the lining
of the mouth and stomach, then it is metabolized mostly in the liver where it becomes psilocin
(it is broken down by the enzyme monoamine oxidase). The toxin affects CNS with the pro-
duction of a syndrome, often described as pleasant, somewhat similar to alcohol intoxication,
sometimes accompanied by hallucinations. Its intensity and duration depends on many fac-
tors including dosage, individual physiology (metabolism), setting etc. Typically, following
dosage 10–50 mg psilocybin corresponding to approximately 1–5 g dried mushroom or 10–
50 g wet mushrooms effect begins in 10–60 minutes and lasts 2–6 hours.
Poisonings by these mushrooms are rarely fatal in adults. The most severe cases of psilo-
cybin poisoning occur in small children, where large doses may cause the hallucinations
accompanied by fever, convulsions, coma and death.
It should be noted that psilocybin and psilocin are listed as Schedule I drugs under the
United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances (Schedule I drugs are illicit
drugs that are claimed to have no known therapeutic benefit). Parties to the treaty are re-
quired to restrict use of the drug to medical and scientific research under strictly controlled
conditions.
5.2.6 Coprine
Coprine, N 5-1-hydroxycyclopropyl-L-glutamine is a poison occurring in the popular Inky
Cap mushroom (Coprinus atramentarius) and several other species. This unusual amino acid,
consisting of cyclopropanone and glutamine, is metabolized to 1-aminocyclopropanol and
1,1-cyclopropandiol (cyclopropanone hydrate). The latter compound reacts with essential
SH-group of acetaldehyde dehydrogenase forming respective thio-hemiketal. Biologically
active components exhibit similar metabolic effects as disulfiram (see Fig. 5.8).

No method of analysis for the determination of coprine in mushrooms has been published in
the available literature, only analysis employing HPLC with electro-chemical detection for
its and other disulfiram-like compounds in rat brain in vitro has been described (Nilsson and
Tottmat, 1987).
O S
COOH S N (CH2 CH3 )2 HO
HO N S-Enzyme
(CH3 CH2 )2 N S
H NH2 S
Fig. 5.8 Structures of coprine, disulfiram and thio-hemiketal.


Coprinus atramentarius, or inky cap, has a delicious flavour when young. Like other inky caps,
for instance C. insignis, C. quadrifidus, C. variegates and C. atramentarius grows in tufts.
It is commonly associated with buried wood and is found in grassland, meadows, disturbed
ground, and open terrain in autumn. It appears in spring, summer and autumn across the
Northern Hemisphere, but has also been found in Australia. Traces of coprine were also found
in other mushrooms like Clytocibe claviceps, Pholiota squarrosa and/or Boletus luridus.

Although generally considered edible, when consumed with alcohol, Coprinopsis atramen-
taria and other related species are toxic. Coprine hydrolysis products originating in the human
body interfere with the breakdown of alcohol at the intermediate stage, since they block ac-
etaldehyde dehydrogenase. Consumption of alcoholic beverages within 72 hours after eating
these mushrooms will cause headache, nausea and vomiting, flushing and cardiovascular
disturbances that last for 2–3 hours. Although very unpleasant, the syndrome has not been
associated with any fatalities. The symptoms are described as similar to those observed af-
ter application of disulfiram (trade names for disulfiram in different countries are Antabuse
or Antabus), that is a drug used to support the treatment of chronic alcoholism by produc-
ing an acute sensitivity to alcohol. Coprine and disulfiram both caused an increase in the
acetaldehyde/ethanol ratio, coprine being more potent than disulfiram.
5.3 EDIBLE MUSHROOMS

Their special, delicious flavour has made some mushrooms essential ingredients in a variety
of meals throughout the ages. The demand for edible mushrooms is tremendous nowadays and
is still growing. The market needs are saturated predominantly by commercially cultivated
species – their total annual production is estimated to be well over 1.2 million tons, of which
Agaricus bisporus forms more than half.
The popularity of mushrooms as dietary constituents is, in addition to their attractive
organoleptic properties, based on their low energy content hence suitability for ‘low calorie’
diets. Without any exception, the content of lipids is very low and, at the same time, they
are a good source of dietary fibre and minerals. On the other hand, many wild and even
some cultivated edible mushrooms contain toxic constituents (Benjamin, 1995), fortunately,
as shown below, the content can be largely reduced by appropriate processing.
Characterized below, hydrazine derivatives gyromitrin and agaritin (the first occurring in
certain False Morels, Gyromitra esculenta, and the latter one in many Agaricus species), are
the most probable mushroom toxins to which humans can be exposed via the diet. It should
be noted, that no regulations for toxins occurring in edible mushrooms exist, the existing
toxicological data do not allow setting acceptable daily intake (ADI) values.
5.3.1 Gyromitrin
Gyromitrin, acetaldehyde-N -methyl-N -formylhydrazone (AMFH), see Fig. 5.9, is a hy-
drazine derivative that was for the first time recognized as the main natural toxin (protoplasmic
Mushroom Toxins 123
CH3 CH N N CH O
CH3
Fig. 5.9 Structure of gyromitrin.
poison) of False Morel, Gyromitra esculenta. This fairly unstable compound is easily oxidized
by oxygen when exposed to ambient air, even at room temperature. Under cooking condi-
tions, hydrolysis of gyromitrin occurs yielding N -methyl-N -formylhydrazine (MFH), which
is more stable than its precursor compound (Pyysalo and Niskanen, 1977; Coulet, 1982).
N -methylhydrazine (monomethylhydrazine, MMH) that originates from MFH (Fig. 5.10)
by its further decomposition, represents the real toxic principle responsible for human poi-
soning by some species of Gyromitra genus (Berger and Guss, 2005a,b). It was estimated
that 25–30% of gyromitrin can be biotransformed via MFH to MMH in vivo. The highly
reactive N -nitroso-N -methylformamide (NMFA), shown in Fig. 5.10, originates through
this process catalysed by liver microsomal monooxygenases. It should be noted, that in
addition to gyromitrin, eight other homologous N -methyl-N -formylhydrazones were iden-
tified in Gyromitra esculenta. Acetaldehyde is replaced in their molecule by the following
higher aldehydes: propanal, n-butanal, 3-methylbutanal, n-pentanal, n-hexanal, n-octanal,
trans-2-octenal, and cis-2-octenal. The weight ratio of gyromitrin to the total content of these
hydrazones was found to be approximately 88:12 (Pyysalo and Niskanen, 1977).

The analysis of gyromitrin and its breakdown products is a rather complicated task. Cur-
rently, no methods validated by interlaboratory studies are available. Enforcing effective
oxidase + −
H2N NH CH3 CH 2 N N
N-methylhydrazine diazomethan
+
− HCOOH H2O (H )
+
H2O (H )
CH3 CH N N CH O H2N N CH O HO N N CH3
CH3 CH O CH3
CH3
Gyromitrin N-methyl-N-formylhydrazine
oxidase
HO NH N CH O O N N CH O
CH3 CH 3
N-hydroxy-N '-methyl-N'-formylhydrazine N-nitroso-N-methylformamid

Fig. 5.10 Degradation and metabolism of gyromitrin.
control of these substances in the False Morels is thus not easy. Early methods used for
the determination of gyromitrin were based on a titration of an alcohol extract of the False
Morel with potassium iodate, exploiting the ability of gyromitrin and its hydrolysis products
to be oxidized. Obviously these approaches were fairly unspecific giving only an indication
of total hydrazine derivatives, moreover, the sensitivity was low while labour – demands
high (TemaNord, 1995). Another applicable method is based on electrochemical oxidation
of methylhydrazine (Slanina et al., 1993). In some studies (TemaNord, 1995), the released
MMH from bound to an unknown high-molecular component in which it is supposed to
occur, was achieved by heating a water suspension of fruiting bodies in a sealed glass tube at
120◦ C for several hours. Gas chromatography and TLC were then used for its identification.
Recently, Arshadi et al. (2006) developed a simple analytical technique employing GC/MS
for the rapid determination of low levels (0.3 mg kg−1 ) of MMH. In this way the content
of gyromitrin (and its homologues) in air-dried False Morel could be monitored. Prior to
the determinative step, all MMH obtained by conversion of gyromitrin is derivatized using
pentafluorobenzoyl chloride (to form the stable derivative tris-pentafluorobenzoyl methylhy-
drazine, tris-PFB-MH).

The fruiting bodies of False Morel (Gyromitra esculenta and G. gigas) (also known by a
variety of common names such as ‘red mushroom’, the ‘beefsteak mushroom’ or the ‘lorchel’)
appear mostly in spring on coniferous, occasionally also on deciduous sandy woodland. These
mushrooms are somewhat similar in appearance to the ‘true’ morel (Morchella sp.). Morels
are very popular for mushroom hunters and gourmets in some countries, namely, in northern
and eastern Europe because of their delicious taste (interestingly, these mushrooms have not
yet been successfully cultivated on a large scale). According to some studies (Hajslová, 1995),
the content of gyromitrin, representing the most abundant toxic hydrazone in freshly picked
False Morels, can be as high as 3000 mg kg−1 . The levels of MFH could reach 500 mg kg−1 ;
the concentration of MMH typically ranges from 40 to 350 mg kg−1 (Hajslová, 1995). As
indicated above, it is supposed that the greater part of gyromitrin and MFH in False Morel is
chemically bound (probably as glycosides) to higher molecular weight molecules. Generally,
the toxin content in False Morels may largely vary with growth conditions, such as altitude
and temperature (List and Luft, 1967).

Morels containing toxic gyromitrin are considered to be edible mushrooms in some coun-
tries, especially in northern and eastern Europe. Some Gyromitra species contain gyromitrin,
whereas only traces or none toxin are present in others. Unfortunately, toxic and non-toxic
species are often mixed-up, and specific cases of mistaken mushroom identity appear fre-
quently. In this respect, the early False Morel Gyromitra esculenta is a dangerous fungus
since it is easily confused with the true morel Morchella esculenta. Several poisonings have
occurred after consumption of fresh or cooked Gyromitra. Alternatively, the reason of poi-
soning may be ‘contamination’ of commercially available ‘morels’ with G. esculenta (Toth,
2000).
For exposure assessment, changes occurring during common culinary practices have to be
considered, for example gyromitrin is rather unstable under processing. However, regarding,
drying, this process does not lead to significant detoxification as most of the precursors
Mushroom Toxins 125
that can be hydrolysed to MMH are eliminated. For instance, Larsson and Eriksson (1989)
reported that drying in the open air at room temperature for 3 months reduced the original
MMH levels in the range 30–71%, so relatively high amounts of this toxin were still left
in the dried mushrooms (410–610 mg kg−1 in a particular case). In some commercial dried
False Morels, levels as high as 1000–3000 mg kg−1 of this hydrazine were reported (Larsson
and Eriksson, 1989). On the other hand, a significant decrease of hydrazines can be achieved
by boiling. On average, only 10–15% of MMH remained in False Morels after the boiling
experiment. The concentrations of MMH in drained canned mushrooms varied from 6 to
65 mg kg−1 , which corresponds to 3–30 mg kg−1 in fresh tissue (Larsson and Eriksson,
1989). However, one should be aware, that at the same time when elimination of gyromitrin
takes place, intoxication of humans may also occur due to inhalation of the fumes emitted
during cooking in an uncovered pot.
Hydrazines released from gyromitrin are cytotoxic, but far less so than amatoxins and/or
orellanine (Karlson-Stiber and Persson, 2003). However, FMH and MMH were reported to
be carcinogenic, possibly due to methylation of guanine moieties in DNA. The lethal dose for
hydrazines for humans has been estimated as 20–50 mg kg−1 body weight, less for children,
i.e., 10–30 mg kg−1 body weight (Bergman and Hellenas, 1992).
Acute intoxication by False Morels somehow resembles Amanita poisoning, but is less
severe. There is generally a latent period of 6–10 hours (or even more) after ingestion during
which no symptoms are evident, then there is a sudden onset of abdominal discomfort (a
feeling of fullness), severe headache, vomiting and sometimes diarrhoea occurs. The toxin
affects primarily the liver, but there are additional disturbances to blood cells and the cen-
tral nervous system. However, life-threatening poisonings, or even fatalities, are nowadays
rare. Considering historical data, the mortality rate based on historical data is relatively low
(2–4%).
5.3.2 Agaritine and other phenylhydrazines

Within the research concerned with the metabolism of 2-oxo acids in Basidiomycota, one of
two large phyla, a glutamin-containing compound was isolated from press-juice of Agar-
icus bisporus mushrooms as early as the 1960s (Levenberg, 1961, 1964). This was the
first report of a natural phenylhydrazine derivative occurring in relatively high amounts in
common Agaricus mushrooms, was identified as β-N -(γ-L(+)-glutamyl)-4-hydroxymethyl
phenylhydrazine (Fig. 5.11) and was given the trivial name agaritine. In follow-up stud-
ies, several other nitrogen–nitrogen bond containing substances – related phenylhydrazine
NH2
NH NH CO CH2 CH2 C COOH
H
CH2 OH
Fig. 5.11 Structure of agaritine.

2
NH NH R
1
R
4-(karboxy)phenylhydrazine, R1 = COOH, R2 = H
4-(hydroxymethyl)phenylhydrazine, R1 = CH2OH, R2 = H
β-N-[γ-L(+)-glutamyl]-4-(carboxy)phenylhydrazine, R1 = COOH, R2 = CH2CH2CH(NH2)COOH
β-N-[γ-L(+)-glutamyl]-4-(formyl)phenylhydrazine, R1 = CH=O, R2 = CH2CH2CH(NH2)COOH
Fig. 5.12 Structures of precursors and degradation products of agaritine.
derivatives (Fig. 5.12), and also 4-(hydroxymethyl)benzenediazonium ion (Fig. 5.13) were
found in Agaricus mushrooms (Levenberg, 1961; Ross et al., 1982; Chauhan et al., 1984,
1985), the latter one only in the basal stalk. Of these substances, agaritine is most preva-
lent, usually occurring at average levels between 200 and 500 mg kg−1 fresh weight; 4-
(carboxy)phenylhydrazine, β-N -(γ-L(+)-glutamyl)-4-(carboxy)phenylhydrazine and the 4-
(hydroxymethyl)benzenediazonium ion (Figs. 5.12 and 5.13) were found in much smaller
amounts (Andersson and Gry, 2004). The first two compounds were postulated as possible
biosynthetic precursors of agaritine, whereas the 4-(hydroxymethyl)benzenediazonium ion
together with 4-(hydroxymethyl)-phenylhydrazine are breakdown products. Hydrolysis of
agaritine, which is supposed to be catalysed in mushroom tissue by γ-glutamyl transferase
(EC 2.3.2.1), results in releasing L-glutamic acid and 4-(hydroxymethyl)phenylhydrazine.
This intermediate, however, has never been detected in Agaricus mushrooms, obviously due
to its high instability; In the same way as similar hydrazines, it is easily oxidized (Hajslová,
1995), yielding the respective 4-(hydroxymethyl) benezendiazonium ion in this particular
case. In addition to enzymatic formation of this catabolite, a direct formation pathway of
diazonium ion from agaritine is proposed by some authors (Ross et al., 1982). Most proba-
bly, oxidative transformation of the desglutamyl moiety of its precursor takes place, either
on the intact molecule or after cleavage of glutamate residue. An interesting hypothesis was
postulated by Stijve et al. (1986). Trying to explain why agaritine is produced by Agaricus
species, he concluded that the above catabolites concomitantly produced in vivo help to in-
hibit competitive fungi that may attack these mushrooms. Besides increasing production with
time during mushroom aging (what makes up for its increasing vulnerability), the proposed
fungistatic role of agaritine is supported by several other finding such as seldom, if ever,
occurrence of mould on Agaricus mushrooms body or significantly higher content of this
+
N N
CH2 OH
Fig. 5.13 Structure of 4-(hydroxymethyl)benzendiazonium ion.

Mushroom Toxins 127
toxin in wild growing species and strains as compared to cultivated ones that are growing in
a protected environment (Anderson et al., 2006).

The oldest methods employed for quantification of agaritine in mushrooms were time and
labour demanding. In his pioneering study, Levenberg (1961, 1964) used an enzymatic hy-
drolysis for releasing 4-(hydroxymethyl)phenylhydrazine from the parent toxin. After ad-
dition of glyoxylic acids, the hydrazone originating from this agaritine breakdown product
was determined spectrophotometrically. Gravimetric determination of agaritine, involving
a multi-step purification procedure was described by Kelly et al. (1962). The first proce-
dure employing HPLC for the determination of agaritine in fresh and processed Agaricus
mushrooms was reported by Liu et al. (1982), although only high concentrations of target
analyte could be reliably determined. Some improvement in the performance characteristics
of an HPLC/UV method was achieved by Speroni and Bellman (1982). Schulzova et al.
(2002) validated a reversed phase HPLC method employing diode-array detector (DAD)
for the analysis of agaritine extracted with methanol, both from fresh and processed mush-
rooms. A detection limit of 0.2 mg kg−1 in fresh mushroom was reported. Similar parameters
were obtained by an HPLC/FLD method developed by Nagaoka et al. (2006). Agaritine
and its three derivatives were determined in crude extract obtained from Agaricus mush-
room and products thereof after their conversion to the corresponding fluorescent products
with 3,4-dihydro-6,7-dimethoxy-4-methyl-3-oxoquinoxaline-2-carbonyl chloride (DMEQ-
COCl). Highly sensitive and accurate analytical procedure (limit detection as low as 0.003
mg kg−1 ) employing liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization (ESI) tan-
dem mass spectrometry LC/MS-MS was implemented by Kondo et al. (2006a,b). Similar
approach, i.e. tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS-MS, ESI in the negative mode) was em-
ployed not only for analysis of several edible and processed mushroom species, but also
for examination of agaritine-administered mouse plasma (Kondo et al., 2006a,b). LC/MS-
MS was also shown applicable for identification and quantification of agaritine in spores of
Agaricus bisporus (Janak et al., 2006).

The presence of agaritine seems to be limited to the Agaricus genus. Reported levels of this
natural toxin in fresh mushrooms vary considerably; nevertheless, completely agaritine-free
easily cultivatable mushrooms are not known. Liu et al. (1982) found levels of agaritine
in Agaricus mushrooms to range from 330 to 1730 mg kg−1 in 14 lots of button mush-
rooms from 10 different commercial growers in Pennsylvania. According to other studies
(Liu et al., 1982), the agaritine content ranged from 440 to 720 mg kg−1 in two different
mushroom batches (Ross et al., 1982), from 160 to 650 mg kg−1 in four varieties of white
Agaricus mushrooms and from 240 to 650 mg kg−1 in brown ones, from 80 to 250 mg kg−1
in two different strains (Stijve et al., 1986). In general, higher levels of agaritine can be
expected in young still-closed mushrooms. Enzymatic breakdown of agaritine yielding 4-
(hydroxymethyl)hydrazine is considered to be responsible for a lower content of parent
compound in older fruiting bodies. An extensive study by Speroni et al. (1983) concerned
with the influence of growing conditions showed, that all the production steps – composting
as well as spawning and cropping – influence the final levels of agaritine in cultivated mush-
rooms. Agaritine levels were found to be lower in mushrooms grown on natural composts
(containing mostly horse manure) than in a case of blended or synthetic substrates.
Limited data are available on levels of related hydrazines. Concentrations 10–

11 mg kg−1 of 4-(carboxy)phenylhydrazine, 16–42 mg kg−1 of β-N -(γ-L(+)-glutamyl)-
4-(carboxy)phenylhydrazine and 0.6–4 mg kg−1 of 4-(hydroxymethyl)benzenediazonium
ion were reported to be present in A. bisporus (Andersson and Gry, 2004).

The occurrence of a phenylhydrazine derivative in such a common delicacy as Agaricus
mushrooms has been of great health concern since hydrazines are an established class
of chemical carcinogens. Life-long feeding of Swiss albino mice with fresh, dry-baked
and/or freeze-dried A. bisporus fungi resulted in tumour development in various tissues
of the experimental animals (Toth and Sornson, 1984; Toth, 1986; Toth et al., 1997, 1998).
On this account, agaritine, the dominating hydrazine in these mushrooms, was considered
as the most likely reason for the carcinogenicity (it is believed to be metabolized to the
reactive, 4-hydroxymethylbenzenediazonium ion via 4-(hydroxymethyl)phenylhydrazine)
(Fischer et al., 1984). However, experiments in which agaritine was administered to mice
orally as a pure compound in drinking water or by gavage failed to elicit a carcinogenic
response (Toth et al., 1981), while other mushroom hydrazines induced tumours (Toth et al.,
1982; Toth and Erickson, 1986; McManus et al., 1987). The observation that agaritine was
degraded in aqueous solution in the presence of oxygen (Hajslová et al., 2002) may con-
tribute to the apparent discrepancy in results of toxicological studies. Generally, it seems,
that direct acting mutagenicity of mushrooms is not related to the concentration of agaritine
(Toth, 1995). The metabolism and bioactivation of agaritine and other mushroom hydrazines
in whole mushroom homogenate and by mushroom tyrosinase was investigated to get more
knowledge in this area (Walton et al., 1998, 2001). Also, more recent results of short-term tests
in animals (Andersson and Gry, 2004) indicated the need of more studies explaining the rela-
tionship between mutagenicity and hydrazine derivatives occurring in Agaricus mushrooms.
Since Agaricus mushrooms are consumed raw only exceptionally, the changes occurring
during their handling and processing have to be taken into consideration for the estimation
of consumer’s dietary intake. As documented in one of conducted market studies, large
differences exist between unprocessed and heat processed Agaricus mushrooms (Andersson
and Gry, 2004). While the content of agaritine in various fresh Agaricus bisporus mushrooms
was not below 200 mg kg−1 in any of examined sample, its levels in the 35 different trademarks
of canned mushroom products obtained in retail market, were by one order of magnitude
lower. In average, whole canned mushrooms (25 samples) contained 14.9 mg agaritine per kg
product, mean content in cut mushrooms (10 various products) was 18.1 mg kg−1 . Agaritine
levels in brine were generally slightly lower than those determined in solid parts of the
mushroom. On a portion basis, somewhat higher amounts of agaritine may be found in some
other food products (mushroom soup and pasta sauce) containing A. bisporus (Andersson
et al., 1999). In another extensive study, a reduction of agaritine levels by 2–47% was observed
in mushrooms stored at 4◦ C and 12◦ C for 7 days. The decrease of agaritine content after 14
days ranged from 36 to 76%. Significant changes in agaritine levels were observed in frozen
(−25◦ C, 30 days) and then thawed mushrooms, the losses being about 74% (Ross et al., 1982).
On the other hand, relatively high levels of agaritine (1000–4600 mg kg−1 ) were reported
in dry powdered and sliced mushrooms which are often used as a seasoning for soups and
gravies. Blanching in boiling water led to leaching of approximately one half of the agaritine
into the blanch-water, blanching and boiling for 5 minutes reduced the original content of
agaritine by 57 and 75% in brown and white strains, respectively (Fischer et al., 1984).
Mushroom Toxins 129
Table 5.2 The influence of storage and household processing on the agaritine content of
Agaricus mushrooms.
Amount of agaritine
remaining in the
Process Conditions Time mushrooma
Storage
Drying 25◦ C 24 h 82%
Drying 50◦ C 7.5 h 76%
Drying 40–60◦ C 7h 81%
Freezing without thawing −18◦ C 7 days 75%
Freezing with thawing −18◦ C 7 days 52%
Freezing without thawing −18◦ C 30 days 41%
Freezing with thawing −18◦ C 30 days 23%
Household processing
Cooking Boiling water 5 min 44%
Cooking Boiling water 60 min 12%
Dry baking 200◦ C 10 min 77%
Deep-frying 150◦ C 10 min 50%
Deep-frying 170◦ C 5 min 52%
Frying 150◦ C 10 min 43%
Microwave heating 1000 W, 2450 MHzb 1 min 35%
a
100% = agaritine content in fresh mushrooms before processing.
b
20 grams sliced mushrooms.
Reproduced from Schulzova, V., Hajslova, J., Peroutka, R., Gry, J. and Andersson, H.C. Influence of storage and
household processing on the agaritine content of the cultivated Agaricus mushroom. Food Additives and Contami-
nants, 19(9), 853–863. Copyright 2002 with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
(http://www.informaworld.com).
As illustrated in Table 5.2, depending on the cooking procedure, household-processing of

cultivated mushrooms generally reduces the agaritine content, the degree of reduction being
dependant on the length and conditions of storage and was usually in the range 20–75%
(for more details see Table 5.2). No reduction in agaritine content was observed during
freeze-drying (Schulzova et al., 2002).
In spite of apparent elimination of agaritine through the above household/industrial prac-
tices, one should be aware, that it is not known to what extent agaritine and other phenyl-
hydrazines occurring in the cultivated mushroom are degraded into other biologically active
compounds during these processes. On this account the risk assessment based on the currently
available data is hardly possible (Andersson and Gry, 2004).
To evaluate the human health risk related to the consumption of Agaricus mushrooms,
studies carried out in accordance with modem test guidelines, together with information on
the concentration of hydrazine derivatives in mushrooms used for experiments as well as
epidemiological data are needed
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6 Mycotoxins
Keith A. Scudamore
Summary
The name mycotoxin combines the Greek word for fungus ‘mykes’ and the Latin word
‘toxicum’ meaning poison. Moulds can be of great benefit to man as nutritious foods or as
the source of antibiotics and other useful chemicals. The term ‘mycotoxin’ is usually reserved
for the toxic chemical products formed by a few fungal species that readily colonise crops in
the field or after harvest and thus pose a potential threat to human and animal health through
the ingestion of food products prepared from these commodities.
Any crop growing in the field or that is stored for more than a few days is at risk from
mould growth and potential mycotoxin formation. Mycotoxins occur worldwide and affect
important food sources such as cereals, nuts, dried fruit, coffee, cocoa, spices, oil seeds, dried
legumes and fruit. Once formed mycotoxins are mostly stable and persistent, thus the best
method of control is prevention. They may also be found in beer and wine resulting from
contaminated barley, other cereals and grapes used in their production. Mycotoxins also enter
the human food chain via meat or other animal products such as eggs, milk and cheese as the
result of livestock ingesting contaminated animal feed.
Mycotoxins cause a diverse range of toxic effects and are of concern for the long-term
health of the human population even when present in low amounts, as some of the most
common mycotoxins are carcinogenic, genotoxic, or may target the kidney, liver or immune
system.
The risk that such mycotoxins pose to man is under continuous review and this has re-
sulted in statutory or guideline maximum permissible limits for some mycotoxins. Sampling
and analysis represents a demanding challenge for the analyst. Failure to achieve a satisfac-
tory performance in either area may lead to unacceptable consignments being accepted or
satisfactory loads being unnecessarily rejected.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.1.1 Mycotoxins and their study
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by certain species of fungi. They
have a range of diverse chemical and physical properties and toxicological effects on man
and animals. While many hundreds of such metabolites have been identified, only 20–30
have been shown to be naturally occurring contaminants of human or animal food (Watson,
1985). Only one group of major importance, the fumonisins, have been identified in the past

Mycotoxins 135
Table 6.1 Physical properties of some mycotoxins.
Molecular Molecular Melting

Mycotoxin formula weight point UV absorption (nm)
Ochratoxin A C20 H18 ClNO6 403 169 36 800 (213), 6400 (332) ethanol
Deoxynivalenol C15 H20 O6 296 131–135 Maximum at 218 ethanol
T-2 toxin C24 H34 O9 466 150–151 Maximum at 187 cyclohexane
Diacetoxyscirpenol C19 H26 O7 366 162–164 None
Zearalenone C18 H22 O5 318 164 29 700 (236), 13 910 (274),
6020, (316) ethanol
Fumonisin B1 C34 H59 NO15 721 Powder Low
Fumonisin B2 C34 H59 NO14 705 Powder Low
Patulin C 7 H 6 O4 154 111 14 600 (275) ethanol
Citrinin C13 H14 O5 250 179 22 280 (222), 8279 (253), 4710
(319) ethanol
Cyclopiazonic acid C20 H20 N2 O3 336 246 20 400 (282) methanol
Sterigmatocystin C18 H12 O6 324 246 15 200 (325) benzene
Moniliformin C4 HO3 Na 120
Tenuazonic acid C10 H15 NO3 197 Oil 5000 (218), 12 500 (277) acid
methanol; 11 500 (240), 14 500
(280) methanol
Altenuene C15 H16 O6 292 190–191 30 000 (240), 10 000 (278), 6600
(319) ethanol
Alternariol C14 H10 O5 258 350 38 000 (258) ethanol
Alternariol C15 H12 O5 272 267
monomethyl ether
20 years (Gelderblom et al., 1988). The most important mycotoxins found in food are listed in
Table 6.2 together with the principal fungal species responsible for their production.
This chapter discusses the key mycotoxins in turn with particular emphasis on their oc-
currence and methods for their determination. Physical and chemical properties of the most
commonly encountered mycotoxins are given in Tables 6.1 and 6.2. The main toxicological
properties are considered but the reader should consult other works for their detailed toxicol-
ogy. In a toxicological study the administration to an animal of a pure crystalline mycotoxin
often leads to results at variance with those achieved when similar quantities of the crude
Table 6.2 Physical and chemical properties of some aflatoxins.
UV absorption maxima (ε)

in methanol
Molecular Molecular Melting
Aflatoxin formula weight point 265 nm 360–362 nm
B1 C17 H12 O6 312 268–269 12 400 21 800

B2 C17 H14 O6 314 286–289 12 100 24 000
G1 C17 H12 O7 328 244–246 9600 17 700
G2 C17 H14 O7 330 237–240 8200 17 100
M1 C17 H12 O7 328 299 14 150 21 250 (357)
M2 C17 H14 O7 330 293 12 100 (264) 22 900 (357)
Aflatoxicol C17 H14 O6 314 230–234 10 800 (261) 14 100 (325)
product formed under natural conditions are presented. The reason is that secondary fungal
metabolism often leads to a cocktail of different metabolites, which may act additively or
synergistically. Accumulation of toxicological data, and information on occurrence and food
consumption, has enabled risk assessment to be carried out and regulations introduced for
the most important mycotoxins. The latest worldwide regulations for mycotoxins in food and
feed were reviewed in 2003 (FAO, 2004). The presence of mycotoxins in raw commodities
only becomes of concern for human health if they survive storage, processing and preparation
of the food item as consumed or if they give rise to toxic metabolites of the parent compound.
Similarly, their occurrence in animal feedingstuffs only presents a risk for human health if
they, or a toxic metabolite, are transferred in significant amounts to meat or animal products
such as eggs, milk or dairy products, although they may impair animal health and affect
productivity. A comprehensive review ‘Mycotoxins: Risks in Plant, Animal, and Human
Systems’ (CAST, 2003) provides an excellent overview of the mycotoxin problem while a
reference work addressing the subject of mycotoxins in animal feeds is that by Smith and
Henderson (1991).
The diversity of chemical structures exhibited by mycotoxins (Figs. 6.1–6.8) results in a
wide range of acute and chronic toxicological effects. The scourge of the Middle Ages in
Europe, St Anthony’s Fire, was caused by ergot alkaloids in cereals and many other animal
and human diseases have been attributed, at least in part, to the presence of mycotoxins in
food or the environment, although conclusive evidence for such associations is often difficult
to obtain. Some mycotoxins are proven or suspected carcinogens, mutagens or teratogens,
while others have been shown to challenge the immune systems of man and animals. This
raises the possibility of increased susceptibility to other diseases often without suspicion of
mycotoxin involvement.
It has also been demonstrated that intake of mycotoxins can occur as a result of their
presence in fungal spores in the atmosphere (Douwes et al., 2003) This form of exposure
may make a significant additional contribution to total intake under some circumstances,
such as damp domestic housing (Flannigan et al., 1991).
6.1.2 Mycotoxins and fungi

Mycotoxins may be formed in the field before harvest following infection by any of a variety
of fungal species, members of the genera Fusarium, Alternaria and Aspergillus being the
most important. Crops are also susceptible to fungal attack after harvest, during transport or
when in store, the main mycotoxigenic species being those of Penicillium and Aspergillus.
There is often a close relationship between fungal species and the secondary metabolites
produced but this relies on accurate taxonomic information based on correct identification of
species according to criteria agreed internationally. The most important mycotoxins found
in food are listed in Table 6.3 together with the principal fungal species responsible for their
production.
Information about the fungi involved has sometimes been contradictory due to mis-
identification of fungi at the species level or disagreement over the names applied to specific
species. This has been especially true of the genus Penicillium (Frisvad, 1989). Extreme
caution is required in attempting to relate fungal infection with the presence of mycotoxins
as these substances can only form if toxigenic strains of fungi are present and conditions are
suitable to trigger fungal metabolism. Conversely, apparently mould-free products can still
be contaminated with mycotoxins because the populations of fungal flora change throughout
food production and mycotoxins concentrations are subsequently affected by processing.
Mycotoxins 137
O O O O
O O
O O OCH3 O O OCH3
B1 B2
O O O O
O O O O
O O OCH3 O O OCH3
G1 G2
O O O O
O O
HO HO
O O OCH3 O O OCH3
M1 M2
O O O O
O O O
HO O O OCH3 HO O O OCH3
B2a G2a
Fig. 6.1 Structures of aflatoxins.
The development of mycotoxins depends on many factors, including temperature, available

moisture, oxygen levels, nutrients, trace elements, genetic variation between strains of specific
species or competition with other organisms that may be present.
6.1.3 Sampling and detection

The way in which fungi colonise and grow in crops in the field or infect food commodities
during transport or storage, results in a highly heterogeneous distribution of any mycotoxins
that subsequently develop. This has important implications when sampling: statistically based
protocols are required to ensure that a representative sample is drawn. The results of studies of
Table 6.3 Important mycotoxins that have been found in some food commodities and the fungi
responsible.
Mycotoxin Main fungal species Foods infected
Aflatoxins B1 , B2 , G1 , G2 A. flavus, A. parasiticusa Nuts, figs, dried fruit, spices, rice

bran, maize
Aflatoxins M1 , M2 Metabolic products of Milk and dairy products
aflatoxins B1 and B2
Ochratoxin A P. verrucosum, A. ochraceus Cereals, coffee beans, field
beans, beer, nuts
Deoxynivalenol, nivalenol F. graminearum, F. culmorum, Cereals
F. crookwellense
T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin F. poae, F sporotrichioides Cereals
Zearalenone F. graminearum, F. culmorum, Cereals
F. crookwellense
Fumonisins B1 , B2 , B3 F. moniliforme, F. proliferatum Maize, maize products
Patulin P. expansum Apple juice, fruits, silage
Citrinin P. verrucosum Cereals
Cyclopiazonic acid A. flavus, P. commune Cereals, pulses, nuts, cheese
Sterigmatocystin A. versicolor, A. nidulans Cereals, cheese
Moniliformin Fusarium species Cereals
Alternariol, alternariol Alternaria alternata, A. tenuis Fruit, tomatoes, oil seeds, cereals
monomethyl ether,
tenuazonic acid
a
Aflatoxins B1 and B2 only.
O
OH O
CH2 CH NH C
COOH O
H
CH3
Ochratoxin A CI
O
OH O
CH2 CH NH C
COOH O
H
CH3
Ochratoxin B
Fig. 6.2 Structures of ochratoxin A and B, related compounds and citrinin.

Mycotoxins 139
(a) (d)
H H H H H H
16 10 16 10
O O
2 3 2 3
H OH
11 11
13 O 13
6 O
8 8 6
12 7 12
H O
3 4 H
3 4
14 OAc 14
OH H
CH2OAc CH2OH
15 15
(b) (e)
H H H
16 10 H H H
O
2 3 10
OH O
11
2
O 9 OH
8 6 3
H 13 O
20 H
CH3 O 5 4 12 4
18 O
H
CH CH2 C O 5
14 OH
CH3
21 CH2OAc
13 OH
OH CH2OH
(c) (f)
H H H
H H H
16 10
16 10 O
O 2 3
2 3 9 OH
OH 11
11 13 O
13 O 6
8
8 6 12
H O
12 H
20 H 5 4
CH3 O 5 4
18
CH CH2CO OAc
OH 14
14 OAc CH2OH
CH3 CH2OAc
21 15 15
Fig. 6.3 Structures of some trichothecene mycotoxins: (a) Diacetylverrucarol; (b) HT-2 toxin; (c) T-2 toxin;
(d) 4-Deoxynivalenol; (e) Nivalenol; (f) Fusarenon-X.
11' O O
OH CH3
O OR X OH
H CH3
3
2 1 O 10'
CH3 OR CH3 Y NH3
4
5 6 8'
1'
OH
2' '
3
6' H O-Na
O
R=COCH2 CH(COOH)CH3 COOH
FB : X = OH, Y = OH
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6.4 Structures of zearalenone, fumonisins and moniliformin.

O
O 2
7
3
6
8
5 4
O OH
Patulin
Fig. 6.5 Structure of patulin.
the distribution of toxins within a consignment of material are used to determine the number
and size of samples required to be taken. However, sometimes this may conflict with the
practicalities involved in acquiring samples. Processed food and drink usually presents less
of a sampling problem, as mycotoxins are likely to be distributed in a more homogeneous
manner. However, sound sampling is critical if a true assessment of the amounts present is
to be achieved.
Detection of low μg/kg amounts of fungal compounds within a raw material presents a
major challenge to the analytical chemist. Hence, specific and precise analytical methods
have been developed and are discussed later for each mycotoxin in turn with emphasis on
those methods that have been subject to collaborative testing. Gilbert and Anklam (2002)
have discussed the validation of analytical methods for the determination of mycotoxins in
foodstuffs. Significant advances in methodology have been made recently such as the use of
immunoaffinity column and molecular imprint technology for clean-up and various configu-
rations of HPLC/MS for separation and detection (Zöllner and Mayer-Helm, 2006). Because
methods are being continually improved, to enable access to the most up-to-date techniques
it is now accepted that for regulatory control purposes a method should meet agreed per-
formance parameters (criteria approach) rather than specifying a mandatory method. For
quality assurance purposes, a limited number of certified reference materials or test ma-
terials are available for different matrices and these can be used to allow the analyst to
check how methods perform. These materials can be obtained from organisations such as the
IRMM (Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements), UK FAPAS R
(Food Analysis
10 8
11 7
O 12 OH
15 13
16 O
2 14
3
4
1
17 6
O O 5 OCH3
18
Fig. 6.6 Structures of sterigmatocystin and related compounds.

Mycotoxins 141
22
O
21
10
N
9 8
H
11 5 20
7 19
12 4 6
H
13 3 H OH O
14
18 2
15
17
NH
1
16
Fig. 6.7 Structure of cyclopiazonic acid.
Performance Assessment Scheme) and PROMEC Unit, Medical Research Council, South
Africa.
Antibodies have been raised to most of the important mycotoxins and a range of immuno-
logically based methods now complement, or has been incorporated into, chemically based
methods such as thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC), gas chromatography and tandem mass spectrometric methods. Antibodies bound to
activated Sepharose are commercially available as highly selective clean-up columns.
(a) (b)
8’
CH3 O 3' O
4'
O O OH
O 7
2' 7
3' 2' 2 3
1' 2 OH
5' 1 4' 1' 1
HO 6' 3 HO 4
6 4 6' 5
5' 6
5
CH3 OH
8'
OH
(c) (d)
O OH
HO O 7
4 3 10 11
CH3 3' 2' 2 3
5 2 4' 1' 1
1 HO 4
8 7 6
N O
CH3 CH2 CH
6' 5
5' 6
H 8
CH3 8'
CH3 OCH3
9
Fig. 6.8 Structures of Alternaria mycotoxins: (a) Altenuisiol; (b) Alternariol; (c) Tenuazonic acid; (d) Al-
ternariol monomethyl ether.
6.1.4 Significance and control

The occurrence of mycotoxins in food is intermittent and the concentrations variable, at
least in developed areas of the world. However, the potential for wide-scale problems exists
should the appropriate circumstances arise. Low-level contamination of foods by highly
biologically active chemicals presents a major difficulty in assessing their true significance
for man. Development of methods for mycotoxins in body fluids provides additional evidence
and information on intake. For example, Gilbert et al. (2001) assessed dietary exposure to
ochratoxin A using a duplicate diet approach and analysis of urine and plasma samples that
offers the opportunity of using ochratoxin A in urine as a simple and reliable biomarker to
estimate exposure to this mycotoxin.
Fungi and mycotoxins, intimately associated with growing crops and stored foods, are
difficult to eliminate, especially when they develop prior to harvest. Good farming and storage
practice are important factors in reducing the occurrence and amounts of mycotoxins. It is
unfortunate however that the less developed nations tend to have climatic conditions that
encourage mould growth and mycotoxin formation and hence are faced with much greater
problems, while at the same time having fewer resources to detect, control and train operators
in the means to reduce the extent of contaminated food.
In summary, the aim during production of food crops and consumer food products should
be to reduce levels of mycotoxins to the lowest that can be technologically achieved within
the existing economic constraints and with regard to risk assessment, where this has been
carried out. The existence of a statutory limit requires systematic inspection, sampling and
analysis at agreed key points in trade and marketing.
Concerns of the food industry and other bodies include the means of observing legal limits,
instigation of appropriate monitoring and control protocols, representative sampling, identi-
fication of products likely to be susceptible and the ability to respond to any public or media
concern as, and if, the need arises. The mycotoxin field requires a multi-disciplinary approach
involving, for example, chemists, mycologists, toxicologists, veterinarians and statisticians.
6.2 AFLATOXINS
6.2.1 Chemical properties
The aflatoxins consist of a group of approximately 20 related fungal metabolites, although
only aflatoxins B1 , B2 , G1 , G2 and M1 are normally found in crops and animal feed. The
chemical structures of the most important aflatoxins and their derivatives are shown in Fig. 6.1.
Aflatoxins B2 and G2 are the dihydro derivatives of the parent compounds. They are produced
by Aspergillus species such as A. flavus, A. parasiticus and A. nominus and can occur in a
wide range of important raw food commodities such as cereals, nuts, spices, figs and dried
fruit. Although the highest concentrations are usually formed in food crops grown and stored
in the warmer areas of the world, the international trading of these important commodities
ensures that aflatoxins are not only a problem for the producing nations but are also of concern
for importing countries.
Aflatoxins M1 and M2 are the hydroxylated metabolites of aflatoxins B1 and B2 and are
produced when cows and other ruminants ingest feed contaminated with these mycotoxins.
They are then excreted in milk and may subsequently contaminate other dairy products such
as cheese and yoghurt.
The chemistry of the aflatoxins was reviewed (Roberts, 1974). More recently the chemistry
and biology of aflatoxin B1 has been updated (Smela et al., 2001) and the role of aflatoxins
Mycotoxins 143
in food safety comprehensively appraised (Abbas, 2005). Some of their important physical
and chemical properties are given in Table 6.2. Aflatoxins are crystalline substances, freely
soluble in moderately polar solvents such as chloroform, methanol and dimethyl sulphoxide
and they dissolve in water to the extent of 10–20 mg/L.
Crystalline aflatoxins are extremely stable in the absence of light and UV radiation, even
at temperatures in excess of 100◦ C. Solutions prepared in chloroform or benzene are stable
for years if kept cold and in the dark. The purity and concentration of reference solutions can
be calibrated using molar absorptivity data (Scott, 1990). The lactone ring makes aflatoxins
susceptible to alkaline hydrolysis and processes involving ammonia or hypochlorite have
been investigated as means for their removal from food commodities, although questions
concerning the toxicity of the breakdown products have restricted the use of this means of
eradicating aflatoxins from food and animal feeds. If alkaline treatment is mild, acidification
will reverse the reaction to reform the original aflatoxin. In acid solution, aflatoxins B1 and G1
are converted to aflatoxins B2a and G2a by acid catalytic addition of water across the double
bond of the furan ring. Oxidising reagents react and the molecules lose their fluorescence.
Aflatoxins are quite stable in many foods and are fairly resistant to degradation in variety
of processes. Smith et al. (1994) and Park (2002) and Scudamore (2004) among others have
summarised the stability of aflatoxins in some food processes. The stability can be affected
by many factors such as the temperature, pH, length and severity of treatment and presence
of other ingredients.
6.2.2 Analytical methods

Sampling remains a considerable source of error in the analytical determination of aflatoxins
and other mycotoxins. Failure to take representative samples may invalidate subsequent
analysis. Specific plans have been developed for commodities such as corn and peanuts and
have been included in directives within the European Union (EU). The distribution of aflatoxin
M1 in liquid milk is fairly homogeneous making sampling of this material less onerous.
Analytical methods have been developed based principally on TLC, HPTLC, HPLC,
HPLC/Mass Spectrometry and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Aflatoxins fluoresce
under UV irradiation, although aflatoxin B1 and aflatoxin G1 need derivatisation to enhance
the fluorescence to a similar level to that of aflatoxins B2 and G2 . This forms the basis for
their detection by TLC, the original method of choice. On TLC plates the four substances are
distinguished on the basis of their fluorescent colour and R f values, B standing for blue and
G for green with subscripts relating to the relative chromatographic mobility. Aflatoxin B1 is
usually, but not always, found in the highest concentration. TLC can be used to identify and
quantify aflatoxins at levels as low as 1 μg/kg and it still remains the method of choice where
resources are limited. This technique can be further refined by introducing two separation
steps (two dimensions) for example developing using a mixture of ether, methanol and water
for the first stage and chloroform and acetone for the second step or by using HPTLC.
Extraction of aflatoxins from foods and feeds usually involves the use of solvent systems
such as aqueous acetonitrile, methanol or acetone, or mixtures. The use of solid-phase ex-
traction (SPE) with C18 cartridges, or immunoaffinity columns (IAC) is now well established
for subsequent clean-up in aflatoxin analysis. MycosepTM columns, which remove matrix
components efficiently and can produce a purified extract within a very short time, are also
available. Conventional clean-up with silica columns has also been used. Pre- or post-column
derivatisation is usually performed for low-level detection, of a wide range of foods and an-
imal feedingstuffs. Derivatisation can take place using Br2 , I2 (for B and G aflatoxins) or
trifluoro-acetic acid (TFA for aflatoxin M1 ). The emitted light is detected at 435 nm after
Table 6.4 Selected, collaboratively tested methods for aflatoxins.
Aflatoxins Commodities Reference/method
Aflatoxins Corn, almonds, Brazil nuts, peanuts, Trucksess et al., 1994, IA/HPLC
B1 , B2 , G1 , G2 and pistachio nuts
Aflatoxins Peanut butter, pistachio paste, fig paste Stroka et al., 2000, IA/HPLC/Br
B1 , B2 , G1 , G2 and paprika powder
B1 Baby food Stroka et al., 2001, IA/HPLC
M1 Milk Dragacci et al., 2001, IA/HPLC
M1 Milk Grosso et al., 2004, IA/TLC
IA, immunoaffinity.
excitation at 365 nm. Small amounts of water tend to give higher extraction efficiencies. The
determination of aflatoxins by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection in food
analysis has been reviewed (Jaimez et al., 2000).
Dunne et al. (1993) have described a multi-mycotoxin method, which uses hydrochloric
acid and dichloromethane for extraction although halogenated solvents are now undesirable
on environmental grounds. Limits of detection below 1 μg/kg can be routinely achieved
with an analytical precision of ±30%. Antibodies have been raised to the aflatoxins and
a growing number of immunological test systems based on these have been developed in
different formats for both quantitative and monitoring purposes (Patel, 2004). Commercially
available tests are available to identify and measure aflatoxins in food within a very short
time. The user should however be fully aware of any limitations involved.
Automated analysis using immunoaffinity column clean-up and high-performance liquid
chromatographic determination was introduced for routine analysis of foods and animal feeds
as early as 1991 (Sharman and Gilbert, 1991). A large number of analytical methods have been
published for the aflatoxins and the reader should consult the literature further. A selection
of those methods examined in inter-laboratory testing is given in Table 6.4. Identification
with mass spectrometry (LC/MS) is becoming increasingly popular, particularly for difficult
matrices and has been reviewed (Zöllner and Mayer-Helm, 2006). These methods are sensitive
enough to operate in the concentration ranges where legal limits have been established for
commodities like maize, peanuts, figs and spices. Nevertheless, the application of these
methods is expensive and requires expert knowledge. HPLC-MS/MS methods have been
reported for the determination of aflatoxins in peanuts, maize feed and whole milk (Pazzi
et al., 2005), for aflatoxins in a range of foods (Takino et al., 2004) and for seeking a range
of mycotoxins in animal offal food products (Driffield et al., 2003).
6.2.3 Occurrence in raw materials and processed foods

Governments of most developed nations carry out surveillance on a regular basis to monitor
the intake of aflatoxins by the human population so that action can be taken if this should
become necessary. Aflatoxins in peanuts moving in international trade have on occasions
been found at levels of 1000 μg/kg or more, and products such as peanut butter may be con-
taminated by smaller amounts. Other nuts particularly prone to contamination are pistachios
and brazils. Climate plays a crucial part in the conditions that encourage aflatoxin, so that the
problem varies in severity from year-to-year. Drought leading to crop stress followed by rain
is particularly unwelcome for cereals producers. Maize amongst the cereals is particularly
prone to aflatoxins. As cereals are used in the brewing industry beer may also be contaminated
(Mably et al., 2005).
Mycotoxins 145
Table 6.5 Regulations for aflatoxins in the EU, 2004.
μg/kg B1 B1 + B2 + G1 + G2 M1
Groundnuts, nuts, dried fruit and processed products thereof 2 4

for direct human consumption or as a food ingredient
Groundnuts to be subjected to sorting, or other physical 8 15
treatment, before human consumption or as a food ingredient
Nuts and dried fruit to be subjected to sorting, or other physical 5 10
treatment, before human consumption or as a food ingredient
Cereals and processed products thereof for direct human 2 4
consumption or as a food
Chillies, chilli powder, cayenne pepper, paprika, white and 5 10
black pepper, nutmeg, ginger and turmeric ingredient
Milk (raw milk, milk for the manufacture of milk-based 0.05
products and heat-treated milk)
Capsicum; dried fruits whole or ground including chillies, chilli 5 10
powder, cayenne and paprika
Piper; fruits including white and black pepper 5 10
Nutmeg, ginger and turmeric 5 10
In practice, any growing crop in which A. flavus or A. parasiticus can develop is poten-
tially at risk from aflatoxins contamination. This is reflected by regulations in the European
Commission (EC) so that in addition to nuts and cereals, dried figs (e.g. Şenyuva et al.,
2005), dates, spices, herbs, manioc, cottonseed, copra and even melon seeds (Bankole et al.,
2004) are all recognised sources of aflatoxins exposure now subject to regulation (Table 6.5).
There are many references to the occurrence of aflatoxins to these and other commodities.
Aflatoxins are also found in medicinal herbs and plant extracts (Reif and Metzger, 1995).
6.2.4 Toxicology
Aflatoxins are both acutely and chronically toxic. Aflatoxin B1 is one of the most potent
hepatocarcinogens known (Fishbein, 1979) and hence the long-term chronic exposure of
extremely low levels of aflatoxins in the diet is an important consideration for human health.
Aflatoxins have been implicated in sub-acute and chronic effects in humans. These effects
include primary liver cancer, chronic hepatitis, jaundice, hepatomegaly, cirrhosis through
repeated ingestion of low levels of aflatoxin and can also affect the immune system (Pier,
1991). Aflatoxin B1 is a potent mutagen causing chromosomal aberrations in a variety of
plant, animal and human cells.
In the temperate, developed areas of the world, acute poisoning in animals is rare and in
man is now extremely unlikely. The outbreak of so-called ‘turkey-X disease’, which caused
the deaths of 100 000 turkeys and other poultry in the UK in 1960, was caused by extremely
high concentrations of aflatoxins in imported groundnut meal (Allcroft and Carnaghan, 1962).
This alerted industry and governments to the potentially devastating effects of mycotoxins,
particularly the aflatoxins.
Acute aflatoxin toxicity has been demonstrated in a wide range of mammals, fish and
birds; rabbits, dogs, primates, ducks, turkeys and trout are all highly susceptible. For most
species the LD50 is between 0.5 and 10 mg/kg body weight (bw). The liver is the principal
target organ although the site of the hepatic effect varies with species. Effects on the lungs,
myocardium and kidneys have also been observed and aflatoxin can accumulate in the brain.
Teratogenic effects following administration of high doses of aflatoxin have been reported in
some species (Elis and Di Paola, 1967).
Acute poisoning of man by aflatoxins still occurs occasionally in some areas of the world.
Cases of human aflatoxicosis have been reported sporadically, mainly in Africa and Asia. The
majority of cases involve consumption of contaminated cereals, most frequently maize, rice
or cassava, or cereal products such as pasta or peanut meal (see, for example, Oyelami et al.,
1996). A classic case occurred during a Chinese festival in Malaysia in which approximately
40 persons were affected and 13 children died (Chao et al., 1991) after eating noodles highly
contaminated with aflatoxin and boric acid. One of the largest recent outbreaks occurred in
rural Kenya in April 2004 (Lewis et al., 2005), resulting in 317 recognised cases and 125
deaths. Home-grown maize was the source of the outbreak.
6.2.5 Regulation and control

The complete elimination of aflatoxins in human and animal food, while desirable, is ex-
tremely difficult as they have the potential to arise in a wide range of agricultural products.
Risk assessments have been carried out for aflatoxin (see, for example, IARC, 1993). Because
aflatoxin B1 is a genotoxic carcinogen, most agencies, including the Joint Expert Committee
on Food Additives (JECFA) and the US Food and Drug Administration, have not set a tol-
erable daily intake (TDI) figure. In common with other dietary carcinogens, it is generally
accepted that amounts in food should be reduced to the lowest levels that are technologically
possible. Regulations have been set for human food and animal feed in many countries (FAO,
2004). In the EC, aflatoxin is strictly controlled by maximum permissible limits (Table 6.5)
and by recommendations for sampling. As an example of what can be achieved over time,
regulation of aflatoxin B1 in animal feedingstuffs in the UK since the 1980s (Anon, 1982)
has been effective in steadily reducing amounts of aflatoxin M1 in milk, as shown by regular
surveillance (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1980, 1987, 1993).
6.3 OCHRATOXIN A
The ochratoxins are a group of structurally related compounds of which ochratoxin A is
the most important and most commonly occurring. They consist of a polyketide-derived
dihydroiso-coumarin moiety linked through the 12-carboxy group to phenylalanine (Fig. 6.2).
Ochratoxin A is a colourless crystalline compound, exhibiting blue fluorescence under UV
light. It crystallises from benzene to give a product melting at 90◦ C containing one molecule
of benzene. This can be removed under vacuum at 120◦ C to give a solid melting at 168◦ C. It
crystallises in a pure form from xylene. The sodium salt is soluble in water. In the acid form it
is moderately soluble in polar organic solvents such as chloroform, methanol and acetonitrile,
and dissolves in dilute aqueous sodium bicarbonate. It yields phenylalanine and an optically
active lactone acid, ochratoxin α on acid hydrolysis. Reaction in methanol and hydrochloric
acid yields the methyl ester, while methylation with diazomethane gives the o-methyl methyl
ester. It can be stored in ethanol for at least a year under refrigeration and protected from light.
Mycotoxins 147
Ochratoxin A is a moderately stable molecule and will survive most food processing to
some extent. This has been reviewed by Scott (1996) and the accompanying volume contains
a series of papers covering the fate of ochratoxin A during malting and brewing (Baxter,
1996), during bread making (Subirade, 1996), as a result of processing in cereals (Alldrick,
1996), during processing of coffee (Viani, 1996), during processing of meat products (Gareis,
1996) and during processing in animal feed (Scudamore, 1996). During a study of extrusion
no more than 40% of ochratoxin A was destroyed under the harshest treatments employed
(Scudamore et al., 2004). In a study of the fate of ochratoxin A in the processing of whole
wheat grains during milling and bread production the mycotoxin concentrated in the bran
and was reduced in the flour while most ochratoxin A survived subsequent baking into bread
(Scudamore et al., 2003).
In biological systems, ochratoxin A will bind to serum albumin and for the majority of
its lifetime within the human body, OTA remains bound to the plasma protein human serum
albumin (Perry et al., 2003).

Sensitive and reliable analytical methods have been developed with detection limits better
than 1 μg/kg. Extraction solvents used for ochratoxin A have included mixtures of chloroform
plus orthophosphoric acid, ethyl acetate plus phosphoric acid and acetonitrile plus water. Thin
layer chromatography has been widely used (e.g. Krogh and Nesheim, 1982) but this has now
been mainly replaced by HPLC- based methods. Clean-up of acid extracts can be achieved
by back-partition into sodium bicarbonate although immunoaffinity columns are now often
used as the main clean-up stage.
A number of methods have been examined by inter-laboratory testing often as part of
the AOAC testing programme. Those developed and tested for cereals include determination
of ochratoxin A in barley, wheat bran and rye (Larsson and Möller, 1996), in barley using
immunoaffinity columns (Entwisle et al., 2000), in wheat (Scudamore and McDonald, 1998)
and in baby foods (Burdaspal et al., 2001). Methods for roasted coffee have also used im-
munoaffinity clean-up (Entwisle et al., 2001). The discovery of the presence of ochratoxin
A in wine and beer has led to the development and testing of methods specific for these bev-
erages (Visconti et al., 2001a; Leitner et al., 2002). McDonald et al. (2003) tested a method
for determination of ochratoxin A in currants, raisins, sultanas, mixed dried fruit and dried
figs using acidified methanol for extraction. Post-column pH shift by the addition of 1.1 M
ammonia solution to the column eluant enhances fluorescence.
Methods have also been developed to determine the occurrence of ochratoxin A in bio-
logical fluids such as plasma and urine (Gilbert et al., 2001) and human milk (Miraglia et al.,
1995) and this has enabled estimated dietary intakes for babies to be calculated.

Ochratoxin A is produced by certain strains of Aspergillus ochraceus and related species,
and by Penicillium verrucosum. There are literature reports of other Penicillia producing
ochratoxin A but most of these are probably as the result of mis-identification. A. ochraceus
occurs principally in tropical climates while P. verrucosum is a common storage fungus in
temperate areas such as Canada, Eastern Europe, Denmark, parts of South America and the
UK. The main ochratoxin A producing fungus occurring in grapes has shown to be Aspergillus
carbonarius (Valero et al., 2005).
Ochratoxin A often occurs in stored cereals and has been found in other foods including
coffee (Tsubouchi et al., 1988), beer (Payen et al., 1983), dried fruit (Ozay and Alperden,
1991), wine (Zimmerli and Dick, 1996), cocoa (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food,
1980), nuts (Cooper et al., 1982), spices (Thirumala-Devi et al., 2001; Fazekas et al., 2005)
and liquorice (Bresch et al., 2000). A comprehensive review of the literature on the worldwide
occurrence of ochratoxin has been carried out by Speijers and van Egmond (1993). In Europe
an assessment of dietary intake of ochratoxin A has been undertaken under the ‘SCOOP’
programme (European Commission, 2002a). This involved collection of data on occurrence
in food using methodology considered as soundly based. This together with consumer con-
sumption data enabled the dietary intake of ochratoxin A to be calculated. Estimate of dietary
intake on the basis of ochratoxin A level in serum/plasma has also been carried out.
6.3.4 Toxicology
Ochratoxin A is a potent carcinogenic mycotoxin that can affect kidneys, the immune system
and the nervous system. The kidney is the most sensitive target organ. However, its dechloro
derivative, ochratoxin B, is non-toxic. A nephrotoxic effect has been demonstrated in all
mammalian species tested to date (Harwig et al., 1983). In acute toxicity studies LD50 values
vary greatly in different species, the dog and pig being especially susceptible.
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) published an opinion on ochratoxin A (EC,
2006a). They concluded that ‘although some early epidemiological data had suggested that
ochratoxin A might be involved in the pathogenesis of distinct renal diseases and otherwise
rare tumours of the kidneys in certain endemic regions of the Balkan Peninsula these epi-
demiological data were incomplete and did not justify the classification of ochratoxin A as
a human renal carcinogen’. Ochratoxin A has been found to be a potent renal toxin in all of
the animal species tested, the dog being the most sensitive. The extent of renal injury is dose-
dependent, but also associated with the duration of exposure, as ochratoxin A accumulates
in renal tissue.
Recent scientific evidence indicates that the site-specific renal toxicity as well as the DNA
damage and genotoxic effects of ochratoxin A, measured in various in vivo and in vitro studies,
are most likely attributable to cellular oxidative damage. Furthermore, advanced chemical
analytical procedures have failed to demonstrate the existence of specific ochratoxin A–DNA
adducts.
Human exposure to ochratoxin A has been clearly demonstrated by its detection in blood
(e.g. Bauer et al., 1986; Breitholtz et al., 1991; Palli et al., 1999; Filali et al., 2002; Sangare-
Tigori et al., 2006) and breast milk (Miraglia et al., 1993).

The presence of ochratoxin A in foodstuffs is clearly undesirable, although few coun-
tries have introduced statutory control to date (Food and Agriculture Organisation of the
United Nations, 2004). Most attention to legislation for ochratoxin has been within the EU
and a summary of current limits for ochratoxin A in cereals and other products is given
(Table 6.6) although limits are currently being introduced and modified as more informa-
tion on occurrence and toxicology is acquired. A full description of limits, recommended
sampling protocols and analytical methods is provided (EC, 2005a,b).
The prevention and control of ochratoxin A in cereals depends on the crop being dried
promptly at harvest and good store hygiene. In general ochratoxin A develops slowly in grain
Mycotoxins 149
Table 6.6 Maximum limits for ochratoxin A in raw cereal grain and finished products intended for
human consumption, in the EU as of October 2006.
Product Ochratoxin A (μg/kg)
Raw cereal grains (including raw rice and buckwheat) 5.0

All products derived from cereals (including processed cereal products and 3.0
cereal grains intended for direct human consumption)
Baby foods and processed cereal-based foods for infants and young children 0.5
Dried vine fruits (currants, raisins, sultanas) 10.0
Roasted coffee beans and ground roasted coffee except soluble coffee 5.0
Wine and other wine and/or grape must based beverages 2.0
Green coffee, dried fruit other than vine fruit, beer, cocoa, cocoa products, No current limits
liqueur wines, meat products, spices, liquorice
below 18% moisture content but this depends on temperature, grain water activity, extent of
infection with P. verrucosum and the length of time the cereal remains under such conditions.
When grain is dried by ambient air the bottom layer dries first while the upper layers may
remain damp for much longer. The availability of adequate drying capacity is important, hot
air facilities being preferable. Even after drying, cereal bulks should be monitored regularly
for temperature, moisture content and insect activity and action taken if it becomes necessary.
For grapes, the critical control points for the control of ochratoxin A in the grape-wine chain
have been established (Battilani et al., 2003).
In addition, contamination of animal feeds with ochratoxin A may result in the presence
of residues in edible offal and blood serum, whereas the ochratoxin A contamination in meat,
milk and eggs is negligible.
6.4 DEOXYNIVALENOL AND THE TRICHOTHECENES

The 12,13-epoxytrichothecenes (Fig. 6.3) are a group of related and biologically active my-
cotoxins produced by certain species of Fusarium, such as F. poae, F. sporotrichioides,
F. culmorum and F. graminearum. They are often classified as Group A and Group B com-
pounds depending on whether they have a side chain on the C-7 atom. The most commonly re-
ported Group A trichothecenes include T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, neosolaniol, monoacetoxyscir-
penol and diacetoxyscirpenol. These are highly soluble in ethyl acetate, acetone, chloroform,
methylene chloride and diethyl ether.
Deoxynivalenol (commonly called DON or vomitoxin) is the most widely occurring Group
B trichothecene, together with nivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol,
fusarenone-X, scirpentriol and T-2 tetraol. These compounds are highly hydroxylated and
thus relatively polar, being soluble in methanol, acetonitrile and ethanol.
Another group of trichothecenes that is generally more acutely toxic than T-2 toxin is
known as the macrocyclic trichothecenes. These are produced by mould species such as
Stachybotrys atra and include the satratoxins, verrucarins and roridins, which may be pro-
duced in hay and straw stored under unsatisfactory conditions. However, there is little ev-
idence that these compounds occur in human food, although the presence of macrocyclic
trichothecenes in airborne fungal spores may contribute to some forms of sick building syn-
drome (Croft et al., 1986).
All trichothecenes containing an ester group are hydrolysed to their respective parent
alcohols when treated with alkali. A dilute solution of potassium carbonate, sodium hydroxide
or ammonium hydroxide hydrolyses T-2 toxin and neosolaniol to T-2 tetraol and diacetoxy-
and monoacetoxy-scirpenol to scirpentriol. Many of the alcohols are unaffected, even by
hot dilute alkali. Trichothecenes are thus chemically stable and can persist for long periods
once formed. Prolonged boiling in water or under highly acidic conditions causes a skeletal
rearrangement due to opening of the epoxide ring. Owing to the hindered nature of the
epoxide and stability of the ring system, reactions of the trichothecenes usually proceed in
a manner predictable from sound chemical principles. For example, primary and secondary
hydroxyl groups are easily oxidised to the aldehyde and ketone derivatives by reagents such
as CrO3 –H2 SO4 in acetone, CrO3 –pyridine and CrO3 –acetic acid.

The determination of trichothecene mycotoxins is complicated by the number of closely
related compounds that can occur together and the low UV absorbance properties of the
molecules. Combinations of solvents, usually acetonitrile/water and methanol/water, are used
for the extraction of grain, food, and feeds. A variety of solid-phase materials such as,
silica gel, florisil, cyano and C18 SPE-cartridges are used for subsequent clean-up. DON and
T-2 toxin immunoaffinity columns are also now available.
Methods based on TLC are still common especially where resources are limited and, sepa-
ration efficiency and precision have been increased with the introduction of high-performance
TLC (HPTLC) and scanning densitometers. Concentrated sulphuric acid and p-anisaldehyde
and other derivatisation reagents are often used to give characteristic colours, which aid de-
tection (Mirocha et al., 1977).
Several HPLC methods have been published for the determination of trichothecenes in
food and cereals such as that for baby foods and animal feed (Stroka et al., 2006). However,
different methods of analysis may be required for type A and B trichothecenes, e.g. HPLC with
UV detection is not usually applicable to type A trichothecenes as they lack a keto group at
the C-8 position. In these circumstances MS-based methods may be the preferred methods for
the determination of type A trichothecenes. However, low wavelength UV detection is used in
DON HPLC methods although sensitivity is poor, lack of specificity being the main problem.
The earlier GC methods are based on derivatisation procedures such as trimethylsilylation
or fluoroacylation to increase volatility and sensitivity with electron capture detection or the
use of mass spectrometric or tandem mass spectrometric detection (MS/MS). The choice of
derivatisation reagent depends on the type of trichothecene and the method of detection.
A number of studies have been carried out into improving and verifying trichothecene
analysis. Pettersson and Langseth (2002) carried out inter-comparisons of GC/MS methods
and studied the factors that influence method performance as a pre-requisite for producing
certified calibrants. Mateo et al. (2001) published a critical study of, and improvements in,
chromatographic methods for the analysis of type B trichothecenes. In a study in which
laboratories used their own in-house methods for the determination of the Fusarium myco-
toxins zearalenone and DON in common wheat and maize samples, the results were deemed
acceptable for DON at the 100 μg/kg level (Josephs et al., 2001).
LC/MS with either atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation (APCI) or electrospray ion-
isation or tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) have been successfully employed for the de-
termination and identification of trichothecenes at trace levels (Biselli and Hummert, 2005;
Mycotoxins 151
Klotzel et al., 2005; Klotzel et al., 2006). Trace mycotoxin analysis in complex biological and
food matrices using LC/MS has been comprehensively reviewed (Zöllner and Mayer-Helm,
2006).
A variety of test kits are now marketed for the rapid detection of individual trichothecenes,
mostly for DON and T-2 toxin. These are particularly useful for screening purposes and may
be set to provide a yes/no answer at a pre-set level or in ELISA formats. If necessary, samples
can then be checked using fully quantitative methods. Rapid methods for DON and other
trichothecenes have been reviewed (Schneider et al., 2004).

Trichothecenes occur in cereals and other food commodities. There are many reports of DON
and nivalenol in cereals although T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin are found much less frequently
except in oats. Surveillance commonly targets DON only although other trichothecenes are
likely to be present.
A collection of occurrence data for Fusarium toxins was carried out in food in the EC
(European Commission, 2003) and enabled a preliminary assessment of dietary intake by the
population of member states to be carried out (Schothorst and van Egmond, 2004). By far
most of the occurrence data were obtained for DON in wheat. Among cereals, corn (maize)
showed the highest level of contamination with trichothecenes. There was a significant lack of
consumption data in some countries. In particular, information on baby and children’s food
was generally not available. Wheat and wheat containing products (like bread and pasta)
represented the major source of intake for the four trichothecenes, DON, nivalenol, HT-2
toxin and T-2 toxin. DON and related compounds were found in a survey of Soy products in
Germany using an MS method (Schollenberger et al., 2007).
Studies have suggested that DON may sometimes be present in cereals in a bound forms
and an acid solvolysis procedure may be required to release this bound mycotoxin (Liu et al.,
2005b).
There are occasional reports of trichothecenes in commodities other than cereals and in
view of the widespread distribution of Fusarium spp., this remains a possibility.
6.4.4 Toxicology
The acute toxicity of the trichothecenes varies considerably and LD50 values for mice (in-
traperitoneal route) for some trichothecenes are given in Table 6.7 LD50 (mg/kg bw). The
LD50 value for DON is about ten times that for nivalenol, T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin that are
in turn about ten times greater than for the macrocyclic mycotoxins. Fortunately, these have
rarely been reported in food. Acute trichothecene toxicity is characterised by gastrointestinal
Table 6.7 LD50 values for mice (ip) for some

trichothecenes.
Trichothecene LD50 (mg/kg bw)
Deoxynivalenol 70
Diacetoxyscirpenol 23
Neosolaniol 14.5
HT-2 toxin 9.0
T-2 toxin 5.2
Nivalenol 4.1
Verrucarin A 0.5
Table 6.8 EU Regulations for DON, EC as from 1st July 2007.
Cereal product Limit (μg/kg)
Unprocessed cereals other than durum wheat, oats and maize 1250
Unprocessed durum wheat and oats 1750
Unprocessed maize with the exception of unprocessed maize intended to be 1750
processed by wet milling
Pasta (dry). 750
Cereals intended for direct human consumption, cereal flour, bran and germ
as end product marketed for direct human consumption with the exception of
foodstuffs listed below
Milling fractions of maize with particle size >500 micron falling within CN 750
code 1103 13 or 1103 20 40
Milling fractions of maize with particle size ≤500 micron falling within CN 1250
code 1102 20
Bread (including small bakery wares), pastries, biscuits, cereal snacks and 500
breakfast cereals
Processed cereal-based food for infants and young children and baby food 200
disturbances, such as vomiting, diarrhoea and inflammation, dermal irritation, feed refusal,
abortion, anaemia and leukopenia. This group of toxins is acutely cytotoxic and strongly im-
munosuppressive. The trichothecenes have not been shown to be mutagenic or carcinogenic
but do inhibit DNA and protein synthesis.
DON is a common contaminant of cereals and causes vomiting in pigs at relatively low
concentrations. However, pigs are very sensitive to its presence and will reject contaminated
feed, effectively limiting any further toxic effects. DON is, however, immunosuppressive in
low concentrations and this may be more important than its low acute toxicity. Because of
the number of closely related metabolites likely to occur in combination in foods or animal
feeds, the toxicology is complex with both synergistic and antagonistic effects. This has been
discussed by Miller (1995).
Alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA) has probably been the most common human trichothecene
mycotoxicosis. T-2 toxin is thought to have contributed to the epidemiology of ATA in Russia,
which was responsible for widespread disease and many deaths. Continuous exposure to
trichothecenes results in skin rashes, which may proceed to necrotic lesions.

Legislation for DON is set in a number of countries (FAO, 2004) and the introduction of
internationally agreed legislation is expected to continue. Legislation for DON in cereals that
was introduced during 2006 and 2007 within the EU is summarised (Table 6.8). In addition,
Statutory or Guideline limits for T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin in cereals are expected to be
introduced during 2008. Codes of practice for minimising the occurrence of DON and the
trichothecenes are being developed by international bodies such as CODEX/WHO/FAO and
within the EU. Some basic rules can be summarised; avoid growing maize as the previous
crop, reduce crop debris on soil surface, avoid susceptible varieties, apply a T3 fungicide
against Fusarium and avoid delays in drying at harvest.
Mycotoxins 153
6.5 ZEARALENONE
Zearalenone (Fig. 6.4) is a phenolic resorcyclic acid lactone produced by a number of species
of Fusarium including F. culmorum, F. graminearum and F. crookwellense. In fungal cultures
a number of closely related metabolites are formed but there is only limited evidence that
these occur in foodstuffs, although there is experimental evidence for some transmission
of zearalenone and α- and β-zearalenols into the milk of sheep, cows and pigs fed high
concentrations (Mirocha et al., 1981).
Zearalenone is a white crystalline compound that exhibits blue-green fluorescence when
excited by long wavelength UV light (360 nm) and a more intense green fluorescence when
excited with short wavelength UV light (260 nm). In methanol, UV absorption maxima
occur at 236 nm (ε = 29 700), 274 nm (ε = 13 909) and 316 nm (ε = 6020). Maximum
fluorescence in ethanol occurs with irradiation at 314 nm and with emission at 450 nm.
Solubility in water is about 0.002 g/100 mL. Zearalenone is slightly soluble in hexane
and progressively more so in benzene, acetonitrile, methylene chloride, methanol, ethanol
and acetone. It is also soluble in aqueous alkali. It appears to be very stable in many
processes.

Ground cereal samples are usually extracted using a suitable solvent such as acetonitrile,
chloroform, ethyl acetate or methanol and water or acidic solutions. TLC initially provided
an acceptable method in laboratories with limited instrumentation and a recent improvement
has been introduced by using HPTLC (Ostry and Skarkova, 2003). Liquid–liquid partitioning
or solid-phase extraction is necessary to provide clean extracts for separation and detection.
Recently commercially available clean-up columns have become a widely used clean-up
medium (Visconti and Pascale, 1998; Kruger et al., 1999). An HPLC immunoaffinity col-
umn method for barley, maize and wheat flour, polenta, and maize-based baby food has
shown to meet required analytical criteria in an interlaboratory study (MacDonald et al.,
2005).
In a comparative study, mixtures of methanol and 1% aqueous NaCl were found to be
the best extraction solvent while immunoaffinity columns were very effective for clean-up
although of lower capacity than solid phase extraction columns (Llorens et al., 2002).
There have been several recent developments for the determination of low concentrations
of zearalenone in foods and body liquids or tissues including an automated flow-through
immunosensor method for the determination of zearalenone in pig feed (Urraca et al., 2005).
Among a number of LC/MS methods, Pallaroni and von Holst (2003) determined zear-
alenone in wheat and corn using pressurised liquid extraction and liquid chromatography–
electrospray mass spectrometry, a method based on LC-APCI-MS was developed for the
determination of zearalenone and its metabolites in urine, plasma and faeces of horses
(Songsermsakul et al., 2006) and for bovine milk by LC/MS/MS (Sorensen and Elbaek,
2005).
Molecular imprint technology produced by developing a polymer template that binds the
zearalenone molecule has been used to provide a clean-up method for zearalenone and alpha-
zearalenol in cereal and swine feed sample extracts (Urraca et al., 2006). Krska et al. (2005)
has reviewed recent advances in zearalenone methodology.

Zearalenone occurs in cereal grains especially maize and can survive processing into cereal
products (Williams, 1985) such as maize beer (Lovelace and Nyathi, 1977), wheat flour
(Tanaka et al., 1985). It has also been reported in walnuts (Jemmali and Mazerand, 1980).
The presence of zearalenone in whole plants and parts of maize used for silage making has
been investigated in Germany (Oldenberg, 1993). In that work, zearalenone was detected
at concentrations up to 300 μg/kg and mainly formed at the end of the ripening process,
with subsequent contamination of the silage. In a survey in Germany, zearalenone has been
found in small amounts in vegetables, fruits, oilseeds and nuts (Schollenberger et al., 2005).
Information on the occurrence of zearalenone within the EU has been collated and summarised
(Gareis et al., 2003).
Zearalenone is only partly decomposed by heat. Approximately 60% of zearalenone re-
mained unchanged in bread while about 50% survived the production of noodles (Matsuura
and Yoshizawa, 1981). In dry milling of maize, concentrations in the main food-producing
fractions, including flour and grits, were reduced by 80–90% although increased concentra-
tions were found in bran and germ (Bennett et al., 1976). Its distribution in wet-milled corn
products is reviewed by Bennett and Anderson (1978).
6.5.4 Toxicology
The most important effect of zearalenone is on the reproductive system, its acute toxicity
being low. The ability of zearalenone to cause hyperestrogenism, particularly in swine, has
been known for many years. Two comprehensive reviews of this have been published by
Mirocha et al. (1971) and Mirocha and Christensen (1974). In New Zealand, zearalenone
in pasture grass is a recognised cause of infertility in sheep (Towers and Sprosen, 1992).
Trial feeding of female pigs demonstrated that a concentration of 0.25 mg/kg, or even less,
produced changes in the reproductive organs (Bauer et al., 1987).
In a review by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, 1993), it was
concluded that there was limited evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity
of zearalenone. Evidence for genotoxicity has been contradictory but Pfohl-Leskowicz et al.
(1995) showed that zearalenone is genotoxic in mice.
A risk assessment of the mycotoxin has been carried out (Kuiper-Goodman et al., 1987)
and that paper provides a comprehensive review of the literature up to that date. A recent
comprehensive review of the toxicity, occurrence, metabolism, detoxification, regulations and
intake of zearalenone has been published (Zinedine et al., 2006). An opinion on zearalenone
was published in 2000 (European Commission, 2000) and for animals in 2004 (EC, 2006b).

Initial legislation for zearalenone in cereals was introduced from July 2006 within the EU.
Prior to this legislation existed in about 12 countries worldwide (FAO, 2004). These limits
were modified and introduced in July 2007 (EC, 2007). In summary, these limits range
from 100 μg/kg in unprocessed cereals other than maize, to 350 μg/kg in maize, 75 μg/kg
in cereals intended for direct human consumption, cereal flour, bran and germ marketed for
direct human consumption, down to 20 μg/kg in processed cereal foods for infants and young
children. The reader should consult the EC document above for full details of these limits.
Because zearalenone often occurs along with other Fusarium mycotoxins codes of practice
to prevent its formation are similar, e.g. to DON.
Mycotoxins 155
6.6 FUMONISINS
The fumonisins (Fig. 6.4) are a group of at least 15 closely related mycotoxins that often
occur in maize and less commonly in other products, the most important compound being
fumonisin B1 . They are polar metabolites formed by several species of Fusarium, but mainly
F. verticilliodes (Sacc.) Nirenberg (= F. moniliforme Sheldon). Their structures are based on
a long hydroxylated hydrocarbon chain. Two hydroxyl groups are esterified to two propane-
1,2,3-tricarboxylic acids. Fumonisin B1 differs from fumonisin B2 in that it has an extra
hydroxyl group at the 10-position.
Fumonisins contain four free carboxyl groups and an amino group, which accounts for their
solubility in water and some polar organic solvents. Fumonisin B1 is stable in acetonitrile–
water (1:1) over a 6-month period at 25◦ C (Visconti et al., 1993) and in methanol if stored
at –18◦ C but steadily degrades at 25◦ C and above. Fumonisin B1 is hydrolysed under some
conditions and may bind to food constituents. The pure substance is a white hygroscopic
powder. The insolubility in many organic solvents partly explains the difficulty in their
original identification.
A review of the occurrence and toxicity of the fumonisins is that of Dutton (1996)
while the history and discovery of this group of mycotoxins has been described (Marasas,
2001).

TLC, HPLC, MS/MS and immunochemical methods have been reported for the fumonisins.
Lack of a suitable chromophore in the molecule means that fumonisins must be derivatised
with reagents such as p-anisaldehyde, fluorescamine or o-phthaldialdehyde to allow detection
by TLC or HPLC. Currently, HPLC methods, mainly employing fluorescence detection
together with sample pre-treatment, are the methods of choice for routine analysis, and an
overview has been presented for the determination of the fumonisin mycotoxins in various
matrices (Arranz et al., 2004). Reliable immunoaffinity clean-up columns are available and
becoming used widely.
The first collaborative study of a method for liquid chromatographic determination of fu-
monisins B1 , B2 and B3 in corn was a joint AOAC–IUPAC collaborative trial (Sydenham et al.,
1996). Visconti et al. (2001b) presented an in-house and inter-laboratory validation study for
the determination of fumonisin B1 and B2 in corn-based foodstuffs including cornflakes by
HPLC using immunoaffinity clean-up.
Stability and problems in the recovery of fumonisins added to corn-based foods has been
known to be a problem for many years (Scott and Lawrence, 1994; Avantaggiato et al., 2003).
The analysis of heat-processed corn foods such as cornflakes, corn-based breakfast cereals,
tortilla chips and corn chips can in addition present further special problems in analysis as
hydrolysed fumonisin B1 as well as protein- and total-bound fumonisin B1 can be present as
well as the parent fumonisins. Bound (hidden) fumonisins cannot be detected by conventional
analysis and improved methods for the determination of bound fumonisin B1 were developed
(Park et al., 2004). A number of studies have been carried out recently developing LC/MS
methods (e.g. Cavaliere et al., 2005; Faberi et al., 2005; Paepens et al., 2005).
Determination of total fumonisins in corn by competitive direct ELISA (Bird et al., 2002)
and commercial rapid test kits are suitable for use in monitoring situations.

In the years since fumonisins were first identified there have been many surveys reporting
fumonisins in harvested maize sometimes in very high concentrations. Worldwide occurrence
of fumonisins in maize has been reviewed (Shepherd et al., 1996) while a more recent review
of their occurrence in foods has been carried out (Soriano and Dragacci, 2004). While maize
is by far the most important commodity in which fumonisins occur, there have been reports of
their occurrence in other commodities, usually in much lower concentrations. These include
wheat, barley and soybean in Spain (Castella et al., 1999) and other warm growing areas.
However, a recent re-examination of wheat from South Africa claimed to contain fumonisins
as high as 1.7 mg/kg failed to find any evidence of their presence (Shepherd et al., 2005).
Fumonisins have been reported to be quite stable and not broken down even by moderate
heat (Bordson et al., 1995). However, no fumonisins were detected in tortilla flour made
by treatment with calcium hydroxide (nixtamilisation) and it has been suggested that this
process degrades fumonisins (Sydenham et al., 1991). Scott and Lawrence (1994) succeeded
in obtaining about 80% reduction in fumonisin B1 by heating at higher temperatures. However,
even when fumonisin appears to be destroyed a breakdown product (hydrolysed fumonisin)
can be formed and is reported to be just as toxic as the parent compound (Hopkins and
Murphy, 1993).
Fumonisins have also been reported in tea and medicinal plants in Portugal (Martins et al.,
2001) and Turkey (Omurtag and Yazioglu, 2004), and in asparagus in China (Liu et al.,
2005a)
6.6.4 Toxicology
Although fumonisins were not formally identified until 1988 (Bezuidenhout et al., 1988;
Gelderblom et al., 1988), the effects of these compounds were observed in a sporadic fatal
disease in horses and related species called equine leucoencephalomalacia (ELEM). Affected
animals commonly lose appetite, become lethargic and develop neurotoxic effects after a
period of ingesting contaminated feed. Autopsy shows oedema in the brain and liquefaction
of areas within the cerebral hemispheres.
On a weight-for-weight basis, fumonisins are however far less acutely toxic than the
aflatoxins. In contrast, fumonisins commonly occur in concentrations of mg/kg (parts per
million) in maize (Shephard et al., 1996), and up to 300 mg/kg has been reported (Fazekas
and Tothe, 1995), whereas aflatoxins are usually measured at concentrations of μg/kg (parts
per billion in foods).
Fumonisins are considered toxic due to their effects on sphingolipid synthesis (Riley et al.,
1993). Alteration in sphingolipid base ratios occurs almost immediately after exposure be-
cause fumonisin inhibits ceramide synthetase (Wang et al., 1992). This property is indicative
of fumonisin exposure in a number of species including horses and pigs. Animal studies with
14
C-labelled fumonisin B1 generally show the uptake to be poor and elimination rapid. The
effect of fumonisins on mammals appears to be species related. In pigs, fumonisins induce
pulmonary oedema and hydrothorax, with thoracic cavities filled with a yellow liquid. There
may also be respiratory problems and foetal mortality.
In rats, fed material from F. moniliforme cultures, primary hepatocellular carcinomas
were produced (Gelderblom et al., 1988; Gelderblom and Snyman, 1991). These results
were reproduced using purified fumonisins B1 , B2 and B3 (Gelderblom et al., 1993, 1994).
However, experimental carcinogenicity studies have been hampered by lack of pure standards.
Mycotoxins 157
Lebepe-Mazur et al. (1995a,b) showed that fumonisin B1 affected the foetus in pregnant rats,
causing low litter weights and foetal bone development as compared with controls. Šegvić
and Pepeljnjak (2001) have reviewed their effects on the health of livestock.
In humans, there appears to be a link in some maize-consuming areas of the world be-
tween fumonisin toxicity and the occurrence of oesophageal cancer. Further epidemiological
studies are required to define more precisely the role of F. moniliforme and its metabolites
in oesophageal cancer. The incidence of this form of cancer is high in the Transkei, China,
and in northern Italy. Many studies of the toxicology of fumonisins are in progress. The
full significance of fumonisins in maize for human and animal health still remains to be
determined.

In 2003, only four countries had limits for fumonisins of either 1000 or 3000 μg/kg (FAO,
2004). After consideration of all the available information, the EC introduced a comprehensive
range of limits for the total of fumonisin B1 and fumonisin B2 (combined) in maize and maize
products during 2007. In summary, limits set range from 4000 μg/kg in unprocessed maize
(but not maize destined for wet milling), to 1000 μg/kg in maize intended for direct human
consumption, 800 μg/kg in breakfast cereals, down to 200 μg/kg in processed cereal foods
for infants and young children. The reader should consult the appropriate document for full
details of these limits and regulations (EC, 2007).
6.7 PATULIN
Patulin is a polyketide lactone (Fig. 6.5) produced by certain species of Penicillium, As-
pergillus and Byssochlamys. It can be isolated as colourless to white crystals from ethereal
extracts that have no optical activity, melts at about 110◦ C and sublimes in high vacuum
at 70–100◦ C. It is soluble in water, methanol, ethanol, acetone and ethyl or amyl acetate,
and less soluble in diethyl ether and benzene. It undergoes all the reactions expected of a
secondary alcohol, reduces warm Fehling’s solution and decolourises potassium perman-
ganate. It is stable in acid solutions but can be decomposed by boiling in 2 N sulphuric
acid for 6 hours. It is susceptible to alkaline hydrolysis, reduced by sulphur dioxide and by
fermentation.

Analysis of patulin is usually by HPLC using extraction with ethyl acetate and UV detection
and there are many methods described in the literature. An earlier ISO standard for determi-
nation of patulin in apple juice, apple juice concentrates and drinks containing apple juice
is based on TLC (ISO, 1993). Chloroform is preferred for storage of patulin solutions, as it
tends to decompose in distilled water.
An HPLC method for the determination of patulin in clear and cloudy apple juices and
apple puree has been subject to collaborative study (MacDonald et al., 2000). HORRAT
values for patulin ranged from 0.5 to 1.3 that indicates an acceptable precision and these
were comparable to or better than values reported in the then AOAC–IUPAC Official First
Action Method (AOAC International, 1995). This paper also provides a brief review of
other intercomparison trials carried out for determination of patulin. An interlaboratory
study of an HPLC method for quantitation of patulin at 10 ng/mL in apple-based prod-
ucts intended for infants showed acceptable within-laboratory and between-laboratory pre-
cision for each matrix, as required by current European legislation (Arranz et al., 2005).
Another recent HPLC method is that of Iha and Sabino (2006). 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural
(HMF) often occurs in products susceptible to patulin contamination and care is needed
to ensure this compound is separated from patulin during HPLC to avoid possible
misidentification.
Mass spectrometric methods are increasingly being developed using APCI (Sewram et al.,
2000; Ito et al., 2004).
Attempts to develop rapid tests suitable for routine monitoring of juices based on antibody
technology have proved difficult because the small molecular size of patulin hinders the raising
of the highly specific antibodies and this remains a challenge yet to be met.

An assessment of the dietary intake of patulin by the population of the EU Member States
has been carried out (European Commission, 2002b). Patulin is found in fruits, including
apples, pears, grapes and melons. P. expansum appears to be the mould usually responsible
for patulin in apple juice. In whole fruits, visual inspection will usually identify poor quality
items. The principal risk arises when unsound fruit is used for the production of juices and
other processed products. Patulin has also been reported in vegetables, cereal grains and
silage (Beretta et al., 2000). Apples are by far the most important fruit contaminated by
patulin and this can transfer to apple-based foods. However, when sulphur dioxide is used as
a food preservative in fruit juice or other foods, patulin will be broken down. It is not usually
found in alcoholic beverages or vinegar because it is destroyed during fermentation but has
been found in ‘sweet’ cider in which unfermented apple juice is added to the cider. In acid
conditions, it is relatively stable to heat processes up to about 100◦ C.
6.7.4 Toxicology
Patulin possesses wide-spectrum antibiotic properties and has been tested in humans to
evaluate its ability to treat the common cold. However, its effectiveness has never been
proven and its use to treat medical conditions has not been pursued because it irritates
the stomach, causing nausea and vomiting. In acute and short-term studies patulin causes
gastrointestinal problems, haemorrhaging and ulceration. For patulin, the LD50 for the rat
has been reported as 15 mg/kg bw (Broom et al., 1944) and 25 mg/kg after subcutaneous
injection (Katzman et al., 1944). Death was usually caused by pulmonary oedema. Patulin
injected in large amounts over a 2-month period was carcinogenic, resulting in induction
of sarcomas at the injection site (Dickens and Jones, 1961). In long-term studies at lower
dose levels these effects were not observed. Patulin has also been shown to be immunotoxic
and neurotoxic. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, 1986) concluded
that no evaluation could be made of the carcinogenicity of patulin to humans and that there
was inadequate evidence in experimental animals. Based on reproduction and long-term
carcinogenicity studies in rats and mice JECFA allocated a Provisional Tolerable Weekly
Intake of 7 μg/kg bw.
Mycotoxins 159

Patulin exposure is often controlled by the setting of a ‘guideline’ or a ‘recommended’
maximum concentration, e.g. typically 50 μg/L or μg/kg. Statutory regulation for patulin is
still restricted to a few countries but is expected soon within the EU. A code of practice for the
prevention and reduction of patulin contamination in apple juice and apple juice ingredients
in other beverages has been published by CODEX (CA/RCP 50-2003). One of its many
recommendations not surprisingly is to ensure the use of sound good quality apples.
6.8 OTHER MYCOTOXINS
There is an extensive range of fungal metabolites that have been detected in laboratory cul-
tures, but few of these have been found in food commodities. Smith et al. (1994) reviewed
mycotoxins in human health and the reader is recommended to consult this and later works for
more information on the following lengthy, but incomplete, list: beauvericin, citreoviridin,
enniatins, ergot alkaloids, fusaric acid, fusarin C, fusaproliferin,gliotoxin, lolitrem B, my-
cophenolic acid, 3-nitropropionic acid, penicillic acid, PR-toxin, roquefortine C, rubratoxin
A, satratoxins G and H, sporidesmin, viomellein, vioxanthin and xanthomegnin and toxins
from Aspergillus fumigatus and A. clavatus.
To present a risk for human health such compounds must survive processing and be
present in food ingested by the consumer, in toxicologically significant amounts. Animals
and livestock are at greater potential risk as feedstuffs are often fed directly or with less
processing than is normal for humans. The possibility of yet undetected mycotoxins of
significance should not be dismissed. The fumonisins, for example escaped identification
until the mid-1980s although their effects had been known for a long time.
6.8.1 Citrinin
Citrinin was first isolated as a pure compound from a culture of Penicillium citrinum in
1931. Its structure is shown in Fig. 6.2. Many species of Penicillium have been reported
to produce citrinin (Frisvad, 1989) including P. verrucosum. Hence, citrinin often occurs
together with ochratoxin A, but is more readily lost in analytical procedures and is sought
much less frequently. Aspergillus terreus, A. carneus and A. niveus may also produce this
mycotoxin. Citrinin has mainly been found in rice and other cereals.
Citrinin crystallises as lemon-coloured needles melting at 172◦ C. It is sparingly soluble
in water but soluble in dilute sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate or sodium acetate, in
methanol, acetonitrile, ethanol and most other polar organic solvents. Some photodecompo-
sition occurs in fluorescent light both in solution and in the solid state. It can be degraded in
acid, or alkaline solution. Colour reactions include brown with ferric chloride, green with tita-
nium chloride and deep wine-red with hydrogen peroxide followed by alkali. Mono-acetate,
diethyl, methyl ester and dihydro derivatives can be prepared.
There is little information on the fate of citrinin during processing but it is likely to be
degraded by heat and alkali. However, even though citrinin may be destroyed, toxic breakdown
products have been demonstrated (Trivedi et al., 1993).
Citrinin causes kidney damage and mild liver damage in the form of fatty infiltration. A
review of citrinin toxicity is given by Scott (1977). Citrinin often co-occurs with ochratoxin
and has been implicated in mycotoxic nephropathy of pigs (Krogh et al., 1973). It seems
unlikely that citrinin presents much risk to humans.
6.8.2 Sterigmatocystin
Sterigmatocystin (Fig. 6.6) is a toxic metabolite that is closely related in structure and toxi-
cology to the aflatoxins (Ohtsubo et al., 1978; Ueno and Ueno, 1978) and is mainly produced
by the fungi Aspergillus nidulans and A. versicolor. The physical properties of sterigmato-
cystin are summarised (Table 6.1) together with those of several other mycotoxins reviewed
in subsequent parts of this chapter. It crystallises as pale yellow needles and is readily solu-
ble in methanol, ethanol, acetonitrile, benzene and chloroform. It reacts with hot ethanolic
KOH and is methylated by methyl sulphate and methyl iodide. Methanol or ethanol in acid
produces dihydro-ethoxysterigmatocystin.
The acute toxicity, carcinogenicity and metabolism of sterigmatocystin have been com-
pared with those for aflatoxin and several other hepatotoxic mycotoxins (Wannemacher et al.,
1991). Cattle exhibiting bloody diarrhoea, loss of milk production and in some cases death
were found to have ingested feed containing A. versicolor and high levels of sterigmatocystin
of about 8 mg/kg (Vesonder and Horn, 1985).
Sterigmatocystin has been found in mouldy grain, green coffee beans and cheese, al-
though information on its occurrence in foods is limited. It occurs much less frequently
than the aflatoxins, although analytical methods for its determination are less sensitive. A
survey of 1580 samples including wheat, corn and rice taken from 12 provinces located
in east-north, west-north, west-south, east and central China showed the average contami-
nated content of sterigmatocystin in wheat, corn and rice to be 68.9 μg/kg, 32.2 μg/kg and
13.9 μg/kg with a contamination rate of 98%, 89% and 72%, respectively (Tian and Liu,
2004).
An analytical method for the determination of sterigmatocystin in cheese, bread and corn
products, using HPLC with atmospheric pressure ionisation mass spectrometric detection
has been developed (Scudamore et al., 1996). Sterigmatocystin is now included in several
MS/MS methods so that sensitive detection should be possible in the future.
6.8.3 Cyclopiazonic acid

Cyclopiazonic acid is a toxic indole tetramic acid (Fig. 6.7) that was first isolated from
Penicillium cyclopium (Holzapfel, 1968) and subsequently from other Penicillium species,
Aspergillus flavus (Luk et al., 1977) and A. versicolor (Ohmono et al., 1973). Cyclopiazonic
acid is an optically active colourless crystalline compound that is soluble in chloroform,
dichloromethane, methanol, acetonitrile and sodium bicarbonate. It reacts with 0.1 N sul-
phuric acid in methanol, gives a blue-violet Ehrlich colour reaction and an orange-red reaction
with ferric chloride.
It has been detected in naturally contaminated mixed feeds, maize, peanuts, milk, cheese
and other foods and feeds. Methods for its detection are less sensitive than for mycotoxins
such as aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A. Cyclopiazonic acid together with tenuazonic acid has
been found in tomatoes in Brazil (da Motta et al., 2001).
Cyclopiazonic acid only appears to be toxic when present in high concentrations. Cy-
clopiazonic acid was found to be a neurotoxin when injected intraperitoneally into rats and
lesions in the liver, kidney, spleen and other organs were observed (Purchase, 1971). It can
co-occur with aflatoxins (Takashi et al., 1992) and may enhance the overall toxic effect when
Mycotoxins 161
this happens (Cole, 1986). There is a dearth of human exposure data. However, ‘Kodua’
poisoning in India resulting from ingestion of contaminated millet seeds has been linked to
this toxin.
The main method development for cyclopiazonic at this time has been into methods for
its determination in milk (Losito et al., 2002) and cheese (Zambonin et al., 2001) although
it may potentially occur with aflatoxins, for example in nuts.
6.8.4 Moniliformin
Moniliformin is formed by a number of Fusarium species and occurs as the sodium or
potassium salt of 1-hydroxycyclobut-1-ene-3,4-dione (Fig. 6.4). It is soluble in water and
polar solvents. On heating to 360◦ C moniliformin decomposes without melting. UV maxima
are 229 nm and 260 nm in methanol.
Data on the occurrence of moniliformin in food are scarce. Thiel et al. (1982) showed that
levels up to 12 mg/kg occurred in maize intended for human consumption in the Transkei.
Maize-milled products destined for incorporation into animal feedingstuffs in the UK showed
that samples were contaminated with concentrations up to 4.6 mg/kg (Scudamore et al., 1998).
Moniliformin has also been shown to occur in other cereals such as wheat and rice.
There is a limited data on the effects of moniliformin on mammalian species. The oral LD50
in rodents is approximately 50 mg/kg and for day-old cockerels 4 mg/kg. The ip LD50 values
were 21 and 29 mg/kg, respectively, for female and male mice. In acute studies, the main
lesion appears to be intestinal haemorrhage but in sub-acute and chronic studies, in a variety
of avian species and laboratory rodents, the principal target was the heart. Moniliformin is a
potent inhibitor of mitochondrial pyruvate and ketoglutarate oxidation. Data on the effects of
moniliformin on reproduction and the foetus, and its mutagenic and carcinogenic potential
are negative but extremely limited. In humans, moniliformin has casually been linked with
Keshan disease, which is endemic in some areas of China.
Contaminated maize may contain a cocktail of toxic Fusarium-derived residues such as
fumonisins, zearalenone and trichothecenes (Thiel et al., 1982; Scudamore et al., 1998). Thus
some of the published data in which maize-containing moniliformin has been fed to animals
may need re-evaluation.
6.8.5 Alternaria toxins

Alternaria is a common genus that usually invades crops at the pre-harvest stage and under
suitable conditions may lead to production of certain mycotoxins (Magan et al., 1984). The
mycotoxins that occur most frequently are tenuazonic acid, alternariol monomethyl ether and
alternariol (Fig. 6.8). Altenuene, iso-altenuene and altertoxins I and II may occur occasionally.
Tenuazonic acid is a colourless, viscous oil and is a monobasic acid with pKa 3.5. It is
soluble in methanol and chloroform. On standing, heating or treatment with a base, optical
activity is lost and crystallisation may occur as a result of formation of isotenuazonic acid.
It forms complexes with calcium, magnesium, copper, iron and nickel ions. Tenuazonic acid
is usually stored as its copper salt. Alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether crystallise
from ethanol as colourless needles, with melting points with decomposition of 350◦ C and
267◦ C, respectively. They sublime in a high vacuum without decomposing at 250◦ C and
180–200◦ C. They are soluble in most organic solvents and give a purple colour reaction with
ethanolic ferric chloride. Altenuene crystallises as colourless prisms melting at 190–191◦ C.
Altertoxin I is an amorphous solid melting at 180◦ C and fluoresces bright yellow under UV
light.
Fruits, vegetables and oilseeds are the food commodities that are most affected (Stinson
et al., 1981). Occurrence of Alternaria species and their mycotoxins in oilseeds has been
reported by a number of workers, e.g. in sunflower seed (Chulze et al., 1995) and in oilseed
rape and sunflower seed meal (Nawaz et al., 1997). Mycotoxins produced by Alternaria have
also been reported in apples, olives, tomato products and cereals such as sorghum, wheat
and rye (Visconti et al., 1986; Grabarkiewicz-Szczesna et al., 1989; Ansari and Shrivastava,
1990; Bottalico and Logrieco, 1992). Tenuazonic acid has been found in tomatoes in Brazil
(da Motta et al., 2001).
Toxicology: Alternaria toxins exhibit both acute and chronic effects. The LD50 values for
alternariol monomethyl ether, alternariol, altenuene and altertoxin I in mice are 400, 400, 50
and 0.2 mg/kg bw, respectively. Those for tenuazonic acid are 162 and 115 mg/kg bw (by
the intravenous route) for male and female mice, respectively.
Alternaria toxins have been implicated in animal and in human health disorders (Woody
and Chu, 1992). Deaths in rabbits and poultry have been reported as a result of toxic action
of Alternaria species found in the fodder and feed (Forgacs et al., 1958; Wawrzkiewicz et al.,
1989). Alternaria was also detected in cereal samples in which Fusarium was implicated as
the likely cause for an outbreak of ATA in Russia (Joffe, 1960).
Tenuazonic acid has been most studied of the Alternaria toxins. Its principal mode of
action appears to be the inhibition of protein synthesis by suppressing the release of newly
formed proteins from ribosomes into supernatant fluid (Shigeura and Gordon, 1963). It ex-
hibits anti-tumour, antiviral and antibacterial activity. Alternariol and alternariol monomethyl
ether show foetotoxic and teratogenic effects in mice, including a synergistic effect when a
combination of the toxins was administered (Pero et al., 1973). Most Alternaria mycotoxins
exhibit considerable cytotoxic activity, including mammalian toxicity. The altertoxins are of
particular concern because of their mutagenic activity (Scott and Stoltz, 1980; Chu, 1981;
Stack and Prival, 1986). The latter showed that altertoxin III exhibits mutagenic activity
that is approximately one-tenth that of aflatoxin B1 , while altertoxins I and II showed less
mutagenicity.
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7 Phytoestrogens
Don Clarke and Helen Wiseman
Summary
Phytoestrogens are plant-derived compounds, which commonly occur in a wide range of
foodstuffs. Phytoestrogens can exert biological activity by interacting with the mammalian
hormone system, mimicking the effect of mammalian steroidal estrogens. This oestrogenic-
ity may have a variety of potential health benefits. This chapter reviews the expanding list
of known phytoestrogens, the increasing range of foods known to contain oestrogenic com-
pounds, advances in measurement techniques and the outcome of clinical investigations of
health effects.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Phytoestrogens are plant-derived compounds, which commonly occur in a wide range of
foodstuffs. The interest in phytoestrogens is that they can exert biological activity by inter-
acting with the mammalian hormone system, mimicking the effect of mammalian steroidal
estrogens such as 17β-oestradiol. This activity may have potential benefits to health and
therefore phytoestrogens have been a rapidly expanding and fast moving field of study over
the last decade. This chapter reviews the reasons for this growing interest such as the expand-
ing list of known phytoestrogens, the increasing range of foods known to contain oestrogenic
compounds, advances in measurement techniques and the outcome of clinical investigations.
Oestrogenicity in the environment is a field of study in its own right. There are an ever-
increasing number of xenoestrogens being reported, these are man-made chemicals which
interact with oestrogen receptors. These are classified as endocrine disruptors and are treated
separately from both the natural mammalian steroids and natural plant-based oestrogens.
The diet can therefore contain many different classes of chemical, which are all oestrogenic,
ranging from natural constituents to environmental contaminants. This chapter is however
restricted to the plant-based naturally occurring phytoestrogens.
7.2 THE STRUCTURE OF PHYTOESTROGENS

It is immediately apparent from the chemical structures that the isoflavone phytoestrogens
and the main human steroidal oestrogen have a very similar three-dimensional shape and size.
While simplistic, this shape and distance between the two hydroxyl groups, which provide the
binding points, is fundamental to the structure activity relationship. This feature can be seen

(a) Steroidal estrogens

OH OH
HO HO
B-Estradiol 17A-ethynylestradiol
(b) Non-steroidal estrogens (Stilbenes)

OH
OH
OH
HO HO
Diethylstilbestrol Tamoxifen trans-resveratrol

Veterinary residues Cancer drug Wine (Phytoestrogen)
(c) Estrogen distruptors

CCl3 O
O
O
H
O
Cl Cl HO OH Cl O Cl
O Cl Cl
o,p-DDT Dibutyl phthalate Bisphenol A Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin

Pesticides Phthalates Food packaging (TCDD) Dioxins
Fig. 7.1 Structures of (a) steroidal oestrogens, (b) non-steroidal oestrogens and (c) endocrine disruptors.
in the synthetic hormone diethyl stilbestrol, a veterinary growth promoter, but becomes more
difficult to visualise in the other synthetic xenoestrogens such as DDT pesticides, dioxins,
phthalates, polybrominated flame retardants and bisphenol A (Fig. 7.1). It is not possible
to accurately predict oestrogenicity from chemical structures alone, although pointers to
activity have been presented (Katzenellenbogen et al., 1996). This is further complicated by
metabolism, which can make low activity or inactive compounds oestrogenic. The qualitative
structure activity relationship approach (QSAR) has been successfully applied to predict
receptor binding of similar structures (Aizawa and Hu, 2003), and this topic has been recently
reviewed (Vaya and Tamir, 2004).
7.3 OCCURRENCE AND LEVELS IN PLANT MATERIALS

7.3.1 Defining phytoestrogens by class and structure
The phytoestrogens are generally described as broad classes of compounds based on the un-
derlying chemical ring structures as shown in Fig. 7.2. The definition of which are oestrogenic
and which have more potent biological activity is often disputed, as the many different in vivo
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Naturally occurring Synthetic contaminants

18:21
Ovarian steroids Phytoestrogens Xenoestrogens Growth promoters

(Estradiol) Endocrine disruptors (Diethylstilbesterol)
Meat (DDT/Phthalates)
Packaging
Polyphenolic Steroidal Mycoestrogens

(Zearelenone)
Grain
175
Chromene Stilbenes Lignans Isoflavonoids Flavanoids Chalcones Deoxybenzoins Terpene
(Miroestrol) (Seco) Red clover Glycosides
Kwao Keur Flax
Stilbenes Plant lignans Isoflavones Coumestans Flavonoids Dihdrochalcones Chalcones Triterpene Monoterpene
(Resveretrol) Seco (Genistein) (Coumestrol) (Apigenin) (Aspalathin) (Phloretin) Glycosides Glycosides
Red wine/Grapes Flax seed Soya Alfalfa Orange juice Red tea Apples (Actein) (Paeoniflorin)
Black Cohosh Paeony
Prenylstilbenes Mamalian lignans Prenyl Prenyl Prenylnaringenins Prenylchalcones Triterpene

(Gancaomin R) (Enterodiol) isofalvones Coumestans (8-PNG) (Xanthohumol) Aglcones
Licorice Metabolites (Kawahkurin) (Glycerol) Hops/Beer Hops/beer Phytosterols
Kwao Keur Licorice (Sitosterols)
Fig. 7.2 Division of dietary estrogens by chemical class.

and in vitro assays can give contradictory outcomes. As a consequence of this the literature
describing natural products often gives the impression that all such similar compounds with
closely related polyphenolic structures are phytoestrogens, although this is not often the case.
The range of chemicals that are proven or suspected of being phytoestrogens has increased
rapidly especially, as anecdotal cures and traditional Chinese herbal remedies are re-examined
with modern techniques for measuring oestrogenicity and identifying the bioactive principles.
Phytoestrogens can also be described on the basis of their major source, soya isoflavones
(genistein, daidzein, glycitein), red clover isoflavones (biochanin A, formononetin), kudzu
isoflavones (daidzein, puerarin), flax seed lignans (matairesinol, secoisolariciresiniol), hop
prenylnaringenins (8-prenylnaringenin, 6-prenylnaringenin, 6,8-diprenylnaringenin). There
is a huge overlap as soya also generally contains detectable quantities of biochanin A and
formononetin, while red clover contains moderate quantities of daidzein and genistein as
shown in Fig. 7.3.
7.3.2 Compositional databases

The occurrence of isoflavones, lignans and coumestrol are now well studied in most com-
mon foods and this is described adequately elsewhere. Databases have been prepared from
these original source documents, to allow the diet consumed as recorded by food frequency
questionnaires to be converted into dietary intake figures. As an example, the objective of
the VENUS project (Kiely et al., 2003) was to evaluate existing data on dietary exposure
to compounds with oestrogenic and anti-oestrogenic effects present in plant foods as con-
stituents or contaminants, and thereby to permit the assessment of exposure to e.g. isoflavones
in European populations. Data on the isoflavone (genistein and daidzein) content of 791
foods, including almost 300 foods commonly consumed in Europe, were collected. Levels
of coumestrol, formononetin, biochanin A and lignans in a limited number of foods were
also included. Databases are often compilations of previously published analyses and this
database also contains information on the references sourced for the compositional data, on
the analytical methods used by each author and on the number of foods analysed in each
reference (Kiely et al., 2003). In order to demonstrate the performance of a database it must
be able to successfully predict phytoestrogen intake from dietary records without conducting
any actual analyses. This is achieved through filling out a food frequency questionnaire each
day, or through a single dietary recall interview and to correlate these theoretical intake val-
ues with actual experimentally derived food, plasma and urine phytoestrogen concentrations
(Valsta et al., 2003; Milder et al., 2005; Park et al., 2005; Horn-Ross et al., 2006; Ritchie
et al., 2006; Blitz et al., 2007).
7.3.3 Factors affecting isoflavone content in soya

Isoflavones are phenolic secondary metabolites found mostly in legumes. These compounds
play key roles in many plant–microbe interactions. Because of their biological activities,
metabolic engineering of isoflavonoid biosynthesis in legume and non-legume crops has
significant agronomic and nutritional impact. This has the aim of producing crops with
enhanced plant disease resistance and providing dietary isoflavones for the improvement of
human health (Yu and McGonigle, 2005).
The levels of phytoestrogens in plants vary enormously. One of the earliest studies found
isoflavone concentrations in different soybean varieties to range from 1160 to 3090 μg/g,
almost a threefold range (Eldridge and Kwolek, 1983) This was confirmed a decade later
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H3CO
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O
OH OH
Glycitein
HO O
HO O HO O
18:21
HO
HO
CH3O O
HO CH 2OH
OH O OH O 8-Prenylnaringenin
OH OCH3
Genistein Formononetin O
OH
HO O HO O HO O O HO O HO O
177
O O O O
O OH
CH3O
OH
OH OCH3
Daidzein Biochanin A Coumestrol 6-Prenylnaringenin
Puerarin
Isoflavones Coumestans Prenylnaringenins Daidzin-C-glucosides
Soya phytoestrogens Clover phytoestrogens Hop phytoestrogens Kudzu phytoestrogens
Fig. 7.3 Chemical structures of common phytoestrogens and their dietary sources.
with similar isoflavone concentrations being reported from within a single cultivar of soybean
(Wang and Murphy, 1994). Concentrations of isoflavones found in 1996 were almost twice
those found in 1995, for six soybean cultivars. The effect of eight different growing locations
with different soil types also produced a twofold range in concentrations within a given years
crop. This was interpreted as a significant genotype × environmental interaction (Hoeck et al.,
2000). Similar interactions were observed in a 21 cultivar, 5 location trial (MacDonald et al.,
2005). The application of fertilisers at various rates was found to have no effect on isoflavone
content (Sequin et al., 2006). Wounding and pathogen attack (stem rot fungus) play a key
role in elevating isoflavone content, with a similar range of effect to that observed previously
and attributed to environmental causes. Cultivars differ in ability to accumulate isoflavones
following wounding and/or infection (Wegulo et al., 2005). The date of planting had a great
influence on levels of isoflavones, with early planted soybeans having lower concentrations of
isoflavones. High temperatures during seed development significantly reduce concentrations
of isoflavones (Tsukamoto et al., 1995; Carrao-Panizzi et al., 1999). Care must be taken to
select commercially viable strains. From a practical viewpoint, the isoflavone content has
been shown to increase with increased seed yield, while oil and protein content appear less
responsive to seed yield. This suggests that both higher and lower isoflavone content need not
affect any other of the commercial critical seed quality traits (Yin and Vyn, 2005; Primomo
et al., 2005b).
Population phenotyping and genotyping is underway, mapping the quantitative trait loci
(QTL mapping) that associate with the isoflavone content of soya seeds. This marker-assisted
selection is being used to develop soya strains with a genetic predisposition to produce higher
isoflavone levels independent of the environmental conditions (Primomo et al., 2005a,b).
7.3.4 Other possible phytoestrogens

There are a number of other classes of phytoestrogen that are less well understood. The ma-
jority of phytoestrogens are polyphenols, there is little linking with the chemical structures of
polyphenols, steroidal triterpenes and monoterpene glucosides. The phytoestrogenic potency
varies enormously and a number of the lesser-known phytoestrogens are considered more
potent oestrogens than the better-known soya isoflavone phytoestrogens.
There are four factors involved in exposure to dietary phytoestrogens. Firstly, consumers
are now better informed about the potential benefits of phytochemicals and can therefore
choose to consciously increase exposure by adding soya products into their diets. Secondly,
at the same time soya usage has been increasing in significance, in processed foods largely
outside the control of the consumer, with this secondary exposure being the driving force
behind the recent rise in the UK daily exposure to isoflavones. Thirdly, there are still a
number of uncharacterised phytoestrogen sources in the diet. With the large cultural changes
in recent decades, few Westerners now eat solely their own traditional diet. Many include
other, especially Asian foods. Lastly, the ever-increasing scientific basis for health benefits
has led to an influx of dietary supplements of soya, flaxseed and red clover. More recently
this has expanded to cover further plant-based phytoestrogens, new to the UK diet, which
are supplements rather than foods. These are generally deliberately taken as herbal remedies.
These are increasing in popularity and represent a significant exposure to phytoestrogens.
Often the health claims of these products are based solely around oestrogenic potency, i.e.,
that a known phytoestrogen is present and that it is more oestrogenically potent, than for
instance genistein, thereby inferring this is more beneficial, without regard to quantity and
Phytoestrogens 179
dose. Many of the claims associated with these products should be treated with caution;
however, they do currently represent the front line in commercial phytoestrogen research.
Many of these drugs and supplements contain potent phytoestrogens, but the dose and
efficacy and relevance to a particular biological endpoint are generally not proven to rigorous
scientific standards. The better-characterised products, based on soya isoflavones, red clover
isoflavones and black cohosh triterpenes are gaining credibility as front line treatments of
vasomotor symptoms and other menopausal complaints. Despite the far larger financial in-
vestment in researching traditional dietary exposure and the many potential chronic disease
health benefits, it is somewhat surprising that the various supplements for the treatment of
menopausal symptoms are now considered scientifically well validated and these simplistic
substitutes to hormone replacement therapy (HRT) currently remain the only proven thera-
peutic uses for phytoestrogens (Howes et al., 2006; Nachtigall et al., 2006; Thompson Coon
et al., 2007).
The structures of a number of selected minor phytoestrogens are given in Fig. 7.4 with the
chemical classes and a common dietary source.
7.3.4.1 Black cohosh

While still relatively unknown in the UK, black cohosh has become one of the most impor-
tant herbal products in the US dietary supplements market. It is manufactured from roots
and rhizomes of Cimicifuga racemosa (Ranunculaceae) and is widely used in the treatment
of menopausal symptoms and menstrual dysfunction. This formulation is perhaps the best
example of a well-studied and clinically proven use of phytoestrogens delivering a clear
health benefit (Geller and Studee, 2005). Black cohosh is believed not to exert an oestrogenic
effect on the breast (Ruhlen et al., 2007). However, it prevents proliferation of breast cancer
cells (Einbond et al., 2006). Products sometimes contain the isoflavone formononetin, but
as extracts of these products that contain no isoflavones remain active, and the oestrogenic
effect is correlated to the triterpene glycoside fraction, these products and components are
considered as non-isoflavone supplements (Onorato and Henion, 2001; Jiang et al., 2006).
Formulations are generally standardised against two triterpene glycosides 27-deoxyacetin
and acetin, but contain many related compounds (Lai et al., 2005) (Fig. 7.4).
Phytosterols. Plant sterols (phytosterols) are structurally similar to cholesterol and are
found in bread, vegetable fats, fruit and vegetables and vegetable-based fats (Normén et al.,
2001). β-sitosterol is the most prevalent, and can be consumed at ca. 200 mg/day (Jimenez-
Escriq et al., 2006). As β-sitosterol has been suspected of being a phytoestrogen for some
time, an intake of 200 mg/day would be a considerable exposure (Fig. 7.4). These compounds
are generally more widely know as additives in margarine where they are used to achieve a
reduction in serum cholesterol when they are consumed as part of a low fat, low cholesterol
diet.
Toxicological studies have found that phytosterols did not bind to rat uterine oestrogen
receptors (ER), or stimulate transcriptional activity of human ER in a recombinant yeast assay.
Furthermore, there was no evidence of oestrogenicity in the immature rat uterotrophic assay.
With negative results in the benchmarking uterotrophic assay, by definition phytosterols could
not therefore be considered as phytoestrogens in rodents (Baker et al., 1999). However, the
egg yolk protein formed via the vitellogin gene is expressed in fish, providing unequivocal
evidence that in aquatic systems phytosterols and β-sitosterol are oestrogenic (Mellanen
et al., 1996, 1999; Nakari, 2005). Differences in the primary sequences of rodent, human
and fish oestrogen receptors and metabolism may explain the discrepancy between fish and
O O-Glucose-glucose
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O
O
O
O
OH
Xylose O Glucose Glucose O HO
i) Acetin ii) Ginsenoside-Rb1 iii) β -sitosterol

February 15, 2008
Triterpene glycoside Triterpene glycoside Triterpene aglycone
COOH
OH HO O O
18:21
HO
Glucose O
O O
OH O
OMe O O
OH O OH
HO
Glucuronide Glucuronide O
180
iv) Glycyrrhizin v) Gancaonin R vi) Glycyrol vii) Paeoniflorin
Tritepene glycoside Prenyl dihydrostilbene Prenyl coumestan monoterpene glucoside
OH
OH OH HO
HO O O HO O HO O OH H3CO
O
OMe OMe HO HO OH
O
O O OCH3
OH HO OH OH Glucose OH
OH
viii) Mirificoumestan ix) Kawakhurin x) Deoxymiroestrol xi) Aspalathin xii) Secoisolariciresinol
Prenyl coumestan Prenyl isoflavone Chromene C-glucoside dihydrochalcone lignan
Fig. 7.4 Chemical structures of probable minor dietary phytoestrogens and their primary dietary sources: (i) acetin from black cohosh, (ii) ginsenoside-Rb1 from
ginseng, (iii) β-sitosterol from vegetable oils, (iv) glycyrrhizin from licorice, (v) gancaonin R from licorice, (vi) glycyrol from licorice, (vii) paeoniflorin from paeony, (viii)
mirificoumestan from Kwao keur, (ix) kawakhurin from Kwao Keur, (x) deoxymiroestrol from Kwao Keur, (xii) aspalathin from red tea, (xiii) secoisolariciresiniol from
flax seed.
Phytoestrogens 181
mammalian assays. In rats, β-sitosterol was found to reduce sperm count and testicular weight
(Moghadasian, 2000), and to produce elevated plasma oestradiol and testosterone levels in
field voles (Nieminen et al., 2003). Recent evidence suggests that while β-sitosterol can
exert a range of biological activity, modulating the growth of human breast cancer cells is a
recognised oestrogenic role in humans (Ju et al., 2004). This suggests that there can be some
oestrogenic effects in mammals and phytosterols should continue to be viewed with caution.
More importantly, the presence of β-sitosterol and related compounds in the waste stream
from the Kraft pulp and paper process caused serious environmental pollution resulting in
the feminisation of fish (Mellanen et al., 1996, 1999; Nakari, 2005).
7.3.4.2 Miroestrol
Miroestrol was isolated in 1940, and the structure assigned in 1960 from Pueraria mirifica
(Cain, 1960). This still relatively unknown phytoestrogen and more recently deoxymiroestrol
have been isolated from the Thai drug based on this plant root. More recently it has been
suggested that deoxymiroestrol is the actual oestrogenic principle found in Pueraria mirifica
and that miroestrol is formed as an oxidation artefact (Chansakaow et al., 2000). The relative
binding of deoxymiroestrol and miroestrol to the ER of a human breast cancer cell line has
been found to be 50 and 260 times respectively, the molar excess needed for 50% inhibition
of 3 H oestradiol (Matsumura et al., 2005). Genistein required a 1000-fold excess showing
the potency of miroestrol and deoxymiroestrol as 4 and 20 times more potent than genistein,
respectively. Deoxymiroestrol and 8-prenylnaringenin have comparable potency, in this assay,
although deoxymiroestrol is generally considered the more potent overall when other assays
are taken into account.
7.3.4.3 Prenylflanonoids
Prenylated flavonoids are perhaps the second most potent class of phytoestrogens (Milligan
et al., 1999), although the oestrogenic activity is still less than 1% of that of 17 β-oestradiol
(Milligan et al., 2000). While potent and found in a number of plants, prenylnaringenins are
perhaps of limited effect as hops (Humulus lupulus) are to date the only identified dietary
source of prenyl naringenins (Fig. 7.3). Beer is the most important source. These compounds
are introduced through the use of hops as the bitter flavouring agent. Further prenylnaringenins
are formed during the brewing process. Recent studies suggest that isoxanthohumol is also
converted into 8-prenylnaringenin in the human distal colon (Possemiers et al., 2006). After
consumption, human intestinal microbiota convert further isoxanthohumol from the beer into
8-prenylnaringenin. Depending on inter-individual differences this could increase the intake
of 8-prenylnaringenin 10-fold from beer consumption (Possemiers et al., 2005). Despite
the extremely high potency and the subtle increase in exposure through post-dietary-intake
biotransformations, the actual daily intake level of prenylnaringenins is considered so low as
to represent no benefit or detriment to health (Stevens and Page, 2004).
Phase I enzymes, for example, Cyp1 A2, are thought to be inhibited by xanthohumol and
8-prenylnaringenin (Miranda et al., 2000b). Phase II enzymes by contrast have been shown to
be induced in vitro. For example, NAD(P)H:quinone reductase has been shown to be induced
by xanthohumol (Miranda et al., 2000a). Xanthohumol could thus have beneficial effects on
the detoxification of carcinogenic compounds by the inhibition of phase I and the induction
of phase II enzymes.
Selectivity, as well as oestrogenic potency, differs for 8-prenylnaringenin binding to oe-

strogen receptors in comparison with isoflavonoids. 8-Prenylnaringenin was found to be a 100
times more potent ERα agonist than genistein, but a much weaker agonist of ERβ in further
oestradiol-competition assays for receptor binding (Schaefer et al., 2003). The prenyl group
of 8-prenylnaringenin is critical to its observed oestrogenicity as can be seen by the compar-
ative lack of oestrogenicity of naringenin. Recent studies have investigated substituting the
prenyl group (at C8) with alkyl chains of varying lengths and branching patterns (Roelens
et al., 2006). The new alkyl naringenins were found to have an activity spectrum ranging
from partial to full agonism to antagonism. Interestingly, 8-(2,2-dimethylpropyl)naringenin
showed full agonist characteristics using ERα activity assays, but pronounced antagonist
characteristics using ERβ activity assays. This clearly showed the potential for the chemical
optimisation of phytoestrogens, in particular the flavonoids, as potential Selective Oestrogen
Modulators (SERMs) of the future. The search for new natural prenylflavonoids also con-
tinues, in particular evaluating prenylflavonoids from tonics and herbal medicines for their
oestrogenic properties (Wang et al., 2006).
What is lacking in comparing prenylated flavonoids with isoflavonoids and flavonoids is
epidemiological and feeding trial data. Until this is forthcoming it is unknown whether or
not they, as supplements, will be regarded as such potential health maintaining agents as the
isoflavonoids. In view of the relatively high oestrogenicity of prenylated flavonoids, concern
has been expressed over their potential adverse effect on health. The presence of ‘feminising’
agents in beer is considered a sensitive topic and is not something most brewers wish to
promote.
7.3.4.4 Stilbenes
Resveratrol is widely distributed in the plant kingdom, but the principal dietary sources are
grapes (Vitis spp.), peanuts (Arachis spp.), berries (blue berries and cranberries, Vaccinium
spp.) and rhubarb (Rheum spp.) (Sigreorelli and Ghidoni, 2005). Recently resveratrol has been
produced in transgenic apple fruit so in the future it may be present in even greater quanti-
ties in the diet (Ruhmann et al., 2006). By far the most widely researched dietary stilbene
is resveratrol or 3,5,4-t-hydroxystilbene which is found in plants mainly in the trans form.
Like most polyphenols, resveratrol is generally found conjugated, principally as 3-O-β-D-
glucosides called piceids. Other minor conjugated forms contain 1 or 2 methyl groups (e.g.
pterostilbene), a sulfate group, or a fatty acid. As with isoflavonoids, absorption of resveratrol
in the human intestine is principally via the aglycone form and therefore there is a require-
ment for glycosidases, including bacterial types, in the intestine. As regards metabolism and
excretion, it is interesting that flavonoids such as quercetin inhibit the glucuronidation of
resveratrol and may therefore increase its bioavailability (Sigreorelli and Ghidoni, 2005).
The principal health benefits of resveratrol ingestion are seen as the prevention of car-
diovascular disease and cancer. Proposed mechanisms for the promotion of cardiovascular
health include, in common with other phytoestrogens, antioxidant action and the induction
of nitrous oxide to maintain vasodilation (Orallo et al., 2002). Interestingly, resveratrol was
found to inhibit nitric oxide production and iNOS (inducible nitric oxide synthase) expression
in cancer cells, in contrast to its vasodilatory function (Roman et al., 2002).
There has been particular interest, however, in resveratrol for its potential prevention of
cancer. As for isoflavonoids and 8-prenylnaringenin, proposed mechanisms include the down
regulation of phase I enzymes and up-regulation of phase II enzymes (Szaefer et al., 2004).
Sirtuins are a nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide (NAD)-dependent class of deacetylases
Phytoestrogens 183
responsible for regulating the response to DNA damage and gene silencing process of ageing
and survival. Resveratrol was found to activate human sirtuin 1 (SIRT 1) and sensitised cells
to apoptosis (Yeung et al., 2004).
In addition to interfering with cell cycle control, resveratrol, like other phytoestrogens,
is potentially able to overcome drug resistance of tumours, for example breast cancer,
that express multi-drug resistance associated proteins (ATP-dependent pumps that remove
chemotherapeutics out of cells) (Cooray et al., 2004). There appears therefore great potential
for the use of resveratrol as a chemopreventative agent, although as for many other phytoe-
strogens further specific feeding trials need to be carried out to determine more precisely the
potential health benefits. Resveratrol is antagonistic on both ERα and ERβ at high concen-
trations (Mueller et al., 2004). Resveratrol is not a potent phytoestrogen (Mueller et al., 2004;
Harris et al., 2005; Matsumura et al., 2005). It would appear therefore that oestrogenicity
is not the most significant property of resveratrol in terms of human health and that prop-
erties such as the activation of SIRT 1 will prove more significant for this compound in the
future.
7.3.4.5 Licorice
Glycyrrhizin, a triterpene in licorice root, is 50 times sweeter than sugar leading to its use as
a sweetener. Glycyrrhizin is believed to be oestrogenic as is the aglycone glycyrrhetic acid
(Sharaf et al., 1975). About 90 phenolic compounds have been isolated from the different
species of licorice plants (Glycyrrhiza). Six of these are oestrogenic. The dihydrostilbene
gancaonin R has a higher binding affinity than genistein (Fig. 7.4). While five others, liquir-
itigenin (hydroxychalcone), isobavachin (prenylfavanone), sigmoidin B (prenylflavanone),
glycyrol (prenylcoumestan), glabrene (pyranoisoflavene) have binding affinities similar to
genistein and daidzein (Nomura et al., 2002). Licorice is especially important in Japan,
where good health and phytoestrogen intake are believed to be closely linked. Licorice is
frequently used in Japan as an over-the-counter medicine and most elderly Japanese choose
licorice over synthetic medicine. Glycyrrhizin has preventative effects of oestrogen-related
endometrial carcinogenesis in mice (Niwa et al., 2007).
7.3.4.6 Ginseng
In the USA, ginseng (Panax ginseng) is used to alleviate menopausal symptoms. Ginseng
contains a range of ca. 30 related ginsenosides, steroidal saponins, which comprise some 3–
6% of ginseng. Two of the more active constituents are ginsenosides Rb1and Rh1 (Fig. 7.4)
(Punnonen and Lukola, 1980; Chan et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2003; Cho et al., 2004). The
most recent work suggested that ginsenoside Rg1 is an extremely potent phytoestrogen in the
human breast cell proliferation assay, and it is more potent than e.g. coumestrol. As there is
no specific binding to ER, ginsenosides may activate ER via a ligand-independent pathway
(Chen et al., 2006).
7.3.4.7 Peony
Peony is an ancient, traditional Chinese herbal medicine. The active component paeoniflorin
(Fig. 7.4) is commonly used to treat dysmenorrhea (painful menses), polycystic ovary syn-
drome and pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS). Peony shows some weak oestrogen-like effects,
acting like a very weak anti-oestrogen, particularly as part of the formula shakuyaku-kanzo-to.
In a preliminary study, this formula was shown to improve fertility in women affected by
polycystic ovary syndrome (Takahashi and Kitao, 1994).
Paeoniflorin, glycyrrhetic acid and glycyrrhizin may affect the conversion between delta
4-androstenedione and testosterone to inhibit testosterone synthesis and stimulate aromatase
activity to promote oestradiol synthesis by the direct action on the proestrous ovary (Takeuchi
et al., 1991).
7.3.4.8 Red tea phytoestrogens

The polyphenols from Aspalathus linearis have recently been introduced into the Western
diet as red tea, or rooibos, a South African beverage containing no caffeine and low lev-
els of tannins. This drink is promoted for its high antioxidant content, these same antioxi-
dant polyphenols are also phytoestrogenic. Nothofagin is of similar oestrogenic potency to
genistein, while vitexin, isovitexin, luteolin, luteolin-7-glucoside, hemiphlorin, aspalathin
(Fig. 7.4) have more moderate oestrogenicity (Shimamura et al., 2006).
7.3.4.9 Deoxybenzoins
As these diphenolics are considered to be the final intermediates in the synthesis of isoflavones
they are also often considered to be extraction artefacts. These compounds are now being
investigated for their oestrogenic activity (Fokialakis et al., 2004). It has been known for
some time that the oestrogenicity of red clover (Trifolium subterraneum) extracts increases
markedly after treatment with ethanolic alkali and that this is probably due to as yet unchar-
acterised deoxybenzoins (Beck et al., 1966). They have been found in several plant species,
including licorice (Glycyrrhiza) and spiny restharrow (Oononis spinosa) another trifolium
plant, which is used in homeopathic medicine, although the oestrogenic activity of such
plants is often mistakenly attributed to isoflavones. The affinity of deoxybenzoins for ERα
and ERβ show some bias towards ERβ (Fokialakis et al., 2004) as is typified by the isoflavone
genistein and as such deoxybenzoins represent a new class of ERβ selective phytoestrogen.
7.4 MEASUREMENT OF INDIVIDUAL PHYTOESTROGENS

The measurement of phytoestrogens is widely recognised as being highly challenging. Suc-
cess requires an extremely high degree of expertise in both wet laboratory and instrument
operation to achieve consistently accurate and precise results. With the continued absence of
recognised reference materials it continues to be difficult to generate sufficient quality control
to allow an objective and independent comparison of data generated by different laboratories
conducting similar investigations.
7.4.1 Traditional approaches

The measurement of phytoestrogens has changed considerably in the last decade. A relatively
recent review provides in depth information on methods (Wu et al., 2004). Mass spectrometry
(MS) methods are under continuous development, while many of the other methods are of
more academic interest. Measurement of very high levels of phytoestrogens, such as in
soya products has always been readily achieved by straightforward high performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet (UV) detection. This approach has changed little in
Phytoestrogens 185
Table 7.1 Main methods that may be used to quantify concentrations of phytoestrogens.
Method Detector Reference
GC MS Grace et al. (2003)
HPLC methods UV Kim et al. (2007)

FLD Richelle et al. (2002)
Electrochemical Penalvo and Nurmi (2006)
NMR Fritche et al. (2002)
Capillary electrophoresis Capillary zone electrophoresis Peng and Ye (2006)

Micellar electrokinetic chromatography Micke (2006)
Capillary electrochromatography Starkey et al. (2002)
Immunoassays Radioimmunoassay Lapcik et al. (2003)

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays Vitkova et al. (2004)
Time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay Brouwers et al. (2003)
ER-CALUX Legler et al. (2002)
the last decade and is a reliable and robust technique, which continues to be routinely used in
niche applications, particularly measuring high concentrations of isoflavones in soya foods.
It is generally combined with an acid hydrolysis step to convert all the glucoside forms into a
lesser number of aglycones to further simplify the quantitation aspects of the analysis. This
approach has the advantage of being low-cost and readily available, and has been extensively
applied in support of food production and labelling claims. A small number of research
groups have left out the acid hydrolysis step and directly measured the intact glucosides
to establish the ratios of aglycone, primary glucosides, malonyl and acetyl glucosides. As
the form in which the core phytoestrogen aglycone is ingested and presented internally
affects bioavailability, these food conjugate analyses are conducted in support of clinical trials
(Setchell et al., 2001; Wiseman et al., 2002). There are now a wide range of complementary
liquid chromatography techniques with a range of detectors that can all be used to measure
hydrolysed aglycones in food. Most of these techniques have relatively little merit for the
analysis of complex samples with multiple analytes. Fluorescence is limited to a few analytes
such as coumestrol and equol where fluorimetric detection is significantly more sensitive
than UV (Richelle et al., 2002). Other approaches such as electrochemical detection with the
coulometric electrode array detector lack the specificity to be used in any but the simplest
applications (Penalvo and Nurmi, 2006). These are summarised in Table 7.1.
The bulk of analyses and the addition of new compositional data for individual foods is car-
ried out by LC-MS/MS, where it is useful to have the higher degree of specificity for uniquely
identifying various structurally similar phytoestrogens. For analysis of well-characterised
foods where the analyte distribution is unambiguous HPLC-UV is still considered to be of
adequate specificity.
7.4.2 Mass spectrometry

The low-level analysis of biological samples for phyoestrogens has always been more techni-
cally challenging. Clinically relevant concentrations of phytoestrogens in food are measured
in mg/kg, while the human circulatory concentrations derived from these foods are two orders
of magnitude lower in urine (μg/mL) and three orders lower in plasma (ng/mL).
The initial analytical methods were derived directly from traditional steroid analyses. For
low-level pharmacokinetic studies involving the analysis of 1–1000 ng/mL of analytes in
urine and plasma samples, the standard approach involved multiple chromatographic clean-
up steps and derivatisation to trimethyl silyl ethers, to increase volatility before analysis by
GC-MS. This approach was technically difficult, time-consuming and prone to numerous
quality control failures. The advent of triple quadrupole LC-MS/MS instruments has resulted
in these methods being quickly abandoned and replaced by simpler and more reproducible
methods where the phytoestrogens can be analysed directly without derivatisation. While
still technically challenging, when conducted by LC-MS operators with the same degree of
technical expertise, these data sets are of vastly improved quality and more importantly are
not prone to batch failures. Urine can be hydrolysed in situ with glucuronidase and analysed
directly by LC-MS/MS, with much greater precision. Current LC-MS/MS instrumentation
can now deliver better sensitivity than traditional GC-MS-based analyses working from the
same sample size. Plasma analyses continued to be GC-MS-based until very recently when
it became feasible to conduct a simple protein precipitation with acetonitrile and to dry this
down and reconstitute for LC-MS/MS analysis. This approach now performs well at 1 ng/mL
using 1 mL of human plasma. Many researchers now consider that food analyses with all
the intrinsic problems with solvent selection and optimising extraction efficiencies for each
food and analyte combination to be far more challenging than the biological analyses or MS
issues. To summarise, the current best practise is either, HPLC-UV (Kim et al., 2007), or LC-
MS/MS for food analyses, LC-MS/MS for urine (Clarke et al., 2002) and either LC-MS/MS,
or GC-MS (Grace et al., 2003) for plasma analyses.
The most significant recent advance in the underlying analytical chemistry has been the
synthesis of a range of stable isotope standards of phytoestrogens. Isoflavones, plant and
mammalian lignans, coumestrol as well as some glucosides and glucuronides have been
prepared containing three carbon-13 atoms (Clarke et al., 2002; Al-Maharik and Botting,
2004; Oldfield et al., 2004; Fryatt and Botting, 2005; Haajanen and Botting, 2006). All modern
mass spectrometers, using both GC and LC front-end sample introduction and separation
techniques benefit from a procedure known as isotope dilution mass spectrometry (IDMS).
In HPLC-UV methods an internal standard (IS) is added in a known quantity and all analyte
peak sizes compared to this (normalisation). The IS must elute at a significantly different
retention time to all the quantified analytes and thus by definition is chemically different
from all of the analytes being measured. In MS, by using the chemically identical analytes
that have undergone synthesis to contain three atoms of carbon-13 in place of carbon-12, the
internal standard can be considered identical at the physical level, behaving exactly like the
unlabelled analogue, co-eluting with the unlabelled version. This results in an exact match
with identical experimental losses throughout any extraction procedure, and also lessens
matrix effects and ionisation differences within the final mass spectral quantitation step.
Having a different mass allows a labelled standard to be treated as a separate entity in the
detector, although both are measured simultaneously. It is then the ratio of unlabelled to
labelled versions that is used to calculate concentrations. Initially labelled standards were
produced with deuterium (hydrogen-2), as the heavier isotope, these are less stable than
carbon-13 versions as the deuterium can often be exchanged back out and replaced with
hydrogen. This effect was minimal but observable during the acid hydrolysis of glycones and
glucuronides to aglycones.
LC-MS/MS has also been used to probe questions of metabolism and pharmacokinetics.
It is now possible to measure phytoestrogens in their biological, circulatory and excretory
Phytoestrogens 187
forms, glucuronides and sulfates (Clarke et al., 2002), as well as cellular metabolites such
as nitro derivatives. Anti-inflammatory agents are used in chemopreventive strategies. The
inflammatory response involves the production of cytokines and proinflammatory oxidants
such as hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and peroxynitrite (ONO2 −) produced by neutrophils and
macrophages, respectively. The aromatic nature of polyphenols makes them potential targets
of oxidation. Both chlorinated and nitrated genistein are formed by human neutrophils. These
data imply a potential role for modified forms of genistein that would be produced in the
inflammatory environment in and around a tumour (D’Alessandro et al., 2003).
7.4.3 Immunoassays
As immunoassays are based on specific antibodies, these tests measure concentrations of dis-
crete analytes. For a coumestrol immunoassay 3-O-carboxymethylcoumestrol was prepared
as the hapten, which was conjugated to bovine serum albumin and used to immunise rabbits.
The resultant rabbit polyclonal antiserum and I125 labelled hapten-tyrosine methyl ester con-
jugate was used as the radioligand to produce a quantitative assay. This was very specific to
coumestrol with negligible cross-reactivity to isoflavones (Lapcik et al., 2003). A different
assay is needed for each phytoestrogen, which limits application. Immunoassays are often
produced as competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). A set of ELISA
assays have been prepared for daidzein, genistein and biochanin A (Vitkova et al., 2004).
ELISA assays developed for steroidal oestrogens are often used to measure phytoestrogenicity
as these assays are non-selective and phytoestrogens cross-react (Shimamura et al., 2006).
The available immunoassays, including enzyme immunoassay (CIA), fluoroimmunoassay
(FIA), chemiluminescence immunoassay (CLIA) have been recently reviewed (Zhao et al.,
2007).
7.4.4 Online bioactivity assays

A new screening technology that combines biological analysis with the resolution power of
HPLC is being developed, and this is referred to here as high-resolution screening (HRS)
(Schobel et al., 2001). The interactions of the analyte with the oestrogen receptor proceed at
high speed in a closed, continuous-flow reaction detection system, which is coupled directly
to the outlet of an HPLC column. The reaction products of this homogeneous fluorescence
enhancement-type assay were detected online using a flow-through fluorescence detector,
which was operated in combination with MS. This HRS system with biochemical detection
can be described as LC-BCD-FLD/MS. This system dramatically enhances the speed of bio-
logically active compound characterisation in natural product extracts compared to traditional
bioassay directed fractionation approaches.
Online biochemical detection coupled to MS (LC-BCD-MS) was applied to profile the
oestrogenic activity in a pomegranate peel extract. After an HPLC separation, the biologically
active compounds were detected by an online beta-oestrogen receptor (β-ER) bioassay. Using
this approach three oestrogenic compounds, i.e. luteolin, quercetin and kaempferol, were
detected in pomegranate (van Elswick et al., 2004). There are major limitations in that these
techniques can only be based on the simplest in vitro assays and that at the technical level, in
coupling enzyme assays to MS the choice and compatibility of solvent and buffer is severely
limiting. Non-volatile buffers contaminate the spectrometer ion source and cause ionisation
suppression. These online techniques (HRS by LC-BCD-MS) represent the potential future
of phytoestrogen analytical chemistry.
7.5 MEASUREMENT OF OESTROGENICITY
The strength of traditional chromatographic analytical chemistry is the accurate quantitation

of known compounds. The shortcoming is that only well-characterised analytes can be quan-
tified and this requires considerable prior knowledge of the sample, to measure appropriate
analytes. Phytoestrogen research by definition is derived from these compounds having bio-
logical effects. The oestrogenic potential of phytoestrogens is the defining property of these
compounds. It is not however at all straightforward to measure oestrogenicity. The gold stan-
dard is the in vivo uterotrophic assay where immature rodents are fed the phytoestrogen under
study and when mature, the weight of the uterus is then measured, the biological endpoint
being growth in response to phytoestrogens, in comparison to control animals not exposed
to oestrogens. The potency of a phytoestrogen is expressed as that required to produce an
equivalent change in weight. A phytoestrogen would generally be expected to have increased
the weight of the uterus. While this is ultimately the final test of whether a compound is a
phytoestrogen, it is a lengthy and expensive process. A transgenic test has recently been de-
veloped – the blue mouse test in which tissues stain blue where oestrogen activity is present.
This has the benefit of looking at the whole body rather than a single tissue such as the
uterus. There are many endpoints studied, age of puberty, cell differentiation and prolifera-
tion, gene expression, oestrus cycle length, hormone concentrations etc. The majority of these
tests can only be applied in animal models. A summary of the main techniques is given in
Table 7.2. These bioassays quantify a simple biological effect (endpoint) and do not determine
a concentration of the causative chemical (analyte).
Many other simpler tests are conducted in order to screen a wider range of samples
and to support other studies. One of the major problems with in vitro oestrogenicity tests
is that the chemical under test may be inactive as it requires metabolic activation before
acquiring oestrogenicity. Classic examples are the increase in potency between the soya
isoflavone daidzein and one of its metabolites equol, or the conversion of inactive plant
lignans matairesinol and secoisolariciresiniol into the phytoestrogenic mammalian lignans,
enterodiol and enterolactone by the action of gut microflora. The reverse is also seen where
8-prenylnaringenin is extremely potent in vitro and relatively inactive in vivo. Simple tests
which do not take metabolism and transport mechanisms into account (in vitro) can therefore
quite legitimately give widely differing results to more complex in vivo tests for the same
chemicals. As there are many relevant mechanisms that are under study, it is difficult to
make an accurate overall comparison of which phytoestrogens are more active. The current
consensus taking into account both in vitro and in vivo studies ranks oestrogenic potency of
the most widely studied analytes as: oestradiol ≥ deoxymiroestrol ≥ coumestrol ≥ genistein
and equol > glycitein > 8-prenylnaringenin > daidzein > formononetin, biochanin A, 6-
prenylnaringenin, xanthohumol, isoxanthohumol.
The different types of oestrogenic assay can be divided into three groups correspond-
ing to their position in the oestrogen-dependent metabolic pathway (Figure 7.5). The first,
cell proliferation measures a physiological response resulting from production of functional
proteins, the second receptor-dependent gene expression measures the ability to activate the
oestrogen responsive element to produce a protein product, the third receptor-binding assays
measure the strength of the interaction with oestrogen and the receptor. Ligand-independent
Phytoestrogens 189
Table 7.2 Main methods that may be used to quantify the bioactivity of phytoestrogens.
Method Comments
In vitro
Receptor-binding assay Assay is easy to perform
Measures the affinity between oestrogens Offers a choice of receptor source, e.g. possibility to
and oestrogen receptors select subtype and isoform
Assay measures affinity to oestrogen receptors
Not possible to distinguish agonists from antagonists
Cell proliferation assay Assay is easy to perform
Indirect measure of oestrogenic activity via Potency estimates can be derived
ability of a compound to stimulate Can distinguish agonists from antagonists
proliferation in an oestrogen-responsive Cell proliferation may occur independent of oestrogen
cell line (e.g. MCF-7 cells) receptors
Cell lines can differ in their response to an oestrogen
Reporter gene assay Provides estimation of potency
Indirect measurement of oestrogenic Can distinguish agonists from antagonists
activity via expression of a reporter gene Artificial system and dependent on cell line, response
engineered into a cell line element and reporter gene used
Analysis of changes in gene expression Provides estimation of potency
Estimation of oestrogen induced gene Can be used to investigate tissue-specific effects
expression Does not inform about functional response
In vivo
Uterotrophic assay Provides estimation of potency
Measurement of uterine growth in Absorption, metabolism and excretion are
response to phytoestrogens in a rodent incorporated in the assessment
model low in endogenous oestrogens Only measures oestrogenic effects in one tissue
Transgenic mouse assay Provides estimation of potency
Measures expression of an oestrogen Absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion are
sensitive reporter gene engineered into incorporated in the assessment
transgenic mice Identifies and measures effects in
oestrogen-responsive tissues
processes can produce protein expression without binding to the standard oestrogen
receptor.
One of the more interesting approaches is the CALUX assay. The in vitro oestrogen
receptor-mediated chemically activated luciferase gene expression (CALUX) assay uses cells
transfected with an ER-mediated luciferase gene construct. This expresses by emitting light
when exposed to oestrogens. This luciferase construct has also been introduced to Zebra fish
and the difference in reporter gene activation studied between the two systems. The fish will
glow when exposed to endocrine disruptors (Legler et al., 2002). Little work has been done
using CALUX to measure phytoestrogens as there is currently no cost benefit in CALUX
versus LC-MS.
To conduct a hazard or risk assessment of xenoestrogens and phytoestrogens requires
the building of a complex equivalency factor model. This starts from knowledge of
endocrine-disrupting chemicals. The relative potency (RP) of individual compounds rela-
tive to a standard (e.g. 17β-oestradiol) needs to be determined for several receptor-mediated
responses.
The oestrogenic equivalent (EQ) of a mixture is defined as EQ = Sigma[E−i]x RPi,
where E−i are concentrations of individual ER agonists in any mixture and RPi are the
Cellular response 1) Cell proliferation assay
2) Receptor
Protein or reporter gene products
dependent gene
expression assay
Protein synthesis
DNA transcription
Cell
membrane
ER
E ERE
NUCLEUS
3) Receptor binding assay
Fig. 7.5 Simplified schematic representing the mechanism of (1) the oestrogen-dependent cell prolifera-
tion assay and the location of (2) reporter gene and (3) ligand-binding assays. E, oestrogen; ER, oestrogen
receptor; ERE, oestrogen responsive element. (Reproduced from Thomson, B.M., Cressey, P.J. and Shaw,
I.C. Dietary exposure to xenoestrogens in New Zealand. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 5, 229–235,
Figure 2. Copyright 2003 by permission of the Royal Society of Chemistry.)
relative potencies (Safe, 1998). There are a number of obvious problems associated with
implementing this assessment. Not least of which will be deciding which actual responses
are to be measured. Oestrogenic responses are a complex integration of cell signalling and
agreeing the potency factors will take some time. The model assumes additivity, but a number
of non-additive interactions (synergies), both greater than and less than additive are being
reported for mixtures (Borgert et al., 2003). There are few examples of the model in use
comparing low-dose exposures to xeno and natural (dietary) endocrine disrupters. While
Phytoestrogens 191
problematic, this type of assessment is fundamental to future progress in the field and has
already been used to confirm that phytoestrogens have a greater overall contribution to dietary
oestrogenicity than synthetic chemicals (endocrine disruptors) (Thomson et al., 2003).
7.6 OESTROGEN RECEPTORS

7.6.1 Introduction
As phytoestrogens are polyphenols, they exhibit numerous other biological effects. The key
activities generally proceed by mimicking oestrogens, by interaction with the oestrogen re-
ceptors. Oestrogens play a vital role in the growth, development and homeostasis of oestrogen
responsive tissues. Oestrogens bind to the ligand-binding domain of oestrogen receptors re-
sulting in either the activation or repression of target genes (Katzenellenbogen et al., 1996;
Brosens and Parke, 2003; Koehler et al., 2005; Dahlman-Wright et al., 2006). Oestrogen
receptors mediate the biological activity of oestrogens and are ligand-inducible nuclear tran-
scription factors that belong to the ‘nuclear hormone receptor superfamily’ (NR). In humans
this is composed of 48 genes with diverse roles in metabolic homeostasis, development and
detoxification. Uniquely, oestrogen receptors are the only steroid receptors in the ‘nuclear hor-
mone receptor superfamily’ which lack specificity and in addition when binding oestrogens,
are able to interact with a large number of non-steroidal compounds. These endocrine disrup-
tors (ED) frequently show a structural similarity to the steroid nucleus of the oestrogen, includ-
ing phytoestrogens, and drug and environmental xenoestrogens (Brosens and Parker, 2003).
Structural features of these EDs enable them to bind to oestrogen receptors to elicit responses
ranging from agonism to antagonism of the endogenous hormone-ligand (Miksicek, 1995).
7.6.2 Receptors – ERα and ERβ

Originally it was believed that only one oestrogen receptor existed. This is in contrast to other
members of the nuclear receptor superfamily where multiple forms of each receptor have
been found. The first receptor that could bind 17β-oestradiol was identified in the late 1950s
and was cloned in 1986 (Greene et al., 1986) and a second oestrogen receptor was reported
in 1996 (Kuiper et al., 1996). Today, these two oestrogen receptors are now known as ERα
and ERβ (Koehler et al., 2005; Dahlman-Wright et al., 2006). The amino acid sequence
identity between ERα and ERβ is very high (∼97%) in the DNA-binding domain, lower
(∼56%) in the ligand-binding domain and poor (∼24%) in the N terminus (Koehler et al.,
2005; Dahlman-Wright et al., 2006).
ERβ was identified from rat prostate and ovary tissues (Kuiper et al., 1996) and it is
of considerable interest that ERβ shows a different tissue distribution to ERα. ERβ was
first reported to be strongly expressed in ovary, uterus, brain, bladder, testis, prostate, lung
(Kuiper et al., 1997) and normal human breast tissue (Crandall et al., 1998). Normal and
cancerous breast tissues display distinct ERα and ERβ profiles, some data shows regulation
of ERβ by promoter methylation (frequently observed in cancer) and indicates that the ERβ
transcript is down-regulated in breast tumours consequently it has been suggested that ERβ
is a possible tumour suppressor gene. However, ERβ is expressed in the majority of breast
tumours and a similar percentage of tumours express ERβ as ERα (Dahlman-Wright et al.,
2006). ERβ has been shown to be expressed in the cardiovascular system (Makela et al., 1999)
where results from oestrogen receptor knockout mice indicate that ERα is important in the
pathophysiology of the vessel wall, whereas ERβ knockout mice display abnormalities in ion
channel function and an age-related hypertension (Dahlman-Wright et al., 2006). Expression
of ERβ appears to occur at different sites in the brain from ERα (Kuiper et al., 1997), in
rodents ERα is mostly found in regions involved in control of reproductive function such as
the hypothalamus, whereas ERβ is more widely distributed including in the hippocampus
and cortex. ERβ has also been found to be expressed in bone (Arts et al., 1997; Onoe et al.,
1997; Stossi et al., 2004) where studies of female ERβ knockout mice show that ERβ is
responsible for repression of the ERα-mediated growth stimulating effect on oestrogen on
bone (Dahlman-Wright et al., 2006).
Genistein is a much better ligand for ERβ than for the ERα (∼30-fold higher binding
affinity) (Kuiper et al., 1997; Koehler et al., 2005), it can also act as an oestrogen agonist
via both ERα and ERβ in some test systems (Kuiper et al., 1998; Mueller et al., 2004). The
selective oestrogen receptor antagonist raloxifene and the related anticancer drug tamoxifen
(Wiseman, 1994) can inhibit the mitogenic effects of oestrogen in reproductive tissues, while
maintaining the beneficial effects of oestrogen in other tissues. Genistein also behaves as a
partial oestrogen agonist in human kidney cells transiently expressing ERβ, suggesting that
it may be a partial oestrogen antagonist in some cells expressing ERβ (Barkhem et al., 1998).
Binding studies to ERβ variants have demonstrated that coumestrol and genistein bind to
ERβ2 with a weaker affinity than to ERβ1 (Petersen et al., 1998).
7.6.3 Oestrogen receptor-binding assays

Oestrogen receptor-binding assays provide a quantitative indication of the oestrogenic activity
of a phytoestrogen relative to that of oestradiol at the receptor level. This is the most studied
effect of phytoestrogens and this in vitro test rather than in vivo testing is routinely taken as the
first proof of phytoestrogenicity. Experiments examine the binding affinity of phytoestrogens
to oestrogen receptors, which is termed the relative-binding affinity (RBA). RBAs are usually
expressed as the concentration of a compound required to inhibit oestradiol binding by 50%
(IC50 ; Blair et al., 2000) (see Fig. 7.6). RBAs provide a simple measurement of the affinity
of a compound to the receptor but do not indicate whether a compound will behave as an
agonist, antagonist or partial agonist.
100% oestradiol bound
Binding of IC50
oestradiol
0% oestradiol bound
Concentration of
phytoestrogen inhibitor
Fig. 7.6 Determination of IC50 from a competitive ligand-binding assay.

Phytoestrogens 193
Conclusions
Phytoestrogens are becoming increasingly prevalent in the Western diet, through intake of
soya products and through increasing exposure to ethnic foods and the acceptance of dietary
supplements and traditional plants. Many known compounds are now being re-examined and
found to have oestrogenic properties and new classes of increasingly potent phytoestrogens
are being discovered.
Significant improvements have been made in the analytical techniques such as LC-MS for
measuring phytoestrogens and in the many bioassays for detecting their biological properties.
There has been an enormous body of published work generated on the actions of phytoestro-
gens. The studies showing no adverse effects such as on human reproduction are of major
importance. It is still early days for the long job of documenting and fully investigating the
numerous promising findings for potential health benefits. The investigations proving any
long-term health benefits for phytoestrogens while of most interest are proving to be more
challenging than expected.
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8 β-Carboline Alkaloids
Tomás Herraiz
Summary
Tetrahydro-β-carbolines (THβCs) and β-carbolines (βCs) are naturally and food-occurring
indole alkaloids produced through a Pictet–Spengler condensation from indoleamines and
carbonyl compounds. This chapter covers their analysis, formation, and occurrence in foods
as well as their biological and toxicological activity. Sample preparation procedures based
on solid phase extraction (SPE) followed by selective and sensitive GC-MS and RP-HPLC
coupled with fluorescence and mass detection (including tandem MS) are currently used for
analysis. A number of THβC and βC molecules occur in foods under a varying range of
concentration and distribution patterns from ng/kg to mg/kg. Among THβCs are tetrahydro-
β-carbolines, tetrahydro-β-carboline-carboxylic acids, and polyol- or phenolic-tetrahydro-β-
carbolines; whereas among aromatic βCs are norharman, harman, and carbohydrate-derived
βCs. Formation of these compounds occurs during food production, processing, and storage
depending on several biological, chemical, and technological factors. Transformation among
compounds also exists and the fully aromatic βCs (norharman and harman) arise in foods
from oxidation of tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid. THβCs and βCs are bioactive
substances exhibiting a broad range of biological and pharmacological actions including en-
zyme inhibition and binding to several body and brain receptors. They are also antioxidants
and free radical scavengers. Various toxicological aspects such as their involvement as slow
acting neurotoxins or their possible co-mutagenic or cytotoxic properties are of current in-
terest. We are exposed to THβCs and βCs through the diet and their exogenous intake from
foods is likely contributing to the occurrence of these compounds in the human body where
they act as bioactive substances.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
THβCs and βCs form a class of indole alkaloids which appear in several families of nat-
ural products (Allen and Holmstedt, 1980) and exhibit a broad range of pharmacological
and biological activities. Molecules of this kind show neuroactive, antimicrobial, antiviral,
antioxidant, cytotoxic, and anticarcinogenic actions. Good examples are reserpine, an antihy-
pertensive agent from Rauwolfia serpentina, yohimbine from Yohimbe bark (Pausinystalia
yohimbe), the anticancer-related vinca alkaloids like ajmalicine from Catharanthus roseus,
the psychoactive substances harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine from Peganum har-
mala, and from Banisteriopsis caapi which is used to prepare Ayahuasca, an hallucinogenic
beverage used in rituals by the Amazonian tribes, and the recently discovered antitumor

brominated β-carbolines called eudistomins and eudistomidins isolated from the tunicate
Eudistoma sp. and manzamines isolated from marine sponges.
A number of simple THβCs and βCs have been detected so far in biological tissues and flu-
ids of mammals (Airaksinen and Kari, 1981a; Melchior and Collins, 1982; Rommelspacher
et al., 1991; Brossi, 1993; Fekkes and Bode, 1993; Matsubara et al., 1998; Parker et al.,
2004). These findings have triggered many studies and speculations on a possible function
or biochemical role of these mammalian alkaloids in vivo. They might function as neuro-
modulators via effects on monoamine oxidase (MAO), monoamine uptake and binding to
several brain receptors such as serotonin, benzodiazepine, or imidazoline (Buckholtz, 1980;
Braestrup et al., 1980; Airaksinen and Kari, 1981b; Rommelspacher et al., 1994; Robinson
et al., 2003; Herraiz and Chaparro, 2005). β-carbolines have also attracted notable scientific
interest from a toxicological approach because they act as co-mutagens or precursors of mu-
tagens (Higashimoto et al., 1996; Totsuka et al., 1998; Boeira et al., 2002), cause neuronal
cell death (Brenneman et al., 1993; Bringmann et al., 2006), and are bioactivated to produce
endogenous neurotoxins (Matsubara et al., 1992, 1998; Hamann et al., 2006). Those are
only a few examples but enough to conclude that the biological activity and toxicity of these
compounds appear to be complex and its complete delineation is still needed and awaiting
future elucidation.
In the last few years, it has become clear that β-carboline alkaloids occur in many commer-
cial foods of different origin, and that they are produced during food production processing
and storage (Herraiz et al., 1993; Herraiz, 1996, 1998, 1999a,b, 2000a,b,c,d, 2002, 2004a,b;
Gutsche and Herderich, 1997a,b; Pfau and Skog, 2004). The diet may somehow contribute to
the ultimate presence of those alkaloids in the human biological tissues and fluids. Therefore,
the availability and exposure to xenobiotic β-carbolines are currently a matter of interest.
These compounds could exert biological and toxicological actions when ingested from foods,
which will be potentiated further if they are accumulated within body tissues. This chapter
will deal with the chemistry, formation, analysis, as well as the occurrence and factors in-
fluencing the content of THβCs and βCs in foods. In addition, it will address the potential
biological activity and toxicity expected for these substances.
8.2 CHEMISTRY, SYNTHESIS, AND FORMATION OF

β-CARBOLINE ALKALOIDS
The carbolines constitute a group of isomeric heterocyclic compounds classified as
pyrido(b)indoles (Fig. 8.1) and which differ on the position of N-atom within the pyrido
ring. THβCs and βCs contain a tricyclic pyrido(3,4-b)indole structure with a reduced and a
fully aromatic pyridine ring, respectively. The nitrogen of βCs is at N-2 compared to muta-
genic and carcinogenic α- and γ-carbolines detected in well-cooked meats, which have the
nitrogen atom in other positions of the pyridine. Molecular diversity of β-carbolines appears
with distinct substituents both at the pyridine and benzenic ring, and also through different
degrees of saturation in the pyridine ring producing THβCs, dihydro-β-carbolines (DHβCs),
and the fully aromatic βCs.
The most effective and commonly used route for synthetic preparation of THβCs is the
so-called Pictet–Spengler reaction between indolethylamines (i.e., tryptamine and trypto-
phan derivatives) and aldehydes or α-ketoacids (Brossi, 1993; Cox and Cook, 1995). The
mechanism of this reaction proceeds via formation of an iminium cation intermediate (Schiff
base) and cyclization probably through spiroindolenium species to give THβCs (Fig. 8.2).
β-Carboline Alkaloids 201
1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-β-Carbolines 3,4-Dihydro-β-Carbolines β-Carbolines (βCs)
α-Carbolines γ-Carbolines δ-Carbolines
Fig. 8.1 Structures and nomenclature of carbolines (pyrido-b-indoles).
Fig. 8.2 Pictet–Spengler reaction between indolethylamines or amino acids and aldehydes or α-ketoacids
to give THβCs which can be oxidized to aromatic βCs.
This reaction is catalyzed by Brønsted acids and in a lesser extent by Lewis acids. Each
specific THβC molecule produced in this reaction depends on the indolealkylamine pre-
cursor and carbonyl compound involved. Thus, from tryptophan, it produces tetrahydro-
β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (THβC-3-COOH), whereas THβCs arise from tryptamine.
Serotonin (5-hydroxy-tryptamine) gives the corresponding 6-hydroxy-THβCs. α-Ketoacids
and aldehydes other than formaldehyde provide THβCs with a chiral carbon at C-1 (two
enantiomers) whereas two diastereoisomers (cis and trans) occur from L-tryptophan-derived
1,3-disubstituted THβC-3-COOH (1S,3S and 1R,3S). The stereochemistry of this reaction
has been studied and it may be controlled under specific conditions (Cox and Cook, 1995).
Oxidation of the THβC pyridine ring produces dihydro (DHβCs) or the fully aromatic βCs,
which are two important subclasses of these alkaloids with singular biological properties.
This oxidation can be accomplished with several chemical reagents such as palladium on
carbon, elemental sulfur, DDQ, MnO2 , SeO2 . Another commonly employed method for syn-
thetic preparation of βCs is the Bischler–Napieralski reaction. It also uses tryptophan or
tryptamine derivatives as starting materials and involves the acylation of the amine followed
by the treatment with strong dehydrating agents (phosphorus pentoxide and phosphorus oxy-
chloride) resulting in the cyclization to give DHβCs. The latter can be oxidized to give the
fully aromatic βCs or reduced to give THβCs. This reaction usually requires more vigorous
reaction conditions than those necessary for the Pictet–Spengler condensation.
Under the relatively mild conditions existing in foods compared to chemical synthesis,
formation of THβCs occurs as illustrated in Fig. 8.2 through a cyclocondensation reaction
between indolealkylamines (tryptamine, tryptophan, or serotonin and their derivatives) and
carbonyl compounds (aldehydes or α-ketoacids) (Herraiz et al., 1993; Herraiz, 1996, 1997,
1998, 1999a,b, 2000a,b,c,d, 2002, 2004b). Both reactants occur in foods and a number of
chemical, technological, and biological factors during preparation, processing, and storage
may determine the presence of THβCs. A subsequent stepwise oxidation of THβCs gives
DHβCs and those aromatic βCs occurring in foods. Although THβCs, DHβCs, and βCs
may exhibit different chemical and biological properties, and consequently each one is worth
of being considered on its own, they will be considered together here for practical reasons
and to provide a whole picture of these compounds in foods.
8.3 ANALYSIS OF β-CARBOLINE ALKALOIDS

THβCs and βCs are usually present at relatively low concentrations in foods, thus a clean-up
step including purification and trace enrichment is necessary for their analysis. This analysis
requires a careful isolation, separation, and chemical identification (for review, see Herraiz,
2000a). High-resolution chromatographic techniques providing efficient and selective separa-
tions (i.e., GC and HPLC) should be used to avoid co-eluting and interfering peaks. For detec-
tion, UV-absorption, fluorescence, and mass spectrometry have been used with good results.
8.3.1 Sample preparation

As for many other analytes in foods, SPE has become a very useful tool for sample preparation
and isolation of THβCs and βCs (Herraiz, 2000a). The use of SPE with different cartridges
and mechanisms has important advantages over liquid–liquid extraction. SPE allows rapid
clean-up providing extracts free of co-extractives, thus reducing possible artifacts, which have
been a traditional concern for high sensitivity assays of THβCs. Indeed, generation of artifacts
during sample preparation may occur by a Pictet–Spengler reaction arising from traces of
naturally occurring indoleamines and aldehydes or α-ketoacids (see Fig. 8.2). This is a critical
point and needs to be carefully considered during sample preparation. Two approaches have
been used: trapping aldehydes with reagents such as semicarbazide (Bosin et al., 1983),
and removing traces of indoleamines with fluorescamine (Tsuchiya et al., 1994) or methyl
chloroformate (Bosin and Jarvis, 1985; Herraiz, 1996, 2000a). Additional precautions are
the use of appropriate controls and blanks which may include labeled precursors, direct
chromatographic analysis, and mass detection without sample preparation, and preparation
of the sample at different working conditions (pH, solvents, temperature). Early quantitative
methods using solvent extractions that did not take into account the possible formation of
artifacts should be regarded with caution.
SPE of THβCs alkaloids can be accomplished by using different cartridges and mecha-
nisms based on nonpolar and ionic-exchange interactions (Herraiz, 2000a). C18 -SPE has been
used for the isolation of THβCs from biological samples and foods (Schouten and Bruinvels,
1985; Musshoff et al., 1993; Herraiz and Sanchez, 1997; Gutsche and Herderich, 1997a).
A fast and reliable ion-exchange–SPE procedure used for THβCs is based on benzenesul-
fonic cation exchange columns (SCX). In this procedure after loading acidified samples,
cartridges are washed with HCl and water, the pH adjusted with phosphate buffer pH 9, and
the THβCs extracted from the column with a mixture of the same buffer and methanol (Adachi
et al., 1991a; Herraiz et al., 1993). This procedure was used for extraction of 3-carboxylated
THβCs and THβCs from many commercial foods with good results (Herraiz and Ough,
1993; Herraiz, 1996, 1998, 1999a,b, 2000b,c,d, 2004b; Herraiz and Galisteo, 2003; Herraiz
and Papavergou, 2004).
Aromatic βCs can be isolated by liquid–liquid extraction (Bosin and Faull, 1988a,b),
and by using SPE procedures working on reversed phase or ion-exchange mechanisms. As
compared with THβCs, the formation of artifacts of aromatic βCs during sample preparation
is not considered a major problem. However, artifact formation should not be ruled out because
the most abundant THβC-3-COOHs and 1,3-dicarboxylic-THβCs are oxidized under relative
mild conditions to afford the less abundant aromatic βCs (Herraiz, 2000a,b,c, 2004a,b). A
reliable SPE procedure is based on PRS (propylsulfonic acid-derivatized silica) sorbents
(Adachi et al., 1991b; Herraiz, 2000a, 2002). In this method, acidified samples are loaded
onto PRS sorbents and after washing the columns with diluted acid and water, βCs are
eluted with a mixture (1:1) of methanol–phosphate buffer pH 9. With this method, βCs
(norharman and harman) were recently reported in coffee brews (Herraiz, 2002), and many
other foodstuffs and tobacco smoke (Herraiz, 2004a).
8.3.2 Chromatographic analysis and detection

Both, GC and HPLC have been used for separation of β-carbolines (Herraiz, 2000a). Anal-
ysis of THβCs by GC (detection by FID or ECD) and GC-MS requires derivatization of
THβCs to obtain volatile derivatives (i.e., N -trifluoroacetyl, N -pentafluoropropionyl or N -
heptafluorobutyryl or other acyl reagents) (Beck et al., 1983; Matsubara et al., 1986; Bring-
mann et al., 1996; Herraiz and Ough, 1994; Herraiz, 1997, 2000a). Halogen derivatives
are good electron acceptors providing a high sensitivity with ECD detectors. GC-MS under
negative ion chemical ionization mass spectrometry (NICI-MS) was a sensitive method to
analyze THβCs (Johnson et al., 1984; Matsubara et al., 1986; Hayashi et al., 1990; Tsuchiya
et al., 1996). GC-MS under electron ionization (EI) gives abundant molecular ions (M+• )
along with characteristic mass fragments of THβCs that can be used for quantification; for
this purpose, the samples often incorporate deuterated standards. GC-MS (EI) allowed the
identification of 3-carboxylated THβCs (THβC-3-COOHs), which are the most abundant
THβCs in foods. These THβCs were found in many foods including blue cheese, yogurt,
cider, soy and Tabasco sauces, orange juice, vinegar and in some alcoholic beverages such
as wine, cider and beer, and smoked foods (Herraiz and Sanchez, 1997; Papavergou and
Herraiz, 2003). For that, N -methoxycarbonyl methyl ester derivatives of THβC-3-COOHs
were obtained and separated (including 1S,3S and 1R,3S diastereoisomers) into nonpolar
capillary columns (Fig. 8.3). Derivatization of THβC-3-COOH requires two derivatization
steps, though the use of methyl chloroformate reagent allowed derivatization of the amine and
carboxylic group in one step (in presence of pyridine and methanol) (Hušek, 1991; Herraiz
THCA 1S, 3S-MTCA

1R,3S-MTCA
6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00 20.00 229

Rt (min) 143 O
OCH3
N O
N
H OCH3
243
157 O
OCH3
N O
N
H OCH3
287 CH
3
(1R, 3S and 1S, 3S)
Fig. 8.3 GC-MS (electron ionization) and mass fragmentation of two main THβC-3-COOH in foods as
N-methoxycarbonylmethyl ester derivatives. Chromatogram corresponding to sauce (Tabasco).
and Sanchez, 1997). By using those derivatives, THβCs gave good and relative clean total
ion chromatograms and their EI-spectra and mass fragmentation was provided and assigned
(Herraiz, 1997). Fragmentation is dominated by retro Diels-Alder rearrangement providing
the ions C10 H9 N+ (m/z 143) for THβCs and C11 H11 N+ (m/z 157) for 1-methyl-THβCs,
respectively. THβCs also exhibit abundant molecular ions (M+• ) and N -methoxycarbonyl
derivatives suffer loss of COOCH3 . GC-MS (EI) was used to study 3-carboxylic THβCs in
wines as their N -trifluoroacetyl methyl ester derivatives (Herraiz and Ough, 1994), and to
analyze the presence of N -nitroso THβCs derivatives in nitrite-treated foods by monitoring
the (M-NO)+ and molecular ions (M+• ) (Sen et al., 1995).
Simple molecules of aromatic βCs such as norharman (9H -pyrido-(3,4-b)-indole) and
harman (1-methyl-9H -pyrido-(3,4-b)indole) can be also analyzed by GC. Harman was
derivatized with pentafluorobenzyl bromide (Bosin and Faull, 1988a,b) and the resulting
9-pentafluorobenzylharman analyzed under negative ion chemical ionization (NICI) GC-MS
that provided a single ion at m/z 181 corresponding to the indole anion. Under specific
chromatographic conditions, harman and norharman can be analyzed by GC-MS without
chemical derivatization by using nonpolar stationary phases. This approach allowed their
determination in cooked meats and meat extracts, cigarette smoke, and oxidation of THβCs
(Skog et al., 1998; Herraiz and Galisteo, 2002a; Herraiz and Chaparro, 2005). However,
chromatographic adsorption might be a drawback of this analysis.
HPLC combined with fluorescence or mass detection is generally the best choice for the
analysis of both THβC and βC alkaloids (Herraiz, 2000a,c). Disadvantages of GC, such
as the need for chemical derivatization including possible artifact generation are currently
solved by HPLC-fluorescence and HPLC-MS of underivatized THβCs or βCs. The anal-
ysis of THβCs can be accomplished by using C18 -RP-HPLC with fluorescence detection
under appropriate wavelengths (e.g., 270 nm excitation and 343 nm emission). This method
has been applied to the analysis of THβCs in foods following SCX sample preparation
(Herraiz, 1996, 1998, 1999a,b,c,d, 2004b). Detection by fluorescence is both sensitive and
selective offering information about THβCs through the spectrum of chromatographic peaks
(Herraiz, 1996, 2000a,b). HPLC-fluorescence also allows the analysis of THβC derivatives
containing different substituents at the tetrahydropyrido ring such as alkyl, polyhydroxyalkyl,
and benzenic or phenolic substituents (Herraiz and Galisteo, 2002b; Herraiz et al., 2003).
Nevertheless, some compounds with specific substituents may lose the fluorescence (quench-
ing) of the tetrahydropyrido indole ring.
Chemical identification of THβCs in foods has improved greatly by using RP-HPLC
coupled to mass spectrometry. HPLC-MS (electrospray ionization – ESI) provides good
protonated molecular ions (M + H)+ while using low energy collision induced dissociation
(CID) gives the neutral loss of iminoacetic acid moiety C2 H3 NO2 (–73 u) for THβC-3-
COOH and imine moiety CH2 = NH (–29 u) for THβCs, which arise from retro Diels-Alder
fragmentation, as mentioned above for electron ionization (IE) (Herraiz, 1997; Gutsche and
Herderich, 1997a,b, 1998; Herraiz and Galisteo, 2002b; Herraiz et al., 2003). Based on
this fragmentation in combination with product ion experiments, HPLC/MS/MS allowed a
successful substructure-specific identification (profiling) of isomeric and co-eluting THβCs
(Gutsche and Herderich, 1997a,b, 1998). HPLC-MS (ESI) has been employed to identify
THβCs in foods, including cooked and smoked foods, wines, sauces, and fruit products
(Adachi et al., 1991a; Sen et al., 1995; Gutsche and Herderich, 1997a,b, 1998; Herraiz,
2000a,b,c,d, 2004b; Herraiz and Galisteo, 2002b, 2003; Herraiz and Papavergou, 2004), and
also to identify N -nitroso-THβC in foods (Wakabayashi et al., 1983; Sen et al., 1995).
Figure 8.4 illustrates the identification of THβCs in a tomato juice. In addition, novel
HO
20000
m/z 203 N NH
0
H
5 10 15 20 O 25
OH
m/z 217 NH
10000 N
H
0
5 10 15 20 25
O
OH
20000 m/z 231 N NH
0
H
5 10 15 20 25
5000 N NH
m/z 187 H
0
5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 8.4 Identification by HPLC-MS (ESI, positive ionization) of THβCs isolated from commercial tomato
juice. (Reprinted with permission from Herraiz and Galisteo in Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry,
51, 7156–7161. Copyright 2003 with permission from the American Chemical Society.)
molecules such as phenolic THβCs (derived from reaction of tryptophan and phenolic aldehy-
des) and carbohydrate-derived THβCs have been identified in foods and food-related samples
by HPLC-MS (Herraiz and Galisteo, 2002b; Herraiz et al., 2003).
Aromatic βCs are usually analyzed by RP-HPLC-fluorescence and MS. βCs exhibit high
native fluorescence and fluorescent detection is a suitable and sensitive method for quantitative
analysis with spectra providing qualitative information (Herraiz, 2000a,b). Under acidic
eluents, excitation is set at 245 or 300 nm and emission around 433–445 nm. The amount
of βCs in foods is relatively low (usually at ng/g) and often they appear under interfering
chromatographic peaks being usually necessary its identification by MS. Mild ESI gives
simple mass spectra in which the main signal is due to protonated molecular ions (M + H)+
(e.g., m/z 169 for norharman, m/z 183 for harman) (Herraiz, 2000a, 2002, 2004a,b). Although
βCs are more stable toward the ionization process than THβCs, characteristic fragments (i.e.,
HCN) can be obtained by increasing fragmentation by CID or tandem MS/MS (Toribio et
al., 2002). Figure 8.5 illustrates the identification of aromatic βCs norharman and harman in
coffee brews by HPLC-MS (electrospray, positive ionization) (Herraiz, 2002). They were also
identified in many other processed foods (Herraiz, 2000a, 2004a). Similarly, HPLC with CID
and tandem MS is a useful tool for identification of novel carbohydrate-derived aromatic βCs
in foods arising from a reaction of tryptophan and glucose (Diem and Herderich, 2001a,b;
Herraiz, unpublished results).
8.4 OCCURRENCE OF β-CARBOLINE ALKALOIDS IN

FOODS AND EXPOSURE
8.4.1 THβCs in foods
A number of THβCs resulting from a Pictet–Spengler condensation between indolethy-
lamines and aldehydes or α-ketoacids have been detected in foods (Fig. 8.6). From tryptophan
m/z 169
(a) m/z 169

Norharman
30 000 N
N
15 000 H
m/z
5 10 15 20 30 min
m/z 183
N
(b) m/z 183 Harman
N
H
10 000
m/z
5 10 15 20 30 min
Fig. 8.5 Identification by HPLC-MS (ESI, positive ionization) of β-carbolines norharman and har-
man in coffee brews. [Reproduced from Herraiz, T. Identification and occurrence of the bioactive
β-carbolines norharman and harman in coffee brews. Food Additives and Contaminants, 19, 748–
754. Copyright 2002 with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
(http://www.informaworld.com).]
as precursor THβC-3-carboxylic acids (1a–1h) are produced whereas tryptamine or sero-

tonin afford THβCs (2a–d) or 6-hydroxy-THβCs (3), respectively. Reactions of tryptophan
with glucose or pentoses provide carbohydrate-derived THβCs (5ab) (Rönner et al., 2000;
Diem and Herderich, 2001b; Herraiz and Galisteo, 2002b), and reactions with phenolic alde-
hydes give phenolic-derived THβCs (6) (Herraiz et al., 2003). Nitrosated foods may contain
N -nitroso-THβCs 4ab (Sen et al., 1991). Table 8.1 lists the concentration ranges of several
THβCs detected in foods. THβC-3-COOHs 1a–c are generally the major THβCs, which
may appear up to in several mg/kg (mg/L), and reaching exceptionally the hundred of mg/kg
(e.g., soy sauces). THβC-3-COOHs 1a–c are widespread in commercial foods and beverages.
They have been found in fruits and fruit processed products (fruit juices, jams, and purees)
(Herraiz, 1996, 1998, 1999a, 2004b; Herraiz and Galisteo, 2003), in food of animal origin
such as cooked fish, meats, and sausages (Herraiz, 2000b; Herraiz and Papavergou, 2004),
in smoked foods (cheese, fish, and meats) (Papavergou and Clifford, 1992; Sen et al., 1995;
Papavergou and Herraiz, 2003), fermented products such as chocolate and cocoa (Herraiz,
2000d), and alcoholic fermented drinks, sauces and vinegars (Adachi et al., 1991a; Herraiz
et al., 1993). The THβC ester 1d (diastereoisomers 1S,3S and 1R,3S) was found in alcoholic
fermented beverages in concentrations up to 0.5 mg/L (Herraiz, 1999b). 1,3-Dicarboxylic-
THβCs 1ef derived from α-ketoacids such as pyruvic acid, and glyoxylic acid have been
detected in alcoholic beverages and sauces (Gutsche and Herderich, 1997a,b, 1998). Polyol
THβCs have been found in foods, and specifically 1-pentahydroxypentyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-
β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid 5ab, a glucose tetrahydro-β-carboline derivative, was recently
identified and quantified in commercial fruit juices and jams reaching up to 6.5 μg/g (Herraiz
and Galisteo, 2002b). As seen in Table 8.1, small amounts of N -nitroso THβC-3-COOHs
4ab were also detected in nitrite-treated foods (Wakabayashi et al., 1983; Sen et al., 1995)
suggesting that, if preserved with nitrite, foods rich in THβC-3-COOHs could produce the
corresponding N -nitroso compounds. Experiments with model reactions simulating foods
Fig. 8.6 THβCs found in foods and food-related samples. Compounds listed in Table 8.1 are
1a: 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid; 1bc: 1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-
carboxylic acid (1S,3S; b and 1R ,3S; c); 1d: 1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid
ethyl ester (1S,3S; 1R ,3S); 1e: 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-1,3-dicarboxylic acid; 1f: 1-methyl-1,2,3,
4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-1,3-dicarboxylic acid; 1g: 1-hydroxymethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-
carboxylic acid; 2a: 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline (tryptoline); 2b: 1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-
carboline; 3b: 6-hydroxy-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline; 4a: 2-N-nitroso-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-
β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid; 4b: 2-N-nitroso-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic
acid; 5: 1-pentahydroxypentyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (cis, a and trans, b).
also indicate that additional aldehydes appearing in foods, both aliphatic and aromatic, may
afford new THβCs as well. Of interest, are phenolic aldehydes (syringaldehyde, salicylalde-
hyde, anisaldehyde, vanillin, and benzaldehyde) giving phenolic THβCs (Herraiz et al.,
2003). Those THβCs have been proposed as a new type of antioxidants containing phenolic
and indolic rings (Herraiz and Galisteo, 2002c). Novel THβC-3-COOHs containing a pyrro-
lidinethione at C-1 were recently detected in fermented radish up to 10 mg kg−1 (Ozawa
et al., 1999).
BLUK145-Gilbert
Table 8.1 Concentration ranges (mg/L, μg/g) of tetrahydro-β-carbolines (THβCs) in foods and beverages.
Food 1a 1b 1c 1d 1e 1f 1g 2a 2b 3b 4a 4b 5ab
Wine <0.65a 0.3–13.7 <4.0 0.003–0.53 >0.01 >0.01 <0.01 0.0004–0.001 0.008–0.10 <0.0002
Beer <0.8 0.3–13.1 0.08–3.9 <0.010 >0.01 >0.01 <0.07 <0.012 0.003–0.10 0.04–0.08
Distillate <0.04 <0.8 <0.2 <0.028 0.009–0.012 0.0003
Liquour <0.23 <5.7 <1.6 <0.054 <0.002
February 15, 2008
Soft drink <0.09 <0.35 <0.07

Cider <0.02 0.05–0.14 0.01–0.04
Fruit <0.05 <6.6 <1.8 <1.9 <3.9
Fruit juices 0.01–1.45 0.04–9.1 0.03–2.5 <0.4 <3.7 <3.85
18:21
Jam 0.06–0.42 0.1–2 0.02–0.7 <0.37

Fruit purees 0.03–0.11 0.03–1.18 0.01–0.36 <5.2
Fish (raw) <2.5
Fish (cooked) 0.03–6.4 0–0.16
Smoked fish 0.03–12.2 <0.01 <0.04
Meat (raw) <0.01
Meat (cooked) <0.05 <0.05 <0.05
Smoked meat <0.7 <0.03
Sausages <1.8 <2.9 <0.6 <0.5 <0.8 <9.9
Smoked sausage 0.09–15.8 <16.6 <4 <0.5 <22.6 <29 <0.34
Soy sauce 2.1–69.6 72–360.5 20–87.6 >10 >10 0.2–5.1 >0.01 0.03 <0.25
Seasonings 0.03–3.18 0.6–24 0.15–5.6 >10 >10 >0.01 >0.01 <2.3
Vinegar 0.01–0.12 3.9–7.5 0.84–2.06 >0.01 >0.01
Bread 0.12–2.51 0.03–0.32 0.01–0.21
Flour 0.13–2.5 0.018 0.005
Yogurt 0.01–0.02 0.04–0.11 0.01–0.02
Chocolate 0.1–0.7 0.5–2 0.2–0.9 <0.21 0.4–4.0
Cheese <0.87 <2.06 <0.5 <0.028
Smoked cheese 0.07–6.1 <0.035
1a-c (Herraiz et al., 1993; Herraiz, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2000b,c,d, 2004b; Herraiz and Galisteo, 2003; Papavergou and Herraiz, 2003; Herraiz and Papavergou, 2004); 1d (Herraiz,
1999b);1e, 1f, 2a (Gutsche and Herderich, 1997a,b, 1998; Herraiz, unpublished); 1g (Papavergou and Clifford, 1992; Sen et al., 1995; Herraiz and Papavergou, 2004); 2ab (Beck and
Holmstedt, 1981; Matsubara et al., 1986; Tsuchiya et al., 1996; Gutsche and Herderich, 1998; Herraiz, 2000d; Herraiz and Galisteo, 2003; Herraiz and Papavergou, 2004); 3b (Beck
β-Carboline Alkaloids
et al., 1983; Herraiz, 2000d; Herraiz and Galisteo, 2003); 4ab (Sen et al., 1991, 1995; Herraiz, unpublished); 5ab (Herraiz and Galisteo, 2002b).
a
This value reflects a range from less than limit of detection (nd) to the given figure.
Compounds are as in Fig. 8.6.
209
Fig. 8.7 Structures of fully aromatic βCs found in foods.
Apart from those THβCs arising from tryptophan, THβCs are also generated in foods
from tryptamine and serotonin as indoleamine precursors (Fig. 8.6 and Table 8.1). We have
reported the presence of acetaldehyde-condensation products of tryptamine and serotonin
2b and 3b in several fruits and juices (Herraiz and Galisteo, 2003) and chocolate (Herraiz,
2000d). Interestingly, the occurrence of one or another specific THβC appears to be dependent
on the corresponding indoleamine precursor of each type of fruit or juice. The occurrence of
2a and 2b has also been reported in fermented, smoked, and matured sausages (Papavergou
and Herraiz, 2003; Herraiz and Papavergou, 2004) and detected in some wines and sauces
(Tsuchiya et al., 1996; Gutsche and Herderich, 1998; Herraiz, unpublished).
The ranges of concentration determined for each THβC, given in Table 8.1, show a large
variability among foods. Nevertheless, considering the high and widespread occurrence of
several of these compounds, the exposure to THβCs coming from the diet may easily reach
the amount of several mg/person/day. This exposure will increase or otherwise decrease
greatly depending on the type and individual foods ingested during the diet.
8.4.2 βCs in foods

In general, less attention has been given to aromatic βCs in foods (Fig. 8.7). Table 8.2 lists
the occurrence of these compounds in foods. With a few exceptions, the level of the βCs
Table 8.2 β-Carbolines norharman (7), harman (8), and gluco-β-carbolines (9,10) in foodstuffs (ng/g or μg/L) and cigarette smoke (ng/cigarette).
BLUK145-Gilbert
7 8
9a 9b 10
Food X Range X Range Range Range Range
Dairy products <0.03a <0.03

Soft drinks <0.03 <0.03
Fruit juice 0.8 <5.5b 0.59 <1.8 15–395 12–347 2.8–89
Jam 0.27 <1.07 0.08 <0.41
Wine 0.16 <0.56 1.35 <8.04
February 15, 2008
Fortified wines (sherry and porto) 0.5 <1.3 8.6 0.76–39.2

Distillate 0.73 <3.1 0.95 <5.3
Alcoholic beverages (total) 0.36 <3.1 3.4 <39.2
18:21
Vinegar 0.88 <3.5 5.8 <14.3 <249 <204 <35.6

Soy sauce 44.0 32–52 187.6 162.3–200.6 980–1819 769–1751.8 187.4–643.5
Seasoning 12.6 3.4–24.7 12.7 0.24–52.1 151–1921.6 121.4–1577.0 46.1–222.0
Flour <0.03 0.2 <0.8
Bread 22.1 <65.4 0.94 <2.07
Toasted bread 91.0 41.7–164.2 <0.03
Cookies/biscuit 16.5 7.7–34 2.14 0.4–4.6
Breakfast cereals 46.5 <187.4 20.1 <91.7
Fish/meat soups 28.2 2.6–83.9 3.73 0.5–11.0
Meat (uncooked)c <0.03 <0.03
Cooked meat (medium)c 0.19 <0.4 <0.03
Cooked meat (“well-done’’) 82.3 36.4–128.1 26.4 20.7–32.1
Fresh fish (uncooked)c <0.03 <0.03
Cooked fishc 24.7 6.4–48.11 2.02 0.7–4.3
Sausage 2.31 <7.4 1.24 <3.7
Smoked fish 1.3 0–4.5 0.04 <0.2
Chocolate 6.8 4.14–10.9 9.18 5.7–16.5
Nut/dry fruit 5.2 <13.7 1.7 <6.9
Instant coffeed 2100 1400–3500 420 270–680
Brewed coffeed 1430 1000–2380 335 230–550
Espresso/brewed coffee 91.4 23.6–165.9 22.38 5.06–40.8
Cigarette smoke (ng/cigarette)e 1242.8 152–1966 500.8 55–814
a
Less than limit of detection: 0.03 ng/g (undetected).
β-Carboline Alkaloids
b
This value reflects the range from less than limit of detection to the given figure.
c
Cooked meats (beef and pork fillet) or fish (hake, salmon, swordfish) were pan-fried and were cooked medium or well-done (prolonged cooking).
d
211
Expressed as nanogram of β Cs in brewed coffee per gram of ground coffee used to make filtered or instant coffee.
e
As nanogram of β Cs in mainstream smoke per cigarette. X : mean (ng/g or μ g/L, except when mentioned otherwise).
Data summarized from Herraiz (2004a) (7 and 8) and from Diem and Herderich (2001a) (9,10).
norharman 7 and harman 8 is low (i.e., in the low μg/L or ng/g order) (Herraiz, 2004a),
although large variations occur among foods ranging from undetectable to relatively high
levels. They were mostly undetectable in dairy products and soft drinks, and generally a
low amount was found in fruit products. Variable levels of βCs, particularly harman 8, were
found in fermented alcoholic beverages such as red, white, and fortified wines. With only
a few exceptions, high alcohol distillates showed very low levels or undetectable βCs. A
relatively high level of both norharman 7 and harman 8 appeared in soy sauce and other
seasonings and 8 was the major βC in vinegar. Regarding those processed and cooked foods,
βCs particularly 7, appeared in breads, toasted breads, breakfast cereals, and cookies. Both,
7 and 8 occurred in “well-done” cooked fish and meat (levels up to 160 ng/g), but not in the
corresponding uncooked samples. It is noticeable that there is a high occurrence of both 7 and
8 in brewed coffee (ready to take coffee), irrespective of the variety and type (instant, ground,
decaffeinated) (Herraiz, 2002). Indeed, coffee is comparatively the foodstuff affording the
highest relative amount of these alkaloids. βCs 7 and 8 are present in a high concentration
in cigarette smoke (from hundred to several thousands of ng/cigarette) (Herraiz, 2004a), and
smoking is an important source of exposure to these compounds in addition to the diet.
Aromatic βC derivatives with polyhydroxyalkyl or a furan moiety have been also reported
in foods (Nakatsuka et al., 1986; Diem and Herderich, 2001a,b). Polyol βCs (9–11) arising
from a reaction of tryptophan with carbohydrates have been identified and quantified in several
sauces, vinegars, and fruit juices in a concentration range even higher than that determined
for norharman and harman (Diem and Herderich, 2001a,b). They are also present in other
processed foods (Herraiz, unpublished results).
Although the level of aromatic βCs in food and beverages is rather low compared to
THβCs, successive ingestion of foodstuffs containing these βCs might raise substantially
human exposure to these compounds. As shown in Table 8.2, brewed coffee, cooked and
highly processed foods such as those “well-done” or broiled, seasonings (such as soy sauce),
vinegar, and fermented alcoholic beverages along with cigarette smoke, are the main sources
of exposure to 7 and 8. Concerning carbohydrate-derived carbolines, exposure to these car-
bolines will come mainly from processed foods such as fruit juices, sauces, and others. Thus,
ingestion of compounds 7–11 may easily reach the level of hundreds or even thousands
μg/person/day. Exposure to these xenobiotic βCs may explain a correlation found among
plasma βCs with alcoholism and smoking. Indeed, the presence of βCs in foods and smoke
should be considered in biomedical studies seeking relationships between smoking or alcohol
drinking and βCs in the body (Spijkerman et al., 2002; Fekkes et al., 2004).
8.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PRESENCE OF

β-CARBOLINES IN FOODS
Foods show a large variability in the content of β-carbolines, suggesting that many factors
are involved. Few attempts have been made to rationalize those effects. Factors influencing
the presence of βCs are biological, chemical, and technological, including the amount of
precursors, pH, temperature, storage time, oxidants, antioxidants, preservatives, microorgan-
isms, and processing conditions (e.g., fermentation, smoking, heating, cooking, and ripening)
(Herraiz and Ough, 1993; Herraiz, 1996, 1998, 1999a,b, 2000a,b,c,d, 2002, 2004a,b). Both,
carbonyl compounds and indoleamines and amino acids occur in foods, and a cycloconden-
sation producing THβCs (see Fig. 8.2) may take place during food production, processing,
and storage. In the presence of reactants, the pH of the media is a determinant factor of the
reaction rate with formation favored at low pH. However, at the pH found in many beverages
and foods (pH values 3–5), generation of tryptophan-acetaldehyde and/or formaldehyde-
derived carbolines 1a–c can readily progress. Reaction with formaldehyde is faster and less
pH-dependent than with acetaldehyde. Formation of THβCs increases with temperature
whereas it decreases with carbonyl trapping. During alcoholic fermentation, yeasts were a
significant biological factor because they produced acetaldehyde able to react with trypto-
phan giving 1bc (Herraiz and Ough, 1993; Herraiz et al., 1993). Reactions involving other
aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes, α-ketoacids, or carbohydrates may behave in a similar way,
and glyco-THβCs 5ab and phenolic THβCs 6 increased exponentially at low pH and with
high processing temperatures (Herraiz and Galisteo, 2002b; Herraiz et al., 2003).
The relative presence and content of THβCs in foods appear to be determined by those spe-
cific indolethylamines and aldehydes involved. Thus, tryptophan-derived 1-methyl-THβC-
3-carboxylic acid 1bc was generally Found as a major carboline in fermented beverages
and fruits, owing to the highest amount of free acetaldehyde compared to formaldehyde in
those products. This compound increased with storage and aging of fruits (Herraiz, 1999a;
Ichikawa et al., 2004). In the same manner, other THβCs appear resulting from the involve-
ment of a different indolethylamine (tryptamine, serotonin) (Herraiz, 1999a, 2004b; Herraiz
and Galisteo, 2003; Herraiz and Papavergou, 2004). Thus, fruits containing serotonin may
afford 6-hydroxy-1-methyl-THβC 3b and those with tryptamine give 1-methyl-THβC 2b.
THβC-3-carboxylic acid 1a was a major THβC in smoked foods (Papavergou and Herraiz,
2003) arising from a reaction of tryptophan with formaldehyde that is present in wood smoke
(Potthast and Eigner, 1985). This finding was evidenced by analyzing the outer and interior
parts of smoked products. Thus, the outer part of smoked sausage, fish, and cheese, which is
in direct contact with smoke, contained much higher amount of 1a (up to eightfold) than the
inner counterpart (Papavergou and Herraiz, 2003). Again, the occurrence of several THβCs
1a–c, 2 in sausages of different types (cooked, fermented, ripened, smoked, and unsmoked),
depended on the relative presence of indoleamines and the technological process involved
(smoking or not) (Herraiz and Papavergou, 2004). In this case, meat microorganisms may also
release tryptamine through amino acid decarboxylases, which will be able to react with alde-
hydes generated during ripening or otherwise added from wood smoke. The concentration
of THβCs may depend on a variety of factors during elaboration process such as smoking,
fermentation and microorganisms involved, ripening and storage, artisanal production, raw
meats, ingredients used for flavoring, spices, etc.
The origin of the fully aromatic βCs, norharman 7 and harman 8, was attributed to pyroly-
sis. It is becoming clear that βCs in foods arise from THβC-3-COOH through a decarboxyla-
tive oxidation (Herraiz, 2000b,c, 2004a,b) (Fig. 8.8). Factors such as storage time, heating
(e.g., cooking), presence of oxidants and free radicals such as hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), hy-
drogen peroxide (H2 O2 )–transition metals (Fe2+ ) (Fenton reaction), and sodium nitrite may
accelerate the formation of βCs from the corresponding THβC-3-COOHs (Herraiz, 2000b,c;
Herraiz and Galisteo, 2002a; Herraiz, 2004b). Under the same conditions THβCs lacking
a 3-COOH did not provide appreciable amounts of aromatic βCs, whereas tetrahydro-β-
carboline-1,3-dicarboxylic acids 1e, 1f also afforded aromatic βCs at the highest tempera-
ture of heating (80◦ C) or in presence of oxidants (Herraiz, 2004b). As seen in Tables 8.1 and
8.2, the occurrence of βCs 7 and 8 in foods seems to correlate with the levels of THβC-
3-COOHs 1a–c. Thus, sauces, vinegars, and alcoholic beverages contain more harman 8
and also more 1bc; whereas processed foods, smoked, and cooked meats and fish contain
more norharman 7 and also more 1a. The formation of 7 and 8 in well-cooked or broiled
foods such as fish and meats may result from heating and/or pyrolysis of tryptophan and its
Fig. 8.8 Formation of βCs from THβC-3-COOHs in foodstuffs.
subsequent condensation with aldehydes generated in the process to give THβC-3-COOH,

which are further oxidized (Herraiz, 2000b). The absence of 7 and 8 in fresh or slightly
processed foods compared with cooked (well done) samples might result from the absence of
THβC-3-COOH and/or processing conditions needed to afford βCs (i.e., the involvement of
oxidants and heating) (Herraiz, 2000b, 2004a). In a similar way, βCs in brewed coffee result
from the roasting process of coffee beans (Herraiz, 2002). In the same manner, the formation
of carbohydrate-derived βCs (9–11) during food processing may arise from oxidation of
glyco-THβC-3-COOH 5ab and both species usually appear in the same products (Tables 8.1
and 8.2) (Diem and Herderich, 2001a,b; Herraiz and Galisteo, 2002b).
8.6 BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY AND TOXICOLOGY

OF β-CARBOLINES
Molecules with structure of β-carbolines exhibit a broad spectrum of biological and pharma-
cological activities including neuroactive, antithrombotic, antimicrobial, antiparasiticidal,
antimalarial, antiviral, and antitumor actions (Cao et al., 2005; Di Giorgio et al., 2004;
Kusurkar and Goswami, 2004; Zhao et al., 2006). The pharmacology of these substances is
complex and they act at different sites within mammalian tissues. A primary target is the cen-
tral nervous system and several βCs (i.e., norharman 7, harman 8, harmine, and harmaline)
are considered psychoactive indoles. In fact, the hallucinogenic beverage Ayahuasca or yage,
used by Indian tribes, contains these substances besides N , N -dimethyltryptamine. βCs (i.e.,
7, 8, and some THβCs) are known to cross the blood–brain barrier, distributing along the
brain (Fekkes and Bode, 1993; Anderson et al., 2006). They may exert as neuromodulators on
the serotonin neurotransmitter system, producing neuroendocrine and behavioral effects con-
sistent with a serotoninergic involvement (Buckholtz, 1980; Robinson et al., 2003). They are
inhibitors of MAO and serotonin uptake, and bind to benzodiazepine-GABA receptor show-
ing several physiological effects (Airaksinen and Kari, 1981b; Rommelspacher et al., 1994;
Adell et al., 1996). The finding that β-carboline-3-carboxylate esters were potent ligands of
benzodiazepine receptor (Braestrup et al., 1980) pushed research to achieve new drugs with
increased binding affinity to this receptor. Most are inverse agonist showing anxiogenic and
convulsant properties (Cox and Cook, 1995).
Most effects of βCs are attributed to inhibition of MAO enzymes (Rommelspacher et al.,
1994; Herraiz and Chaparro, 2005, 2006a,b). Indeed, βCs can modulate monoamine levels
in vivo (Adell et al., 1996; Baum et al., 1996), and increase extracellular dopamine and
serotonin levels, probably by inhibition of MAO-A. Interestingly, βCs present in foods and
the environment are able to inhibit MAO-A and -B. Thus, norharman 7 and harman 8 isolated
from tobacco smoke and coffee brews proved to be potent and reversible inhibitors of MAO-
A (harman and norharman) and MAO-B (norharman) with Ki in the low μM or nM range
(Herraiz and Chaparro, 2005, 2006a,b). Other food-occurring THβCs such as tryptoline 2a
and 1-methyltryptoline 2b were also MAO-A inhibitors but weaker than the fully aromatic
ones. Inhibition of MAO-A and -B has implications in behavior conditions and pathologies
such as addiction, depression, and Parkinson’s disease. βCs could exert MAO inhibitory
actions if accumulated in the body following their ingestion via foods (coffee and others) or
environmental sources (smoking).
Hudson et al. (1999) have proposed that aromatic βCs could be endogenous ligands of
imidazoline binding sites (IBS) assigning a new role to these alkaloids. βCs bind with high
affinity to I1 -BS and I2 -BS imidazoline receptors and this may explain some aspects of their
pharmacology (Robinson et al., 2003). βCs (harman 7) induce hypotensive effects following
central administration and change cardiovascular parameters (Shi et al., 2000), induce hy-
pothermic response (Adell et al., 1996), modulate food intake (Robinson et al., 2003), induce
insulin secretion (Morgan et al., 2003) as well as anxiolysis and antidepressant-like effects in
rats (Aricioglu and Altunbas, 2003). Some of these physiological responses are likely related
to MAO inhibition, but binding to imidazoline sites may play a role (Husbands et al., 2001;
Robinson et al., 2003). βCs (harman 8, norharman 7, harmalan, and tetrahydroharman 2b)
displaying high affinity for IBS might work as endogenous ligands of imidazoline receptors
(Parker et al., 2004; Miralles et al., 2005). Nevertheless, some of these compounds are also
xenobiotics (Tables 8.1 and 8.2) and an exclusive endogenous formation is unlikely.
THβCs occurring in foods and biological systems act as antioxidants and radical scav-
engers (Herraiz and Galisteo, 2002a, 2003; Ichikawa et al., 2004). Their antioxidant capacity
against ABTS+• (total antioxidant capacity assay) was stronger than ascorbic acid and Trolox
(a water-soluble form of vitamin E). THβCs contain an indole ring that would afford an indolyl
cation or neutral radical through single electron transfer while acting as radical scavengers
(Fig. 8.9). Those indolyl radicals might be further oxidized to aromatic βCs such as 7 and 8,
as occurs with THβC-3-COOH (Herraiz and Galisteo, 2002a; Herraiz, 2004b), or to still un-
known compounds. Interestingly, the actions of THβCs as antioxidants may follow a similar
trend and mechanism to that of neurohormone melatonin (N -acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine),
which has been extensively characterized as a potent in vitro and in vivo antioxidant (Reiter
et al., 2002). Dietary or endogenously formed THβC alkaloids, after being absorbed and/or
accumulated in tissues and fluids, might play a role as potential antioxidants by protect-
ing against harmful radicals during oxidative stress. Nevertheless, the contribution of these
compounds to total antioxidant activity (TAC) in foods is small owing to their low concen-
tration compared with vitamins, carotenoids, and phenols. However, many other indoles may
act as radical scavengers as well, suggesting that indolic compounds may constitute a new
Fig. 8.9 THβCs act as antioxidants and radical scavengers (antioxidative capacity against ABTS•+ ).
THβC-3-COOH are oxidized to the fully aromatic βCs.
class of antioxidants (Herraiz and Galisteo, 2004). Besides its antioxidant capacity, THβCs
and βCs also show anti-aggregation activity of platelets (Tsuchiya et al., 1999; Zhao et al.,
2006).
Numerous reports suggest the involvement of βCs in addiction, drug withdrawal and/or
pathological states. THβCs (2a) and βCs (harman 8) were implicated in alcoholism because
administration of these substances to rats significantly altered alcohol consumption (Myers,
1989). βCs (norharman 7) may attenuate drug withdrawal (Fekkes et al., 2004). Specific
βCs may exhibit or participate in toxicological actions. In the 90s, it was suggested that
THβCs impurities might be involved in the etiology of the eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome
(EMS) associated with the ingestion of impure L-tryptophan that occurred in the USA. One
impurity identified as 1,1 -ethylidene-bis-tryptophan (EBT) was suggested to cause the dis-
ease (Mayeno et al., 1990). EBT is converted to 1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-
carboxylic acid 1bc in acidic solution such as gastric fluid. Brenneman et al. (1993) reported
that 1b (1S,3S diastereoisomer) affected neuronal survival in vitro suggesting a role for this
THβC in the etiology of some of the neuropathic features of L-Trp-EMS.
A growing interest is currently given to THβCs and βCs as neurotoxins (Matsubara
et al., 1992, 1998; Östergren et al., 2004; Bringmann et al., 2006). Endogenous or xenobi-
otics β-carbolines after bioactivation in the brain may afford N -methylcarbolinium cations
which are toxic to cellular respiratory chain (complex I) (Fig. 8.10). These substances might
act as protoxins in idiopathic Parkinson’s disease (Hamman et al., 2006). Indeed, THβCs
and β-carbolinium cations are structural analogues of MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-
tetrahydropyridine), a well-known neurotoxin, and MPP+ (1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium),
its corresponding active metabolite. Bioactivation may occur with the participation of
N -methyltransferases in mammalian brain, which catalyze 2N -, and 9N -methylation of
βCs (Gearhart et al., 2000). Recently, we have shown that cytochrome P450 2D6 and heme
Fig. 8.10 Bioactivation route of THβCs and βCs to N-methyl-β-carbolinium cations (MβC+ ) which are
neurotoxins equivalent to N-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+ ) (a parkinsonian neurotoxin) arising from
MPTP (N-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine).
peroxidases participate in the metabolism of MPTP and N -methyltetrahydro-β-carbolines

(Herraiz et al., 2006, 2007). The possible implications of these or related substances in neu-
rotoxicity as well as the involvement of the polymorphic cytochrome P-450 2D6 in their
metabolism are subjects of current interest (Yu et al., 2003; Herraiz et al., 2006).
THβCs are precursors of N -nitroso compounds (see Table 8.1), and may react with nitrite
in foods, mouth, or stomach producing mutagenic compounds (Wakabayashi et al., 1983;
Higashimoto et al., 1996; Diem et al., 2001; Masuda et al., 2005; Herraiz and Galisteo,
in preparation). Aromatic βCs have been also studied in relation to their mutagenicity and
toxicity (Boeira et al., 2002) and norharman 7 and harman 8 are described as co-mutagenic
compounds in presence of aromatic amines such as aniline or toluidine (Totsuka et al., 1998;
Nii, 2003). The mutagenicity and cytotoxicity of βCs are also linked to their interaction and
intercalation with DNA, action as photosensitizers and DNA cleavers (Cao et al., 2005; Guan
et al., 2006), interaction with cytochrome P450 (Nii, 2003) and topoisomerase I inhibition
(Sobhani et al., 2002).
Conclusions and future directions

THβC and βC alkaloids occur in foods (and subsequently in biological systems) under a
wide range of concentrations and distribution patterns. Advances in their identification and
analysis by using specific sample preparation protocols (SPE) and separation techniques
(GC-MS, HPLC-MS, and tandem MS) are rapidly contributing to improve our knowledge on
these bioactive compounds occurring in foods. From pharmacological studies, we currently
know that they exhibit a broad range of biological activities including antimicrobial, antiviral,
antiparasitic, antioxidant, neuroactive, cytotoxic, and neurotoxic actions. Consequently, their
presence in foods and the diet is an interesting matter. These alkaloids form under mild
conditions in foods and resulting from a nonenzymatic Pictet–Spengler cyclization during
food production, processing, and storage. Their formation depends on an array of biological,
chemical, and technological factors, which only now start to be explained. These alkaloids
can be defined as xenobiotics, and therefore the origin of βCs found in biological systems
might arise from both endogenous and exogenous sources. In conclusion, the diet contributes
to the ultimate presence of these alkaloids in the human biological tissues and fluids and the
ingestion of foods containing high level of THβCs and βCs may increase the level of these
compounds in the body.
For the future, in addition to increase our knowledge about these compounds, it should
be clarified whether these alkaloids, at the level ingested from foods (exposure), may con-
tribute and/or exhibit, whatever in the short- or long-term, any of the diverse biological and
pharmacological actions assigned to them. This subject will continue to be the object of
scientific interest. Research dealing with the biological significance of THβCs or βCs has
focused on their effects on the central nervous system such as inhibition of serotonin uptake,
MAO inhibition, and binding to benzodiazepine-GABA or imidazoline receptors. Other phar-
macological effects are also being considered such as antimicrobial, antiviral, cytotoxic, or
antitumor actions. New reports have recently appeared on the promising actions of THβCs
occurring in foods as antioxidants and free radical scavengers against oxidative stress or as
antithrombotic agents. Concerning food safety, the possible toxicological actions of some
of these compounds need to be considered in detail, and paying special attention to them
as new lines of research suggest remarkable actions of THβC and βC alkaloids as potential
protoxins, neurotoxicants and/or co-mutagens.
Acknowledgments
The author is grateful to Spanish government (MEC), projects AGL2006-02414 and
AGL2003-01233 for financial support.
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reveals that CYP2D6 is a 5-methoxyindolethylamine O-demethylase. Pharmacogenetics, 13, 307–319.
Zhao, M., Bi, L.R., Wang, W., Wang, C., Baudy-Floc’h, M., Ju, J.F. and Peng, S.Q. (2006) Synthesis and
cytotoxic activities of β-carboline amino acid ester conjugates. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry, 14,
6998–7010.
Part Two
Man-made components

225
9 Naturally Occurring Nitrates and

Nitrites in Foods
Mari Reinik, Terje Tamme and Mati Roasto
Summary
Nitrates and nitrites can be found in a variety of plant-derived foods as naturally occurring
compounds. Dietary exposure to both nitrates and nitrites are of interest from a human health
perspective in terms of direct toxic effects (e.g. cyanosis) and also possible indirect effects
as precursors of carcinogenic N -nitrosamines. Levels of nitrate in vegetables can range from
below 10 mg/kg to as much as 10 000 mg/kg depending on many factors such as cultivar
type, light intensity, soil composition, air temperature, growth density, moisture, maturity of
plant, duration of growth period, harvesting time, size of the vegetable, storage time, edible
plant portion and nitrogen sources. The levels of nitrates in fruit are low compared with the
vegetables. It has been estimated that vegetables constitute a major source of human exposure
to nitrates contributing up to 92% of the average daily intake. Natural levels of nitrites in
food are low, usually remaining under the limit of detection.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Nitrates and nitrites can be found in food as naturally occurring compounds. An interest
in the dietary intakes of nitrates and nitrites has arisen mainly from the concern about their
possible adverse effect on health. The natural occurrence of nitrates in plants is a consequence
of the nitrogen cycle whereby mineral nitrogen is assimilated by the plant as nitrates to use
them in the synthesis of plant proteins. Nitrates and nitrites are also used as food additives
in cured meats due to their ability to protect products from Clostridium botulinum and other
Clostridium species, and for their red colour-fixing properties. Nitrates and nitrites are found
in drinking water due to both natural occurrence and contamination of water supplies, mostly
from agricultural sources and municipal wastewater.
The concern over nitrates and nitrites in the diet has two aspects: they may create an excess
of methaemoglobin possibly leading to toxic effects such as cyanosis and they may cause the
endogenous formation of carcinogenic N -nitroso compounds.
Nitrate represents the stable oxidation state (V) of nitrogen and can be reduced to nitrite
in the environment by micro-organisms and within human tissues. Nitrite represents a less
stable oxidation state (III) of nitrogen and therefore can be further reduced to various com-
pounds or oxidized to nitrate. Nitrite may endogenously react with secondary amines to form
N -nitrosamines at low pH values, as is the case in the gastric environment of mammals.
Nitrosoamines may also be pre-formed in foodstuffs during certain biological, chemical and
physical processes in crops, industrial transformation or even at the time of consumption.

Gaseous loss Atmospheric N2

N2, N2O, NO rain carrying into soil
Fertilizers
Nitrogen fixation
Denitrification
Plants Animals
Assimilation
Surface water Soil organic matter
soil
Decay
NH3
Ammonification
NITRATE AMMONIUM
Leaching
Nitrification Nitrification
NITRITE
Ground water
Fig. 9.1 The nitrogen cycle.
The nitrogen cycle, as shown in Fig. 9.1, is the pathway by which nitrogen is converted
from the gaseous atmosphere to various inorganic and organic compounds and back again to
the gaseous form (Nelson and Cox, 2000; Luf, 2002). This cycle is one of the most essential
endlessly repeating processes in nature. All living organisms need nitrogen since it is an
essential constituent of proteins, chlorophyll, nucleic acids and the building blocks of the
genetic material as DNA and RNA.
In the biosphere, nitrogen alters continuously between the oxidation states +V (fully
oxidized nitrogen – nitrate) and –III (fully reduced nitrogen – ammonia). The nitrogen cycle
includes a number of redox reactions used either for assimilatory purposes or in respiratory
processes for energy conservation. Prokaryotes play essential role in these reactions since
only they have the enzymes carrying out these processes (Cabello et al., 2004; González
et al., 2006).
The primary source of nitrogen is atmospheric air, from which molecular nitrogen makes
up 78%. Incorporation of atmospheric nitrogen into terrestrial nitrogenous compounds takes
place via a number of different pathways, including micro-organisms, plants, animals and
humans through agricultural and industrial activities. Nitrogen in the air becomes a part
of biological matter mostly through the actions of bacteria and algae in a process known
as nitrogen fixation. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria take nitrogen from air and convert it into
ammonia. The ammonia is further converted into nitrite, and consequently into nitrate by
nitrifying bacteria, such as Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. Finally, the nitrate is taken up
Naturally Occurring Nitrates and Nitrites in Foods 229
by plants and incorporated into tissues. Legume plants form nodules on the roots where
symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria take nitrogen from the air and convert it into ammonia.
These plants can assimilate some nitrogen in the form of ammonium ions from the noodles
(Lucinski et al., 2002).
In plants, much of nitrogen is used in chlorophyll molecules, which are essential for the
photosynthesis and further growth. Plant-eating animals use nitrates obtained from food to
produce proteins. Carnivores obtain nitrogen compounds through eating herbivores. Humans
receive nitrogen both from plants and animals.
Bacteria and plants can take up and readily reduce nitrate and nitrite to ammonia
through the action of nitrate and nitrite reductases. The process requires energy provided
by photosynthesis (Nelson and Cox, 2000). Nitrates accumulated in plants form a nitro-
gen reserve, which is needed for amino acid and protein synthesis (Elliott and Elliott,
2002).
Nitrate is returned to the environment through microbial degradation of plants and animal
remains, as well as in animal faeces. Decomposition of dead organic matter by bacteria is the
source of ammonia. Waste material from plants and animals returns nitrogen to the soils in
which part of it is recycled and part returned after bacterial denitrification to the atmosphere
to complete the nitrogen cycle. The denitrification of nitrate to nitrogen and nitrogen oxides
takes place in the soil by bacteria but also in various natural water sources. Ideally, nitrogen
flow into the system and out of it, would be balanced, while any excess import of nitrogen
may lead to its accumulation, and/or losses in the form of gaseous nitrogen (N2 ), nitrous
oxide (N2 O), nitrogen monoxide (NO) and ammonia (NH3 ) to the atmosphere, and as nitrate
NO− 3 to the hydrosphere (Codispoti et al., 2001; Oenema et al., 2003). The balance of
nitrogen cycle is often destroyed due to increasing use of nitrogen-based fertilizers. As a
consequence more nitrogen is transformed to gaseous form (Hardisson and Gonzáez Padrón,
1996). Nitrate and nitrite are readily soluble in water and quite mobile in the environment.
They have a high potential for entering surface water when it rains and groundwater through
leaching. Because of the increased use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers and livestock manure in
intensive agriculture, vegetables and drinking water in agricultural areas may contain higher
concentrations of nitrate than in the past.
9.2 METHODS OF ANALYSIS

A variety of analytical methods, including spectrophotometry, high-performance liquid chro-
matography (HPLC), ion chromatography (IC), gas chromatography (GC), polarography and
capillary electrophoresis (CE), for the determination of nitrate and nitrite in food have been
developed. Using of HPLC methods has gained more popularity in last decades since they
are more rapid than classic methods based on reduction process followed by colorimetry.
In a review paper by Moorcroft et al. (2001) the strategies employed to facilitate the de-
termination of nitrate and nitrite, relevant analytical methodologies and various techniques
have been presented. Similarly to the analytical determination of other unstable and un-
evenly distributed compounds in food, systematic bias may be introduced at all stages of
the analytical procedure from sampling, storage, extraction to the end determination step.
Tables 9.1 and 9.2 present an overview of the analytical methods used for the determina-
tion of nitrates and nitrites in recent years, their performance characteristics, advantages and
limitations.
230
BLUK145-Gilbert
Table 9.1 Method performance characteristics in nitrate and nitrite analysis.
Reproducibility
Method LOQ (mg/kg) RSD Recovery Reference
HPIC/HPLC, UV detection Nitrate 2–50 mg/kg; nitrite Nitrate 3.3–15.2%; Nitrate 96–109%; Vaessen and Schothorst, 1999;
0.4–40 mg/kg nitrite 9.4% nitrite 96–108% Merino et al., 2000; Chou et al.,
2003; CEN, 2005b
February 15, 2008
HPIC/HPLC, conductivity 20–80 mg/kg; 2.4–10.2% Nitrate 87–104%; CEN, 1997; De Martin and Restani,
detection olive oil – 8.4–31 μg/kg (LOD) nitrite 91–104% 2003; McMullen et al., 2005;
Farrington et al., 2006; Dugo et al.,
2007
18:22
IC/MS 0.1 mg/kg Saccani et al., 2006

Cd reduction, Nitrate – 5–900 mg/kg (LOD); 8.3–21% 80–117% CEN, 1998; Petersen and Stoltze,
spectrophotometric detection of nitrite 0.3 mg/kg (LOD) 1999; AOAC, 2000
summed nitrite and nitrate
Flow-injection Nitrate 20 mg/kg; nitrite 2.3–5.5% Nitrate 93–110%; Andrade et al., 2003
spectrophotometric method, 13 mg/kg nitrite 88–97%
through NO generation
Ion chromatographic 25 mg/kg 82–107% Casanova et al., 2006
separation, V(III)post-column
reduction, spectrometric
detection
Enzymatic reduction of nitrate Nitrite 10 mg/kg 7.7% Cruz and Martins Lou¸cão, 2002;
to nitrite Zanardi et al., 2002; CEN, 2005a
Potentiometric methods Nitrate 30 mg/kg 15% Tamme et al., 2006
Electrophoresis Nitrite 4 mg/kg (LOD) Nitrate 2.54%; nitrite Nitrate 92–106%; Öztekin et al., 2002
4.51% nitrite 94–103%
Gas chromatography 100–200 μg/kg 3–13% 100% Ross and Hotchkiss, 1985
Polarography Nitrate 39 mg/kg <7% 85–107% Ximenes et al., 2000
Table 9.2 Advantages and limitations of various analytical methods for the determination of
nitrates and nitrites in food.
Method Advantages (+), limitations (−)
HPIC, HPL/UV + fast, sensitive, precise

− possible positive interference due to co-eluting matrix
components, equipment not available in all laboratories
HPIC, HPLC, conductivity detection + precise, rapid, multiple anions can be determined
simultaneously
− equipment not available in all laboratories
IC/MS + robust, sensitive
− expensive equipment needed
Cd reduction, spectrophotometric + traditional method; no need for expensive equipment
detection of summed nitrite and −carcinogenic Cd used, nitrite has to be determined
nitrate separately, less precise for complicate matrixes and low
concentrations
Ion chromatographic separation, + no Cd used, simultaneous determination of nitrite and
V(III)post-column reduction, nitrate
spectrometric detection
Enzymatic reduction of nitrate to + no Cd used
nitrite − nitrite has to be determined separately; overestimation
of nitrate values in meat samples
Potentiometric methods + inexpensive, rapid
− suitable only for the determination of nitrates in
vegetables, possible positive interference, lack of
sensitivity
Electrophoresis + short analysis time, good alternative to IC methods
Gas chromatography + high sensitivity
− derivatization needed, expensive equipment
9.2.1 Sampling and storage

Nitrate and nitrite are both potentially unstable, therefore all food and water samples should
be analysed as soon as possible after collection. It is well established that nitrate is read-
ily reduced by bacteria and may also be produced or utilized as a result of post-sampling
metabolic processes that may occur in vegetables. Nitrite is chemically highly reactive and its
concentration may drop rapidly during storage, particularly under mildly acidic conditions.
In such circumstances it is essential to perform the analysis as soon as possible after sampling.
If it is unavoidable to store the samples prior to starting analysis, the effects of the storage
conditions on the stability of the analyte must be determined in advance.
9.2.2 Extraction
Many analytical methods for nitrite and nitrate determination in foodstuffs employ the same
extraction procedure for both anions. In general, the sample is extracted into hot water or
sodium tetraborate (Borax) and treated with protein precipitation reagents (Carrez reagents)
prior to filtration and measurement. Several nitrate extraction methods from plant material
have been evaluated by Farrington et al. (2006), the hot water extraction method described in
European Standard EN 12014-2:1997 (CEN, 1997) was found to give most reliable results.
Extraction has to be performed under alkaline conditions, as nitrite may react with other matrix
components if the extraction is carried out in even mildly acidic environment (Massey, 1996).
9.2.3 Spectrophotometric methods

Classic methods for the determination of nitrite are based on variations of the Griess di-
azotization procedure, in which azo dye is produced in a reaction of diazonium salt with
an aromatic amine or phenol. The formed diazonium ions are coupled to another aromatic
compound in order to produce an azo dye (Kirk and Sawyer, 1991). This is the basis of many
spectrophotometric methods and has also found in wide application for the analysis of nitrate
after its prior reduction by spongy cadmium to nitrite (Ruiter and Bergwerff, 2005).
The most widely used colorimetric method is based on the reaction of nitrite, sulfanylamide
and N-1-naphtylethylenediamine under acidic conditions to form a red azo dye. The red colour
produced in the reaction is measured by a spectrophotometer at 538 nm. Nitrite present in the
original sample is determined before nitrate reduction in cadmium column and nitrate content
is obtained by the difference of the analysis of unreduced and reduced extract (Slack, 1987).
Experimental conditions must be carefully controlled since factors such as pH, temperature,
nature and concentration of the reagents affect the final colour intensity (Zanardi et al., 2002).
Other spectrophotometric methods for nitrite are based on the catalytic effect on oxidation
of gallocyanine (Ensafi and Bagherian-Dehaghei, 1999) or pyrogallol red (Kazemzadeh and
Ensafi, 2001) by bromate. A novel method for the determination of nitrite and nitrate in food
by spectrophotometric detection presented by Andrade et al. (2003) is based on the reduction
of nitrite and nitrate to nitric oxide, with subsequent reaction with iron(II) and thiocyanate in
an acid medium, forming FeSCNNO+ . The absorbance of the complex measured at 460 nm
is proportional to the nitrite and nitrate concentrations. The use of cadmium columns to
reduce nitrate to nitrite is widely applied in the analysis of cured meats (Oliveira et al., 2004),
cheese and baby food (AOAC, 2000), fruit and vegetables (CEN, 1998; Petersen and Stoltze,
1999).
In the older version of the colorimetric method various steps of analytical procedure are
run manually whereas more recent methods apply automated equipment (Zanardi et al.,
2002; Oliveira et al., 2004). Flow-injection spectrophotometric detection for simultaneous
analysis of nitrite and nitrate has been used both for food and water samples by Petersen
and Stoltze (1999), Monser et al. (2002), Andrade et al. (2003) and Ensafi et al. (2004).
The injected sample is split into two streams. One of the streams is transported through a
reductor microcolumn containing copperized cadmium, where nitrate is reduced to nitrite.
The total nitrite concentration initially plus that produced in cadmium column is measured
spectrophotometrically. The method is quick – according to the data by different authors, 10–
25 samples can be analysed per hour. The parameters affecting the results of flow-injection
analysis have been investigated by Gal et al. (2004). A continuous flow method for the
analysis of vegetables and vegetable products using spectrophotometric detection has also
been adopted as a European standard EN 12014-7:1998 (CEN, 1998).
Many attempts have been made to avoid using the toxic and carcinogenic metal cadmium.
Other nitrate-reduction techniques include chemical treatment with vanadium(III) chloride
for baby food samples (Casanova et al., 2006), microbial reduction with E. coli for analysis
of plants (Cruz and Martins Loução, 2002) and enzymatic reduction for the analysis of meat
samples (CEN, 2005a).
Spectrophotometric assays are potentially vulnerable to interferences from a number of
sources, most important of them being incomplete reduction of nitrate and over-reduction of
nitrate via nitrite to lower oxides (Norwitz and Keliher, 1985). The close comparability of the
results obtained for the nitrite content of cured meats by colorimetry and by HPLC suggests
that this is not a widespread problem (Dennis et al., 1990). The colorimetric assay may also
be adversely affected by the turbidity of the measurement solution, which is likely to occur
if the post-extraction precipitation and filtration steps are ineffective. To overcome the latter
problem, Fox et al. (1982) have recommended charcoal or alkaline extraction.
Detection limits for nitrate and nitrite by reduction methods are generally around 1 mg/kg
(Dennis et al., 1990). For samples that contain appreciable quantities of ascorbate or other
interferants the limit of detection may be an order of higher magnitude (Usher and Telling,
1975). However, at analyte concentrations below 20 mg/kg the agreement with other methods
is not very good due to problems of chemical interference or turbidity. As with the exception
of cured meats, nitrite is generally present at very low levels, reliable determination of it by
colorimetric assay is often a problem. Zanardi et al. (2002) reported that three analytical meth-
ods based on the same principles (Cd manual and automated method, enzymatic method) for
the determination of nitrite showed no significant differences. The results concerning nitrate
showed a different pattern – the values obtained by the Cd method were considerably lower
than those obtained by the chromatographic method (Alonso et al., 1992). The difference
has been attributed to a possible decline in efficiency of the Cd column due to possible in-
terferences caused by other anions. Enzymatic test produces an overestimation of the nitrate
values.
The AOAC (2000) method for meat samples involves oxidation of nitrite to nitrate with
permanganate followed by acidification and treatment with m-xylenol. After nitration the
nitroxylenol is removed from the samples by distillation and measured colorimetrically.
9.2.4 Chromatographic methods

The use of HPLC and IC for the analysis of nitrate and nitrite has increased substantially
over recent years due to the number of favourable factors compared with colorimetric assays
including the speed of the analysis, the fact that both anions can be determined at the same
time, toxic reagents such as cadmium are not required and also that in some instances higher
sensitivity and accuracy is obtainable.
HPLC/UV methods have been reported for the nitrate and nitrite in vegetables (Cheng
and Tsang, 1998; Chou et al., 2003; Tamme et al., 2006), dairy products (Reece and Hird,
2000; Gapper et al., 2004), cured meats (Dennis et al., 1990; Reinik et al., 2005) and beer
(Massey et al., 1990).
Reverse-phase (ion interaction/ion pair) HPLC has been used both in the analysis of water
and food (Frolich, 1987; Mullins, 1987; Cheng and Tsang, 1998), although ion-exchange
HPLC is preferred in foodstuff analysis (Pentchuk et al., 1986; Dennis et al., 1990; Siu and
Henshall, 1998; Reece and Hird, 2000; Stalikas et al., 2003; Gapper et al., 2004). Normal
phase ion-pair chromatography was used for water and vegetable samples by Butt et al. (2001).
UV-detection is not suitable for multi-ion measurement due to the poor UV absorbance of
chloride and phosphate. In such cases the analytes can be measured by indirect UV in which
a UV-absorbing compound is included in the composition of mobile phase and anions owing
a lower absorbance give a signal in the form of a negative peak on elution from the column
(Mullins, 1987). Alternatively, the conductivity detector may be applied (Pentchuk et al.,
1986; De Martin and Restani, 2003; Kissner and Koppenaol, 2005; Masson et al., 2005;
McMullen et al., 2005; Dugo et al., 2007).
Achieving the stability of chromatographic performance is a problem in the analysis of

complex food extracts, as components of the matrix may adsorb onto the analytical column
and adversely affect subsequent analyses. Various types of solid-phase extraction cartridges
have been tested to clean the sample extract prior to HPLC measurement: C18 SPE columns
have been used by De Martin and Restani (2003) for analyses of leafy vegetables and by
Vaessen and Schothorst (1999) for total diet samples; Dennis et al. (1990) have used cyclo-
hexyl Bond Elut cartridges in the analysis of cured meats. Hunt and Seymour (1985) treated
vegetable extracts with activated charcoal.
A number of authors have compared HPLC results with those obtained by other methods.
In the case of water, good agreement with colorimetric results has been reported (Schroeder,
1987). Pentchuk et al. (1986) compared the determination of nitrate by HPLC and colorimetry
of a number of types of vegetables and showed good agreement of the results. HPLC was
found to give higher results than colorimetry in the analysis of nitrates in carrots, and this was
thought likely to be due to incomplete colour development (Schuster and Lee, 1987). Dennis
et al. (1990) have reported good agreement between HPLC and colorimetry for the analysis of
nitrite and nitrate in cured meats. Better agreement between these methods has been achieved
using reverse-phase HPLC than ion exchange (Massey, 1996). Three ion chromatographic
methods, including two present European Standard methods EN 12014-2 (CEN, 1997) and
EN 12014-4 (CEN, 2005b), were tested in an NMKL collaborative study (Merino et al.,
2000) and compared to spectrophotometric method. In the analysis of nitrite, no statistically
significant difference was found between the spectrophotometric method and EN 12014-4.
It was concluded that the use of a strong anion exchange column is necessary to ensure the
reliability of results. Nitrite determination with the weak anion exchanger column used in
standard method EN 12014-2 for the analysis of vegetable samples is not suitable for the
determination of residual nitrate and nitrite in meat products. The method is also not reliable
for the analysis of certain vegetables with low concentrations of nitrate.
The detection limits for HPLC-based methods are typically between 0.1 and 10 mg/kg
for foodstuffs (Eggers and Cattle, 1986; Dennis et al., 1990; Vaessen and Schothorst, 1999;
Merino et al., 2000; Chou et al., 2003). In the validation of an ion chromatographic method
for the determination of nitrates in some high-nitrate containing leafy vegetables, de Martin
and Restani reported a limit of detection of 80 mg/kg.
Gas chromatographic methods for the measurement of nitrate and nitrite in water and
foodstuffs involve the formation of a volatile derivative, extraction into organic solvent and
measurement by GC using a selective detector. Wu et al. (1984) have developed a gas chro-
matographic electron-capture detector (GC/ECD) method for the pentafluorobenzyl deriva-
tive of nitrite. The procedure has a detection limit of 5 μg/L for aqueous samples and showed
good agreement with a colorimetric assay for the analysis of cured meat, saliva and water.
Similar performance characteristics were achieved by Funazo et al. (1980) in their method
for nitrite involving GC/ECD detection of bromochlorobenzene formed by reaction of nitrite,
bromoaniline and cupric chloride. Ross and Hotchkiss (1985) used the nitrobenzene deriva-
tive for the measurement of nitrate in dried foods by GC with thermal energy analyser, and
reported a detection limit of 100 μg/kg.
9.2.5 Other methods

In recent years capillary electrophoretic (CE) methods have been developed for the simultane-
ous detection of nitrite and nitrate in foodstuffs (Marshall and Trenerry, 1996; Öztekin et al.,
2002). Anions are separated in a capillary coated with polyethyleneimine. Good recovery
and reproducibility can be achieved, and the detection limit of the method is sufficiently low
for the analysis of meat products and vegetables.
Damiani and Burini (1986) have described a fluorimetric assay for nitrite based on its
reaction with 2,3-diaminonaphtalene. Application of the method to milk samples gave results
that were approximately 10% lower than a colorimetric assay.
Nitrate-selective electrodes have found little application in the analysis of foodstuffs be-
cause of their potential interference from several commonly occurring anions such as chloride,
sulfate and bicarbonate. Pentchuk et al. (1986) has reported that nitrate electrodes may give
rise to positive interference when compared to other methods in the analysis of vegetables.
Other methods that have been reported for the analysis of nitrate and nitrite include ion-pair
extraction/atomic absorption spectrophotometry (Silva et al., 1986), amperometry (Bertotti
and Pletcher, 1997), polarography (Ximenes et al., 2000) and stripping voltammetry (Van
den Berg and Li, 1988).
9.3 INCIDENCE AND LEVELS OF OCCURRENCE

9.3.1 Vegetables
Vegetables constitute a major source of human exposure to nitrates contributing approxi-
mately 40–92% of the average daily intake (Penttilä, 1995; Dich et al., 1996; Ximenes et al.,
2000; Eichholzer and Gutzwiller, 2003). Nitrate is present as a natural constituent in plants
and may accumulate in different tissues. Each plant species have their own unique path of
biological photosynthesis in leaves as well the transport mechanism for getting water and
nutrients by roots. Those biological mechanisms are most essential factors influencing the
nitrate level in plants.
The content of nitrate in different vegetables varies to large extent and according to that
the vegetables can be divided into three groups (Tamme et al., 2006):
1 Plants with nitrate content higher than 1000 mg/kg – lettuce, spinach, herbs, beetroot,
rhubarb, turnip etc.
2 Plants with average content of nitrate (50–1000 mg/kg) – carrot, green beans, cauliflower,
onion, pumpkin, eggplant, potato etc.
3 Plants with nitrate content lower than 50 mg/kg – berries, fruits, cereals, pod vegetables.
De Martin and Restani (2003) showed that leafy green vegetables accumulate the highest
amounts of nitrates, concentrations reaching up to 6000 mg/kg. According to the data reported
in Table 9.3, it can be concluded that the highest mean values of nitrates have been detected
in spinach, lettuce and dill. Among root vegetables, nitrate concentration in beetroot is the
highest. The lowest mean values of nitrates were detected in tomato, cucumber and onion.
Nitrate concentrations in the vegetables measured in different countries are in good agreement
with some exceptions. According to the data given in Table 9.3, the concentration of nitrates in
potatoes differs a lot depending on the region of cultivation. The nitrate content in potatoes in
Northern Europe remained below 100 mg/kg, while in the Far East the concentrations reached
over 700 mg/kg (Penttilä, 1995; Chung et al., 2003; Tamme et al., 2006).
Nitrate concentrations in some salad crops of different varieties during the summer and
winter seasons were screened by Escobar-Gutierrez et al. (2002): great variability between
the cultivars and also varieties within one cultivar were detected. The exceeding of maximum
236
BLUK145-Gilbert
Table 9.3 Mean contents of nitrates in vegetables in different countries (Dejonckheere et al., 1994; Penttilä, 1995; Belitz and Grosch, 1999; Petersen and Stoltze,
1999; Ysart et al., 1999; Chung et al., 2003; Sušin et al., 2006; Tamme et al., 2006).
Mean NO−
3 concentration (mg/kg)
Vegetable commodity Finland Great Britain Belgium Denmark Slovenia Korea Japan Germany Estonia
Potato 82 155 154 182 158 452 713 93 94

February 15, 2008
Carrot 264 97 278 264 316 193 232 148

Lettuce 1835 1051 2782 2631 1074 2430 1489 2167
Chinese cabbage 1057 1058 1740 1040 1243
18:22
Cabbage 607 338 333 881 725 451 437

Turnip 908 118 307

Tomato 170 17 36 <6 27 41
Sweet pepper 140 93 76 99
Cucumber 240 344 93 212 384 160
Onion 140 48 59 23 55
Beetroot 1800 1211 1505 1630 1446
Green beans 455 585 298
Radish 2136 1878 1060 2030 1309
Spinach 1631 2297 1783 965 4259 3560 965 2508
Leek 841 284 56
Celery leaves 3135 565
Squish pumpkin 639 174
Spring onion 436 145 477
Garlic 124 455 174
Dill/fennel 1541 2936
Rhubarb 986 201
Parsley 2690 966
Endive 1246
Cauliflower 86 287
Canned vegetables 18
Table 9.4 Nitrite contents in vegetables in different countries.
NO−
2 concentration
(mg/kg)
Country Range Mean Reference
Finland ND–1.5 1.0 Penttilä (1995)

Germany <0.1–19.6 0.1 Belitz and Grosch (1999)
England 0.3–3.8 1.1 Ysart et al. (1999)
Japan ND–7.0 2.1 Chung et al. (2003)
Korea 0.3–1.1 0.57 Chung et al. (2003)
Denmark 0.15–11 2.5 Petersen and Stoltze (1999)
Slovenia <0.5–1.2 Sušin et al. (2006)
Poland 0.2–0.83 Nabrzyski and Gajewska (1994)
limit concentrations was more frequent in the summer season than in winter. This may be
explained by lower maximum limit values valid for summer period. Tamme et al. (2006)
found in their study that the content of nitrates in lettuce was lower in summer time (average
1952 mg/kg) than in winter (average 3024 mg/kg), and exceedings of limit concentrations
were not detected. Szymczak and Prescha (1999) and Järvan (1993) reported that nitrate
concentration in the greenhouse vegetables, lettuce, cucumber and radish, was greater than
in the field-grown analogues.
Concerning organically farmed vegetables, controversial results have been achieved by
different authors. Significantly higher nitrate content was found in Italian organically grown
green salad and rocket compared with the same conventionally produced products (De Martin
and Restani, 2003). On the contrary, US investigation (Worthington, 2001) stated that organic
crops contained significantly less nitrates than conventionally grown analogues. The review
of literature conducted by Heaton (2001) found 14 studies showing 50% lower nitrate content
in organically grown crops and two studies showing insignificant differences.
For nitrite, the main source of exogenous human exposure is also food. The nitrite content
of most fresh, frozen or canned vegetables is relatively low and usually of the order of
0–2 mg/kg (Siciliano et al., 1975; Corré and Breimer, 1979). Comparison of data regarding
the nitrite contents of vegetables obtained by different authors is shown in Table 9.4.
The studies have proved that ascorbic acid is very efficient at preventing the conversion
of nitrate to nitrite in plant tissue and within the human body. Fresh vegetables that are rich
in ascorbic acid, such as kale, green pepper and broccoli, may contain enough vitamin C
to avoid significant nitrate reduction to nitrite and subsequent formation of nitrosoamines
(Mackerness et al., 1989; Kolb and Haug, 1997; Naidu, 2003).
9.3.1.1 Factors affecting nitrate and nitrite levels in plants

Nitrate concentrations in vegetables can vary from 1 to 10 000 mg/kg depending on biological
properties of cultivars, light intensity, soil composition, air temperature, growth density,
moisture, maturity of plant, duration of growth period, harvesting time, size of the vegetable,
storage time, edible plant portion and nitrogen source (Tivo and Saskevic, 1990; Walker,
1990; WHO, 1995; Fytianos and Zarogiannis, 1999; Laslo et al., 2000).
Plant portion. Accumulation of nitrate in plants differs largely between the parts of the crop
(Fytianos and Zarogiannis, 1999). The root of the cabbage contains higher levels of nitrates
compared to the leaves. On the contrary, root vegetables such as carrots and beetroots
contain lower levels of nitrates than do their leaves. Experiments have shown that some
potato breeds accumulate lower amounts of nitrates than others. Studies with carrots have
indicated that the core of the carrot contains higher levels of nitrates than the outer layers
do (Järvan, 1993). In the outer layers of cucumbers and radish, the nitrate concentration
is 2–3 times higher than in the pulp (Golaszewska and Zalewski, 2001; Mozolewski and
Smoczynski, 2004). The nitrate content is decreased by 40% by removing the stem and
midrib of the spinach before stewing as the nitrate content in these plant portions was
2–3 times higher than in leaf tissue (Sokolov, 1987).
Lighting. Via the disturbance of nitrate reductase the decreased lighting conditions cause
disorders in the formation of organic compounds and the concentrations of nitrates in
plant stay high. Extended periods of cloudy weather increase nitrate content and danger-
ously high levels can occur when wet days follow a severe drought (Vulsteke and Biston,
1978).
Soil composition. In similar fertilization and growth conditions, the lowest nitrate concentra-
tions are detected in vegetables grown in light sandy soils. Higher accumulation of nitrates
is reported in clay- and humus-rich soils and the highest concentrations from low-lying
swamps. At the same time, soils with higher concentrations of organic compounds are
able to supply plants with nitrogen more equally compared with sandier soils, which have
higher water filtration ability (Rückauf et al., 2004).
Temperature. It is an important factor influencing the residual nitrate content in vegetables.
Low temperatures in spring or autumn slow down photosynthesis and favour nitrate accu-
mulation. Too high temperatures reduce nitrate reductase activity resulting in higher nitrate
concentrations in plants. In optimal growth temperature conditions the stress in plants is
avoided and no temperature-related nitrate accumulation is observed (Tivo and Saskevic,
1990; Järvan, 1993).
Moisture. Low moisture conditions favour accumulation of nitrates into the plants. Rückauf
et al. (2004) reported that higher soil moisture resulted in more efficient plant nitrogen
uptake. Moderate soil moisture conditions conduce the reasonable plant nitrogen nutrition
while wet conditions increase the nitrate concentrations in plants.
Growth density. The connection between nitrate content and growth density has been de-
scribed from two aspects. Firstly, the growth density influences the lighting conditions on
leaves. Higher density will shadow the plants and causes decreased growth via the enzyme
inhibitions. The same type of reductase inhibition has been reported as well for weedy
fields. Secondly, there is a mutual relationship between growth density, soil fertility and
final nitrate content of the plants. In the conditions of soil rich in plant nutrients and low
growth density, overconsumption of nitrogen by plants may occur (Vulsteke and Biston,
1978; Järvan, 1993).
Plant maturity: Growth period. Nitrate content generally is highest in early stages of plant
growth and decreases with maturity. Stems of vegetables contain higher amounts of nitrates
than leaves. The growth period is generally species-specific, but sometimes it may be
shortened due to leaf damages caused by night frost, hail, plant diseases, pests, herbicide
drift etc. Longer and lighter growth periods favour the reduction of nitrates in plants for
the time of harvesting (Järvan, 1993; Sheehy et al., 2004).
Harvesting time. All season growing cultivars have more nitrates in early crops. Some veg-
etable species are harvested in different growing stage, which results in variable nitrate
concentrations in plants harvested from the same field. According to the data by Järvan
(1993), the nitrate content in radishes harvested in early growth stage nitrate concentration
was 1.4-fold higher compared with the mature roots, for carrots the nitrate content in early
plants was 2-fold higher.
Fertilization. Plants grown without excessive nitrogen fertilizer contain far less nitrate. Nitrate
fertilizer applied shortly before harvest causes the greatest increase in nitrate levels and
should be avoided. Use of slower nitrogen-releasing natural fertilizers such as animal and
green manures enables vegetables to be produced with significantly lower nitrates.Low
availability of phosphorus and potassium from soil can contribute to nitrate accumulation.
Plant species, stress factors and plant growing conditions have been reported to have more
influence to the nitrate levels in plants than amount of nitrogen fertilizer applied (Järvan,
1993; Hlusek et al., 2000).
Storage conditions. Studies have shown that during storage, the nitrate content in vegeta-
bles decreases 15–20% (Sokolov, 1989). This is related with transformation of nitrates to
nitrites. Nitrate concentration decreases and nitrite concentration increases. In optimal stor-
age conditions, optimal temperature and moisture, the concentration of nitrates decreases
slowly in all vegetables. Nitrite concentrations in vegetables may increase to elevated levels
due to bacterial nitrification of nitrate to nitrite when vegetables are stored in rooms with
high humidity and poor sanitation (Sokolov, 1987). Vegetable cuts, salads and raw juices
have to be prepared preferably shortly prior to the consumption. Storage at room temper-
atures increases the nitrite concentrations to potentially hazardous level (Sokolov, 1987).
Chung et al. (2004) found that during storage of leafy vegetables at ambient temperature,
nitrate levels in the vegetables dropped significantly from the third day while nitrite levels
increased dramatically from the fourth day of storage. Over 7 days, refrigerated storage
did not lead to changes in nitrate and nitrite levels in the vegetables.
Food handling. High nitrate concentrations initially present in vegetables can be decreased
during the treatment of food by utilization of the ability of nitrates and nitrites to dissolve
in water (Buck and Osweiler, 1973). Dejonckheere et al. (1994) measured the nitrate loss
in a number of vegetables after normal culinary practice such as washing, peeling, cooking
and stewing. Washing of leafy vegetables with tap water reduced the nitrate concentration
with 10–15% and for lettuce the elimination of the thick midrib resulted in a decrease of
the nitrate content of 30–35%. Peeling and washing of vegetables can decrease the nitrate
content of 20–30% (Laslo et al., 2000). Studies have shown 25–30% decrease in nitrate
content of potato, carrot, beetroot, turnip and cabbage after at least 1 hour of soaking
(Mozolewski and Smoczynski, 2004). A slightly lower decrease of 20% was achieved for
spinach, celery, dill and spring onion. Longer soaking reduces nitrate concentrations even
more but the loss of beneficial food components is higher as well (Sokolov, 1987). Boiling
of vegetables can decrease the nitrate concentrations by almost 80%. The reduction is
related to dissolution of nitrates in the boiling water. Nitrate concentration decreases more
when an abundant amount of boiling water is used and after cooking the vegetables are
drained carefully. Adding sodium chloride is recommended at the end of boiling, as when
this is done too early, nitrate solubility in water is reduced (Sokolov, 1987).
9.3.2 Fruits
The levels of nitrates in fruit are low compared with the vegetables. White (1976) reported the
nitrate contents in fruits to be 10 mg/kg. Another earlier study by Herrmann (1972) showed
that strawberries may contain nitrates over 100 mg/kg, grapes reached the level of 17 mg/kg.
Nitrate concentrations in fruits and fruit products reported by different authors are represented
Table 9.5 Nitrate contents (mg/kg) in fruits and fruit products.
Mean NO−
3 concentration
Fruits and products (mg/kg) Reference
Apples 11 Dejonckheere et al., 1994

Apples 6 Sušin et al., 2006
Apples 19 Belitz and Grosch, 1999
Oranges 13 Dejonckheere et al., 1994
Bananas 402 Dejonckheere et al., 1994
Grapes 8.2 Belitz and Grosch, 1999
Grapes 46 Dejonckheere et al., 1994
Fresh fruits 27 Ysart et al., 1999
Fruit products 13 Ysart et al., 1999
Melons 375 Dejonckheere et al., 1994
Pears 14 Dejonckheere et al., 1994
Pears 1.0 Sušin et al., 2006
Peaches 10 Dejonckheere et al., 1994
Strawberries 156 Dejonckheere et al., 1994
Strawberries 94 Sušin et al., 2006
Strawberries 139 Belitz and Grosch, 1999
Strawberries 34 Nabrzyski and Gajewska, 1994
in Table 9.5. In a recent Slovenian study (Sušin et al., 2006), nitrate and nitrite contents were
generally low: less than 6 mg/kg of nitrate was found in grapes, peaches, apples and pears. The
highest average nitrate content, 94 mg/kg, was found in strawberries. In apples and pears, the
average nitrite contents were 1.5 and 1.0 mg/kg, respectively. The content of nitrites did not
exceed 0.5 mg/kg in other fruits. Nabrzyski and Gajewska (1994) determined concentrations
of nitrates and nitrites in Polish fruit and berries during 1989–1992. The highest levels of
nitrates were detected also in strawberry samples (maximum to 322 mg KNO3 /kg), mean level
was found to be 59 mg KNO3 /kg. Other berries, such as currants, gooseberries, raspberries
and cherries contained from ‘not detected’ to 36 mg KNO3 /kg. Very low level of nitrates was
found in seven species of apples (from 1.3 to 9.7 mg KNO3 /kg). The concentration of nitrites
in all samples remained from ‘not detected’ to fractions of mg/kg (Nabrzyski and Gajewska,
1994). The results are in good agreement with the earlier work by Gajewska et al. (1989)
who reported that content of nitrates in frozen fruits (strawberries, black and red currants
and plums) ranged from 2.5 to 57 mg KNO3 /kg, with the highest concentrations detected
in garden strawberries. In cherry, strawberry, black and red currant jams, the concentrations
were detected from 6.3 to 97 mg KNO3 /kg. The nitrite content in all these products was low,
not exceeding 1 mg NaNO2 /kg, with the exception of plum jam where the maximal value of
1.6 mg NaNO2 /kg was found. The ranges of nitrate and nitrite concentrations in fruit juices
have been reported to be 9.7–21 mg/L and 3.1–9.7 mg/L, respectively (Okafor and Ogbonna,
2003).
9.3.3 Milk and dairy products

Increased nitrate concentrations in milk are not only dangerous to human health as milk is
used for production of baby and infant food, but may also cause many technological problems
in milk processing (Baranova et al., 1993). Contamination of milk with nitrate may occur
during and/or after secretion. Because of a very low carry-over rate of nitrate from forage
to milk, the main route of contamination is post-secretory. Contamination of milk and dairy
Table 9.6 Nitrate and nitrite contents in milk and dairy products.
Mean NO3− Mean NO2−

concentration concentration
Product (mg/kg) (mg/kg) Reference
Milk 4.8 – Wright and Davison, 1964

Milk 8 – Statens Leventsmiddelinstitut, 1981
Milk 5.3 – Ysart et al., 1999
Milk 0.31 0.006 Luf and Brandl, 1986
Milk 1.4 – Belitz and Grosch, 1999
Dairy products 27 – Ysart et al., 1999
Soft cheese 1.5 0.17 Luf and Brandl, 1986
Edam cheeses 7.5 0.4 MAFF, 1987
Cheese – 0.3 Belitz and Grosch, 1999
Cheese 16 0.9 Penttilä, 1995
Cheese 4 0.5 Nikolas et al., 1997
Cottage cheese 12.1 0.008 Luf and Brandl, 1986
English-type cheeses 2.8 0.4 MAFF, 1987
Danish cheeses 10 0.2 Statens Leventsmiddelinstitut, 1981
Milk powder 5.4 0.011 Luf and Brandl, 1986
Yoghurt 0.72 0.002 Luf and Brandl, 1986
products with nitrites during and/or after secretion is lower compared with nitrates (Blüthgen
et al., 1997). Residues of nitric acid used as a cleaning reagent combined with inadequate
rinsing, addition of water with high nitrate content or the use of nitrate as a food additive in
cheese manufacturing are the reasons for increased nitrate contents in dairy products (Luf,
2002).
The investigation of Kammerer et al. (1989) showed that drinking water has no significant
effect on milk nitrate content, which remains very low and does not constitute a health risk
to consumers. A study of transport of nitrates and nitrites into the milk of dairy cows through
the digestive system (Baranova et al., 1993) showed that following the per oral application of
KNO3 to dairy cows, a marked increase in nitrate content in milk appeared being dependent
on applied KNO3 . Increased levels of residual nitrate in milk were found also after 38 hours of
KNO3 administration. In a study by Bouchard et al. (1999), the effect of endotoxin-induced
mastitis leading to increased nitrite and nitrate concentrations in milk was reported. Results
of Bouchard et al. (1999) suggest that nitric oxide production during endotoxin-induced
mastitis resulted from the activity of the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase.
The nitrate/nitrite content in milk and dairy products is generally lower than in other foods
such as vegetables, cured meat and drinking water. Nitrate and nitrite contents in milk and
dairy products are presented in Table 9.6.
The content of nitrates and nitrites was determined in raw milk in a study by Przybylowski
et al. (1989). The results of this investigation showed that most samples contained nitrates
in amounts not exceeding 2 mg/kg, while nitrites were present in trace amounts or were not
detected at all. Studies in Denmark estimated average nitrate concentration of 8 mg/L in
milk. Danish cheeses contain comparable levels of nitrate and nitrite, approximately 10 and
0.2 mg/kg, respectively, whether or not nitrate had been used in processing (Statens Lev-
entsmiddelinstitut, 1981). According to the data of Estonian Health Protection Inspectorate
in 2004, the nitrate content of different Estonian cheeses on retail sale was within the range
<7–49 mg/kg and nitrite content in all samples remained below 5 mg/kg. Edam cheeses on
retail sale in the UK in 1980–1981 had nitrite contents within the range of 3.1–20 mg/kg
whilst 15 samples of each of three English-type cheeses (Cheddar, Cheshire and Leicester)
were relatively low in nitrate levels, 1.0–6.1 mg/kg (MAFF, 1987).
A survey of nitrates and nitrites in French dairy products was carried out by Amariglio and
Imbert (1980). It was shown that 93% of dried milk samples contained nitrates at less than
30 mg/kg, and 82% of cheese samples at less than 5 mg/kg. The nitrate/nitrite content in milk
and dairy products from Austrian dairies was determined in 1986. The mean value of nitrate
and nitrite content in pasteurized milk was 0.31 and 0.006 mg/kg, respectively. In fresh cheese,
the mean nitrate and nitrite concentrations were 4.58 and 0.013 mg/kg, respectively (Luf,
2002). In Greece where the use of nitrates in cheese production is prohibited, contamination
of cheese products was related to using of nitrate containing fertilizers, animal feeds and
drinking water at primary production level (Nikolas et al., 1997).
The contribution of milk and dairy products to overall nitrate/nitrite ingestion is very low
(Blüthgen et al., 1997). In Austria an intake from milk and dairy products was estimated to
be 0.096% of ADI for nitrate and 0.069% of ADI for nitrite (Luf, 2002).
9.3.4 Cereals and bread

Only few data are available on the content of nitrate and nitrite in cereals, bread, flour
and various bakery products. This is probably related to the fact that the nitrate and nitrite
contents in cereals and various bakery products are generally low. Early studies by Wu and
McDonald (1976) reported that nitrate content in grains to be far lower than in stems or leaves
of the plants. The nitrate content of winter wheat seeds depends on growth conditions and
varies in the range of 0.4–11 mg/kg (McNamara et al., 1971). Wu and McDonald (1976)
reported that the nitrate concentration in white flour was 4–14 mg/kg. The data by Nabrzyski
et al. (1990) showed that the content of nitrates in various bakery products varied from
0.96 in wheat rolls and baguettes to 44 mg KNO3 /kg in pumpernickel bread. The mean
content of nitrites in bread varieties was 1.8 mg NaNO2 /kg. The same study reported that in
white wheat flours the content of nitrates stayed in the range of 1.1–19 mg KNO3 /kg, and
in the dishes produced from them under household conditions ranged from 0.5 to 16 mg
KNO3 /kg. The content of nitrites in flour was found to be from ‘not detected’ (ND) to
4.2 mg NaNO2 /kg, and in corresponding bakery products from ND to 1.6 mg NaNO2 /kg.
Eleven types of popular biscuits, wafers, gingerbread and hard cakes were tested in which the
content of nitrates was found to be 3.7–17 KNO3 mg/kg, and that of nitrites from ND to 8.8 mg
NaNO2 /kg (Nabrzyski et al., 1990). Belitz and Grosch (1999) reported the nitrate and nitrite
contents in cereals within the range of 0.3–19 and 0.3–1.0 mg/kg, respectively. Ysart et al.
(1999) detected the nitrate concentrations in bread and miscellaneous cereals in the range of
<4–20 mg/kg.
9.3.5 Fresh meat

Mostly the levels of naturally occurring nitrate determined in meat are low and only few data
are reported regarding the nitrate and nitrite contents in fresh meat and fresh meat products.
This chapter does not deal with cured meat products, to which nitrite and/or nitrate are
added as food additives. Wright and Davison (1964) reported nitrate content of 0.9 mg/kg
in fresh meat. Usher and Telling (1975) concluded in a series of studies that the nitrate
concentration in fresh meat ranged from ND to 49 mg/kg. Ysart et al. (1999) reported the
nitrate concentration in carcass meat and offal as a mean of 5.1 and 5.3 mg/kg, respectively.
Dry-cured hams treated only with sodium chloride and sugar contained nitrite 5 mg/kg in
average (Kemp et al., 1975). Fresh meat products may contain <2.7–9.5 mg NO− 3 /kg and
<0.2–1.7 mg NO− 2 /kg (ECETOC, 1988).
9.3.6 Drinking water

Drinking water is regarded to be the second-largest source of nitrate in the diet after vegetables
(Belitz and Grosch, 1999; Fytianos and Zarogiannis, 1999; Knobeloch et al., 2000; Caballero
Mesa and Rubio Armendáriz, 2003). According to the results of several studies, 20% of the
total nitrate intake comes from the consumption of drinking water (White, 1983). Nitrate
and nitrite can occur in drinking water mainly as a result of intensive agricultural activities.
Contamination of soil with nitrogen-containing fertilizers, including anhydrous ammonia as
well as animal or human natural organic wastes can raise the concentration of nitrate in water.
Nitrate-containing compounds present in the soil are generally soluble and readily migrate
into groundwater. As nitrite is easily oxidized to nitrate, nitrite levels in water are usually low,
and nitrate is the compound predominantly found in groundwater and surface waters. Water in
highly polluted wells may also contain nitrites at elevated levels. To guarantee drinking water
safety, maximum allowable concentrations have been established for nitrate and nitrite, being
50 and 0.5 mg/L, respectively (EC, 1998). Contamination of drinking water with nitrates is a
global problem. Studies have showed that in China, Botswana, Turkey, Senegal and Mexico,
private well water nitrate levels exceeded the WHO guideline value of 50 mg/L, in some
cases the levels of nitrate–nitrogen were over 68 mg/L (WHO, 2004). At the same time, all
bottled water samples complied with legislative requirements, being therefore usable for the
preparation of infant foods. The problem of high nitrates in water can be solved by using
artesian wells as a substitute for draw wells as in artesian wells the water is taken from deep
water layers in which the contamination is generally low.
A Finnish study in 1984 reported that only 0.3% of analysed samples exceeded nitrate
levels of 30 mg/L (Lahermo, 2000). In Denmark and in Great Britain the reported concen-
trations of nitrates in drinking water were 13 and 14 mg/L, respectively (Kampmann, 1983;
Kinght et al., 1987).
Short-term exposure to drinking water with a nitrate level at or just above the health
standard of 10 mg/L nitrate–nitrogen is a potential health problem primarily for infants.
Infants and small children consume large quantities of water relative to their body weight,
especially if water is used to mix powdered or concentrated milk formulae or juices. Also,
the immature digestive system of infants is more vulnerable to the reduction of nitrate to
nitrite (Spalding and Exner, 1993). During many years, studies in different countries have
reported thousands of cases of children with nitrate–nitric methaemoglobinemia and more
than hundred children have died (Hayes, 2001). Mild toxicoses were reported when the nitrate
concentration was 80–100 mg/L in water used for infant food preparation.
Nitrate can be removed from drinking water by three methods: distillation, reverse osmosis
and ion exchange. Heating or boiling is not applicable for reducing nitrate contents, and the
concentration of nitrate in water even increases during boiling due to evaporation of 15–25%
of water. Mechanical filters or chemical disinfections do not remove nitrate from water. The
distillation process involves heating the water to boiling temperature and following collecting
and condensing the steam by means of a metal coil. Nearly 100% of the nitrate–nitrogen can be
removed in this process. In the reverse osmosis process, pressure is applied to water to force
it through a semi-permeable membrane. The membrane filters out most of the impurities
as the water passes through. It is known that 85–95% of the nitrate can be removed with
reverse osmosis. Actual removal rates may vary, depending on the initial quality of the water,
the system pressure and water temperature. For the nitrate removal process, special anion
exchange resins are used that exchange chloride ions for nitrate and sulfate ions in the water
as it passes through the resin. Since most anion exchange resins have a higher selectivity for
sulfate than nitrate, the level of sulfate in the water is an important factor in the efficiency of
an ion exchange system for removing nitrates (Jasa et al., 2006).
9.4 TOXICITY OF NITRATE AND NITRITE

The health aspects can be divided into acute toxicity and the effects of chronic exposure.
The nitrate ion has a low level of acute toxicity, but when transformed into nitrite in food
or human organism, it may constitute a health problem. The reduction of nitrate to nitrite
may take place in the presence of bacteria or enzyme nitrate reductase, and in contact with
metals. Nitrite is unstable at acidic pH values at which it can disproportionate into nitrate
and nitrogen oxide or react with food components including amines, phenols and thiols (Hill,
1996). It has been estimated that 5–8% of the nitrate from the diet may be reduced to nitrite by
the microflora in the oral cavity (Mensinga et al., 2003). It has only recently been discovered
that nitrate is manufactured endogenously in mammals by the oxidation of nitric oxide and
that the nitrate formed has the potential for disinfecting the food we eat (Benjamin, 2000;
Archer, 2002).
Nitrite has higher acute toxicity than nitrate. As an unstable ion it undergoes series of
reactions when added to food. In an acidic environment, nitrite is converted into nitrous
acid, which decomposes to nitric oxide. Nitric oxide, being an important product from the
standpoint of colour fixation in cured meat, reacts with myoglobin to produce a red pigment –
nitrosomyoglobin. The intake of nitrite is normally low compared to the dose that is acutely
toxic, but nitrite in food is considered primarily causing health problems because its presence
both in food and in the body may lead to the formation of carcinogenic nitrosoamines (JECFA,
1996; Vermeer et al., 1998) and the clinical symptom of methemoglobinemia (WHO, 1995;
Sanchez-Echaniz and Benito-Fernández, 2001).
The principal mechanism of nitrite acute toxicity is the oxidation of ferrous II ion (Fe2+ )
in oxyhaemoglobin (Hb) to ferric III ion (Fe3+ ) to produce methaemoglobin (Met-Hb).
Methaemoglobin is unable to reversibly bind and transport oxygen. Over 10% Met-Hb of the
total Hb causes cyanosis – the lips and skin become bluish-grey and the blood is chocolate
brown in colour. The generally accepted lethal level of Met-Hb is 60% of the total Hb. Infants
fed on infant formula, which is mixed with high-nitrate well water are particularly susceptible
to methaemoglobinemia because of their high fluid intake per kg of body weight. In infant
organism the upper gastrointestinal tract is heavily colonized by bacteria able to reduce
nitrate to nitrite due to the lack of gastric acidity (Hill, 1996). Consumption of vegetables
containing high level of nitrates and incorrect storage of homemade vegetable purees have
also been found to be potential causes of infant methaemoglobinemia (Sanchez-Echaniz and
Benito-Fernández, 2001).
N -nitroso compounds have been shown to be carcinogenic to multiple organs in several
animal species, including higher primates (Eichholzer and Gutzwiller, 2003). Although car-
cinogenicity of N -nitrosoamines in humans cannot be tested, epidemiological studies have
suggested a possible link to the incidence of various cancers in humans (Knekt et al., 1999;
Pegg and Shahidi, 2000). On the basis of the available data, a relationship between dietary
N -nitroso compounds, nitrite and nitrate cannot be concluded or excluded. It is possible that
other factors such as intake of vegetables, fruit and nitrosation inhibitors, or some other con-
stituent of cured meat and salted fish could partly be responsible for the observed associations
(Eichholzer and Gutzwiller, 2003).
The European Commission’s Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) considered the possible
influence of nitrate and nitrite on human health and set acceptable daily intake (ADI) values
for nitrate and nitrite in 1990. The ADIs were reviewed in 1995, which resulted in present
value for nitrate of 0–3.7 mg nitrate per kg of body weight and for nitrite 0–0.06 mg nitrite per
kg of body weight established in 1995 (EU Scientific Committee for Food, 1995).
9.5 DIETARY EXPOSURE

Many assessments of nitrate and nitrite intakes have been reported in the literature, but most
of them are difficult to interpret or compare, as all details of how they were conducted are not
available. Ideally, all sources of nitrate and nitrite should be included in an intake assessment;
however, in many cases only food and drinking water, known to be the major contributors to
the overall exposure, have been included.
Dietary exposure to nitrate is very variable between individuals, regions and countries.
The intakes of nitrate and nitrite from food were calculated at a global level on the basis of
mean food consumption data and the mean concentrations in foods by WHO (2003). Intake
from drinking water was added to the exposure obtained from food.
The estimated intakes of nitrate and nitrite from sources other than food additives are below
their respective ADIs. The intakes of nitrates range from 70% of the ADI for the European
diet and between 10 and 25% for other diets. The nitrite intakes represented 50% of the ADI
for the Middle Eastern and Far Eastern diets and 40% of the ADI for the African, Latin
American and European diets. Vegetables, including potatoes, were the main contributors
to nitrate intake, accounting for 30–90% of total estimated value. Drinking water was the
second highest contributor to the exposure of nitrates making up 5–40% of the intake (WHO,
2003).
The data for nitrate exposure calculated by WHO are in good agreement with the works
by other authors. The mean total intake of nitrate per person estimated by different authors
in Europe ranges between 50 and 140 mg/day and in the USA about 40–100 mg/day (Ysart
et al., 1999; Mensinga et al., 2003). According to British intake estimations dietary exposure
to nitrates for 1997 was 52 mg/day compared with 68 mg/day in 1994. The decrease can be
partly explained by lower nitrate concentrations in green vegetables (Harrison, 2005). The
estimated intakes of nitrate show that vegetables are the major contributors to total dietary
intake, followed by water.
Several authors have tried to estimate nitrate intake by children, as infants are more
susceptible to health implications possibly caused by nitrites and nitrates. The daily nitrate
intake by Finnish adolescents and children was 48 mg (Penttilä, 1995). In a Polish study
(Wawrzyniak et al., 2003), nitrates intake for 1- to 6-years-old children exceeded ADI twice.
Nitrate intake by Estonian 1- to 6-years-old children was found to be 28 mg/day (46% of
ADI), the mean nitrate intake from infant food by children aged 6–12 months was 7.8 mg/day
(22% of ADI) (Tamme et al., 2006).
According to the WHO data (2003) the major contributors to nitrite intake are also sources
other than food additives, including cereals, beverages and water. Cereals were the main
contributor to nitrite intake, accounting for 35–60% of the estimated intake. Drinking water
was the second highest contributor to the estimated intakes of 20–40% of nitrite (WHO,
2003). The mean nitrite exposure for whole population in 1997 was 1.3 mg/day, as compared
with 1.7 mg/day in 1994 in UK (Harrison, 2005). Estimation of the impact of consumption of
meat products, including cured meat, to overall nitrite exposure varies a lot among different
authors. In the countries where consumption of cured meat is high, large part of nitrite intake
has been reported to come from nitrite as food additive. In Polish study meat products supplied
98% of dietary nitrites, nitrite intake being less than 88% of ADI for 1- to 6-years-old children
(Wawrzyniak et al., 1999; Wawrzyniak et al., 2003). According to Japanese studies (Murata
et al., 2001; Murata et al., 2002) meat products provided 98% of nitrite intake. A Finnish
study reported 5.3 mg/day for nitrite (150% of the ADI), and 95% of nitrite was derived
from meat products (Dich et al., 1996). Especially for children ADI can easily be exceeded
in result of frequent consumption of nitrite-treated sausages (Reinik et al., 2005).
The results of studies of the intake of nitrate and nitrite from all dietary sources showed
mean consumptions of both nitrate and nitrite below the ADIs, although some consumers at
high percentiles exceeded the ADI for both compounds (WHO, 2003).
9.6 REGULATIONS
In order to protect human health and taking into account the possible association of nitrates
and nitrites in food with the formation of carcinogenic N -nitrosoamines, the level of these
compounds should be reduced to as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA principle). At
present time, regulatory limits for nitrates in food have been established in the EU only for
spinach, lettuce and baby foods. The maximum level of nitrates in baby foods and processed
cereal-based baby foods for infants and young children should not exceed 200 mg/kg. The
content of nitrates in spinach is limited to 2000–3000 mg/kg, lettuce 2500–4500 mg/kg
and ‘iceberg’ type lettuce 2000–2500 mg/kg (European Commission, 2006). The regulatory
limit depends on the harvesting season and place of growth of the vegetables – highest
concentrations are permitted in plants grown in winter period and/or greenhouse conditions.
The nitrate content of drinking water is limited to 50 mg/L by the current regulatory
standard on the quality of water intended for human consumption 98/83/EEC (European
Commission, 1998). The EU standard is based on the World Health Organization’s guideline
value for drinking water, which is also 50 mg/L; limit value for nitrite is set to 0.5 mg/L.
Conclusions
Nitrate and nitrite can be found in food as naturally occurring compounds, vegetables and
drinking water being substantial sources of nitrate intake. They are also used as food additives
in the processing of meat products due to their ability to inhibit the growth of Clostridium
species and to give meat characteristic pink colour, texture and flavour. Although the per-
mitted levels of added nitrates and nitrites have been decreased during last years, the other
factors such as growing emissions or nitrogen oxides from fuel combustion, increased sewage
recycling and use of nitrate-based fertilizers have led to net increase in exposure to nitrate in
several countries.
When nitrate is transformed into nitrite in food or human organism, it may constitute a
health problem because the presence of nitrite both in food and in the body may lead to the
formation of carcinogenic nitrosoamines. Ingestion of high quantities of nitrates or nitrites
by babies may result in methaemoglobinemia.
Nitrate levels, present in vegetables naturally via the nitrogen cycle, are affected by fac-
tors such as plant species, climatic and light conditions, soil characteristics and fertilization
regime. The concentrations of nitrates in vegetables can vary enormously ranging from below
10 and up to 10 000 mg/kg. It has been estimated that vegetables constitute a major source of
human exposure to nitrates contributing up to 92% of the average daily intake. The naturally
occurring nitrate concentrations in other food commodities, such as milk and milk products,
cereal products, fresh meat and fruits are generally much lower. Drinking water may be an
essential source of nitrates for some consumers. Natural levels of nitrites in food are low,
usually remaining under the limit of detection. ADI values established for nitrates and nitrites
are not exceeded for the majority of consumers. Exceedings of ADI may occur more easily
among the risk groups – small children and vegetarians in the case of nitrates and people
consuming large quantities of products containing added nitrites.
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10 Acrylamide in Heated Foods

Vural Gökmen and Hamide Z. Şenyuva
Summary
Upon the discovery of acrylamide in foods, international authorities and experts concluded
that the presence of acrylamide was a major concern and additional research on mechanisms
of formation and toxicity was seriously needed. However, it is still not really known the
extent to which acrylamide consumption poses a health risk. Meanwhile, an earlier feeding
study in rats has demonstrated a relationship between acrylamide in animal foods and specific
haemoglobin adducts. Long-term exposure to acrylamide may cause damage to the nervous
system both in humans and animals to a certain extent, and acrylamide is also considered as
a potential genetic and reproductive toxin exhibiting mutagenic and carcinogenic properties
in experimental mammalians both in vitro and in vivo.
Numerous analytical methods for acrylamide in foods have been published based on either
GC or LC techniques coupled with MS, of which some produce satisfactory results for the
determination of acrylamide in difficult matrices. Development of a generic method for sam-
ple preparation (extraction and clean-up) for an accurate, precise and reliable determination
of acrylamide in all foods is nevertheless still challenging.
Although a favoured mechanism for the formation of acryamide is the Maillard reaction,
involving the condensation of the amino acid asparagine and a carbonyl source (e.g. sugars),
fundamental studies have very recently revealed new avenues, identifying acrylic acid as a
potential precursor of acrylamide in model systems.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Acrylamide is a white crystalline solid, is odourless and has high solubility in water (2155 g/L
water). It is a reactive chemical, which is used as a monomer starting material in the synthe-
sis of polyacrylamides used, e.g. in purification of water, and in the formulation of grouting
agents. Acrylamide is a known component in tobacco smoke. Acrylamide is primarily reac-
tive through its ethylenic double bond (Fig. 10.1) and polymerization of acrylamide occurs
through radical reactions with the double bond. Acrylamide can also react as an electrophile
by 1,4-addition to nucleophiles, e.g. SH- or NH2 -groups in biomolecules ((McCollister et al.,
1964; Croll and Simkins, 1972; Cutie and Kallos, 1986).
In April 2002, the Swedish National Food Administration and the University of Stockholm
jointly announced that certain foods, which are processed/cooked at high temperatures, con-
tain relatively high amounts of acrylamide (Swedish National Food Administration, 2002),
following on an earlier rat feeding study that demonstrated a link of acrylamide in fried

Acrylamide in Heated Foods 255
Fig. 10.1 Chemical structure of acrylamide.
animal food to specific haemoglobin adducts (Tareke et al., 2000). Exposure to acrylamide
causes damage to the nervous system in humans and animals (Tilson, 1981; Lopachin and
Lehning, 1994) and acrylamide is also considered a reproductive toxin (Dearfield et al., 1988;
Costa et al., 1992), with mutagenic and carcinogenic properties in experimental mammalian
in vitro and in vivo systems (Dearfield et al., 1995). Acrylamide is classified as a probable
human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, 1994).
Because flocculants made from acrylamide are sometimes used in the treatment of drink-
ing water, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the World Health Organization
(WHO) require water suppliers to limit acrylamide to 0.5 μg/L or less. The European Union
(EU) guideline for acrylamide in drinking water is 0.1 μg/L. Although the potential health risk
of acrylamide in food has been considered by a number of government agencies and national
authorities, no maximum permitted concentration has yet been established for acrylamide in
processed foods.
10.2 MECHANISM OF FORMATION IN FOODS

10.2.1 Mechanistic pathways
A number of theoretical mechanisms have been proposed for the formation of acrylamide
in heated foods. The major mechanistic pathway for the formation of acrylamide in foods
so far established is via the Maillard reaction (Becalski et al., 2002; Mottram et al., 2002;
Sanders et al., 2002; Stadler et al., 2002, 2004). Studies to date clearly show that the amino acid
asparagine is mainly responsible for acrylamide formation in cooked foods after condensation
with reducing sugars or a carbonyl source (Fig. 10.2). Moreover, the sugar-asparagine adduct,
N -glycosylasparagine, generates high amounts of acrylamide, suggesting the early Maillard
reaction as a major source of acrylamide (Stadler et al., 2002). In addition, decarboxylated
asparagine (3-aminopropionamide), when heated, can generate acrylamide in the absence
of reducing sugars (Zyzak et al., 2003). A recent study revealed that, besides acrylamide,
3-aminopropionamide, which may be a transient intermediate in acrylamide formation, was
also formed during heating when asparagine was reacted in the presence of glucose (Granvogl
and Scieberle, 2006).
Other possible routes involve the Strecker reaction of asparagine with the Strecker aldehyde
as the direct intermediate (Mottram et al., 2002), or a mechanism via acrylic acid (Gertz
and Klostermann, 2002; Lingnert et al., 2002; Becalski et al., 2003; Stadler, 2003). The
oxidation and/or thermal degradation of lipids in fried foods have been discussed as a possible
mechanistic route contributing to acrylamide formation of via an acrylic acid intermediate
(Yasuhara et al., 2003).
Good evidence supporting the early Maillard reaction as the main reaction pathway in-
volving early decarboxylation of the Schiff base, rearrangement to the resulting Amadori
product, and subsequent β-elimination to release acrylamide has been presented (Yaylayan
et al., 2003).
NH2 COOH
O NH2
Asparagine (MW 132)
R
O
O
Glucose (MW 180)
NH2 COOH OH
R
O N
H OH
N-Glycosyl conjugate
H2O
NH2 COOH
R
O N
H O
Schiff base (MW 294)
CO2
NH2 NH2
R R
O N O N
H O H O
Decarboxylated Schiff base
NH2
O
Acrylamide (MW 71)
Fig. 10.2 Formation of acrylamide during the pyrolysis of asparagine with glucose. (Adapted from
Gökmen, V. and ¸Senyuva, H.Z. Effects of some cations on the formation of acrylamide and furfurals in
glucose–asparagine model system. European Food Research and Technology, 225, 815–820. Copyright
2007b with kind permission from Springer Science and Business Media.)
10.2.2 Formation in foods during thermal processing

The resulting acrylamide concentration in foods ultimately depends on the concentrations
of the precursors (asparagine and reducing sugars), as well as the processing conditions.
However, other factors such pH and water activity have been shown to influence the levels
of acrylamide in heated foods (Friedman, 2003). Concerning reducing sugars, fructose has
been found more effective than glucose in forming acrylamide during heating. However,
both the chemical reactivity of the sugars and their physical state play an important role
in acrylamide formation. The melting points of fructose and glucose are 126 and 157◦ C,
respectively (Robert et al., 2004). This explains why fructose is more reactive than glucose
on acrylamide formation during thermal processing. Concerning frying and baking processes,
they are characterized as open processes in which heat and mass transfer occur simultaneously.
This influences the physical states of reaction precursors, especially sugars. As the moisture
reduces due to evaporation, sugars initially dissolved in water begin to form a saturated
solution and then crystallize. After crystallization, melting is required to change their state
to liquid, so to make them chemically reactive. In this respect, reducing sugar having a lower
melting point is expected to form acrylamide earlier during heating.
The influence of temperature on acrylamide formation has been repeatedly demonstrated
(Mottram et al., 2002; Tareke et al., 2002; Becalski et al., 2003; Biedermann and Grob,
2003; Rydberg et al., 2003). In general, the rate of acrylamide formation increases as the
temperature increases, but the rate of its elimination also increases (Gökmen and Şenyuva,
2006a). For shorter heating times as in the frying operation of potato chips or strips, lowering
the frying temperature may significantly reduce the amount of acrylamide formed. The same
may not be true for longer heating periods as in the roasting of coffee beans where extending
the operation may result in a decrease in the amount of acrylamide persisted in the final
product.
The fact that acrylamide is not formed during boiling indicates that higher temperatures
and/or low moisture conditions are needed for its formation. During heating under atmo-
spheric conditions, higher temperatures can be reached only if simultaneous drying takes
place, which is the case in frying, baking and roasting. Temperature and time have been
shown to be significant factors affecting the amount of acrylamide formed in potatoes during
frying (Matthäus et al., 2004; Pedreschi, et al., 2005; Gökmen et al., 2006a,b,c, 2007).
The widespread presence of acrylamide has been largely reported in fried, baked and
roasted foods. Thermally processed foods based on potato, cereals and coffee are known
to contain acrylamide in a range between a few micrograms to milligrams per kilogram. In
addition to the parameters related to the composition, the conditions of thermal processing
are important on acrylamide formation in a particular food. Therefore, understanding the
effects of frying, baking and roasting in depth is crucial to optimize the conditions of thermal
processing for minimal formation.
10.2.2.1 Frying of potatoes

Fried potatoes are in the food category with probably the highest concentrations of acrylamide
recorded so far (Friedman, 2003), and the category for which the most work has been done
to control or reduce levels of acrylamide. Experimental trials that have been conducted on
acrylamide in potatoes have shown that the major determinants of acrylamide formation
are reducing sugars, as well as the free asparagine. The glucose content has a positive and
significant effect on acrylamide formation in the finished product (Biedermann et al., 2002a;
80 160
140
60 120
100
Acrylamide (ng/g)
40 80
60
20 40
20
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Frying time (s)
Acrylamide in surface Acrylamide in core
Core temperature Surface temperature Oil temperature
Fig. 10.3 Surface and core temperature profiles with corresponding acrylamide concentrations of French
fries during frying at 150◦ C. (Reprinted from Gökmen, V., Palazo˘glu, T.K., ¸Senyuva, H.Z. Relation between
the acrylamide formation and time–temperature history of surface and core regions of French fries. Journal
of Food Engineering, 77, 972–976. Copyright 2006a with permission from Elsevier.)
Becalski et al., 2003; Haase et al., 2003). The content of sugar in the raw potato shows a
strong correlation with the amount of acrylamide formed upon heating (Biedermann et al.,
2002b; Gökmen et al., 2007).
Widely varying concentrations of asparagine, glucose, fructose and sucrose have been
found in potatoes (Amrein et al., 2003). This variability may be one important explanation
for the difference in the amounts of acrylamide that may be formed in the products during
processing. The frying conditions in terms of temperature and time are also considered as
important determinants of acrylamide formation.
Temperature measurements during frying have indicated that the surface temperature of a
strip of potato does not exceed 120◦ C during 9 minutes of frying at 150◦ C (Fig. 10.3). Even
though this is the case, the fact that some acrylamide still forms suggests that the temperature
need be no higher than 120◦ C for acrylamide to form (Gökmen et al., 2006a).
During frying at any temperature, all the heat transferred from the hot oil is utilized to
increase the internal energy of the strip until the surface reaches slightly above the boiling
point of water (103–104◦ C). After this point, moisture evaporation starts extracting a large
amount of the incoming energy. When the frying oil temperature is 150◦ C, the energy input to
the potato strip is limited. This prevents the surface temperature from reaching temperatures
1500 90
80
1200
70
60
Acrylamide (ng/g)
Moisture (%)
900
50
40
600
30
20
300
10
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Frying time (s)
o o o
Acrylamide 150 C Acrylamide 170 C Acrylamide 190 C
Moisture 150oC Moisture 170oC Moisture 190oC
Fig. 10.4 Change of moisture and acrylamide contents of French fries during frying at 150, 170 and
190◦ C. (Reprinted from Gökmen, V., Palazo˘glu, T.K. and ¸Senyuva, H.Z. Relation between the acrylamide
formation and time–temperature history of surface and core regions of French fries. Journal of Food Engi-
neering, 77, 972–976. Copyright 2006a with permission from Elsevier.)
above 120◦ C within 9 minutes. However, when the oil temperature is high enough (170◦ C),
the energy input is sufficient for both moisture evaporation and temperature increase to take
place in the same duration, which favours the formation of acrylamide (Fig. 10.4).
Moisture evaporation is an important barrier to internal energy increase, suggesting that
acrylamide reduction methods that involve pre-drying may actually result in increased acry-
lamide contents. Frying rapidly forms a crust, enveloping the potato strip like a skin. The
formation of acrylamide takes place mainly at the surface and in the near-surface regions,
because during the process of frying, the conditions in this part of the potato strip become
favourable for acrylamide formation as a result of simultaneous drying. As a consequence,
any treatment like washing of the cut-surface of potato strips may decrease concentrations
of precursors on the surface where the chemical reactions responsible for the acrylamide
formation take place.
In addition to other factors such as colour or sensory impression, the moisture remaining
in the product characterizes the quality and taste of fried potatoes. According to the industry,
residual moisture for an ideal product should be in a range between 38 and 45% (Matthäus
et al., 2004).
Recent studies using stable isotope labelled compounds have been conducted on the elim-
ination of acrylamide in potatoes, showing that acrylamide declines fairly rapidly within the
15.0
1.0
Normalized acrylamide (C/Cmax) 12.0

0.8 Normalized acrylamide (C/Cmax)
CIE redness (a*)

CIE redness (a*) 9.0
0.6
6.0
0.4
3.0
0.2 0.0
0.0 −3.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Frying time (min)
t (min) 0 1 3 5 8 10 15 30 45 60
Fig. 10.5 Change of acrylamide concentration and CIE redness parameter a* in potato chips during
frying at 170◦ C. For a color version of this figure, please see Plate 2 of the color plate section that falls
between pages 224 and 225. (Reprinted from Gökmen, V., ¸Senyuva, H.Z., Dülek, B. and Çetin, A.E.
Computer vision-based image analysis for the estimation of acrylamide concentrations of potato chips and
french fries. Food Chemistry, 101, 791–798. Copyright 2006b with permission from Elsevier.)
first 10–15 minutes at temperatures of approximately 120◦ C (Biedermann et al., 2002a). It

has been further confirmed that acrylamide concentration of potato chips tended to decrease
after reaching to an apparent maximum within 10 minutes of frying at 170◦ C (Gökmen et al.,
2006a).
There are characteristic colour transitions observed in potato chips during frying
(Fig. 10.5). The CIE a∗ which is the indication of redness has been shown to be correlated
with acrylamide level for early frying times only (Gökmen et al., 2006b).
10.2.2.2 Baking of cereals

Breakfast cereals are made by a variety of distinct processes that yield many forms of flake,
puffs, extrudates and biscuit-like pieces. Common to all of the processes is that grains are
cooked in water, in most cases, with added sugars to a mass that can be formed into individual
cereal pieces. The individual cereal pieces are then dried in air, generally in some form of
oven that develops toasted flavours. The Maillard reaction develops flavours and colour in
both the cooking and the toasting steps of the process, but acrylamide is formed in the toasting
step (Taeymans et al., 2004).
In certain bakery products acrylamide contents up to 1000 mg/kg have been observed
(Croft et al., 2004). The highest contents have been found in products prepared with the
baking agent ammonium hydrogen carbonate such as gingerbread products (Konings et al.,
2003; Amrein et al., 2004). Model experiments showed that ammonium hydrogen carbon-
ate strongly promotes acrylamide formation in sweet bakery (Biedermann and Grob, 2003;
Weisshaar, 2004). Replacing this baking agent by sodium hydrogen carbonate presents a
very effective way to limit the acrylamide content of bakery goods (Amrein et al., 2004; Vass
et al., 2004). Besides the baking agent, the content of reducing sugars and free asparagine as
well as the process conditions influence the acrylamide formation in bakery goods (Springer
et al., 2003; Amrein et al., 2004; Surdyk et al., 2004; Vass et al., 2004).
Some reports in the literature would lead one to expect little or no acrylamide to form at the
low temperature at the centre of the biscuit where the temperature does not exceed 120◦ C due
to evaporative cooling. However, it has been shown that acrylamide is present in both zones
of the biscuit, but apparently lower amounts in the centre of biscuit (Taeymans et al., 2004).
Similar to biscuits, the crust and crumb of bread contain significantly different amounts of
acrylamide (Surdyk et al., 2004). The crust layers have been shown to contain up to 718
μg/kg of acrylamide while the crumb was free of acrylamide (Şenyuva and Gökmen, 2005a).
These results suggest that acrylamide formation in baked cereals mostly occurs by a surface
phenomenon. Even though the baking temperature is high enough to produce acrylamide in
the crust; the total baking time is not long enough to increase the centre temperature above
120◦ C at which point acrylamide begins to form.
When biscuits are toasted to a near burnt state, the acrylamide concentration is decreased
by up to 50%. Similar results have been shown for several other forms of cereal. Acrylamide
levels in biscuits are in contrast with those for the potato, but are consistent with the suggestion
made elsewhere that the acrylamide content results from a balance between formation and
elimination, with the latter being more rapid at higher temperature (Taeymans et al., 2004).
Ingredients play an important role in acrylamide formation, as different ingredients have
various amounts of free asparagine and reducing sugar precursors. Sugars seem to be the
most important ingredient in the dough formula from the viewpoint of acrylamide formation,
because the free asparagine level of wheat flour is relatively low. Noti et al. (2003) reported
levels of 150–400 mg/kg of asparagine in 10 samples of wheat flour. Surdyk et al. (2004)
measured asparagine levels of 170 mg/kg in white wheat flour.
Empirical reformulation trials have been carried out on commercial products to investigate
which ingredients may influence acrylamide formation. The addition of whole wheat flour and
bran to biscuit formulas tended to increase acrylamide compared with their plain counterparts.
Reducing the amount of the raising agent, ammonium bicarbonate, in formulas lowered
acrylamide in plain flour matrices. The addition of lactic acid also lowered acrylamide content
in plain flour matrices (Taeymans et al., 2004).
Baking temperature and time are closely related with acrylamide formation in the baking
process. There is no acrylamide present in uncooked dough, but the acrylamide level rises
with time. In cookies containing sucrose, acrylamide concentrations showed a rapid increase
after an initial lower rate period, reaching to a plateau within a baking time of 15–20 minutes
at 180◦ C or higher temperatures. When sucrose was replaced with glucose or fructose, initial
lower rate period disappears and acrylamide concentration of cookies increases rapidly onset
of baking, attaining the plateau values earlier (Summa et al., 2006).
10.2.2.3 Roasting of coffee beans

Compared to the many other fried, roasted, and baked food products, roasted and ground
coffee has been reported to contain relatively low concentrations (<400 μg/kg) of acrylamide
(Friedman, 2003). Furthermore, the dietary contribution of coffee to the total acrylamide
intake varies (Konings et al., 2003; Svensson et al., 2003). In addition, more uncertainty has
350
150 C
300
200 C
Acrylamide (ng/g) 250 225 C
200
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Heating time (min)
Fig. 10.6 Change of acrylamide concentration in coffee during heating at 150, 200 and 225◦ C.
[Reprinted from ¸Senyuva, H.Z. and Gökmen, V. Study of acrylamide in coffee using an improved liquid
chromatography mass spectrometry method: Investigation of colour changes and acrylamide formation in
coffee during roasting. Food Additives and Contaminants, 22, 214–220. Copyright 2005b with permission
from Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals (http://www.informaworld.com).]
been linked to the analytical methods established so far for coffee, due to the complexity of
the matrix and difficulty to achieve reliable analytical data.
Similar to frying of potatoes, the amount of acrylamide measured in coffee increases
exponentially at the onset of roasting, reaching an apparent maximum, and then decreasing
rapidly as the rate of degradation exceeds the rate of formation (Taeymans et al., 2004;
Şenyuva and Gökmen, 2005b). However, this effect is more pronounced in coffee as illustrated
in Fig. 10.6, because the roasting temperatures of coffee beans are much higher than the
frying temperatures of potatoes. Thus, light roasted coffees may be expected to contain
relatively higher amounts of acrylamide than very dark roasted beans (Şenyuva and Gökmen,
2005b).
Prolonged heating has been repeatedly shown to reduce the amount of acrylamide in
several other systems (Stadler et al., 2002; Tareke et al., 2002; Becalski et al., 2003; Grob
et al., 2003; Rydberg et al., 2003; Yasuhara et al., 2003; Bråthen and Knutsen, 2005). This
clearly indicates that acrylamide reacts further and/or is eliminated through evaporation.
10.2.3 Kinetic modelling

An understanding of kinetics is of great importance to our ability to control acrylamide
formation, ideally over the range of temperatures involved in food processing. Acrylamide
formation in foods is under kinetic control, i.e., the amount which is measured in thermally
processed food depends on the conditions under which the food has been heated and the
time of heating. With respect to acrylamide, so far only limited data with kinetic analysis has
been reported in the literature (Claeys et al., 2005; Knol et al., 2005; Wedzicha et al., 2005;
Gökmen and Şenyuva, 2006a).
Kinetic models tend to be much simpler than mechanistic models because they describe the
rates of formation of substances in terms of the rate limiting processes. The kinetic approach
may be used to determine how the control points in acrylamide formation are affected by
Maillard products
Amino
acid k3
k1 k2 k4
Aldose Int 1 Int Acrylamide
amino asparagine
acid Amino k5
k6 acid
Ketose Product 1
Fig. 10.7 Kinetic model for the formation of acrylamide as a result of the reaction of asparagine with
key intermediates in the Maillard reaction. (Reprinted from Wedzicha, B.L., Mottram, D.S., Elmore, J.S.,
Koutsidis, G. and Dodson, A.T. Kinetic models as a route to control acrylamide formation in food. Advances
in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 561, 235–253. Copyright 2005 with kind permission from Springer
Science and Business Media.)
reaction conditions. Wedzicha et al. (2005) have proposed a multi-response kinetic model
taking into account the formation of acrylamide as a result of the reaction of asparagine with
key intermediates in the Maillard reaction (Fig. 10.7).
Based on the results reported in literature, formation and degradation of acrylamide occurs
at the same time during heating at elevated temperatures. The kinetics of acrylamide loss has
only been determined for the reactions which take place after long heating times, i.e. after all
the amino acids has been exhausted (Wedzicha et al., 2005).
It is possible to consider the concentration of acrylamide measured in food at any time
as a net result from two consecutive reactions at the temperature studied. Then the overall
reaction may be written in a more simplified form given below:
k1 k2
Carbonyl compound (A) + Asparagine (B) → Acrylamide (C) → Degradation product (D)
at which, the rate of acrylamide formation is expressed as
dCC
= k1 CAa CBb − k2 CCc (10.1)
dt
where t is time; CA ,CB ,CC are concentrations of carbonyl compound, asparagine, acrylamide,
and a,b,c are the rate orders with respect to carbonyl compound, asparagine, acrylamide,
respectively. The differential equation is solved to determine the apparent rate constants for
formation (k1 ) and degradation (k2 ) once the rate orders are known. Although there are many
reports of the levels of acrylamide formation in model systems composed of different ratios
of asparagine and sugars or in real food systems, these reports do not give useful information
for a satisfactory kinetic analysis.
Figure 10.8 depicts the typical kinetic pattern of acrylamide formation in a fructose–
asparagine model system at 150◦ C. It has been shown that approximately 0.05 μ moles of
acrylamide forms in the reaction mixture composed of 5 μ moles of fructose and asparagine.
0.12
Acrylamide (μmoles) 0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min)
Fig. 10.8 Formation of acrylamide in fructose-asparagine model system during heating at 150◦ C.
The amounts of fructose:asparagine in μmoles are; –– 5 : 5 , –– 10 : 5 , –♦– 5 : 10. [Re-
produced from Gökmen, V. and ¸Senyuva, H.Z. A simplified approach for the kinetic characterization
of acrylamide formation in fructose-asparagine model system. Food Additives and Contaminants, 23,
348–354. Copyright 2006a with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
The amount of acrylamide doubles when the concentration of asparagine is doubled under
the same conditions.
The initial rate of acrylamide formation is also as important as it determines the maximum
amount of acrylamide attained during the reaction. To determine the initial rate, the overall
reaction may be considered to proceed as follows:
k1
Carbonyl compound (A) + Asparagine (B) → Acrylamide (C)
by neglecting the concurrent thermal degradation. For the experimental data shown in
Fig. 10.8, this approach reveals that the initial rate is approximately 0.0051 μmol/min, and
it increases to 0.0098 μmol/min by increasing fructose concentration from 5 to 10 μmoles.
However, increasing asparagine from 5 to 10 μmoles has no significant effect on the initial
rate (0.0053 μmol/min) while it significantly affects the maximum concentration of acry-
lamide formed in the reaction (Gökmen and Şenyuva, 2006a). These observations suggest
that acrylamide formation is first-order with respect to fructose (α = 1) and zero-order with
respect to asparagine (β = 0).
In order to obtain a solution for the differential equation (Equation (10.1)), which de-
scribes the kinetic constants involved in the reaction responsible for acrylamide formation
and degradation; it is necessary to know the rate order for the degradation of acrylamide. It
has been shown, by using deuterium labelled acrylamide, the degradation follows first-order
kinetic pattern (c = 1). So, the rate equation may be written as follows:
dCC
= k1 CA − k2 CC (10.2)
dt
0.12
0.10
Acrylamide (μmoles)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min)
Fig. 10.9 Formation of acrylamide during Maillard reaction in fructose–asparagine model system at
different temperatures (–– 120◦ C –– 140◦ C, –♦– 150◦ C, –– 160◦ C, –×– 170◦ C, – + – 180◦ C, –− ×–
200◦ C). [Reproduced from Gökmen, V. and ¸Senyuva, H.Z. A simplified approach for the kinetic character-
ization of acrylamide formation in fructose-asparagine model system. Food Additives and Contaminants,
23, 348–354. Copyright 2006a with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
where, k1 is the efficient apparent rate constant for acrylamide formation and expressed
simply as
k1 = k1 CB (10.3)
A convenient way for integrating the rate equation, which is a system of first-order ordinary
differential equation, is to use the Laplace transform.
CAo .k1
CC = [exp(−k1 t) − exp(−k2 t)] (10.4)
k2 − k1
Figure 10.9 shows kinetic patterns of acrylamide formation in a fructose–asparagine model

system in the temperature range between 120 and 200◦ C with model fit of experimental data.
The decline of the curves is most likely due to the polymerization. The simplified model
fits well to the experimental data giving useful estimations of apparent rate constants for
formation and concurrent degradation of acrylamide at different temperatures (Gökmen and
Şenyuva, 2006a)
The temperature plays a major role in the Maillard reaction. The temperature dependence of
acrylamide formation and degradation obeys the Arrhenius law. The activation energies have
been determined to be 52.1 and 72.9 kJ/mol for the formation and concurrent degradation of
acrylamide, respectively (Gökmen and Şenyuva, 2006a). Others reported activation energies
varying between 40.1 and 94.4 kJ/mol for steps involved in a reaction network (Knol et al.,
2005).
Considering the various possible formation mechanisms of acrylamide, it seems to be

an almost impossible task to elucidate the kinetics of all the pathways involved. Artificial
neural network (ANN) modelling, on the other hand, may be a viable alternative to the
kinetic models. While the use of phenomenological models requires a simultaneous solution
of a large number of non-linear algebraic equations that need long and exhaustive iterative
processes, the solution based on an ANN approach is simpler and quicker, and it consists of
a solution of a system of linear algebraic equations (Gonçalves et al., 2005).
ANNs are non-linear mathematical models that learn from the examples through iterations.
They are made of a large number of nodes or artificial neurons, which are disposed in a parallel
structure. Each ANN has one input layer containing one node for each independent variable,
one or more hidden layers, where the data are processed, and one output layer, containing
one node for each dependent variable. The data from the input layer are propagated through
the hidden layer and then to all the network, which are associated with a scalar weight.
Neurons in the hidden and output layers calculate their inputs by performing a weighted
summation of all the outputs they receive from the layer before. Their outputs, on the other
hand, are calculated by transforming their inputs using a non-linear transfer function. Then,
the network output is compared with the actual output provided by the user. The difference is
used by the optimization technique to train the network. Thus, the training process requires a
forward pass to calculate an output and a backward pass to update the weights in feed-forward
back-propagation networks (Bishop, 1994; Gonçalves et al., 2005).
A great advantage of ANN models is that, they do not require prior knowledge of the
relationship between the input and output variables, and instead of that, they figure out these
relationships through training. Therefore, complex processes can be optimized to produce the
desired outputs using successfully trained ANN models. In order to reduce acrylamide levels
in food, a systematic evaluation of potential strategies is required for processing conditions.
A successfully trained ANN model for the prediction of acrylamide concentration is thought
to give useful information for the optimization of thermal processes of foods (Serpen and
Gökmen, 2006).
An important use of a predictive model is to conduct ‘what if’ experiments, whereby
the response to an imposed change in reaction conditions (e.g. concentration, temperature,
time) can be determined without actually doing the experiment. For complicated reactions
like the Maillard reaction (Fig. 10.10), the main shortcoming of kinetic models is the use
of simplified reaction networks on the basis of several assumptions to derive the govern-
ing equations. Nevertheless, a pragmatic approach of ANN modelling that considers only
the input and output variables rather than the complex chemistry can already be sufficient
for obtaining information of direct applicability to food processing (Serpen and Gökmen,
2006).
Figure 10.11 shows an example of ANN model to predict acrylamide and browning
in potato chips during frying (Serpen and Gökmen, 2006). Obtaining experimental data,
which reflects the common variations in the input variables (glucose, asparagine, temperature
and time), is obtained by an appropriate design, the ANN model is built by training and
testing sequentially. A good correlation between the predicted and measured acrylamide
concentrations is usually obtained, but the correlation coefficient itself is not enough to
indicate the success of an ANN model. The model should also be capable of predicting
its output variables, i.e. the acrylamide concentration in a time-dependent manner. Using
successfully trained ANN model, it is also possible to observe the combined effects of various
input variables on acrylamide concentration of the resulting product (Serpen and Gökmen,
2006).
+ Aminocompound
+ H2O
Aldose Sugar N substituted glycosylamine
Amadori rearrangement
Amadori rearrangement product (ARP)
1-amino-1-deoxy-2-ketose
2H2O > pH 7 > pH 7 3H2 O ≤ pH7
Reductones Fission products Schiff’s base of

(acetol, diacetyl, hydroxymethylfurfural
(HMF) or furfural
2H +2H
+ H2O
Dehydroreductones
Amino
+ Amino compound
compound
CO 2
Strecker degradation
Aldehydes HMF or Furfural
Aldols and
+ Amino
N-free polymers compound
+Amino
compound
Aldimines and Ketimes
Melanoidins(brown nitrogenous polymers)
Fig. 10.10 The major steps in the Maillard reaction.
Glucose
(mg/kg) O
I Acrylamide U
Asparagine
N (mg/kg) (ng/g) T
P P
Browning
U Temperature ratio (%) U
T (°C ) T
S Frying time S
(min)
1 1 1
(Bias) (Bias) (Bias)
Fig. 10.11 Structure of an ANN model to predict acrylamide and browning in potato chips during frying
(Serpen and Gökmen, 2006).
Contrary to kinetic models, ANN modelling is more realistic since it depends only on
experimental observations without assumption. It seems to be a feasible approach for the
prediction of acrylamide concentrations in potato chips based on the parameters related to
both potato composition and frying conditions. The prediction capability of ANN models
offers an advantage for the optimization of processing conditions to minimize undesirable
changes in foods.

Detection of acrylamide levels in processed foods has been an intensive area of research
shortly after the discovery of acrylamide in heated foods by the Swedish researchers in
April 2002. Numerous methods have been developed in the past years to determine the
acrylamide, especially in water, biological fluids and uncooked foods (sugar, field crops,
mushrooms), and the majority are classical methods based on liquid chromatography (LC)
or gas chromatographic (GC) techniques (Tekel et al., 1989; Castle, 1993; Environmental
Protection Agency, 1996; Bologna et al., 1999). However, because of the complexity of food
matrices, these methods do not suffice for the analysis of acrylamide in heat-treated foods at
trace levels. Particularly, they lack selectivity and the additional degree of analyte certainty
required to confirm the presence of acrylamide in a complex food matrix.
Rosén and Hellenäs (2002) firstly reported the analysis of acrylamide in different heat-
treated foods using the isotope dilution LC-MS technique. They developed a mass spec-
trometry method for direct detection of acrylamide, which would unequivocally verify the
presence of acrylamide in a range of heat-treated foods. The choice of LC-MS was due to
the hydrophilic properties of acrylamide, and MS/MS was used for a high degree of verifi-
cation if several transitions could be found. Since the initial Swedish announcement, other
laboratories have worked intensively on the development of LC-MS-based methods to deter-
mine acrylamide in processed and cooked foods (Riediker and Stadler, 2003; Roach et al.,
2003; Wenzl et al., 2003; Zyzak et al., 2003). These methods are based mainly on MS as the
determinative technique for better identification of acrylamide in processed foods, coupled
with a chromatographic step either by LC (Ahn et al., 2002; Höfler et al., 2002; Nemoto
et al., 2002; Tareke et al., 2002; Becalski et al., 2003; Gutsche et al., 2002; Murkovic, 2004;
Şenyuva and Gökmen, 2005a; Gökmen and Şenyuva, 2006b) or GC, the latter either after
derivatization of the analyte (Gertz and Klostermann, 2002; Ono et al., 2003; Pittet et al.,
2003), or in a few cases analysis of the compound directly (Biedermann et al., 2002c; Tateo
and Bononi, 2003). The advantage of the LC-MS-based methods is that acrylamide can be
analysed without prior derivatization (e.g., bromination), which considerably simplifies the
analysis.
Hitherto, it can be summarized from recent methodological studies that GC-MS and
LC-MS or LC-MS/MS appeared to be acknowledged as the most useful and authoritative
method for acrylamide determination. A recent European inter-laboratory study conducted to
validate two analytical procedures (LC-MS and GC-MS) for the determination of acrylamide
in bakery and potato products has shown that an LC-MS-based method was undoubtedly
fit-for-purpose (Wenzl et al., 2006).
However, many of these methods do not perform well in difficult matrixes such as cocoa
and coffee. As previously highlighted by some researchers, the selected mass transitions
cannot always provide baseline separation in certain profiles during LC-MS/MS analysis. The
significant loss of the analyte throughout the sample preparation steps and ion-suppression
effects leading to a low response of acrylamide are common problems encountered after a
two-step extract clean-up (Andrzejewski et al., 2004).
The following sections mainly focus on the parameters for sample extraction and clean-up,
chromatographic separation and detection procedures for the determination of acrylamide in
heat-treated foods. The schematic representation of a generic method for the determination
of acrylamide in wide variety of thermally processed foods is given in Fig. 10.12.
(a) (b)
100
m/z 72
Peak area : 97 400
50 Peak area : 62 300
100
m/z 55
Peak area : 4480 Peak area : 5600
50
Relative response (%)
100
Peak area : 90 500
m/z 75 Peak area : 104 000
50
100
Peak area : 5100 m/z 58
Peak area : 6200
50
0
0 5 10 14 6.5 8 10 12 14
Retention time (min)
Fig. 10.12 LC-MS chromatograms of potato chips containing 1020 ng/g of acrylamide and 1000 ng/g
13 C -labelled acrylamide (a) no delay time (b) delay time is 6.5 minutes. Chromatographic conditions;
3
column: Inertsil ODS-3 (1), mobile phase: 0.01 mM acetic acid in 0.2% aqueous solution of formic
acid and 0.2% acetic acid in acetonitrile (98:2, v/v). (Reprinted from ¸Senyuva, H.Z. and Gökmen, V.
Interference-free determination of acrylamide in potato and cereal-based foods by a laboratory validated
liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry method. Food Chemistry, 97, 539–545. Copyright 2006 with
permission from Elsevier.)

An incomplete extraction or consequent loss of analyte during the removal of fat or the
evaporation of extracting solvent are most likely cause of erroneous results during the analysis
of acrylamide. A common approach for the extraction of acrylamide from foods entails
an extraction with water followed by sample clean-up with solid phase extraction (SPE)
prior to LC-MS analysis (Ahn et al., 2002; Rosén and Hellenäs, 2002; Tareke et al., 2002;
Becalski et al., 2003). Disintegration of the samples to small particles prior to extraction makes
additional homogenization, thus avoiding the need for vigorous mixing by Ultra Turrax to
increase the extraction yield (Petersson et al., 2006). Potato- and cereal-based food samples
are usually composed of high amounts of colloids (starch and proteins) and fat which should
be separated after the extraction with water. Some laboratories have included a defatting step
before or in combination with the extraction step. This has been carried out by extraction
with hexane, toluene or cyclohexane. However, it has been recently demonstrated that the
removal of fat by an organic solvent gives a negative effect on the extraction yield (Petersson
et al., 2006). This may be due to a loss of acrylamide during defatting. Another approach has
been the use of an accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) device (Cavalli et al., 2003; Höfler
et al., 2002). However, it has been shown by others that an extract free from the colloids and
fat can be obtained by Carrez clarification and cold centrifugation after extracting the sample
with acidified water (Şenyuva and Gökmen, 2005a, 2006).
A great diversity exists among the SPE clean-up procedures described in literature. One ap-
proach has been to combine Oasis HBL (Waters, Milford, MA, USA) and Bond Elut-Accucat
(mixed mode: C8, SAX and SCX) (Varian, Palo Alto, CA, USA) cartridges. Becalski et al.
(2003) used a combination of three different cartridges: Oasis MAX (mixed-mode anion ex-
change) (Waters), Oasis MCX (mixed-mode cation exchange) and ENVI-Carb (graphitized
carbon) (Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA). A similar combination of SPE cartridges consisting
of Bond Elut C18, Bond Elut Jr-PSA (anion exchange) and Bond Elut Accucat (all Var-
ian) were chosen for clean-up of samples, which were measured by LC-MS with column
switching (Takatsuki et al., 2003). Another group of laboratories have used Isolute Mixed
Mode (C18, SAX and SCX) cartridges (International Sorbent Technology, Hengoed, UK)
combined with filtration and/or ultracentrifugation to avoid blockage of the chromatographic
system.
The small molecules such as amino acids are difficult to avoid during extraction and
clean-up in the analysis of acrylamide. It has been shown that amino acid valine, which
yields a compound-specific product ion having m/z of 72 prevents an accurate quantitation
of acrylamide (Şenyuva and Gökmen, 2006). The adverse ion suppression effect of this in-
terfering co-extractive can be eliminated by instrumentally adjusted delay time for ionization
(Fig. 10.13) or by SPE clean-up using an appropriate cation exchanger sorbent, i.e. Oasis
MCX (Fig. 10.14). Since valine (pI ∼6.0) present in the final extract is positively charged, it
is easily retained by passing the extract through the SPE cartridge packed with Oasis MCX.
Co-detection of acrylamide and interferences in coffee extract has been confirmed by
analysing the purity of co-eluted peaks in scan mode. As illustrated in Fig. 10.15, the ion
having m/z of 71 appears as the major interference during the MS detection of acrylamide in
SIM mode (Şenyuva and Gökmen, 2005b).
Using a single SPE clean-up in different modes does not remove the compounds, which
interfere with the detection of acrylamide by mass spectrometry, present in the aqueous
extract of coffee. Some researchers have used sequential SPE cartridge clean-up using Oasis
HLB cartridge and then a Bond Elut-Accucat (cation and anion exchange sorbent) cartridge.
However, a number of peaks have been observed both before and after the acrylamide peak
(a) (b)
100
m/z 72 Valine m/z 72 Valine
Peak area : 1.12 x 106
Acrylamide
50
Acrylamide
Peak area : 6.5 x 105
MCX Cleanup MCX Cleanup
100
Peak area : 1.09 x 106 Peak area : 8.1 x 105
Acrylamide Acrylamide
50
0
0 3 6 9 0 5 10 15
Retention time (min)
Fig. 10.13 LC-MS chromatograms of (a) a standard mixture containing 5 μg/mL of valine and acry-
lamide and (b) potato crisp sample (FAPAS T3007) before and after Oasis MCX clean-up. Chromato-
graphic conditions are same as given in Fig. 10.15. (Reprinted from ¸Senyuva, H.Z. and Gökmen, V.
Interference-free determination of acrylamide in potato and cereal-based foods by a laboratory validated
liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry method. Food Chemistry, 97, 539–545. Copyright 2006 with
in the ion profiles monitored for coffee extracts during LC-MS/MS analysis, despite two SPE
cartridge clean-up steps (Andrzejewski et al., 2004).
Considering its solubility (155.0 g/100 mL), methanol can be considered as an alternative
for extraction. It has been previously shown that methanol as the extraction solvent can be
successfully applied for potato chips and crisps with subsequent Carrez clarification and SPE
(a) (b)
abundance abundance
m/z 71
acrylamide + interferences
6000
m/z 86
10000
5000
8000
4000
6000 m/z
m/z 132
3000 130
m/z m/z
4000 117 183
2000
2000
1000
0
7 8 9 min 8.2 8.4 8.6 min
Fig. 10.14 (a) LC- MS chromatogram of instant coffee showing acrylamide peak overlapped by interfer-
ence present in coffee. (b) Interfering ions detected for the peaks co-eluted at 8.335 minutes. Chromato-
graphic conditions are same as given in Fig. 10.15. [Reprinted from¸Senyuva, H.Z. and Gökmen, V. Study of
acrylamide in coffee using an improved liquid chromatography mass spectrometry method: Investigation of
colour changes and acrylamide formation in coffee during roasting. Food Additives and Contaminants, 22,
214–220. Copyright 2005b with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
2
1.8 200 nm
O
1.6
CH2 CH C NH2
1.4 1 2 3
1.2
226 nm
AU
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300
Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 10.15 UV spectrum of acrylamide in water and acid. (Reprinted from Gökmen, V., ¸Senyuva, H.Z.,
Acar, J. and Sarıo˘glu, K. Determination of acrylamide in potato chips and crisps by high-performance
liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A, 1088, 193–199. Copyright 2005 with permission
from Elsevier.)
clean-up prior to LC coupled to UV detection at 226 nm (Gökmen et al., 2005). Since methanol
does not extract the colloids (starch, proteins, etc.) as much as water does, it usually yields
clearer extract than water even without subsequent centrifugation. In addition, it can be easily
evaporated under a gentle stream of nitrogen to improve the limit of quantitation. It has been
successfully shown that this approach, which entails the extraction with methanol, followed
by Carrez clarification, evaporation and reconstitution in water, and SPE clean-up using
Oasis HLB, works also well for coffee during the LC-MS analysis of acrylamide (Şenyuva
and Gökmen, 2005b). Carrez clarification not only purifies the extract by precipitation of
dissolved colloids, but also prevents the loss of acrylamide during the evaporation of methanol
under nitrogen. Following evaporation to complete dryness, the residue is redissolved in water.
By changing the solvent, lipophilic and some of brown coloured co-extractives are excluded
leaving them as a residue on the wall of glass flask, but acrylamide is completely transferred
into aqueous phase. The extract is further cleaned up by using Oasis HLB cartridge in a pass
through strategy. Doing so, a colourless or slightly coloured final extract is obtained prior to
LC-MS analysis.
10.3.2 Chromatographic separation

Since co-extractives cannot be completely removed during extraction and clean-up, analytical
methods may fail in the detection step as a result of poor chromatographic separation. Acry-
lamide is very polar molecule with poor retention (k < 2.0) in conventional LC-reversed
phase sorbents. A wide variety of reversed-phase columns have been used for the chromato-
graphic separation of acrylamide (Ahn et al., 2002; Rosén and Hellenäs, 2002; Tareke et al.,
2002; Becalski et al., 2003; Ono et al., 2003). Ion-exchange columns have also been used to
increase the capacity factor value compared with reversed-phase columns, resulting in good
separation of acrylamide from matrix compounds even for untreated sample extracts.
It has been shown that reversed phase columns greatly differ in their ability to retain
acrylamide. Atlantis HILIC and Inertsil ODS-3 packing materials have a somewhat higher
retention capacity for acrylamide (Table 10.1).
Since the columns packed with Inertsil ODS-3 have a reasonable capacity factor, these
may be the optimum choice for the chromatographic separation of acrylamide. The aqueous
Table 10.1 Capacity factors and plate numbers calculated for the separation of
acrylamide on different LC columnsa .
Column Dimensions tR k N
Atlantis HILIC 250 × 4.6 mm, 5μ 8.9 3.67 17 373

Zorbax SIL 250 × 4.6 mm, 5μ 8.4 1.80 19 944
Inertsil ODS-3 (1) 250 × 4.0 mm, 5μ 10.0 3.11 11 400
Inertsil ODS-3 (2) 250 × 4.6 mm, 5μ 9.42 3.09 10 500
Atlantis dC18 250 × 4.6 mm, 5μ 13.8 2.54 19 944
Zorbax StableBond C18 250 × 4.6 mm, 5μ 11.2 2.39 19 250
HiChrom 5C18 300 × 4.6 mm, 5μ 10.9 1.79 18 233
Luna C18 250 × 4.6 mm, 5μ 12.6 1.93 5232
Synergi MAX-RP 250 × 4.6 mm, 5μ 12.6 1.74 8076
a
Mobile phase: 0.5 mL/min of water at 25◦ C.
Reprinted from Gökmen, V., ¸Senyuva, H.Z., Acar, J. and Sarıo˘glu, K. Determination of acrylamide in
potato chips and crisps by high-performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A,
1088, 193–199. Copyright 2005 with permission from Elsevier.
mobile phase which is used in HPLC should be modified with organic acid and acetonitrile
or methanol to increase ionization yield and improve repeatability. It has been shown that the
retention of acrylamide can be improved by both hydrophilic and hydrophobic interaction
chromatography by avoiding the organic modifiers in the aqueous mobile phase (Gökmen
et al., 2005). This will result in a better resolution of acrylamide from the interfering com-
pounds commonly present in roasted coffee samples (Gökmen and Şenyuva, 2006b).
10.3.3 Detection
For the detection of acrylamide after LC separation, tandem mass spectrometry is most often
the method of choice. There are just a few exceptions in which UV and single quadrupole MS
(in SIM mode) were used (Höfler et al., 2002). Since acrylamide is a derivative of carboxylic
acid, it has a maximum absorption within the wavelength range of 195–205 nm. However,
all co-extractives from the food matrix also absorb well in this wavelength range adversely
affecting the specificity of detection. On the other hand, acrylamide has also a characteristic
absorption at 226 nm due to double bond between C1 and C2 (Fig. 10.16). Comparing to
the absorbance at 200 nm, the absorbance of acrylamide is almost twice as low at 226 nm
(Gökmen et al., 2005).
UV detection can be a choice for the analysis of acrylamide in potato chips and crisps
when coupled to successful LC separation conditions and sample preparation procedures as
shown in Fig. 10.17 (Gökmen et al., 2005). However, the lack of selectivity would hamper the
determination of acrylamide in more complex matrices. Since an additional degree of analyte
certainty is required to confirm the presence of acrylamide in the complex food matrix, MS
becomes the choice for the detection step coupled to LC. Although MS has higher selectivity,
the mass of acrylamide itself or its fragment ions are not specific due to presence of co-
extractives that yield the same magnitude of m/z with acrylamide in the sample matrix.
Compounds other than acrylamide were found to be present in the chromatograms of certain
type of foods despite the use of MS/MS.
Many studies have shown that tandem MS-MS with positive electrospray ionization (ESI)
is a powerful tool for the detection of acrylamide in foods at low levels (Rosén and Hellenäs,
2002; Tareke et al., 2002; Riediker and Stadler, 2003). Under the positive ion ESI conditions,
frequent cleaning of the detector inlet is required due to heavy contamination with salts. In
*
mAU
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 min
Fig. 10.16 LC-UV chromatogram of acrylamide in potato chips (acrylamide concentration: 1020 ng/g).
Chromatographic conditions; column: Atlantis dC18, mobile phase: water at 1.0 mL/min. (Reprinted from
Gökmen, V.,¸Senyuva, H.Z., Acar, J. and Sarıo˘glu, K. Determination of acrylamide in potato chips and crisps
by high-performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A, 1088, 193–199. Copyright
2005 with permission from Elsevier.)
contrast, LC-MS with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) allows the determi-
nation of acrylamide sensitively and precisely without problems. During MS detection of
acrylamide, 13 C3 -labelled acrylamide is usually added to sample to confirm the native acry-
lamide. [M+H]+ ions (m/z 72 and 75 for acrylamide and 13 C3 -labelled acrylamide) with
compound-specific product ions due to loss of NH3 from the protonated molecule can be sen-
sitively detected under the positive APCI conditions (Fig. 10.18). The ratio of corresponding
ions is used to confirm the identification of acrylamide in the sample.
10.3.3.1 Rapid methods: challenges ahead

Although the analytical methods based on MS detection coupled either LC or GC perform
well for quality control purposes in a food analysis laboratory, they are laborious, costly
and cannot be adopted easily for process control purposes by the food industry. To satisfy
the increased awareness, and greater expectation of consumers, as well as demands by the
regulatory authorities, it is necessary to improve quality evaluation of food products. The
following sections describe the use of colour spectrophotometer, computer vision-based
image analysis and near infrared spectroscopy for rapid detection of acrylamide in certain
thermally processed foods.
10.3.4 Colour spectrophotometer

It is a fact that both brown coloured products and acrylamide are formed during the Maillard
reaction at high temperatures. Previous findings have suggested that surface colour may be
correlated with acrylamide in thermally processed foods (Pedreschi et al., 2004; Surdyk et al.,
2004; Şenyuva and Gökmen, 2005b). Earlier attempts have been directed to measure colour
in CIE Lab space units, which is an international standard for colour measurements, adopted
by the Commission Internationale d’Eclairage (CIE) in 1976.
A significant correlation has been found between the level of acrylamide and colour
measured as CIE a∗ value in roasted coffee. This correlation has been fitted to a non-linear
(a) (b)
acrylamide 13
C3 -labelled acrylamide
100 100
72 75
[ M+H] + [ M+H] +
80 80
60 60
40 40
58 +
[ H2C=CH-C=O]
+
55 [ H2C=CH-C=O]
20 20
0 0
Relative Response (%)

55 60 65 70 m/z 55 60 65 70 75 m/z
100 100
m/z 72 m/z 75
50 50
0 0
100 100
m/z 55 m/z 58
50 50
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Retention Time, min Retention time (min)
Fig. 10.17 Positive ion APCI mass spectra of (a) acrylamide and (b) 13 C3 -labelled acrylamide at
100 ng/mL. Chromatographic conditions are same as given in Fig. 10.15. [Reproduced from ¸Senyuva,
H.Z. and Gökmen, V. Survey of acrylamide in Turkish foods by an in-house validated LC-MS method. Food
Additives and Contaminants, 22, 204–209. Copyright 2005a with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd,
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals (http://www.informaworld.com).]
logarithmic function (Fig. 10.19), which has been used to predict acrylamide concentration
from the measured CIE a∗ value in a variety of commercial coffee samples. It has been
concluded that the level of acrylamide in roasted coffee may be approximately estimated
from the CIE a∗ value (Şenyuva and Gökmen, 2005b).
10.3.5 Computer vision-based image analysis

Although the CIE redness parameter has been shown to a certain extent to be correlated with
the level of acrylamide, it may not be a reliable predictor of acrylamide concentration in
thermally processed foods, i.e. potato chips, where the surface colour is not homogenous.
In this case, an examination of colour in depth may be a choice by means of computer
vision-based image analysis.
SAMPLE
Homogenize bulk sample
EXTRACTION
Extract 1 g sample with 5 mL of
methanol in vortex mixer for 2 min
CLARIFICATION
Add 50 μl of Carrez 1 and Carrez 2
solutions and mix for 1 min
CENTRIFUGATION
Centrifuge at 5000 rpm for 5 min, and
discard the solid precipitate
CONCENTRATION
Evaporate 2.5 ml of supernatant to
dryness under gentle stream of N2,
redissolve remaining residue in water
SPE CLEANUP Chromatographic conditions

Elute 1 ml of extract through an Oasis Column : Inertsil ODS-3 (250 x 4.6 mm, 5 μm)
HLB cartridge (30 mg), collect eluate Mobile phase : 0.01 mM acetic acid in 0.2% aq. formic acid
o
after discarding the first 0.4 ml Temperature : 25 C
Flow rate : 0.6 ml/min
Detection conditions
Ionization : APCI+
Drying gas (N2) : 4L/min
LC-MS ANALYSIS Nebulizer press : 55 psig
Inject 20 μl onto LC column for Drying gas temp : 320oC
LC-MS analysis in SIM mode Capillary voltage : 3 kV
Corona current : 8 μA
Fragmentor voltage : 55 eV
Fig. 10.18 The generic method for the determination of acrylamide in foods. (Reprinted from Gökmen,
V. and ¸Senyuva, H.Z. A generic method for the determination of acrylamide in thermally processed foods.
Journal of Chromatography A, 1120, 194–198. Copyright 2006b with permission from Elsevier.)
Being an objective, rapid and non-invasive tool, computer vision can be a powerful tech-
nique for inspection and evaluation purposes by means of a rapid prediction of acrylamide
level in food products.
Computer vision is the construction of explicit and meaningful descriptions of physical
objects from images (Ballard and Brown, 1982). Image analysis is the core of computer
vision with numerous algorithms and methods available to achieve the required classification
and measurements. From the viewpoint of acrylamide, surface colour is an important food
attribute that can be used to predict the acrylamide level.
A typical image captured by a digital camera consists of an array of vectors called pixels.
Each pixel has red, green and blue colour values:
⎡ ⎤
xr (n, m)
x[n, m] = ⎣ xg (n, m) ⎦
xb (n, m)
CIE a* value y = 1.4364Ln(x) − 2.3366

r 2 = 0.9286
Acrylamide (ng/g)
Fig. 10.19 Non-linear function for the correlation between acrylamide concentration and CIE a* value for
roasted coffee. [Reprinted from ¸Senyuva, H.Z. and Gökmen, V. Study of acrylamide in coffee using an im-
proved liquid chromatography mass spectrometry method: Investigation of colour changes and acrylamide
formation in coffee during roasting. Food Additives and Contaminants, 22, 214–220. Copyright 2005b with
permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals (http://www.informaworld.com).]
where xr (n, m), xg (n, m) and xb (n, m) are values of the red, green and blue components of
the (m, n)th pixel x[n, m], respectively. In digital images, xr , xg and xb colour components
are represented in eight bits, i.e. they are allowed to take integer values between 0 and 255
(= 28 − 1) (Gonzales and Woods, 2002).
In fried potato chip images, there are three regions which typically have bright yellow,
yellowish brown and dark brown colours. Digital image pixel values can be used to estimate
the acrylamide level of a potato chip after a useful feature is extracted from the digital image.
After the representative mean red, green and blue values of the pixels of three regions are
determined, pixels of the fried potato images may be classified into three sets based on their
Euclidian distances to the representative mean values. This process is also called vector
quantization (Cetin and Weerackody, 1988; Rabiner and Juang, 1993).
Since yellowish brown coloured potato chips have been found to contain higher levels of
acrylamide, a new parameter called the normalized area of Set-II pixels (NA2) has been de-
fined to correlate with the level of acrylamide. The NA2 ratio is computed from the segmented
images (Gökmen et al., 2006b). Figure 10.20 shows the original and segmented images of
a potato chip sample using semi-automatic segmentation algorithm. There is a strong linear
correlation between NA2 values and measured acrylamide levels of potato chips as shown in
Fig. 10.21.
Acrylamide levels of number of commercial and laboratory-made fried potato chips (n =
60) have been predicted by means of this correlation data. The percentage error of estimates
has averaged 29% with a standard deviation of 21% for the test samples. From the viewpoint of
food safety evaluation and inspection, it is important to define a threshold level for acrylamide
in potato chips. However, no maximum permitted concentration has been established for
acrylamide in thermally processed foods by the legal authorities. Once a critical level of
acrylamide is adopted by the food industry, the semi-automatic segmentation algorithm may
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.20 (a) Original fried potato chip image, (b) result of semi-automatic segmentation (NA2 =
0.1996). (Reprinted from Gökmen, V., ¸Senyuva, H.Z., Dülek, B. and Çetin, A.E. Computer vision-based
image analysis for the estimation of acrylamide concentrations of potato chips and french fries. Food
Chemistry, 101, 791–798. Copyright 2006b with permission from Elsevier.)
be used as a tool for safety evaluation and inspection purposes in order to sort out poor
quality chips. To exemplify the inspection capability of computer vision approach using
the test samples, a provisional maximum permitted concentration of acrylamide has been
assumed as 1000 ng/g in the finished product. Potato chips exceeding this threshold limit
could be accurately recognized by means of the image segmentation algorithm with one
exception (Gökmen et al., 2006c).
6000
5000 y = 5264.4x
Acylamide level (ng/g)
r = 0.989
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
NA2
Fig. 10.21 Correlation between defined parameter NA2 values and measured acrylamide levels for
potato chips. (Reprinted from Gökmen, V., ¸Senyuva, H.Z., Dülek, B. and Çetin, A.E. Computer vision-
based image analysis for the estimation of acrylamide concentrations of potato chips and french fries.
Food Chemistry, 101, 791–798. Copyright 2006b with permission from Elsevier.)
In the food industry, quality evaluation still heavily depends on manual inspection, which
is tedious, laborious, and costly, and is easily influenced by physiological factors, inducing
subjective and inconsistent evaluation results (Brosnan and Sun, 2004). With the advantages of
speed and accuracy, computer vision is considered to be a powerful tool for safety evaluation
and inspection purposes for the food industry. In such a system, a digital camera can be
installed in the packaging line and fried potato images can be analysed in real-time and those
products with NA2 values exceeding the pre-defined threshold limit. Present technology in
terms of the speed of computers allows this kind of data processing to be performed in
reasonable times.
10.3.6 Near-infrared spectrophotometer

Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy has been established as a technique for the analysis of the
proximate composition of complex foods, mainly due to its speed and ability to perform
contact-free measurements. NIR spectroscopy is a non-specific technique that utilizes sev-
eral wavelengths in order to predict one or more chemical components. The wavelengths are
strongly co-linear, which requires regression techniques that can handle co-linearity without
over-fitting the data. Principal component regression (PCR) and partial least squares regres-
sion (PLSR) are probably the most used regression techniques for multivariate calibration of
rapid spectroscopic instruments (Segtnan et al., 2006).
Most NIR applications focus on bulk components like fat, water, carbohydrate and protein
(Osborne et al., 1997), but several studies have shown that the technique is also capable of
separating and quantifying different species and states within these main classes. In particular,
water, which is the strongest NIR absorber in food systems, has shown interesting features
that can reflect small changes in other molecules that get attached to the water molecules
through hydrogen bonding.
Recently, NIR spectra acquired from the processed samples have been found to be corre-
lated with the acrylamide content. The best prediction model has been found using the whole
spectral region (400–2500 nm), using extended multiplicative signal correction (EMSC)
transformation, standardization and jack knifing for removal of non-significant variables. An
average prediction error of the model has been reported as 247 μg/kg (r = 0.952).
10.4 OCCURRENCE IN FOODS AND

EXPOSURE ASSESSMENTS
Extensive amounts of data on the levels of acrylamide have been collected by European
authorities, the Confederation of the Food and Drink Industries in the EU (CIAA) and the
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). A website has been created to allow the rapid
compilation of data by EU Joint Research Centre (JRC). It is apparent from the acrylamide
monitoring database that fried potato products are among the foods which contain the highest
amount of acrylamide, followed by bakery products and roasted coffee (Table 10.2).
Estimating consumer exposure to acrylamide is a high priority for governments and in-
dustry. After the initial finding of considerable acrylamide levels in various foods, several
independent studies have estimated overall exposure for the average consumer (Table 10.3).
The usual way to assess exposure to acrylamide from food is to use ‘simplified exposure
equation’ which is widely used by the FDA to estimate the exposure of a wide range of
Table 10.2 Acrylamide levels in food as collected by the EU Joint Research Center
(updated June 2006).
Food commodity n Min Median Max
Potato chips 1377 5 186 4653

Potato crisps 831 5 528 4215
Potato fritter 121 10 352 3072
Fine bakery ware 1056 4 145 3324
Gingerbread 1003 5 303 7834
Crispbread 411 5 244 2838
Infant food 157 5 79 910
Diabetics cakes + biscuits 402 5 230 3044
Breakfast cereals 333 5 60 1649
Coffee roasted 221 79 286 975
Coffee substitutes 108 116 773 2955
Data were taken from the monitoring database on acrylamide levels in food (http://www.irmm.jrc.be/)
maintained by the IRMM (Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements, together with Health and
Consumer Protection DG (DG SANCO).
substances in food.

F
Freq f Port f Conx f
EDIx =
f =1
N
where EDIx is the estimated daily intake of substance x; F is the total number of foods in
which x can be found; Freq f is the number of eating occasions for food f over N survey
days; Port f is the average portion of size for food f ; Concx f is the concentration of the
substance x in the food f ; and N is the number of survey days.
Freq f and Port f are estimated from the relevant survey while Concx f is determined
experimentally based on exploratory data on acrylamide in foods. These concentration values
can be updated as more data become available.
The foods that contribute most to acrylamide exposure vary depending upon the popu-
lation’s eating habits and the way the foods are processed and prepared. French fries and
other potato products are consumed in relatively high amounts in the United States (35% of
the average daily acrylamide intake), whereas coffee and bread contribute relatively little to
the average daily US acrylamide intake (7% for coffee, 11% for toast and soft bread). The
contribution of potato products is even higher in the Netherlands, with French fries and chips
taken together contributing up to 50% (Konings et al., 2003). On the other hand, the contri-
bution of coffee and bread or crisp bread is much higher in European countries. According to
Dybing and Sanner (2003), potato products contributed ∼30% to the daily acrylamide intake
in Norway, whereas coffee and bread contributed 28 and 20%, respectively. Similar results
for Sweden were reported by Svensson et al. (2003) (coffee 39%, potato products 26%, bread
and crisp bread 17%). Generally, the most important categories of food appear to be: fried
potato products such as French fries and chips, ready-to-eat breakfast cereals, baked goods
such as cookies, pies and cakes, brewed coffee and breads (Dybing et al., 2005).
10.5 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Acrylamide is metabolized in the body to glycidamide, a reactive compound formed through
epoxidation of the double bond (Lopachin and Lehning, 1994). The major route of metabolism
Table 10.3 Exposure estimates from 2002 to 2004a .
BLUK145-Gilbert
Daily intake μg/kg bw/day
Mean 95th percentile;

Exposure assessment (age group) a 90th percentile Source
FAO/WHO (2000) 0.3–0.8 http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/chem/en/

acrylamide full.pdf
February 28, 2008
EU, SCF (2002) 0.2–0.4 http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/out131 en.pdf

BfR, Germany (2002) 1.1 (15–18) 3.4 http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/208/abschaetzung der acrylamid
aufnahme durch hochbelastete nahrungsmittel in
4:34
deutschland studie.pdf
BAG, Switzerland (2002) 0.28 (16–57) http://www.bag.admin.ch/verbrau/aktuell/d/DDS%
20acrylamide%20preliminary%20communication.pdf
AFSSA, France (2002) 0.5 (>15) 1.1 http://www.afssa.fr/ftp/afssa/basedoc/acrylpoint2sansannex.pdf
1.4 (2–14) 2.9
FDA (2002) 0.7 http://www.jifsan.umd.edu/presentations/acry2004/acry 2004
dinovihoward files/frame.htm
FDA (2003) 0.37 (>2) 0.81a http://www.jifsan.umd.edu/presentations/acry2004/acry 2004
1.00 (2–5) 2.15a dinovihoward files/frame.htm
FDA (2004) 0.43 (>2) 0.92a http://www.jifsan.umd.edu/presentations/acry2004/acry 2004
1.06 (2–5) 2.31a dinovihoward files/frame.htm
SNFA, Sweden (2002) 0.45 (18–74) 1.03 Svensson et al. (2003)
NFCS, Netherlands 0.48 (1–97) 0.6 Konings et al. (2003)
1.04 (1–6) 1.1
0.71 (7–18) 0.9
SNT, Norway (2003) 0.49 (males) 1.01a Dybing and Sanner (2003)
0.46 (females) 0.86a
0.36 (9, boys) 0.72a
0.32 (9, girls) 0.61a
0.52 (13, boys) 1.35a
Acrylamide in Heated Foods
0.49 (13, girls) 1.2a

a
Reprinted from Dybing, E., Parmer, P.B., Andersen, M., Fennel, T.R., Lalljie, S.P.D., Müller, D.J.G., Olin, S., Petersen, B.J., Schlatter, J., Scholz, G., Scimeca, J.A., Slimani,
281
N., Törnqvist, M., Tuijtelaars, S. and Verger, P. Human exposure and internal dose assessments of acrylamide in food. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 43, 365–410.
Copyright 2005 with permission from Elsevier.
is the conjugation of acrylamide and glycidamide to glutathione by Michael-type reactions

leading to water-soluble thioethers. Acrylamide is also considered a reproductive toxin, with
mutagenic and carcinogenic properties in experimental mammalian in vitro and in vivo
systems (Dearfield et al., 1995). Specific adducts formed with haemoglobin are used as
biomarkers of exposure, and a rat feeding study has recently demonstrated in fried animal
foods a link between acrylamide levels and such haemoglobin adducts (Tareke et al., 2000).
A joint FAO/WHO consultation on the health implications of acrylamide in food has
estimated an average daily food intake of acrylamide of the general population in the range
of 0.3–0.8 μg/kg bw/day. For the non-cancer endpoint, a no-observed-adverse-effect level
(NOAEL) of 0.2 mg/kg/day has been derived for nerve damage (sub-chronic rat study).
Considering an average human daily exposure of up to 0.8 μg/kg bw/day, a margin of at least
250 can be calculated. Therefore, no neurotoxic effects are to be expected from the levels of
acrylamide found in food (Dybing and Sanner, 2003.). Since cancer induced by genotoxic
compounds is generally considered a non-threshold effect, no acceptable daily intake has
been allocated for acrylamide.
The weight of evidence for the carcinogenicity of acrylamide in humans is based primar-
ily on animal data. With a few exceptions, epidemiology studies have not found a statisti-
cally significant association between acrylamide exposure and risk of cancer. Three separate
prospective cohort studies examining two different cohorts have attempted to address the
relationship between acrylamide exposure and various types of cancer. In 1986, Sobel et al.
published a study that examined the relationship between acrylamide exposure and cancers
of the central nervous system, thyroid gland, other endocrine glands and mesothelium in a
cohort of 371 employees who were involved with acrylamide monomer and polymerization
operations. The authors concluded that acrylamide exposure is not related to overall mor-
tality, total malignant neoplasms, or any specific cancers. In 1989, Collins et al. published
their observations of the relationship between all-cause and cause-specific mortality rates and
acrylamide exposure in a cohort of 8854 men, 2293 of which were exposed to acrylamide.
The cohort consisted of four factory populations in the United States and the Netherlands. No
relationship between acrylamide exposure and the risk of mortality from several cancer sites
was observed. Mucci et al. (2003) examined a population-based Swedish case–control study
that included cases with large bowel, bladder, or kidney cancer matched to healthy controls.
When acrylamide exposure from food has been determined by linking extensive food fre-
quency data with acrylamide levels in certain food items recorded by the Swedish National
Food Administration, they found no association between acrylamide exposure from food and
these types of cancers. Pelucchi et al. (2003) found no association between fried/baked potato
consumption and cancer risk in a series of hospital-based case–control studies conducted in
Italy and Switzerland. The cancer sites examined included oral cavity/pharynx, oesophagus,
larynx, large bowel, breast and ovary. However, a study by Bosetti et al. (2002) did find a
significant and positive association between laryngeal cancer and consumption of several
types of fried foods.
Even though epidemiology studies do not provide strong, conclusive evidence for an as-
sociation between acrylamide exposure and cancer risk, this does not necessarily indicate
that no relationship exists. Existing epidemiological studies do not have the statistical power
to detect cancer risk from acrylamide exposure at the levels suggested by toxicology studies.
Epidemiology studies are also subject to many confounding factors. Some of the potential
confounding factors for cohort studies examining the relationship between acrylamide ex-
posure in the workplace and cancer risk include inexact exposure estimates due to changes
in the workplace environment over time, failure to control for smoking or other sources of
acrylamide, and reporting errors in the cause of death. Potential confounding effects also exist
for cohort and case–control studies examining the relationship between acrylamide exposure
from food and cancer risk. If the range of acrylamide exposure from food in the study popu-
lation is very narrow, then statistical significance cannot be determined. Also, hospital-based
studies may be subject to selection bias.
Future epidemiology studies investigating the relationship between acrylamide exposure
and cancer risk should take precautions to minimize selection bias by focusing primarily
on cohort, nested case–control, and population-based case–control studies. Controlling for
known confounding factors, such as smoking and other dietary components (e.g. heterocyclic
amines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) is essential. Efforts to understand how biomarker
data might be utilized to validate dietary assessment tools or to improve exposure assessment
should also be examined.
10.6 METHODS TO REDUCE FORMATION IN FOODS
Minimization of acrylamide formed during thermal processing of foods is of great importance

from the viewpoint of food safety. Since the thermal processing of foods is rather complex
due to the wealth of components in the reaction pool, the results of a single treatment would be
diverse. So, any approach put forward to prevent any adverse effect like acrylamide formation
during thermal processing should also consider other possible changes likely to be made to
the resulting food product.
To date, several approaches have been found to lower the levels of acrylamide formed in
foods. Studies have generally applied to fried and baked potatoes and baked cereal products.
10.6.1 Potato products

Numerous possible avenues for the reduction of acrylamide in potato products have been
highlighted in several reports. These entail controlling the temperature of storage of the raw
potato (Grob et al., 2003; Noti et al., 2003), selection of certain varieties (Biedermann et al.,
2002c; Haase et al., 2003), modifying frying conditions (Biedermann et al., 2002a,b,c; Grob
et al., 2003; Haase et al., 2003; Jung et al., 2003), and assessing the impact of protein coating
(Vattem and Shetty, 2003).
It is feasible to select potato varieties with low levels of reducing sugars. These varieties
can be used for cut potato products intended for frying and baking to lower the levels of
acrylamide formed. Storage of potatoes below 8◦ C is known to cause increased levels of
reducing sugars. Storage at 8◦ C or above will therefore reduce the potential for the formation
of acrylamide in the potato product upon baking or frying. Avoiding cold conditions can be
readily achieved for short-term storage. There is a practical problem for long-term agricultural
storage. To maintain supplies of potatoes throughout the year it is necessary for producers
to store potatoes for periods of several months. This can only be achieved successfully if
the storage conditions prevent the potatoes from sprouting. Cool temperatures are often used
to prevent sprouting. Chemical treatments of potatoes with sprout suppressing agents can
be used, although the use of such chemicals is not always desired by the consumer or may
not be permitted. Alternatively, low-dose irradiation of potato tubers can also be used as an
effective post-harvest treatment for sprout suppression during long-term storage at elevated
temperatures (Gökmen et al., 2007).
Levels of reducing sugars can be lowered by pre-blanching the cut potatoes in warm or hot
water or soaking them in water at room temperature before they are fried or baked. Soaking
cut potatoes in water also reduces the level of asparagine. It has been shown that acrylamide
formed on frying potatoes can be reduced up to 25% by soaking into water or blanching. If the
soaking or blanching solution contains organic acids (citric, acetic), the level of acrylamide
can be reduced up to 90% (Jung et al., 2003; Kita et al., 2004). However, this approach can
cause souring of flavour if a precise procedure is not followed and also the frying oil can
become rancid. It has also been shown that the addition of citric acid limits the generation of
volatiles during thermal processing (Low et al., 2006).
Asparagine is an important amino acid component of potatoes. Since it is necessary to
form acrylamide in the presence of reducing sugars, one possible approach may be lowering
asparagine concentration prior to frying or baking. The use of asparaginase is a possible
approach to interrupt the interaction of asparagine with reducing sugars. Another possibility
is to use other amino acids to compete with asparagine during the Maillard reaction. It has
been shown that the addition of amino acids such as glycine or glutamine during soaking or
blanching can reduce acrylamide by up to 30% (Bråthen et al., 2005). However, this treatment
may also affect the sensory properties of thermally processed food by changing the volatile
profile (Low et al., 2006).
Previous research suggests that acrylamide formation can easily be limited by reducing
the frying time. In deep fat frying, conduction within the food material is the rate-controlling
heat transfer mechanism, which implies that the frying time can be reduced if the potato strips
are cooked before going into the fryer. This would eliminate the need to rely on conduction of
heat during frying to render the interior cooked. In this case frying is performed just to bring
about the desirable surface characteristics (crust and colour) of the already-cooked strips.
Microwave pre-cooking differs from blanching in that the potato strip is rendered cooked
volumetrically in a very short time without losing the reducing sugars and asparagine, which
are also responsible for the product’s desirable surface characteristics. It has been successfully
shown that microwave pre-cooking is effective in reducing acrylamide levels in the surface
region of French fries, where most of the acrylamide formation takes place. The reduction is a
consequence of the combined effect of reduced frying time and surface temperature (Demirkol
et al., 2006). Microwave pre-treatment would also fit favourably into the continuous process
line for industrial production of French fries (Erdoǧdu et al., 2007).
In order to reduce acrylamide formed upon heating in foods, a promising approach seems
the use of cations (Na+ , Ca2+ ) to mitigate acrylamide in thermally processed foods (Lindsay
and Jang, 2005; Kolek et al., 2006). The results of model studies have confirmed the inhibitory
effects of many cations on acrylamide formation. In addition, the soaking of potato strips in
sodium chloride or calcium chloride has been shown to reduce the level of acrylamide formed
upon frying up to 50 or 95%, respectively (Gökmen and Şenyuva, 2007a). The addition of
cations may also be considered beneficial in certain foods prior to thermal processing not
only to mitigate acrylamide, but also to enrich calcium in the finished product. However, any
potential side effects of this treatment need to be understood in depth before implementing it
as a mitigation strategy. Recent findings have shown that the addition of cations results in a
change in the reaction path leading to excessive formation of hydroxymethyl furfural in the
model system (Gökmen and Şenyuva, 2007b).
10.6.2 Bakery products

The two major approaches for reduction of acrylamide levels in cookies are replacing
NH4 HCO3 by NaHCO3 , and the use of a sucrose solution instead of inverted sugar syrup
(Graf et al., 2006). In crackers, a combination of the first two approaches has been even more
effective (Vass et al., 2004) which could also apply to other products. The measure focusing
on the replacement of reducing sugars by sucrose is limited to products where browning is
not of primary importance. The addition of glycine during dough making has been shown to
reduce acrylamide in flat breads and bread crusts up to 90% (Bråthen et al., 2005).
A moderate addition of organic acids may also be considered for mitigation of acrylamide
in cookies. However, care should be taken particularly when cookies are formulated with
sucrose instead of inverted syrups. Lowering pH may result in excessive hydrolysis of sucrose,
which will make the composition more favourable to form acrylamide during baking.
For many bakery products perhaps the most straightforward way to lower the levels of
acrylamide formed is to reduce the baking time to avoid excess browning. Reducing the
baking temperatures can also help to achieve reduction. For example, lighter baking of sweet
biscuits has resulted in significantly lowering levels of acrylamide in some products. However,
for some bakery products excess baking can have the same effect and also lead to lower levels
of acrylamide.
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11 Furan in Processed Foods

Imre Blank
Summary
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) published in May 2004 a survey of furan in
canned and jarred foods that undergo heat treatment. Since then, there have been a number
of contributions that are summarized in this review with focus on formation, occurrence
and analysis. Headspace (HS) gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry and the
use of a deuterated internal standard is currently the analytical method of choice to obtain
reliable quantitative data on furan in foods. Furan occurs in a variety of foods such as coffee,
canned and jarred products including baby food containing meat, and various vegetables.
There are multiple routes of furan formation. Recent data indicate polyunsaturated lipids
and ascorbic acid to be the major sources of furan, followed by carotenoids, carbohydrates
and certain amino acids. Furan formation is mainly associated with lipid oxidation, but it
can also be generated by non-enzymatic browning reactions. Furan can be formed from
an intact carbon chain or by condensation reactions of carbonyls obtained from different
sources. Furan comprises an intact C4 -unit of ascorbic acid (mainly C-3 to C-6) generated by
liberating two C1 -units, i.e. carbon dioxide and formic acid, with 2-deoxyaldoteroses and 2-
furoic acid as possible intermediates. Furan mitigation in food is a challenging task due to the
great number of precursors occurring in food. A major challenge remains the development of
concepts leading to a reduction of furan upon industrial and domestic food processing while
maintaining the overall food quality.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Furan is a five-member ring colourless liquid (C4 H4 O, CAS-No. 110-00-9; Fig. 11.1) which
can induce tumours and liver toxicity in experimental animals and is classified as ‘possibly
carcinogenic to humans’ (group 2B) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC, 1995). The announcement of the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on the
occurrence of furan levels in foods amounting to up to 125 μg/kg (FDA, 2004a) initiated a
number of studies to evaluate a potential safety concern upon food consumption. In the chem-
ical industry, furan serves as an intermediate in the synthesis and preparation of numerous
linear polymers (NTP, 1993).
Furan has been known for long time as food constituent (review by Maga, 1979). It has
probably been first reported in coffee (Johnston and Frey, 1938). Furan was also found in
cooked chicken (Grey and Shrimpton, 1967), white bread (Mulders et al., 1972), canned
beef (Persson and von Sydow, 1973), Maillard-type systems containing reducing sugars and

Fig. 11.1 Chemical structure of furan.
amino acids or proteins (Walter and Fagerson, 1968; Yaylayan et al., 1994), glucose caramel
(Sugisawa, 1966), lactose/casein (Ferretti et al., 1970), birch syrup (Kallio et al., 1989)
and heated proteins such as soy, casein and fish (Qvist and von Sydow, 1974). Usually, the
concentrations have not been determined due to lack of reliable quantification methods.
The data published in the last 3 years mainly deal with the analytical methodology, occur-
rence of furan in food and its manifold formation pathways upon heat treatment. Therefore,
the present review paper focuses on recent furan research, in particular on formation, occur-
rence and analysis. Toxicological effects, exposure assessment and regulations will not be
discussed in detail as for furan there is very limited recent information to review on these
aspects. A concise summary of toxicological data on furan has recently been published by
Crews and Castle (2007).
11.2 FORMATION AND MECHANISMS

There is only limited information on the mechanisms of furan formation under conditions
simulating industrial food processing or domestic cooking. Most published data are based on
model studies aiming at identifying potential precursors and elucidating the various formation
mechanisms, in some cases by using labelled precursors or intermediates. In the following,
a brief summary is given on furan formation including concepts to reduce the levels of this
food-borne process contaminant.
11.2.1 Model studies

Based on literature data and a systematic study involving 13 C-labelled precursors, Perez
and Yaylayan (2004) identified key building blocks of furan generation, such as aldotetrose
derivatives, acetaldehyde, glycolaldehyde and 4-hydoxy-2-butenal. These key intermediates
may originate from different precursors such as sugars, certain amino acids, ascorbic acid
and polyunsaturated lipids. The authors found ascorbic acid derivatives to be very efficient in
generating furan under pyrolysis conditions (250–350◦ C, 20 s). Becalski and Seaman (2005)
confirmed the role of ascorbic acid derivatives under pressure cooking conditions (118◦ C,
30 min). In addition, they mentioned polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), the correspond-
ing triacylglycerides and carotenoids as important precursors of furan. Model experiments
suggested oxidative reactions play a vital role in furan formation from lipids. The general
scheme, shown in Fig. 11.2, summarizes the various sources of furan and the corresponding
major precursor classes.
In their study on the formation of furan under roasting conditions (220◦ C), Märk et al.
(2006) found ascorbic acid and polyunsaturated lipids as the most effective precursors gen-
erating up to 10 and 5 mmol/mol furan, respectively (Fig. 11.3). In contrast, dehydroascorbic
acid showed low efficiency, most likely due to its melting point (∼230◦ C) that was above the
roasting temperature. A similar trend was also observed by Perez and Yaylayan (2004). On
the other side, Becalski and Seaman (2005) reported about 10-times higher furan amounts
Furan in Processed Foods 293
− CO
O2, - NH3
COOH COOH
Amino HO Strecker H H Strecker
HO
acids NH2 reaction reaction NH2
O O
Serine Glycolaldehyde Acetaldehyde Alanine
Aldol condensation
Maillard-type
Maillard HO
H
Carbohydrates reaction HO
Ascorbic acids OH O OH
O
2-Deoxyaldotetrose
−H 2O − H 2O
O
Lipid H
Polyunsaturated HO
fatty acids (PUFAs) oxidation OH
O O
4-Hydroxy-2-butenal
Fig. 11.2 Different precursors leading to parent furan upon thermal treatment. (Adapted from Perez and
Yaylayan, 2004.)
formed from dehydroascorbic acid under pressure cooking conditions. These data could not
be confirmed by Limacher et al. (2007) who found (Fig. 11.4) that dehydroascorbic acid
formed only slightly more furan at pH 7 than ascorbic acid, but significantly less at pH 4,
thus indicating the effect of the pH on furan formation under aqueous conditions. It seems
that the efficiency of the ascorbic acid derivatives to form furan depends very much on the
reaction system.
4
Ascorbic acids Maillard-type systems Lipids
1x10
3
8x10
μ mol/mol]
3
6x10
Furan [μ
3
4x10
3
2x10
0
ASA DASA E TAG GA GS LA T LnA Tn
Fig. 11.3 Formation of furan from various precursors heated at 220◦ C and on-line monitored by PTR-
MS. ASA, ascorbic acid; DASA, dehydroascorbic acid; E, erythrose; TAG, threonine/alanine/glucose; GA,
glycolaldehyde/alanine; GS, glycolaldehyde/serine; LA, linoleic acid; T, trilinoleate; LnA, linolenic acid;
Tn, trilinolenate. (Adapted from Märk et al., 2006.)
70
pH 7
60
pH 4
50
Furan [μmol/mol]
40
30
20
10
0
ASA ASA + ERY ASA + GLC ASA + PHE DASA
Fig. 11.4 Furan contents (μmol/mol) obtained in aqueous model systems heated at pH 4 and pH 7 (25
min, 121◦ C). ASA, ascorbic acid; ERY, erythrose; GLC, glucose; PHE, phenylalanine; DASA, dehydroascor-
bic acid. [Reproduced from Limacher, A., Kerler, J., Conde-Petit, B. and Blank, I. Formation of furan and
methylfuran from ascorbic acid in model systems and food. Food Additives and Contaminants, 24(S1),
122–135. Copyright 2007 with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Interestingly, the highest furan levels were obtained in pure ascorbic acid systems. The
furan amounts drop drastically in the presence of additional compounds, such as sugars, amino
acids and lipids. This effect was observed in both dry and aqueous reaction systems. Moreover,
even combinations of potential furan precursors lead to reduced furan amounts (Fig. 11.5).
ASA alone
mixture 1:1
ASA + Glycine −75%
ASA + Serine −75%
ASA + Erythrose -−95%
ASA + Linoleic acid −46

46 %
0 2×103 4×103 6×103 8×103 1×104 1×104
Headspace concentration (μmol/mol)
Fig. 11.5 Comparison of furan formation from ascorbic acid (ASA) alone (grey bars) and binary mixtures,
i.e. in the presence of equimolar amounts of additional compounds (black bars). (Reprinted with permission
from Märk, J., Pollien, Ph., Lindinger, Ch., Blank, I. and Märk, T., Quantitation of furan and methylfuran
formed in different precursor systems by proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry, Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry, 54, 2786–2793, copyright 2006, American Chemical Society.)
Mixtures of ascorbic acid and erythrose or linoleic acid lead to a reduction of 95 and 45%,
respectively. This phenomenon suggests competing reaction pathways that increase in more
complex systems. Therefore, results obtained from model systems should be taken with much
care and general conclusions must not be drawn.
11.2.2 Formation mechanisms

The first systematic study on furan formation (Perez and Yaylayan, 2004) already in-
volved 13 C-labelled precursors, such as differently labelled glucose and serine isotopomers.
Limacher et al. (2007) used 13 C-labelled ascorbic acid to elucidate the formation mechanisms
of furan. Basically, furan can be formed (i) from an intact C4 skeleton or (ii) by recombi-
nation of fragments. In both cases, there is a multitude of possible sources which are active
depending on the reaction conditions.
11.2.2.1 Amino acids

The mechanism of furan formation from amino acids was studied by pyrolysing serine inde-
pendently labelled at C-1, C-2 and C-3. The label incorporation in the parent furan indicated
that two of the four carbon atoms of furan originated from C-2 of serine, and the remaining
two carbon atoms originated from C-3. No incorporation of the C-1 atom of serine was de-
tected. These observations are consistent with the proposed aldol condensation mechanism
(Fig. 11.2) between an acetaldehyde and a glycolaldehyde moiety, both originating from
serine.
These studies suggest that those amino acids capable of forming acetaldehyde and gly-
colaldehyde can generate furan through aldol condensation followed by cyclization and
dehydration (Fig. 11.2). Serine and cysteine are such amino acids. Other amino acids such
as aspartic acid, alanine and threonine are able to generate only acetaldehyde and therefore
they need the presence of other components that can furnish glycolaldehyde (e.g. reduc-
ing sugars, serine, cysteine). Acetaldehyde might be formed from serine by decarboxylation
and subsequent loss of ammonia from the intermediary ethanolamine. Glycolaldehyde can
be generated through Strecker-type reactions in the presence or absence of reducing sug-
ars (Yaylayan, 2003). Threonine has been shown to produce acetaldehyde (Yaylayan and
Wnorowski, 2001) and hence can generate furan in the presence of sugars.
11.2.2.2 Carbohydrates
Based on 13 C-labelling experiments, Perez and Yaylayan (2004) have compared the rela-
tive efficiency of different sugars to generate furan. The order of reactivity under pyrolysis
conditions was D-erythrose > D-ribose > D-sucrose > D-glucose = D-fructose. The four
carbon sugar D-erythrose generated eightfold excess of furan compared to either fructose or
glucose. Labelling studies have indicated that four carbon sugar modules are also involved
in the generation of furan from glucose. Labelling studies based on glucose and serine have
indicated that the major pathway (50%) of glucose degradation (pathway A in Fig. 11.6)
leading to furan incorporated C3–C4–C5–C6 carbon atoms of glucose through formation of
an aldotetrose moiety (e.g. erythrose), 10% incorporated C1–C2–C3–C4 carbon atoms of
glucose (pathway B) through formation of a 2-deoxy-3-keto-aldotetrose moiety and another
10% incorporated C2–C3–C4–C5 carbon atoms of glucose (pathway C) through formation
of a 2-deoxy-aldotetrose moiety. The remaining 30% of furan was formed from serine degra-
dation alone.
4 5
3 6
O
O
1 A ∼50%
HO 2
2 3
3 OH B
1 4
HO 4
O
5 OH
∼10%
6
C
OH 3 4
2 5
O
∼10%
Fig. 11.6 Origin of carbon atoms incorporated into the furan ring from D-glucose in glucose/serine model
system where 30% of furan originated from serine. A, aldotetrose pathway; B, 2-doxy-3-keto-aldotetrose
pathway; C, 2-deoxy-aldotetrose pathway. (Reprinted with permission from Perez and Yaylayan in Journal
of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 42, 6830–6836. Copyright 2004 with permission from the American
Chemical Society.)
11.2.2.3 Polyunsaturated lipids

Model systems (118◦ C, 30 min) have indicated that only PUFAs such as linoleic and linolenic
acids can generate furan upon heating (Becalski and Seaman, 2005). Linolenic acid gener-
ated about four times more furan than linoleic acid and catalytic amounts of ferric chloride
increased furan formation by several folds. Triglycerides of linoleic and linolenic acids also
generated comparable amounts of furan. However, in the presence of ferric chloride the
triglycerides generated less furan compared to free fatty acids.
These findings suggest lipid oxidation as general mechanism for the formation of furan. As
shown in Fig. 11.2, furan could be formed from 4-hydroxy-2-butenal through cyclization and
subsequent dehydration. Similar reactions are known in lipid chemistry. As an example, the
origin of the furan derivative 5-pentylfuran used as a chemical marker for rancidity is linked to
the formation of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (Sayre et al., 1993), a higher homologue of 4-hydroxy-
2-butenal. In general, oxidative degradation of PUFAs may lead to lipid hydroperoxides non-
enzymatically by reactive oxygen species or enzymatically by lipoxygenases. Subsequent
homolytic cleavages of PUFA hydroperoxides, catalysed by transition metal ions may result
in the formation of 4-hydroxy-2-alkenals as reactive intermediates.
11.2.2.4 Ascorbic acid

Sodium salts of the acids generated less furan compared to their free acid counterparts,
suggesting decarboxylation to take part in ascorbic acid degradation. Due to the ease of
hydrolysis and oxidation of ascorbic acid in food (Liao and Seib, 1987) resulting in 2,3-
diketogulonic acid, Perez and Yaylayan (2004) proposed the formation of C4 precursors
such as aldotetrose and 2-deoxyaldotetrose that could be converted into furan (Fig. 11.7).
Pathway B is, however, less probable as both an oxidative and a reductive step is required to
yield furan, whereas pathway A directly leads to furan by decarboxylation, cyclization and
dehydration.
O
HO H
O O H HO OH
O O O
OH − CO2 OH OH
OH
HO HO HO O
OH OH OH
2,3-Diketogulonic acid Xylosone Aldotetrose − H 2O
O
B [O]
O
O
HO HO OH
OH
HO H2 O HO [H] − H2O
O
OH O
HO HO
OH
Ascorbic acid O
Furan
A H2O
O − H2O
HO H
O O H HO
O O O
− C O2 OH
O
HO HO HO
OH OH OH
2-Deoxy-aldotetrose
Fig. 11.7 Proposed thermal decomposition mechanism of ascorbic acid to produce furan. Dotted lines
indicate dicarbonyl cleavage; [O], oxidation; [H], reduction. (Reprinted with permission from Perez and
Yaylayan in Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 42, 6830–6830. Copyright 2004 with permission
from the American Chemical Society.)
Limacher et al. (2007) have shown using [1-13 C]- and [2-13 C]-labelled ascorbic acid iso-
topomers that there was no incorporation of C-1 and C-2 into furan whereas [6-13 C]-ascorbic
acid only led to mono-labelled furan (Table 11.1). These data suggest that furan is exclu-
sively formed from the intact ascorbic acid skeleton. Furthermore, the labelling pattern was
independent of the reaction conditions (dry and aqueous at pH 4 or 7). Modified CAMOLA
experiments (Carbon Module Labelling, Schieberle, 2005) based on equimolar mixtures of
unlabelled ascorbic acid and fully 13 C-labelled glucose ([U-13 C6 ]-GLC) did not indicate any
recombination of fragments as only unlabelled or fully labelled furan were obtained. Under
dry-heating conditions, the model system ASA/[U-13 C6 ]-GLC resulted in 73% unlabelled
furan and 27% fully labelled (13 C4 ) furan, indicating that they were formed either from
ascorbic acid or from [U-13 C6 ]-glucose. In aqueous systems at pH 7, higher relative amounts
were obtained from ascorbic acid (84%) that further increased to 99% at pH 4. This is in
Table 11.1 Per cent labelling distribution of furan generated from different ascorbic acid (ASA) and
glucose (GLC) isotopomers.
[M]+ [M+1]+ [M+2]+ [M+3]+ [M+4]+

Model system (m/z 68) (m/z 69) (m/z 70) (m/z 71) (m/z 72)
L-[1-13 C]-ASAa,b,c 100 0 0 0 0

L-[2-13 C]-ASAa,b,c 100 0 0 0 0
L-[6-13 C]-ASAa,b,c 0 100 0 0 0
L-ASA + D-[U-13 C6 ]-GLC (1:1)a 73 0 0 0 27
L-ASA + D-[U-13 C6 ]-GLC (1:1)b 84 0 0 0 16
L-ASA + D-[U-13 C6 ]-GLC (1:1)c 99 0 0 0 1
a
Results from dry-heating systems (200◦ C, 10 min).
b
Results from aqueous solutions at pH 7 (121◦ C, 25 min).
c
Results from aqueous solutions at pH 4 (121◦ C, 25 min).
agreement with the observation that furan was preferably generated from ascorbic acid at
lower pH (Fig. 11.4).
These data are in agreement with pathway A in Fig. 11.8: cyclization and subsequent
dehydration of 2-deoxyaldotetrose, which is composed of the C3–C4–C5–C6 carbon atoms
of ascorbic acid, give rise to parent furan. Alternatively, 3-deoxypentosulose may dehydrate
HO OH O O O
2 1 1 1
C HO C HO C HO C
HO 1 2 2 2 O
C C O C O C O
O H2O HO
1
C
O
6 H OH HO O
C 2
C O
HO
OH
L-[1-13C]-Ascorbic acid H2O HO
HO HO HO
L-[2-13C]-Ascorbic acid Oxalic acid
6 6 6
L-[6-13C]-Ascorbic acid C OH C OH C OH
4-Deoxy derivative
E
2
C O O
1
C O +
O
2 2
OH C O C O
HO O O O
6 6 O B A
C OH C 2
H C HO
Xylosone O HO
OH O
6 H2O 6 6
C OH C OH C OH
2
H2O C
3,4-Dideoxypentos- 3-Deoxy- OH 2-Deoxyaldotetrose
HO 3-en-ulose pentosulose
Formic acid
2
C O H2O
OH
H OH
HO + H
6 O H + O
C 2 2 HO 6
C
6
C OH O C O C HO
O
2-Furfural
H2O
HO
C [O] D HO 2
O
Formic acid
C
2
C O
5 4 4 5 2 H2O
O
6 O
C 2 6 3 3 6
O C O O
H2O OH O
2
C O Furan
6
C OH 2-Furoic acid
Fig. 11.8 Proposed thermal decomposition mechanism of ascorbic acid to produce furan. [O], oxidation.
See text for more information. (Adapted from Perez and Yaylayan, 2004; Shinoda et al., 2005; Limacher
et al., 2007.)
Table 11.2 Amounts of furan (μmol/mol) generated from intermediates in model systems simulating
food process conditions.
Model system Roastinga Pressure cookingb (pH 7) Pressure cookingb (pH 4)
2-Furoic acid 1656 ± 114 31.4 ± 3.0 326 ± 24

2-Furfural 265 ± 43 97.7 ± 0.6 70.4 ± 7.6
a
Roasting: 200◦ C, 10 minutes.
b
Pressure cooking: 121◦ C, 25 minutes.
at C-4 (= C-5 of ascorbic acid) via pathway B leading to 2-furfural by cyclization and
dehydration. Further oxidation leads to 2-furoic acid (pathway C) with concomitant release
of CO2 . Alternatively, 2-furoic acid may be formed through the xylosone pathway E (Shinoda
et al., 2005). Furan may also be generated directly from 2-furfural by an electrophilic aromatic
substitution-type reaction via pathway D with formic acid as by-product. Model experiments
have shown (Table 11.2) that both 2-furfural and 2-furoic acid are fairly good precursors
of furan (Limacher et al., 2007). The intermediacy of 2-furoic acid generating furan by
decarboxylation has first been proposed by Becalski and Seaman (2005).
Unequivocal evidence for the decarboxylation step was obtained by monitoring the CO2
by SmartNose. Relatively more labelled 13 CO2 was found in the model system based on [1-
13
C]-ascorbic acid as indicated by the ratio 1:1.8 of unlabelled and labelled CO2 (Table 11.3).
On the other side, unlabelled CO2 dominated in the presence of [2-13 C]- and [6-13 C]-ascorbic
acid. However, traces of 13 CO2 were also found, suggesting that decarboxylation may partially
take place at C-2 (via 2-furoic acid as intermediate) and C-6 as well. Furthermore, formic acid
was identified as a typical decomposition product of ascorbic acid. The highest percentage
of labelled formic acid (32%) was found from [2-13 C]-ascorbic acid (Table 11.3). However,
also unlabelled formic acid was detected in this sample, thus demonstrating that formic acid
is mainly derived from C-2 of ascorbic acid, but also other C-atoms can be transformed into
formic acid.
11.2.3 Food products

As indicated in model experiments in which the furan levels decreased with increasing
complexity of the system, it is deemed important to check the potential of precursors to
form furan in real food samples. Limacher et al. (2007) extended their study to food products
containing fruits and vegetables heated under conditions that simulate the sterilization process
(123◦ C, 22 min). The products were based on vegetable purée (pumpkin) and vegetable and
fruit juice (carrot and orange). Spiking experiments were conducted with unlabelled and
[6-13 C]-labelled ascorbic acid to estimate the validity of the reaction mechanisms in a real
food environment.
The concentrations of ascorbic acid in the model products ranged from less than
0.1 mg/100 g to about 50 mg/100 g. The amounts added prior to heat treatment were
56–58 mg/100 g. As shown in Table 11.4, the highest increase in furan formation (+124%)
Table 11.3 Carbon dioxide and formic acid generated by thermal decomposition of ascorbic acid
(ASA) isotopomers.
Model system CO2 to 13 CO ratio HCOOH (m/z = 46) H13 COOH (m/z = 47)
2
L-[1-13 C]-ASA 1:1.8 80% 20%

L-[2-13 C]-ASA 1:0.3 68% 32%
L-[6-13 C]-ASA 1:0.2 84% 16%
Table 11.4 Spiking experiments with ascorbic acid (ASA) and [6-13 C]-ASA in food products.
Vegetable purée Vegetable juice Fruit juice

Product (pumpkin) (carrot) (orange)
Natural ASA concentration (mg/100 g) <0.1 7.4 48.3

Total ASA content after spiking (mg/100 g) 57.1 63.2 106.4
Added ASA content (%)a 100 88 55
Furan content without spiking (μg/kg) 48.6 ± 1.6 30.2 ± 5.8 20.7 ± 0.4
Furan content with [6-13 C]-ASA spiking (μg/kg) 108.9 ± 13.5 41.7 ± 0.3 17.8 ± 0.2
Deviation in furan level (%)b +124 +38 −16
Unlabeled furan content (spiked sample) (%)c 100 96 97
[1-13 C]-Furan content (spiked sample) (%)c 0 4 3
pH before spiking 6.26 6.47 3.90
pH after spiking 5.76 6.30 3.81
a
Added ASA content (%) relative to total ASA amount.
b
‘+’ means additional formation of furan, ‘−’ means overall loss of furan.
c
Spiked amount of [6-13 C]-ASA in mg/100 g: 53.57 (pumpkin vegetable), 54.56 (carrot juice), 56.47 (orange juice).
was observed in the pumpkin vegetable purée caused by the addition of 57.1 mg/100 g ascor-
bic acid followed by the carrot juice (+38%) to which 55.8 mg/100 g ascorbic acid was
added. Interestingly, the addition of 58.1 mg ascorbic acid to 100 g orange juice resulted in
less total furan levels (−16%). These results clearly miss a direct correlation between the
concentration of ascorbic acid present in the samples and the furan amounts generated.
According to the formation pathway of furan from ascorbic acid, C-6 of ascorbic acid is
always incorporated into furan (Fig. 11.8). Surprisingly, the content of mono-labelled furan
([1-13 C]-furan) was very low (<4 %) in all food samples spiked with [6-13 C]-ascorbic acid
(Table 11.4). For example, labelled furan was hardly detectable in the pumpkin sample though
about 124% more furan was found after spiking of ascorbic acid. This clearly demonstrates
that, under the experimental conditions chosen, ascorbic acid is only a minor precursor of furan
in the food products studied. The data also suggest that other compounds must function as pre-
cursors, the transformation of which into furan is accelerated in the presence of ascorbic acid.
One explanation for the increase in furan contents in pumpkin purée and carrot juices
could be the pro-oxidant effect of ascorbic acid at high concentrations. Especially in the
pumpkin purée in which the oxidative degradation of lipids is of importance, a pro-oxidative
ingredient may favour furan formation. Another explanation for such a trend could be the pH
decrease from 6.26 to 5.73 after addition of the ascorbic acid, which favours lipid oxidation in
general. This points to lipids as potential furan precursors that have been suggested in previous
studies (Becalski and Seaman, 2005; Märk et al., 2006). Indeed, spiking of pumpkin purée
with increasing amounts of linoleic acid resulted in an almost linear increase of furan after
the sterilization process (Limacher et al., unpublished data). The results, shown in Fig. 11.9,
suggest PUFAs as major furan precursors in pumpkin-based purées.
In fruit juices, a fairly good correlation was found between the amount of furan formed
upon autoclaving and the decomposition of ascorbic acid (Fig. 11.10). Heating orange juice
to boiling for 5 minutes produced 1.4 ng/mL furan; however much higher furan levels were
produced on autoclaving for 25 minutes at 121◦ C (Fan, 2005a). Very little furan was pro-
duced on warming apple juice but on autoclaving, far more furan was produced than when
autoclaving orange juice. Subsequently, it was shown that furan formation by heating or
irradiation was affected by the pH and concentration of sugars and ascorbic acid in solution
(Fan, 2005b).
250
Addition of 4200 mg/100 g linoleic acid
200
Furan (μg/kg)
+ 430
430%%Furan
Furan (+ 460%)
150
(+ 260%)
100
+ 270
270%%Furan
Furan No addition of linoleic acid
(natural content: 500 mg/100 g)
50
Fig. 11.9 Furan levels in pumpkin purée spiked with increasing amounts of linoleic acid. Dotted arrows
indicate the increase in furan levels after the thermal treatment. (Source: Limacher et al., unpublished
results.)
Şenyuva and Gökmen (2007) found temperature as the most important processing param-
eter related to furan formation in hazelnuts, in particular when exceeding 120◦ C (Fig. 11.11).
Potential precursors of furan such as PUFAs (linoleic acid), amino acids (threonine, alanine)
and sugars (glucose) were present in hazelnuts at amounts sufficient to generate furan upon
A B 6
15
10 4
Ascorbic acid (μg/mL)

5 2
Furan (ng/mL)
0 400
C D
15
300
10
200
5 100
0 0
CK Boiled Autoclaved CK Boiled Autoclaved
Fig. 11.10 Effect of thermal treatment on the formation of furan (A, B) and decomposition of ascorbic
acid (C, D) in apple (A, C) and orange (B, D) juices. Fresh juices were either non-treated (CK), boiled
(100◦ C, 5 min), or autoclaved (120◦ C, 25 min). A, furan in apple juice; B, furan in orange juice; C,
ascorbic acid in apple juice; D, ascorbic acid in orange juice. (Reproduced from Fan, X. Impact of ionizing
radiation and thermal treatments on furan levels in fruit juice. Journal of Food Science, 70, E409–E414.
Copyright 2005a with permission of Blackwell Publishing.)
700
10
°C
50 C
°C
50 C
Furan (ng/g)
8
600
100 °C
C °C
100 C
6 °C
150 C
4
500
2
0
Furan (ng/g)
400 0 20 40 60
Time
Ti (min)
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min)
Fig. 11.11 Kinetics of furan formation in hazelnuts during heating at different temperatures. [Reproduced
from ¸Senyuva, H.Z. and Gökmen, V. Potential of furan formation in hazelnuts during heat treatment. Food
Additives and Contaminants, 24(S1), 136–142. Copyright 2007 with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd,
heating. The composition of lipid fraction in terms of relative percentages of fatty acids was
relatively stable during heating at 150◦ C for 30 minutes, but the concentrations of amino
acids and sugars decreased significantly at the end of heating period. Therefore, the authors
concluded that the Maillard reaction is possibly the primary mechanism responsible for the
formation of furan in hazelnuts during heating. Spiking experiments would provide critical
information to check the validity of this hypothesis.
11.2.4 Mitigation concepts

Since the carcinogenicity of furan is probably attributable to a genotoxic mechanism (EFSA,
2004a) levels in food should be kept as low as reasonably achievable. With the broad range
of furan precursors that belong to many chemical classes, furan can easily be generated by
many reactions including the two major and ubiquitous reactions in food chemistry, i.e. lipid
oxidation and Maillard reactions. Therefore, reduction of furan in foods is likely to be more
challenging compared to other process contaminants. The obvious way to reduce furan as a
heat-induced chemical in food is by changing the heating regime or by reducing the content
of potential precursors.
There are only a few studies on the efficiency (molar yield) of furan formed from precursors
in model systems. Becalski and Seaman (2005) found highest furan levels generated from
PUFAs under pressure cooking conditions. Märk et al. (2006) have reported ascorbic acid
to be very efficient under roasting conditions. However, the molar yields remain below 1%
(Limacher et al., 2007). Recent studies performed in our laboratory indicate that PUFAs
have to be considered as the major source of furan, in particular in aqueous food systems
(Limacher et al., unpublished results).
11.2.4.1 Thermal food processing

There is often little room of freedom to lower heating times and temperatures because the
processes of pasteurization and sterilization are for the microbiological safety of foods.
Changing the heating regime may significantly modify the product characteristics. In addition,
milder heating conditions may lead to higher levels of acrylamide, another food-born process
contaminant. It is known that only a small fraction of the total acrylamide formed during
coffee roasting remains in the final product as it is degraded at higher temperatures (Guenther
et al., 2006). Thus, reducing the heat load during roasting will lead to increased acrylamide
levels in coffee.
Furthermore, furan can be formed from a wide range of precursors, with ascorbic acid and
PUFAs showing the highest potential, followed by carotenoids, sugars and amino acids, all
of them being intrinsic food constituents. It should also be noted that ascorbic acid, PUFAs
and carotenoids are regarded as desirable food components because of their health benefits.
Therefore, the point of fortification in the process may be crucial. As an example, our studies
indicated that the addition of ascorbic acid prior to thermal treatment of food products that
contain other furan precursors leads to higher overall furan levels (Table 11.4). Assuming that
these furan precursors belong to the chemical class of polyunsaturated lipids (e.g. PUFAs),
it is not recommended to fortify such food with vitamin C prior to thermal treatment. This
may in particular be important for canned and jarred products such as baby food.
Another mitigation measure that could be explored is to make use of the volatility of
furan, e.g. de-aeration prior to thermal processing. However, again this may be of limited
applicability because for microbiological reasons canned and jarred foods have to be sealed
hermetically. Aseptic filling might be considered in this context, but it requires sterilized
functional ingredients for fortification after the heat treatment step. For coffee it would be
technically difficult to selectively purge coffee of furan whilst retaining all the flavour and
aroma substances required for a balanced coffee note. The structure (i.e. pore size, inner
surface) may affect the release behaviour of furan (and possibly of aroma constituents).
11.2.4.2 Competing reactions

The best approaches appear so far to involve intervention in the reaction mechanisms. For
example, formation of 2-furfural from ascorbic acid in model orange juice was repressed by
the presence of ethanol and mannitol acting as free radical scavengers (Shinoda et al., 2005).
Reduction of atmospheric oxygen slows down the autoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids
and also reduces furan formation from several precursors, notably ascorbic acid (Fig. 11.12).
Therefore, modification of the atmospheres within heating systems might be effective in
reducing furan in foods (Märk et al., 2006). The authors found an even more pronounced
effect on furan reduction (−70%) in the presence of sulphite, which most likely interferes
by trapping reactive intermediary carbonyls required for furan formation. On the other side,
the antioxidant BHT showed only a minor effect (−25%). Therefore, given the complicated
and competing reaction pathways available in autoxidation processes, limiting autoxidation
may not always lead to a corresponding reduction in furan formation.
4
1×10
−30% −25%
Furan [μmol/mol]
3
8×10
3
6×10
4×10
3
−70%
3
2×10
0
ASA ASA + ASA + ASA +
N2 purge BHT Na-Sulphite
Fig. 11.12 Formation of furan from ascorbic acid (ASA) in model systems as affected by selected ad-
ditives. BHT, 2,6-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-methylphenol; N2 , gaseous nitrogen. Adapted from Mörk et al.
(2006). (Reproduced from Fan, X.T. and Sommers, C.H. Effect of gamma radiation on furan formation in
ready-to-eat products and their ingredients. Journal of Food Science, 71, C407–C412. Copyright 2006
with permission of Blackwell Publishing.)
Furan formation is quite sensitive towards changes of the reaction conditions and precursor
compositions indicating complex reaction pathways. Furan amounts can be reduced to a
great extent by favouring competing reactions and/or intervening at the redox system level.
Therefore, the furan levels are definitely much lower in more complex systems such as foods
than one would expect from the data obtained with pure precursors.
11.2.4.3 Ionizing radiation

In general, γ-radiation has been reported to initiate furan formation in fruit juices (Fan, 2005a),
honey and corn syrup (Fan and Sommers, 2006), and model systems based on ascorbic acid
or sugars (Fan, 2005b). However, irradiation-induced furan formation was less pronounced in
ready-to-eat meat and poultry products containing those critical ingredients. In certain cases,
γ-radiation may even be a suitable means to achieve some furan reduction (Fan and Sommers,
2006). As an example, irradiation at doses up to 4.5 kGy induced formation of furan in aque-
ous solutions of Na-ascorbate, Na-erythorbate, glucose, honey and corn syrup. Addition of
Na-nitrite into these solutions prior to irradiation completely eliminated or significantly re-
duced furan formation (Fig. 11.13).
The possibility of using ionizing radiation to reduce the levels of thermally induced furan
and acrylamide in water and selected foods was investigated by Fan and Mastovska (2006).
Irradiation at a low dose (1.0 kGy) destroyed almost all furan and acrylamide in water.
However, in real foods such as sausages and infant sweet potatoes, the reduction of furan was
less effective than in water, whereas the reduction in acrylamide was minimal. Irradiation at
2.5–3.5 kGy, doses that can inactivate 5-log of most common pathogens, reduced furan levels
in the food samples by 25–40%. Even at a dose of 10 kGy, irradiation had a very limited
effect on acrylamide levels in oil and in potato chips.
In a real food, whether irradiation results in a decrease or an increase in furan levels
will depend on many factors such as composition, with water content being one of the most
No-nitrite
3
Nitrite A
Furan (ng/ml) B
2
B
1 C C
D
D D D D
0
Ascorbate Erythorbate Glucose Honey Corn Syrup
Fig. 11.13 Effects of sodium nitrite on the formation of furan from Na-ascorbate, Na-erythorbate, glu-
cose, honey and corn syrup solutions. All solutions were irradiated with 4.5 kGy gamma rays at 5◦ C.
Vertical bars represent standard deviation of means (n = 4). Means with the same letter are not signifi-
cantly (P > 0.05) different. (Source: Fan and Sommers, 2006.)
crucial factors, which may affect the formation and degradation of furan. Antioxidants and
other competing food components may reduce formation and degradation of furan. The
reactivity of food components and proximity to the primary free radicals may also influence
furan accumulation. It appears that furan was relatively sensitive to irradiation, and the rate
of furan formation was relatively lower in food products. However, because of the limited
effectiveness in most foods, other factors such as the possibility of nutrient loss and off-odour
compound formation, and economical aspects, irradiation is unlikely to be used for the sole
purpose of reducing furan (or acrylamide).
11.3 LEVELS OF OCCURRENCE AND EXPOSURE

11.3.1 Data collection
In 2004, the US FDA reported the first results for furan in 334 selected foods, mainly heat-
processed foods sold in jars and cans (FDA, 2004a). The majority were baby foods, followed
by canned vegetables, fruit, meat and fish, pasta sauces, nutrition drinks, fruit preserves, beers
and coffees. The FDA found that many heat-treated foods contained detectable furan (limit
of quantification: 2–5 μg/kg), in particular baby foods sold in jars or in cans. The highest
levels were for vegetables, particularly beans, squash and sweet potatoes.
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reported provisional findings (EFSA,
2004a,b) for some European samples (quantification limits of 1–2 μg/kg). The EFSA data
were summarized with those of the FDA and expressed as ranges over 11 food categories.
Table 11.5 covers an enlarged range of food categories and provides average furan levels on
the basis of data reported by EFSA and FDA (FDA, 2004a; EFSA, 2004b, updated November
2005). Furan levels of over 100 μg/kg were found principally in three categories of major
foods: coffee, baby food, and sauces and soups. Furan was detectable in 262 of the 273 baby
food samples reported (96%) with an average level of 28 μg/kg.
Table 11.5 Levels of furan in foods (mostly canned and jarred) reported by EFSA and FDA.a
Number Furan (μg/kg)

Average of
Sample type Total Negative Minimum Maximum positivesb (μg/kg)
Baby foods 273 11 1 112 28

Infant foods 71 1 1.3 87.3 27
Infant formulaec 42 14 2.5 27 12
Coffee beans/powder 19 0 239 5050 1500
Coffee brewed 38 4 3 125 50
Beers 14 4 0.8 1 6
Bread 13 12 30 30 30
Bread, toasted 6 5 18 18 18
Crisp breads/crackers 4 0 4.2 18.6 12
Candy and chocolate 20 8 0.5 10.3 3
Desserts/puddings 12 1 1.5 13 4
Fish 9 3 1.5 8 6
Fruit 28 2 0.9 11 4
Fruit juices 51 27 0.5 31 5
Fruit preserves 47 2 0.9 37 7
Gravies 8 0 13.3 174 48
Malt 6 1 16 195 91
Convenience meals 32 0 3 94 35
Meats 15 9 1.7 39 18
Miscellaneous 47 9 1 420d 28
Nutrition drinks/shakes 22 2 1.1 174 29
Sauces 41 4 3.3 46 11
Soups 58 7 3 125 32
Soy sauces 12 0 17.2 91 50
Maple syrup 3 0 8.6 88.3 45
Tortilla and potato chips 6 1 4.4 39.1 16
Vegetable juices 8 0 3.2 40 10
Vegetables (in cans and jars) 50 9 0.8 48 9
Baked beans 26 0 23.3 122 59
a
Data taken from EFSA (2004a,b) and FDA (2004a).
b
Some values are approximate (estimated from ranges).
c
Includes ready to eat samples and concentrates prepared as for consumption but with cold water.
d
Two samples (caramels) contained 192 and 400 μ g/kg with all remaining samples below 100 μg/kg.
However, based on this limited set of data, it is not possible to draw firm conclusions
concerning the tendency of different foods to form furan, because exact details on food
composition and the heating conditions of time and temperature were not known. Both
the US and European surveys were restricted to specific products thought likely to contain
furan generated upon heating in sealed containers. Therefore, EFSA has called for further
concentration data for furan in food to estimate consumers’ exposure using data that better
represent the actual distribution of furan in foods (EFSA, 2006c).
11.3.2 Coffee
Furan and furan derivatives have long been known as intrinsic components of coffee flavour.
Some of them play a key role for the characteristic aroma of coffee, such as 2-furfurylthiol
perceived as coffee-like at high dilution (Mayer et al., 2000). Green coffee beans contain
only traces of furan. High levels of furan (∼4 mg/kg) are found in roasted coffee beans
Table 11.6 Furan in coffee beans and its transfer into brewed coffee.a
Furan in bean Furan in brew

Coffee type Brewing method (μg/kg) (μg/kg)
Whole beans Home machine 3600–6100 9–33

Whole beans Manual machine 3600–6100 17–24
Whole beans Automatic machine 3600–6100 57–115
Whole beans French press 3600–6100 33–66
Regular powder In cup 800–3400 9–66
Decaffeinated powder 1000–2800 8–31
Espresso 1500–2000 28–60
Instant 1 200–700 3–15
Instant 2 2000–2200 14–25
a
Adapted from Crews and Castle (2007), data summarized from Kuballa et al. (2005).
(Table 11.6), probably due to the roasting process where the high temperatures exceed most
other food processing procedures. Roast and ground coffee contains about 2 mg/kg furan
with no effect of the decaffeination step (Kuballa et al., 2005). On the other side, relatively
low amounts of furan (∼0.9 mg/kg) were found in instant coffee. Even coffee alternatives
contain furan with a mean level of about 1.2 mg/kg.
However, of outmost importance for estimation of the daily exposure are the furan levels
in the final ready-to-drink coffee beverage. As shown in Table 11.6, losses are substantial
during coffee brewing by all of the usual methods such as expression or filtration, and also in
the preparation of instant coffee (Kuballa et al., 2005). Automatic coffee machines produced
brews with the highest levels of furan, because a higher ratio of coffee powder to water is
used giving a lower dilution factor, and because of the closed system favouring retention of
furan. Much lower levels were produced by standard home coffee-making machines and by
manual brewing. These data show the substantial reduction on brewing coffee from coffee
powder.
11.3.3 Baby food and other dietary sources

The FDA survey included 31 infant formula products (FDA, 2004a). Furan was found in 11
of 13 samples with added iron and in 6 of 18 samples without iron, typically at 8–10 μg/kg.
The data reported in the annex to the EFSA report of the CONTAM panel on provisional
findings on furan in food is shown in Fig. 11.14 for baby food and infant formulae (EFSA,
2004a). The furan amounts (median) found in baby food and infant formulae are in the range
of 5–20 μg/kg. Similar levels were reported in baby food purchased on the Swiss market, i.e.
12 μg/kg (median, n = 102) including extreme values of up to 153 μg/kg (Reinhard et al.,
2004). Unfortunately, the representativeness of the values reported in the literature is not
always satisfactory.
The following foods were shown by EFSA and the FDA to contain relatively high levels
of furan: malts (16–195 μg/kg), gravies (13–174 μg/kg), caramels (220–400 μg/kg) and soy
sauce (17–90 μg/kg). A recent survey of the US FDA in 300 processed foods indicated furan
levels ranging from non-detectable to about 100 μg/kg (Morehouse et al., 2007). In pre-
packaged, processed adult foods, vegetable beef soup and baked beans resulted in the highest
values (85–90 μg/kg) followed by soy sauce and coffee brew (ca. 50 μg/kg). In baby food,
highest furan amounts were found in sweet potatoes and garden vegetables (ca. 80 μg/kg).
120
25%ile
100 mean
Furan concentration (μg/kg)
median
80 max
95%ile
60 75%ile
40
20
0
Baby foods in glass jars Baby
Ba food Baby beverage Infant formula
(vegetables, meat, fruit) (powder for porridge) (juices and teas)
211 4 10 27
Fig. 11.14 Summary of data on baby food and infant formulae collected by the EFSA. (Data source:
Annex to EFSA report of the CONTAM Panel on provisional findings on furan in food, dated 22 December
2004. http://www.efsa.eu.int/science/contam/contam scientific documents/catindex en.html.)
Foods in which no furan was found include milk, margarine, mayonnaise, yogurt, sour cream,
cottage cheese and pasteurized eggs.
Substantial levels of furan (20–200 μg/kg) have also been reported in foods not cooked
in closed containers, such as potato crisps, crackers and crisp breads (Hoenicke et al., 2004)
and toasted bread (Hasnip et al., 2006). These findings are surprising and worth further study,
in particular with regard to the levels of furan present in these products as consumed.
11.3.4 Domestic cooking

Most of the results in the literature to date are for heat-processed retail foods. There have
been a few studies to investigate if furan persists in food during normal preparation processes.
It was thought that such a volatile substance may simply evaporate from the food, e.g. when
cans or jars were opened. However, furan was found to be rather persistent in foods. As
shown in Table 11.7, furan formed in foods following heating in sealed containers during
industrial processing is not lost to a very significant extent when the foods are warmed
prior to consumption (Hasnip et al., 2006). The exceptions are vigorous boiling or cooking
where furan can be evaporated or swept with large volumes of steam. On the other hand,
warming the food even in lightly lidded containers can increase furan levels, thus indicating the
presence of additional precursors with the potential of in situ furan generation (Hasnip et al.,
2006).
In general, furan levels did not decrease as much when foods were cooked in a microwave
when compared to the same foods cooked in a saucepan. Furan levels decreased in most
canned and jarred foods after heating in a saucepan. Low levels of furan in soups in car-
tons were not changed by any procedure. Furan decreased slightly in foods on standing
before consumption but did so more rapidly on stirring, i.e. the furan amount was decreased
from about 20 μg/kg by a factor of ∼10 upon stirring for 10 minutes (Fig. 11.15) (Roberts
Table 11.7 Effects of heating in a closed vessel on furan concentration in food.a
As purchased/ Open/ Rangeb Mean Mean MUc

Food type heated closed (ng/vial) (ng/vial) (ng/g food) (ng/vial)
Dried vegetables As purchased <1 <1 <1 –

Heated Closed 46–50 48 96 9
Heated Open 1–2 2 4 8
Rice pudding (jar) As purchased 141 141 27 16
Heated Closed 255–289 272 53 27
Rice pudding (can) As purchased 86 86 19 12
Heated Closed 105–109 107 21 13
Fruit purée (foil-sealed As purchased 3 3 <1 8
plastic pot) Heated Closed 99–106 103 19 13
Baby food (jar) As purchased 237 237 46 24
Heated Closed 534–547 541 103 52
Baby food (can) As purchased 353 353 70 35
Heated Closed 300–323 312 61 31
a
Source: Hasnip et al. (2006).
b
Distilled water control (blank) showed a background of 8–10 ng/vial, which was subtracted from the results.
c
Analytical measurement uncertainty (MU) only since heating experiments were carried out in the same batch and inclu-
sion of between-batch heating variation is not appropriate.
Reproduced from Hasnip, S., Crews, C. and Castle, L. Some factors affecting the formation of furan in heated
foods. Food Additives and Contaminants, 23, 219–227. Copyright 2006 with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd,
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals (http://www.informaworld.com).
et al., 2007). The levels also decreased slightly when foods were left to stand on plates.
This observation can be attributed to the volatility of furan and is similar to the findings re-
ported by Goldmann et al. (2005) showing evidence for the decrease of furan concentrations
over time upon heating in open jars, thus leading to 85% loss compared with 50% loss in
non-heated samples.
25
20
Furan (ug/kg)
15
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (min)
Fig. 11.15 Decrease in furan concentration in a hot water heated canned carrot and lamb baby food
(on standing) with stirring. [Reproduced from Roberts, D., Crews, C., Grundy, H., Mills, G. and Matthews,
W. Effect of consumer cooking on furan in convenience foods. Food Additives and Contaminants, (2008)
25, 25–31. Copyright 2008, with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Table 11.8 Estimate of exposure to furan from various adult food types.a
Food type Exposure estimate (μg/kg-bw/day)b
Brewed coffee 0.15

Chili 0.04
Soups containing meat 0.01
Pork and beans 0.004
Canned pasta 0.004
Canned string beans 0.004
Instant coffee 0.001
Spaghetti sauces 0.001
Juices 0.001
Canned corn 0.0003
Canned tuna (packed in water) 0.00008
Broths 0.000005
a
According to Morehouse et al. (2007).
b
Micrograms of furan per kilogram body weight per day.
Reproduced from Morehouse, K.M., Nyman, P.J., McNeal, T.P., DiNovi, M.J. and Perfetti,
G.A. Survey of furan in heat processed foods by headspace gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry and an estimate of adult exposure. Food Additives and Contaminants, DOI:
10.1080/02652030701552949. Copyright 2007 with permission from Taylor & Francis
Ltd, http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals (http://www.informaworld.com).
11.3.5 Dietary exposure

In general, there are still limited data available to perform a reliable assessment of the dietary
exposure. However, based on this limited data set, EFSA estimated exposure to furan and
found baby food of particular interest as a high proportion of samples sold in jars and cans
contained furan and such foods may form the sole diet of many babies (EFSA, 2004a). The
estimated intake based on consumption of baby food from glass jars was <0.2 to 26 μg furan
per day or <0.03 to 3.5 μg/kg bw per day for a 6-month-old baby weighing 7.5 kg. The
daily intake for adults from canned or jarred vegetables (35 samples) was estimated to be
1.1–23 μg/person, and from beer (12 samples) it was 1.3–50 μg/person. The daily intake
from coffee based on data from 45 samples was 2.4–116 μg/person, making coffee the major
dietary source for adults.
On the basis of recent results obtained by analysing 300 processed foods, Morehouse
et al. (2007) estimated the exposure to furan from the average diet. Although these data
do not include all foods, they do represent a broad spectrum of foods found in the average
diet. For the average adult diet, brewed coffee is the major source of furan (Table 11.8). The
estimate of the mean exposure to furan for the average US consumer is about 0.2 μg/kg-bw/day
(Table 11.9) and it does not vary among the examined sub-populations. This exposure estimate
Table 11.9 Estimates of mean exposure to furan for different subpopulations.a
Subpopulation Mean exposure (μg/kg-bw/day)b
Males and females age 2–5 years 0.23

Females age 15–45 years 0.24
Males and females age 2 years and older 0.25
a
According to Morehouse et al. (2007).
b
Micrograms of furan per kilogram body weight per day.
Reproduced from Morehouse, K.M., Nyman, P.J., McNeal, T.P., DiNovi, M.J. and Perfetti, G.A. Survey
of furan in heat processed foods by headspace gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and an es-
timate of adult exposure. Food Additives and Contaminants, DOI: 10.1080/02652030701552949.
Copyright 2007 with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
(http://www.informaworld.com).
does not necessarily express the actual consumption of furan by the general public, since other
factors, such as the inclusion of foods not yet analysed and/or further processing of the food
product prior to consumption, could change the estimate. Indeed, the authors stress that furan
intakes from some food products analysed for the US survey may be over-estimated since the
can/jar contents are sometimes warmed and stirred prior to use, which could lead to lower
furan levels in the foods that are consumed due to volatilization.

Headspace (HS) sampling is the most appropriate method for the analysis of furan due to
its volatility. Two approaches were developed for the quantitative analysis of furan in food
samples, i.e. (i) static HS gas chromatography/mass spectrometry GC/MS and (ii) solid
phase micro-extraction (SPME)-GC/MS. Both methods use the isotope dilution assay (IDA)
methodology with [2 H4 ]-furan (= d4 -furan) as internal standard. The use of the labelled
analogue allows for accurate measurement of trace amounts of the analyte in complex matrices
(e.g. food) by compensating for losses during sample preparation (Pickup and McPherson,
1976; De Bièvre, 1990; Milo and Blank, 1998).
The first quantitative method for furan in food was published by the FDA in June 2004
(FDA, 2004b) and revised later by Nyman et al. (2006). Basically, it comprises sample
preparation (5–10 g) with d4 -furan fortification in sealed HS vials under cold conditions and
static HS sampling following incubation at 80◦ C. Furan and d4 -furan are detected by GC/MS
in the full scan mode. Chromatographic separation uses a porous layer open tubular (PLOT)
column with a bonded polystyrene-divinylbenzene based phase (PLOTQ) which separates
small volatile molecules effectively. Furan is quantified by using a standard additions curve
requiring seven extractions per sample, where the concentration of furan in the fortified test
portions is plotted versus the furan/d4 -furan response factors using ions at m/z 68 and m/z 72
for furan and d4 -furan, respectively. Since then the interest in furan analysis grew and several
variations of this procedure were tested and introduced by other research groups summarized
in Table 11.10. Various critical steps that may affect furan quantification are discussed in the
following.

Due to its volatility (b.p. 31.4◦ C), furan should be analysed in refrigerated samples as quickly
as possible after their opening and/or preparation. Effective homogenization of the sample is
recommended using a chilled blender with the sample immersed in an ice bath. Depending
on the physical state of the sample, homogenization should be carried out under chilled or
cryogenic conditions with an adapted mixer, e.g. freezing the sample portion with liquid
nitrogen. Salt is added to improve the equilibrium distribution of furan towards the HS gas.
The internal standard is added into the sample extract, not simply dispensed on its surface.
A simplified version of the initial FDA HS method was reported by Health Canada where
the actual experiments were conducted in the autosampler vials to minimize possible losses
of the analyte by reducing the number of transfer steps (Becalski et al., 2005; Becalski
and Seaman, 2005). This method involves HS sampling from an autosampler vial (2 mL)
containing less sample (1 g). The samples are spiked with d4 -furan, homogenized with water
in a blender at 0◦ C and transferred to vials containing sodium sulphate. After equilibration
at 30◦ C, an aliquot of HS (50 μL) is injected and analysed by GC/MS in the single ion
monitoring (SIM) mode.
312
BLUK145-Gilbert
Table 11.10 Quality criteria of various headspace methods for the quantification of furan in food.a
LODb LOQc Linearity Precisiond Recovery

Method (μg/kg) (μg/kg) (μg/kg) CV (%) (%) Application Reference
1. Static headspace
GC/ITMS, split, n.d.e 0.5–2 n.d.e 6 (n = 6) n.d.e Baby food Reinhard et al.,
PorarisQ, 80◦ C 8 (n = 6) Coffee 2004
February 28, 2008
GC/MS (SIM), splitless, 0.1 n.d.e 0.4–1000 (R 2 > 0.999) 1.6 92–122 Coffee brew, Becalski et al.,
CP-PoraBOND Q (25–250 μg/kg) rice soup 2005
GC/MS, split, 0.2 0.6 0–44 (R 2 = 0.9915) 4.0–8.6 98–102 Apple juice Nyman et al.,
18:12
HP-PLOT Q 0.9 2.9 11.7–17.3 97–101 Peanut butter 2006

2. SPME
GC/MS, split, 0.3 0.8 3.2–177.7 4.6 92–102 Coffee brew Ho et al., 2005
CP-PoraBOND U (R 2 = 0.9953) (38–152 μg/kg)
GC/MS (SIM), splitless, 0.034f 0.086g 0.2–5 (R 2 ∼ 0.999) 7–16 (coffee) 87–93 (2–10 μg/kg) Coffee brew Goldmann et al.,
HP-PLOT Q Orange juice 2005
GC/MS (SIM), splitless, 0.03 0.04 1–100 (R 2 = 0.998) 1.3–6.2 92–96 Baby food Bianchi et al.,
HP-InnoWAX 2006
GC/IT-MS, splitless, 0.008–0.07 0.03–0.25 0.2–5 (R 2 > 0.999) 6–10 n.d.e Coffee, baby Altaki et al.,
BPX-volatiles food, etc. 2007
GC/MS (SIM), split, 0.03 0.09 0–1133h (R 2 > 0.999) 5–8 (model 93–104 Model systems, Iimacher et al.,
ZebronWAX systems, n = 6) (2–10 μg/kg) pap, juice 2007
a
All methods listed in the table are based on Isotope Dilution Assay using d4 -furan as internal standard.
b
LOD, limit of detection.
c
LOQ, limit of quantification.
d
CV, coefficient of variation.
e
n.d., not determined.
f
Detection capability (CCα ).
g
Decision limit (CCβ).
h
The value corresponds to μ mol/mol precursor.
For the analysis of complex food samples (Goldmann et al., 2005), powdered beverages
are reconstituted as proposed on the product label and an aliquot (∼0.5 g) is transferred to
an HS vial (10 mL) containing NaCl (0.2 g). Similarly, a refrigerated and homogenized wet
food sample (e.g. fruit purée) is transferred to an HS vial containing NaCl and water. Dry
food samples are refrigerated and freshly homogenized and then mixed with NaCl and water
in an HS vial. The internal standard solution (d4 -furan, 1 μL, 0.1 ng/mL in water) is added
and the vial immediately sealed. In case of higher furan content, the sample is diluted with
water (9 + 1, w/w). When using a sample dilution step the internal standard is added in the
HS vial and not directly to the sample prior to dilution.
11.4.2 Sampling methods

In direct HS analysis, a portion of the HS gas is taken and injected directly into the GC/MS.
In contrast, in SPME a needle coated with a polymeric material is first exposed to the HS
vapours to absorb volatiles, and is then desorbed thermally in the injection port of the GC.
The food samples need to be chilled or frozen before handling to avoid losses. Partitioning
of furan from the food sample into the HS in the vial is affected by time, temperature and
the mobility of the sample. Effective partitioning is ensured by prolonging the equilibration
incubation time (Becalski et al., 2005), or improving the efficiency of automated shaking by
adding glass beads to the HS vial (Hasnip et al., 2006).
Normal HS procedures involve heating the sample to promote volatilization of analyte
into the HS gas phase. Excessive heating is not recommended for furan analysis. Becalski
et al. (2005) showed that increasing the HS incubation temperature from 30 to 50◦ C caused
only a 50% increase in the furan peak area of an aqueous standard. Addition of salt more
than doubled the furan signal. In view of the danger of forming extra furan even at quite
low temperatures, most workers employ an incubation temperature of 50◦ C or below and this
gives adequate sensitivity of about 1 μg/kg. Şenyuva and Gökmen (2005) demonstrated furan
formation in green coffee (4 μg/kg) and in tomato and orange juices on incubation at 40◦ C
for 30 minutes (Fig. 11.16). Therefore, it is necessary to check the analytical procedure for
any new sample type, especially the HS incubation temperature used, to avoid the formation
of extra furan.
In SPME the fibre is first exposed to the HS to absorb volatiles (e.g. for 10–60 min)
followed by thermal desorption (1–5 min, 90–300◦ C) in the GC injection port. The first
SPME-GC/MS approach was developed by Ho et al. (2005) in which the sample (1 g) is
transferred into a vial (10 mL), and then water (5 mL) and salt (4 g) is added. The vial is sealed
and the internal standard solution is added through the septum using a microlitre syringe. The
vials are vortexed (30 s) prior to analysis. The method employs a SPME fibre coated with
CarboxenTM/polydimethylsiloxane (film thickness 85 μm). The vials are agitated (20 min,
30◦ C) using an automated system and desorbed (90◦ C) onto a CP-Pora Bond U capillary
column.
In general, SPME allows sample concentration and affords higher sensitivity. Limits
of detection in the low ng/kg range can be achieved for furan as shown in Table 11.10.
However, in practice the effective detection limit can be constrained by background lev-
els of furan in the blank samples. Different SMPE fibres were compared including poly-
acrylate, Carbowax R
/divinylbenzene, polydimethylsiloxane/divinylbenzene, and Carbox-
enTM/polydimethylsiloxane. In terms of sensitivity, CarboxenTM/polydimethylsiloxane
showed best results (Goldmann et al., 2005; Fan and Sommers, 2006). The use of this fibre
(film thickness 75 μm) combined with cryofocusing technique using HP-PLOT Q column
600 000
Orange juice (pH 3.5)
Furan response, peak area

500 000 Green coffee (pH 6.0)
Tomato juice (pH 4.5)
400 000
300 000
200 000
100 000
0
40 50 60 70 80
Equilibration temperature (°C)
Fig. 11.16 Change of furan peak response during equilibration of green coffee, tomato juice and orange
juice at temperatures between 40 and 80◦ C for a fixed time of 30 minutes. [Reproduced from Senyuva,
H.Z. and Gökmen, V. Analysis of furan in foods. Is headspace sampling a fit-for-purpose technique? Food
Additives and Contaminants, 22, 1198–1202. Copyright 2005 with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd,
generated a very sensitive method for furan detection. Several authors have reported SPME
methods for furan quantification (Table 11.10), e.g. applied to coffee (Ho et al., 2005), orange
juice (Fan, 2005a), foods in general (Goldmann et al., 2005; Bianchi et al., 2006; Fan and
Sommers, 2006).
11.4.3 GC-MS analysis

The identification of furan is assured by checking for the correct GC retention time along
with the correct ratio of the molecular ion at m/z 68 compared to its fragment ion at m/z
39. According to Crews and Castle (2007), the deviation between analyte and standard furan
should not exceed ±2% for the retention time and ±10% for the mass ratio. However, the
low abundance of the m/z 39 ion constrains the detection and quantification limits.
Quantification has been based on standard additions or external calibration graphs, both
incorporating a deuterium-labelled internal standard (d4 -furan). High levels of internal stan-
dard must be avoided to prevent a contribution to the m/z 68 analyte signal from the [M-
d2 ]+ -fragment ion (Crews and Castle, 2007). Analytical recovery for the major matrices,
brewed coffee and baby food, is consistently better than 90% with limits of detection of less
than 1 μg/kg. A number of method performance characteristics have been reported in detail
(Table 11.10) and show that the current HS methods perform very well.
A typical MS (SIM) chromatogram for dry pet food that represents a complex matrix is
illustrated in Fig. 11.17. Among the five ion chromatograms depicted, the m/z 39 trace shows
interference, and the baseline for m/z 44 is rather poor. However, reliable quantification is
possible using the ion traces at m/z 68 and at m/z 72. It is mandatory to define qualifiers
and quantifiers for both furan and d4 -furan. Recently developed methods (Table 11.10) do
not require tedious standard addition curves for each analysis. The use of the furan/d4 -furan
ratio is sufficient and no advantage in precision was found when applying the standard
addition curve (Reinhard et al., 2004). A comparison of both approaches did not reveal a
Furan
(1) = m/z 63
(2) = m/z 39
Signal
(3) = m/z 69
(4) = m/z 72 (15)
(5) = m/z 44 (16)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
5.5 5.6 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.3

Time (min)
Fig. 11.17 MS (SIM) chromatogram of a dry pet food sample showing interference in the m/z 39 trace
and a poor baseline for m/z 44. Reliable quantification is possible using the ion traces m/z 68 and m/z 72.
(Reproduced from Goldmann, T., Perisset, A., Scanlan, F. and Stadler, R.H. Rapid determination of furan in
heated foodstuffs by isotope dilution solid phase microextraction–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
(SPME-GC-MS). Analyst, 130, 878–883. Copyright 2005 by permission of the Royal Society of Chemistry.)
significant difference in terms of method precision and accuracy (Altaki et al., 2007). In
general, the recent sample preparation procedures allow high throughput analyses (e.g. 48
GC runs within 24 h, equates to 1 calibration curve and 20 samples in duplicate) in many
different food matrices.
11.4.4 Method validation

It is of outmost importance to collect reliable data for estimating the daily exposure through
the normal diet, which requires thorough method validation. As shown in Table 11.10, low
limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) were achieved in the recently developed
methods by sensitive GC-MS techniques. However, these limits may very much depend on
the complexity of the food matrix. Coffee, chocolate and fat-rich foods require particular
care to achieve acceptable repeatability. Becalski et al. (2005) reported good agreement
for within-run duplicates. Each homogenized sample was sub-sampled twice and analysed.
Results for duplicate testing for the foods analysed are shown in Fig. 11.18, where results of
one determination of a particular sample is referenced using x-axis while duplicate of that
sample is referenced using y-axis. All data points are essentially on the y = x line indicating
a good agreement for within-run duplicates.
Characteristic mass units are used as qualifier and quantifier to sort out interferences. The
US FDA method uses two ions for furan, i.e. m/z 39 as qualifier and m/z 68 as quantifier as
well as the characteristic ratio of m/z 39/68, and one ion for d4 -furan (m/z 72 as quantifier,
no qualifier ion and thus no ion ratio determined). Goldmann et al. (2005) suggest the use
of three mass transitions for the identification of furan (1 quantifier and 2 qualifier ions)
250
200
150
Furan (ng/g)
100
Baby food
Soups
50 Stews and chili
Luncheon meats
Coffee
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Furan (ng/g)
Fig. 11.18 Comparison of within-run duplicates for the quantification of furan in various food samples.
[Reproduced from Becalski, A., Forsyth, D., Casey, V., Lau, B.P.-Y., Pepper, K. and Seaman, S. Development
and validation of a headspace method for determination of furan in food. Food Additives and Contaminants,
22, 535–540. Copyright 2005 with permission from Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
(Table 11.11) following EC guidelines (2002). Even if the MS acquisition proposed by the
US FDA is recorded in the full scan mode, the method proposes no identification criteria
based on the mass spectrum.
The variation in furan analysis obtained by two analysts on different days with different
instruments was studied by Nyman et al. (2006). In general, the results showed good within-
laboratory precision (Table 11.12). A minimum of three replicates of different sub-samples
from the same lot were analysed by each analyst. The furan levels ranged from none detected
to 122 μg/kg. For most of the foods, the difference between the amounts of furan found
was ≤18%. Apple juice and one of the infant formulas showed the largest differences, but
Table 11.11 Qualifiers and quantifiers for the analysis

of furan.a
Compound Mass (m/z) Function
Furan 68 ([M]+ ) Quantifier

39 ([M-CHO]+ ) Qualifier
69 ([M+1]+ ) Qualifier
d4 -Furan 72 ([M+4]+ ) Quantifier
42 ([M+4-C2 HO]+ ) Qualifier
a
Adapted from Goldmann et al. (2005) and Limacher et al. (2007).
Table 11.12 Amounts of furan found in sub-samples of the same lot analysed by two analysts on
different days with different instruments.a
Analyst A Analyst B
Furan RSD Furan RSD Difference

Product (μg/kg) (%)b (μg/kg) (%)b (%)
Infant formula with iron, concentrate, brand 1 8.5 2.4 8.6 1.5 1.2
Sweet potatoes, brand 1, baby food 93.1 0.3 91.0 3.1 2.3
Spaghetti sauce, brand 1 6.1 2.1 5.9 1.0 3.3
Baked beans, brand 1 122 0.5 117 4.1 4.2
Canned luncheon meat loaf 1.9 3.0 1.8 3.3 5.4
Sweet potatoes, brand 2, baby food 81.1 0.4 75.7 1.3 6.9
Pork and beans, brand 2 78.7 1.4 85.6 2.9 8.4
Chicken broth, brand 1 8.2 9.1 1.8 10
Infant formula with iron, concentrate, brand 2 18.8 1.5 16.8 1.1 11
Sweet potatoes, brand 3, baby food 82.9 1.0 73.8 6.4 12
Spaghetti sauce, brand 2 3.1 3.1 3.5 2.9 12
Peanut butter 6.1 5.8 7.1 6.4 15
Chicken broth, brand 2 15.2 1.0 18.2 4.1 18
Cut green beans 5.9 1.9 8.2 2.3 28
Chicken dinner, baby food 39.7 1.1 29.4 2.3 30
Chicken and stars, baby food 23.6 0.9 15.9 9.3 39
Apple juice 1.2 10.3 2.2 5.3 59
a
Adapted from Nyman et al. (2006).
b
Per cent relative standard deviations (RSD) determined with a minimum of three replicates.
they also contained very low furan levels. This result may reflect a difference in sensitiv-
ity between the two instruments. The chicken baby foods and green beans also showed a
larger difference, which may reflect a difference in the manner in which these foods were
homogenized.
Laboratory proficiency testing has been performed by FAPAS R
(2005) to allow an inter-
laboratory comparison of furan analysis in baby food. Satisfactory results were obtained
for 85% of the 13 participating laboratories from several countries. The assigned value
was calculated as 25.0 μg/kg with a median absolute deviation of 7.41 μg/kg and a target
standard deviation of 5.50 μg/kg. The z-scores varied from −2.2 to +4.1, with two values
being outside of the satisfactory range of |z| > 2 (see Fig. 11.19). It should be mentioned
that no recommendations were given as to the analytical method to be applied, and indeed
the conditions varied much along the analytical procedure. Standardization of the analytical
methodology may lead to further improvement.
Despite the use of d4 -furan as internal standard and the isotope dilution assay methodology,
the quantitative analysis of furan remains a challenging task due to its volatility and because it
can readily be formed in situ at relatively low temperatures (Şenyuva and Gökmen, 2005). An
important factor to consider in determining the furan content in food is the time dependence
of the concentration of furan in the samples due to its extreme volatility. Furan concentrations
tend to decrease over time in open jars: up to 85% loss of analyte over a period of 5.5 hours
in heated samples was observed compared with 50% loss in non-heated samples (Goldmann
et al., 2005).
Moreover, the structure of the food product and the degree of grinding may affect the furan
results, possibly leading to further complication. Furan trapped in pores of solid materials
may be lost by evaporation during the sample preparation step by destroying the porous
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0 36.0 μg/kg

z -score
1.0
0.0 25.0 μg/kg
−1.0
−2.0 14.0 μg/kg
−3.0
−4.0 13 1 8 7 3 9 2 12 4 11 5 6 10
Laboratory number
Fig. 11.19 FAPAS R

Z -scores for 13 participants taking part in proficiency testing for furan in baby food.
Assigned value for furan = 25.0 μg/kg. Z -scores between −2 and +2 are satisfactory.
structure. On the other hand, materials with very fine pore size may more readily release
furan to be analysed. Indeed, roast and ground coffee of various degree of freeness may
result in up to 50% difference, the finer ground material yielding higher furan levels (J.
Kerler et al., personal communication). However, furan seems to be persistent under certain
conditions, which may be explained by π–π stacking-type interactions of furan with other
food ingredients, such as polyphenolic components. Such interactions leading to relatively
stable complexes have been reported for caffeine with chlorogenic acid (Horman and Viani,
1971) and theaflavin (Charlton et al., 2000).
11.4.5 On-line monitoring

A rapid method based on proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) has been
developed as an on-line monitoring tool (Märk et al., 2006). This PTR-MS procedure can
be employed for rapid screening purposes and direct comparison of effluent gases during
processing. It results in semi-quantitative data obtained in a few minutes and could therefore
be used for on-line quality control. So far it has been applied to model studies based on simple
precursor systems. As shown in Fig. 11.20, a large number of volatile organic compounds
was produced upon thermal treatment of ascorbic acid indicated by selected mass traces. The
major signals were represented by the ions at m/z 69, 47 and 97, followed by many other ion
traces. The ion trace at m/z 69 corresponds to furan, which was unambiguously identified
by PTR-MS/GC-MS coupling. This is achieved by trapping aliquots of the HS on Tenax R
cartridges and analysing off-line the volatile composition by GC-MS, as already described
for acrylamide (Pollien et al., 2003).
Concluding remarks
Reduction of furan in foods seems to be more challenging compared to other process contam-
inants such as acrylamide. This is due to (i) the limited flexibility to lower heating times and
temperatures because of microbiological safety achieved by pasteurization and sterilization,
7x10 4 Furan (m/z 69)
6x10 4
200
m/z 39
5x10 4 m/z 47
Temperature (°C)
m/z 69
Counts (cps)
4x10 4 150
m/z 95
Formic acid
Furfural (m/z 47) m/z 97
3x10 4 (m/z 97) m/z 113
(m/z 113) m/z 115 100
4
2x10 (m/z 39)
(m/z 115)
(m/z 95)
1x10 4 50
0
40 60 80
Time (min)
Fig. 11.20 PTR-MS traces of selected ions obtained by heating ascorbic acid at 200◦ C. Some of these
traces were identified by coupling with GC-MS after trapping the headspace on Tenax R
tubes. For a color
version of this figure, please see Plate 3 of the color plate section that falls between pages 224 and 225.
(Reprinted with permission from Märk, J., Pollien, Ph., Lindinger, Ch., Blank, I. and Märk, T., Quantitation
of furan and methylfuran formed in different precursor systems by proton transfer reaction mass spectrom-
etry, Journal of Agricultrual and Food Chemistry, 54, 2786–2793, copyright 2006, American Chemical
Society.)
(ii) the ease of furan formation by lipid oxidation and Maillard-type reactions from (iii) a wide
range of precursors with ascorbic acid and PUFAs showing the highest potential followed by
carotenoids, sugars and amino acids, which are intrinsic food constituents occurring naturally
in raw materials.
Furan formation is mainly associated with lipid oxidation while acrylamide is in first
instance a Maillard reaction issue. However, both reaction cascades may lead to either of the
processing contaminant. Therefore, a major challenge for academia and industry remains the
development of concepts leading to a reduction of heat-induced risky compounds such as furan
upon industrial and also domestic food processing without changing the desired organoleptic
properties of the food. Other potential process contaminants should be considered as well as
recently done by Fan and Mastovska (2006).
Due to the complexity of furan formation in general and the differences observed in model
systems as compared to food, conclusions should be drawn with much caution, avoiding
data extrapolation from oversimplified model systems based on single precursors to complex
food products. In fact, any study using model systems (preferably simulating food processing
conditions) should be followed up by a validation step in the corresponding food environment.
Further contributions are expected on furan research in food as indicated by the abstracts of
the ACS symposium in San Francisco in 2006 (Granvogl and Schieberle; Becalski; Morehouse
et al., 2007). We have also generated results on furan formation from sugars, Maillard systems
and lipids, including PUFAs and carotenes, which will be published soon.
Additional work is required to get a better control of heat-induced formation of furan and
other food-born process contaminants. Such a study should be combined with monitoring of
positive food quality attributes, i.e. aroma, taste, colour, texture. This may help to understand
the formation mechanisms of furan and other targeted compounds from various types of
precursors under food processing conditions with the aim of reducing their formation while
keeping the desired food quality. Finally, a special effort is expected for generating and
gathering reliable analytical data on furan levels in food. This is the basis for a reliable
assessment of the dietary mean exposure for the average consumer to furan.
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12 Chloropropanols and their

Fatty Acid Esters
Colin G. Hamlet
Summary
Although the occurrence of chloropropanols and their fatty acid esters (chloroesters) has long
since been associated with acid-hydrolysed vegetable protein, an ingredient used in processed
savoury food products, the occurrence of these contaminants in other foodstuffs is relatively
recent and has prompted much new research. This chapter brings together for the first time
information on chloropropanols and chloroesters arising from a wide range of processes
used in the manufacture of foods, including food contact materials and foods prepared in the
home. A brief historical perspective introduces the reader to the topic while developments in
toxicology, state-of-the-art methods of analysis, occurrence, mechanisms of formation and
mitigation efforts of the food industry are reviewed, along with estimates of exposure and
controlling legislation. Several new lines of evidence indicate that chloroesters are widespread
in processed foods and that levels of these contaminants are higher than the corresponding
chloropropanols. This is of concern because model studies have shown that chloroesters can
be hydrolysed to known toxic chloropropanols such as 3-chloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD)
by enzymes present in foodstuffs. The toxicological significance of chloroesters and their
contribution to dietary intakes of chloropropanols is not yet known.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Chloropropanols and chloroesters are contaminants that are formed during the processing and
manufacture of certain foods and ingredients. The presence of these compounds in foods is
of concern because toxicological studies have shown that they could endanger human health
(Lynch et al., 1998).
12.1.1 Historical perspective: 1979–2000

Velı́šek (Velı́šek et al., 1978, 1979, 1980, 1982; Velı́šek and Davı́dek, 1985) and Davı́dek
(Davı́dek et al., 1980, 1982) were the first to demonstrate that chloropropanols and
chloroesters could be formed in hydrolysed vegetable proteins (HVP) produced by hy-
drochloric acid hydrolysis of proteinaceous by-products from edible oil extraction such as
soybean meal, rapeseed meal and maize gluten. It was shown that hydrochloric acid could
react with residual glycerol and lipids associated with the proteinaceous materials to yield
a range of chloropropanols. The main chloropropanol found in HVP was 3-chloropropane-
1,2-diol (3-MCPD) together with lesser amounts of 2-chloropropane-1,3-diol (2-MCPD),

Fig. 12.1 Chloropropanols found in hydrolysed vegetable proteins and their relative amounts (in paren-
theses).
1,3-dichloropropanol (1,3-DCP), 2,3-dichloropropanol (2,3-DCP) and 3-chloropropan-1-ol

(see Fig. 12.1). Although fatty acid esters of 1,3-DCP and 3-MCPD (mono- and diesters)
were formed in acid HVP (Velı́šek et al., 1980; Velı́šek, 1989; Velı́šek and Ledahudcová,
1993), it was shown that only traces remained in the final commercial product since the ma-
jority were effectively removed during filtration of the hydrolysate. Collier et al. (1991) later
showed that chloroesters were intermediates in the formation of dichloropropanols (DCPs)
and monochloropropanediols (MCPDs) from lipids and the relative amounts of each chloro-
propanol formed in acid HVP were dependent on the composition of the lipid in the raw
materials used.
The first reported occurrence of chloroesters in a natural unprocessed food was by Cerbulis
et al. (1984) who identified a small but significant quantity (<1% of total neutral lipids)
of diesters of 3-MCPD in raw milk from several herds of goats. The chloroesters were
composed of molecular species containing C10–C18 fatty acids and corresponded closely in
carbon number to sn-1,2-diacylglycerols (sn = stereospecific numbering system) moieties
of the goat milk triacylglycerols (Kuksis et al., 1986). Stereospecific analysis (Myher et al.,
1986) showed that the 3-MCPD diesters were racemic mixtures of both enantiomers (see Fig.
12.2). These results appeared to exclude their biosynthesis in vivo; however, it was not clear
whether these compounds could have formed from dietary substances, e.g. 3-MCPD or its
esters, passed through the organism or from anthropogenic chlorine containing compounds
(such as chlorine-based sanitisers used in dairy operations) post-secretion.
In 1994 and 1997, the EU Scientific Committee for Food concluded that 3-MCPD should
be regarded as a genotoxic carcinogen and since a safe threshold dose could not be determined,
residues in foods should be undetectable by the most sensitive analytical method (European
Commission, 1997). This spurred intense analytical (Vanbergen et al., 1992; Hamlet and
Sutton, 1997; Hamlet, 1998; Meierhans et al., 1998) monitoring (MAFF, 1999a,b; Wu and
Zhang, 1999; Macarthur et al., 2000) and mitigation activities in many countries. In the case
Chloropropanols and their Fatty Acid Esters 325
Fig. 12.2 Esters of chloropropanols found in foodstuffs and their relationship to the corresponding chloro-
propanol isomers.
of HVP, progress made by European manufacturers in implementing initial chloropropanol

reduction processes (Faesi et al., 1987; Brown et al., 1989; De Rooij et al., 1989; Hirsbrunner
and Weymuth, 1989; Payne, 1989) have significantly reduced levels of both MCPDs and DCPs
in these products.
12.1.2 Scope of chapter

The subsequent discovery of chloropropanols in food contact materials treated with wet
strength resins (Boden et al., 1997), drinking water, and a range of processed foods that do not
use acid-HVP as an ingredient (FAC, 2000), has renewed interest in these contaminants. This
chapter brings together the information available (since approximately 2000) on toxicology,
methods of analysis, occurrence, mechanisms and precursors, mitigation options, exposure
and regulatory status for chloropropanols and chloroesters in foodstuffs.
12.2 TOXICOLOGY
12.2.1 3-MCPD
The chloropropanol 3-MCPD has been investigated in short- and long-term toxicity studies
and the most recent toxicology, mutagenicity and carcinogenicity data have been summarised
previously by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) at its
meeting in 2001 (Schlatter et al., 2002a). In rats and mice the kidney was the main target
organ for toxicity with effects also observed on male fertility. Studies have demonstrated that
3-MCPD has mutagenic activity in vitro (Lynch et al., 1998; Robjohns et al., 2003) although
negative results reported from a bone marrow micronucleus assay in rats and a rat liver
unscheduled DNA synthesis (UDS) assay (Fellows, 2000; Marshall, 2000) have provided
reassurance that the mutagenic activity seen in vitro was not expressed in vivo (COM, 2000).
No epidemiological or clinical studies in humans have been reported.
In June 2001, JECFA (2002) assigned a provisional maximum tolerable daily intake
(PMTDI) for 3-MCPD of 2 μg kg−1 body weight on the basis of the lowest observed effect
level (LOEL) and a safety factor of 500. The safety margin included a factor of five for
extrapolation from an LOEL to a no observed effect level (NOEL) and was considered
adequate to account for the effects on male fertility and for inadequacies in the reproductive
toxicity data.
12.2.2 Dichloropropanols
The available toxicology, mutagenicity and carcinogenicity data for 1,3-DCP have been sum-
marised previously by the 57th session of JECFA in 2001 (Schlatter et al., 2002b). JECFA
concluded that 1,3-DCP was hepatotoxic, induced a variety of tumours in various organs in the
rat, and was genotoxic in vitro. The UK Committees on Mutagenicity (COM) and Carcino-
genicity (COC) of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment considered
1,3-DCP in 2003 and 2004, respectively, following the publication of results from in vivo
rat bone marrow micronucleus and rat liver UDS tests (Fellows, 2000; Marshall, 2000). The
COM (2003) concluded that 1,3-DCP is not genotoxic in vivo in the tested tissues. However,
the COC (2004) concluded that 1,3-DCP should be regarded as a genotoxic carcinogen as
it was not possible to exclude a genotoxic mechanism for the induction of tumours of rat
tongue observed in the 2-year carcinogenicity study. The Committee also recommended that
further investigation regarding the mechanisms of 1,3-DCP carcinogenicity in vivo is needed.
The most recent assessment of 1,3-DCP (JECFA, 2006) concluded that the critical effect of
1,3-dichloro-2-propanol was carcinogenicity and that a genotoxic mode of action could not
be excluded. On the basis of these findings a tolerable daily intake for 1,3-DCP has not been
set.
There are very few data on the absorption, distribution and excretion of 2,3-DCP. Theoreti-
cally, 2,3-DCP could be metabolised to produce epichlorohydrin (and subsequently glycidol)
and therefore there are structural alerts for genotoxicity and carcinogenicity (COM, 2004).
Limited in vitro mutagenicity data indicate that 2,3-DCP is genotoxic with and without
metabolic activation in bacterial and mammalian cells (COM, 2004). Recently published in
vivo rat bone marrow micronucleus and rat liver UDS assays were negative (Fellows, 2000;
Marshall, 2000). No appropriate carcinogenicity studies of 2,3-DCP are available. The UK
COM (2004) considered that 2,3-DCP has no significant genotoxic potential in vivo in the
tissues evaluated (i.e. bone marrow and liver in the rat). The COC (2004) considered that no
conclusions regarding carcinogenicity of 2,3-DCP could be reached.
12.2.3 Chloroesters
The recent discovery of chloroesters in foods other than acid-HVP has raised questions about
the bioavailability of chloropropanols from the dietary intake of these substances. To date,
there are insufficient data for expert bodies to evaluate dietary intake or the toxicological
significance of chloroesters, and JECFA (2006) has recommended that studies be undertaken
to address these questions.

12.3.1 Chloropropanols
The measurement of chloropropanols at trace contaminant levels in foodstuffs presents a chal-
lenge for the analyst: the absence of suitable chromophores has made approaches based on
high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet or fluorescence detection
unsuitable; the low volatility and high polarity of, e.g. MCPDs give rise to unfavourable inter-
actions with components of gas chromatography (GC) systems that result in poor peak shape
and low sensitivity; while the low molecular weight of both MCPDs and DCPs make mass
detection difficult since diagnostic ions cannot be reliably distinguished from background
chemical noise. Many of these limitations have been overcome and methods based on the
formation of stable GC volatile derivatives with mass-selective (MS) detection predominate.
Restrictions on the commercial availability of some reference standards have necessitated
custom syntheses of, e.g. 2-MCPD. The latter compound has been quantified to a first approx-
imation by using the response factors from readily available 3-MCPD calibration standards
(Hamlet et al., 2002).
12.3.1.1 Heptafluorobutyryl ester derivatives

Procedures based on the GC/MS detection of heptafluorobutyryl (HFB) esters of chloro-
propanols have been universally applied to the analysis of a wide range of foodstuffs and
have subsequently become the normative reference methods (Brereton et al., 2001; British
Standards Institution, 2004). Heptafluorobutyryl imidazole (HFBI) and heptafluorobutyric
anhydride (HFBA) are the derivatisation reagents of choice and the formation of the cor-
responding HFB esters is selective for the hydroxyl function and hence the analysis of all
chloropropanols (see Fig. 12.3). Since HFBI and HFBA are moisture sensitive, derivatisation
must be carried out under anhydrous conditions.
Brereton et al. (2001) validated by collaborative trial the procedures developed by Hamlet
and Sutton (1997) and Hamlet (1998) for the determination of 3-MCPD at the low μg kg−1
level in a wide range of foods and ingredients. The water-soluble 3-MCPD was extracted
into saline solution and then partitioned into diethyl ether using a solid phase extraction
technique based on diatomaceous earth. Dried and concentrated extracts were treated with
O
OH Cl O C3F7 Cl
Cl OH OH OH Cl O C3F7 F7C3 O O C3F7

3-MCPD 2-MCPD
O O O
HFBI or H
+ N or HO C3F7
HFBA O
N O
OH Cl O C3F7 Cl
Cl Cl Cl OH Cl Cl Cl O C3F7
1,3-DCP 2,3-DCP
O
O C3F7
F7C3 O C3F7
HFBI = N HFBA =
O O
N
Fig. 12.3 Derivatisation reactions of chloropropanols with HFBI and HFBA.
heptafluorobutyrylimidazole (HFBI) to convert 3-MCPD to the corresponding HFB di-ester

(see Fig. 12.3) prior to analysis by GC and mass spectrometry (MS). Quantification was
by a stable isotope internal standard method using deuterium labelled 3-MCPD (3-MCPD-
d5 ) added to the sample prior to extraction. The method was suitable for the quantification
of 3-MCPD at levels of ≥10 μg kg−1 and was adopted as an AOAC First Action Official
Method. The three main advantages of this approach were (a) high sensitivity resulting from
the formation of a GC volatile 3-MCPD derivative; (b) high specificity associated with mass
spectrometric detection at higher mass; and (c) accurate quantification from the use of a stable
isotope internal standard.
The procedure of Brereton et al. (2001) has subsequently been modified and extended to the
analysis of MCPDs and/or DCPs. Nyman et al. (2003b) optimised a method for the analysis
of 1,3-DCP in soy sauces using 10% diethyl ether/hexane to isolate the dichloropropanol at
the solid phase extraction stage. The mean recovery of 1,3-DCP from spiked test samples was
100% with a relative standard deviation of 1.32%: the method LOQ was 0.185 μg kg−1 . Xu
et al. (2006) added hexane at the initial aqueous extraction stage to remove fat from samples
and also reported improved sensitivity and selectivity over electron ionisation (EI)-MS when
using negative ion chemical ionisation MS. The authors also showed that the derivatisation of
DCPs with HFBA was more effective when a catalytic amount of triethylamine was added.
Chung et al. (2002) used silica gel columns with ethyl acetate as the elution solvent for
the solid phase extraction step in the analysis of soy sauces. Abu-El-Haj et al. (2007) used
dichloromethane as the chloropropanol elution solvent: aliquots of aqueous samples, e.g. soy
sauce and soups, were pre-absorbed onto alumina columns while dry samples, e.g. crumbed
cereal products, were eluted directly following a lipid removal step with hexane. Chung et al.
(2002) and Abu-El-Haj et al. (2007) both used HFBA for the derivatisation step and the limits
of quantification (LOQ) for these methods were 3–5 μg kg−1 .
The EI mass spectra of the HFB esters of 3-MCPD, 1,3- and 2,3-DCP and the characteristic
ions for all chloropropanols are given in Fig. 12.4 and Table 12.1, respectively.
Fig. 12.4 EI mass spectra of the HFB derivatives of (a) 3-MCPD, (b) 1,3-DCP and (c) 2,3-DCP. (Data
courtesy of RHM Technology, UK.)
330
BLUK145-Gilbert
Table 12.1 Characteristic ions (m/z) in the mass spectra of the HFB esters of chloropropanols.
(a) EI mass spectra

February 15, 2008
HFB ester of: MW [M-CH2 Cl]+ [M-C3 F7 CO2 ]+ [M-C3 F7 CO2 CH2 ]+ [M-C3 F7 CO2 -HCl]+ [M-C3 F7 CO2 -C3 F7 CO2 H]+
3-MCPD 502 453 289/291a 275/277a 253 75/77a

18:22
3-MCPD-d5 507 456 294/296a 278/280a 257 79/81a

2-MCPD 502 – 289/291a – 253 75/77a

1,3-DCP 324 275/277a 111/113/115a – 75/77a –
1,3-DCP-d5 329 278/280a 116/118/120a – 79/81a –
2,3-DCP 324 – 111/113/115a – 75/77a –
(b) NCI mass spectra
HFB ester of: MW [M-HF]− [M-HF-HCl]− [M-HF-HCl-HF]−
3-MCPD 502 482/484a 446 426

3-MCPD-d5 507 486/488a 449 428
2-MCPD 502 482/484a 446 426
1,3-DCP 324 304/306/308a 268/270a 248/250a
1,3-DCP-d5 329 308/310/312a 271/273a 250/252a
2,3-DCP 324 304/306/308a 268/270a 248/250a
a
Isotopic chlorine cluster ions.
Ph
OH O B
O
Cl OH Cl
3-MCPD 4-Chloromethyl-2-phenyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolane
B
HO OH
+ 2H2O
PBA
Cl Cl
OH OH O O
B
2-MCPD
Ph
5-Chloro-2-phenyl-1,3,2-dioxaborinane
Fig. 12.5 Derivatisation reactions of MCPDs with PBA.
12.3.1.2 Dioxaborolane/dioxaborinane derivatives

Boronic acids react with 1,2- and 1,3-diols to give cyclic dioxaborolane/dioxaborinane deriva-
tives. Rodman and Ross (1986) carried out derivatisation under anhydrous conditions while
Pesselman and Feit (1988) showed that a boronic acid derivative of 3-MCPD could be pre-
pared under aqueous conditions, despite the liberation of water from the formation reaction
(see Fig. 12.5). Hence, this approach has been adopted for the analysis of liquid seasonings
such as HVP and soy sauces (Plantinga et al., 1991; Wu and Zhang, 1999). Since boronic
acids react specifically with diol compounds other chloropropanols such as 1,2- and 1,3-DCP
cannot be determined by this procedure.
Breitling-Utzmann et al. (2003) and Divinová et al. (2004) prepared boronic acid deriva-
tives of MCPDs extracted from a wide variety of retail foodstuffs. Breitling-Utzmann et al.
used saline solution for both extraction and derivatisation while Divinová et al. used hex-
ane/acetone (1:1 v/v) for the initial extraction followed by a partition step into saline solution.
Derivatisation was carried out in the saline solution using phenylboronic acid (PBA) and the
reaction products were extracted into hexane. Quantification was by a stable isotope inter-
nal standard method using 3-MCPD-d5 and GC/MS operating in selected ion monitoring
(SIM) mode. Typical LOQs ranged from 10 μg kg−1 (e.g. soy sauce) to 50 μg kg−1 (e.g.
toasted bread). Velı́šek et al. (2002) used a Chiraldex G-TA fused silica capillary column to
separate the optical isomers of 3-MCPD prior to quantification by MS. Kuballa and Ruge
(2004) showed that lower LOQs could be achieved using GC combined with tandem mass
spectrometry (MS/MS) on a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer operating in the selected
reaction monitoring mode. In a recent publication Huang et al. (2005) demonstrated that the
PBA derivative of 3-MCPD prepared in liquid HVPs could be extracted and quantified at
the low μg kg−1 level using headspace solid-phase microextraction (SPME) combined with
GC/MS detection.
The EI mass spectra of the PBA derivative of 3-MCPD and the characteristic ions for all
MCPDs are given in Fig. 12.6 and Table 12.2, respectively.
Table 12.2 Characteristic ions (m/z) in the EI mass spectra of the PBA derivatives of MCPDs.
Other structurally
PBA derivative of: MW [M]+ [M-CH2 Cl]+ significant ions
3-MCPD 196 196/198a 146/147b 103/104b [Ph-BO]+ , 91 [C7 H7 ]+

3-MCPD-d5 201 201/203a 149/150b 103/104b [PhBO]+ , 93 [C7 H5 D2 ]+
2-MCPD 196 196/198a – 103/104b [PhBO]+ , 91 [C7 H7 ]+
a
b
Isotopic boron cluster ions.
12.3.1.3 Dioxolane/dioxane derivatives

The reaction of 1,2- and 1,3-diols with aldehydes and ketones to give cyclic acetals and
ketals is well known (March, 1983) and Meierhans et al. (1998) were the first to report a
quantitative method for 2- and 3-MCPD using dry acetone as the derivatising reagent in the
presence of toluene-4-sulphonic acid (TsOH) according to the reaction scheme given in Fig.
12.7. The resulting 1,3-dioxolane and 1,3-dioxane derivatives were characterised by GC/MS.
MCPDs were partitioned from aqueous samples/extracts using solid phase extraction on
diatomaceous earth and diethyl ether elution described previously. In keeping with the HFB
reagents, anhydrous conditions are required for derivatisation.
Subsequent modifications to the procedure of Meierhans et al. (1998) include: the addition
of MCPD-d5 to samples prior to extraction for quantification (Jin et al., 2001; Dayritt and
Ninonuevo, 2004; Rétho and Blanchard, 2005); the use of 3-pentanone or 4-heptanone/TsOH
for derivatisation (Dayritt and Ninonuevo, 2004; Rétho and Blanchard, 2005); the use of ethyl
acetate for the solid phase partition step and additional clean up post-derivatisation using basic
aluminium oxide cartridges (Rétho and Blanchard, 2005). The LOQs for these methods are
in the range 1–5 μg kg−1 .
Although the occurrence of 2-MCPD has been reported in some foodstuffs (Rétho and
Blanchard, 2005) no mass spectral data have been given for the acetone derivative (dioxane)
Fig. 12.6 EI mass spectrum of the PBA derivative of 3-MCPD. (Data courtesy of RHM Technology, UK.)
R
R
OH O
O
Cl OH Cl
3-MCPD 1,3-Dioxolane
R O
R
+ H2O
TsOH
Cl Cl
OH OH O O
2-MCPD
R R
1,3-Dioxolane
Fig. 12.7 Derivatisation reactions of MCPDs with ketones.
of this isomer. These methods have not been used for the determination of dichloropropanols
since these compounds do not form cyclic derivatives with ketones. The EI mass spectra of
the acetone derivative of 3-MCPD and the characteristic ions for all MCPDs are given in
Fig. 12.8 and Table 12.3, respectively.
12.3.1.4 Other methods of interest

The higher volatility and lower polarity of dichloropropanols, compared to MCPDs, has
permitted the direct determination of 1,3-DCP using GC/MS, i.e. without derivatisation
(Wittmann, 1991). Schumacher et al. (2005) extracted 1,3-DCP from river water samples
Fig. 12.8 EI mass spectrum of the acetone derivative of 3-MCPD. (Data courtesy of RHM Technology,
UK.)
Table 12.3 Characteristic ions (m/z) in the EI mass spectra of the dioxolane derivatives of MCPDs.
Other structurally
Chloropropanol Dioxolane of: MW [M-CnH2n+1 ]+ significant ions
3-MCPD acetone 150 135/137a 43 [C2 H3 O]+

3-MCPD-d5 acetone 155 140/142a 43 [C2 H3 O]+
3-MCPD 3-pentanone 178 149/151a 57 [C3 H5 O]+
3-MCPD-d5 3-pentanone 183 154/156a 57 [C3 H5 O]+
3-MCPD 4-heptanone 206 163/165a 71 [C4 H7 O]+
3-MCPD-d5 4-heptanone 211 168/170a 71 [C4 H7 O]+
a
using ethyl acetate while Crews et al. (2002) showed that 1,3-DCP was sufficiently volatile
to be quantified in the headspace of soy sauces. Both groups used GC/MS to monitor ions
at m/z 79 and m/z 81 for 1,3-DCP and m/z 82 for the stable isotope internal standard 1,3-
DCP-d5 . The procedure of Crews et al. (2002) was subsequently validated by a collabora-
tive trial in which participants used both static headspace and SPME, and the method was
shown to be rapid, accurate and fit for purpose (Hasnip et al., 2005) with a method LOD of
≤10 μg kg−1 .
Although the formation of trimethylsilyl ethers of chloropropanols has previously been
used for the analysis of MCPDs and DCPs in HVPs (Wittmann, 1991) and resin-treated
papers (Boden et al., 1997), recent applications have been limited to the analysis of soy
sauces (Mingxia et al., 2003).
Leung et al. (2003) recently demonstrated the feasibility of using molecularly imprinted
polymers (MIP) as a qualitative tool for the screening of food products for 3-MCPD. An MIP
derived from 4-vinylphenylboronic acid was shown to act as a potentiometric chemosensor
via the increase in Lewis acidity of the receptor sites upon reaction of the aryl boronic acid
with 3-MCPD (see Fig. 12.5). A simple pH glass electrode was sufficient to monitor the
analyte-specific binding and in water a linear response was obtained over 0–350 mg kg−1 .
Xing and Cao (2007) described a capillary electrophoresis technique with electrochemical
detection for the rapid analysis of 3-MCPD in soy sauces. The linear range for of the method
was 6.6–200 mg L−1 with an LOD of 0.13 mg L−1 .
12.3.2 Chloroesters
There are fewer methods for the analysis of chloroesters. Hamlet and Sadd (2004), Hamlet
et al. (2004a) and Zelinková et al. (2006) developed methods for the direct analysis of esters
of 3-MCPD in cereal products and edible oils based on an adaptation of the earlier procedure
of Davı́dek et al. (1980). Fat containing the chloroesters was extracted from samples using
either ethyl acetate or diethyl ether and separated by preparative TLC into individual fractions
containing the diesters and monoesters of 3-MCPD. The individual fractions were analysed
by GC/MS and the diesters and monoesters of MCPDs were identified by comparison with
synthetic 3-MCPD-palmitate esters and reference mass spectral data (Kraft et al., 1979;
Davı́dek et al., 1980). All MCPD-esters were quantified as 3-MCPD-dipalmitate using 5-α-
cholestane as an internal standard. No recent methods for the analysis of monoesters of 1,3-
and 2,3-DCP have been reported.
The isolation and measurement of all chloroesters by these methods is a lengthy process
due to the many species arising from the different fatty acid combinations associated with
Fig. 12.9 Release of MCPDs from MCPD-esters in bread crust by enzyme hydrolysis.
each chloropropanol moiety. Chloroesters may be hydrolysed to the corresponding toxic

chloropropanol, either during food processing or in vivo.Consequently, methods have been
devised to measure the total amount of chloropropanol, i.e. free and ester derived.
Hamlet et al. (2004a) and Hamlet and Sadd (2004) measured total MCPDs in dried cereal
products, i.e. free and ester derived. The MCPDs esterified with fatty acids were released
by enzyme hydrolysis following incubation in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) with a com-
mercial lipase from Aspergillus oryzae for 24 hours (see Fig. 12.9). Total MCPDs were
determined as the HFB-esters by GC/MS as described previously (see Section 12.3.1.1). The
recovery of 3-MCPD from 3-MCPD-dipalmitate reference standard was 106% and 91% at
250 μg kg−1 and 750 μg kg−1 (sample basis), respectively. The repeatability of the method,
expressed as a coefficient of variation, was 3.7% and the limit of quantification was <10 μg
kg−1 . Divinová et al. (2004) developed a method to measure total 3-MCPD in a wide range of
foodstuffs. Free and esterified 3-MCPD was isolated from samples as fat using diethyl ether as
the extraction solvent. The solvent-free fat extract was then subjected to methanolysis using
methanolic sulphuric acid and the 3-MCPD generated was quantified as the PBA derivative
using GC/MS as described previously (see Section 12.3.1.1). The LOD and LOQ were de-
termined to be 1.1 mg kg−1 and 3.3 mg kg−1 respectively on the extracted fat basis. Samples
and extracts prepared by these methods were not analysed for the corresponding DCPs.
12.4 OCCURRENCE
12.4.1 Chloropropanols
12.4.1.1 Soy sauces and related products
Following reports in 1999 that unacceptably high levels of chororpopanols (Joint Food Safety
and Standards Group, 1999; Macarthur et al., 2000) had been found in some soy sauce
Table 12.4 Published data on the occurrence of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP in soy sauces and similar
products.
3-MCPD (mg kg−1 ) 1,3-DCP (mg kg−1 )
Author Incidencea Mean Range Incidencea Mean Range
Macarthur et al. (2000) 19/40 2.48b <0.01–30.5 – – –

Jin et al. (2001) 15/30 –c <0.01–>10 – – –
Fromberg (2001) 9/21 7.67b <0.01–69 – – –
FSA (2001a,b) 31/100 3.73b <0.01–93.1 17/100 0.023b <0.005–0.345
FSA (2002) 14/273 0.253b <0.001–23.7
Nyman et al. (2003b) 33/55 44.07b <0.025–876 14/39 0.650b <0.025–9.84
Crews et al. (2003) 8/99 0.235b <0.01–21.2 1/99 0.003b 0.017
FSANZ (2003) 18/39 15.4b <0.01–148.2 9/39 0.070b <0.01–0.60
European Commission 714/2035 9.164b <0.01–1779 60/282 0.092b 0.010–1.37
(2004)
Cheng et al. (2004) 104/214 –c <0.01–6.63 – – –
Wong et al. (2006) 45/421 0.45d <0.01–>3 – – –
a
Number of samples above the limit of detection.
b
Derived value from reported data (one half of the reported limit of detection value used to calculate the mean).
c
Data not available.
d
Upper bound mean level.
samples, 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP have been monitored extensively in these products around
the world (see Table 12.4).
Many of these products originated from Asia and via manufacturing processes that utilised
acid hydrolysis of defatted soya beans, a process that without adequate controls can give rise
to chloropropanol contamination (Velı́šek et al., 1978). A breakdown of the occurrence of
3-MCPD in soy sauces by country of origin, taken from a major compilation of data produced
by EU member states (European Commission, 2004), is shown in Fig. 12.10. It should be
emphasised that these data do not necessarily reflect the current status of products from a
particular country of origin since some of the data may originate from samples produced prior
to the introduction of chloropropanol reduction methods. Furthermore, the data are likely to
be skewed as a result of targeted analyses of products suspected of having high levels of
chloropropanols.
Less data are available for other chloropropanols in soy sauces: in samples where quan-
tifiable levels of 3- and 2-MCPD were measured (European Commission, 2004), the two
isomers were correlated (r 2 = 0.95, n = 25) and the ratio of 3-MCPD:2-MCPD was about
8:1. All samples containing DCPs also contained 3-MCPD (Nyman et al., 2003a; European
Commission, 2004). Nyman et al. (2003a) found that 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP were loosely
correlated (r 2 = 0.73) in samples containing quantifiable levels of both chloropropanols, al-
though this trend was not apparent for all DCP isomers in data from other surveys (European
Commission, 2004). However, it could be shown that samples containing in excess of
10 mg kg−1 3-MCPD would be expected to contain 1,3-DCP in concentrations ranging
from 0.25 kg−1 to 10 mg kg−1 (Nyman et al., 2003b).
12.4.1.2 Retail foods other than soy sauces

The chloropropanol 3-MCPD has been found in a wide range of retail ready-to-eat processed
foods including cereal, coffee, cheese, liquorice, fish and meat suggesting that formation
Fig. 12.10 Distribution of 3-MCPD in soy sauces (mean and range) by countries of origin.
may occur by a range of mechanisms/processes (see Table 12.5). Reassuringly, the levels of
3-MCPD are much lower than those reported for some soy sauces.
Thermally processed products, e.g. cereals, account for the greatest incidence of 3-MCPD
with some of the highest levels found in products attaining high temperatures, e.g. bread crust
and toasted bread. The mechanisms of formation of 3-MCPD in thermally processed cereal
products are discussed in Section 12.6.
Low levels of 3-MCPD have also been found in products not subjected to high temperature
treatments such as cheese, salami and cold smoked fish. Some possible occurrence routes for
3-MCPD in cheese and salami include enzymatic release of 3-MCPD from chloroesters and/or
migration from epichlorohydrin containing resin-treated food contact materials (see Section
12.4.1.4). In the case of smoked products, the occurrence of 3-MCPD in smoke generated
from the wood during the process and from liquid smoke ingredients may contribute to the
levels found in these products (Kuntzer and Weisshaar, 2006). High levels of 3-MCPD, up to
1150 μg kg−1 , have been reported in uncooked convenience chicken products, e.g. chicken
nuggets and crumb-dressed chicken breast (Kuntzer and Weisshaar, 2006). The authors of-
fered the suggestion that these products may have been treated with highly contaminated pro-
tein hydrolysates (to increase water-binding capacity) although no further details were given.
Although information on other chloropropanols in retail foods is scarce at present, data
from the recent EC SCOOP task (European Commission, 2004) indicate that the incidence
and levels of 2-MCPD (8/115), 1,3-DCP (0/42) and 2,3-DCP (1/28) in retail foods is likely
Table 12.5 Retail, ready to eat foodstuffs with quantifiable levels of 3-MCPD.
Meanb Range
Foodstuff Incidencea (μg kg−1 ) (μg kg−1 ) Reference
Cereal products
Breads 14/27 12 <10–49 FSA (2001c)
Bread 6/9 23 <10—76 Breitling-Utzmann et al. (2003)
Crust 9/9 91 24–275 Breitling-Utzmann et al. (2003)
Toast 26/26 214 30–679 Breitling-Utzmann et al. (2003)
Toast 10/10 136 20–322 Crews et al. (2001)
Cake, fruit 8/10 78 <10–210 European Commission (2004)
Crackers/toasts 30/34 38 <10–134 FSA (2001c)
Doughnuts 5/5 18 11–24 FSA (2001c)
Rusks 10 21 <10–48 European Commission (2004)
Sweet biscuits 5/19 5 <10–32 FSA (2001c)
Cheese 4/30 8 <10–31 FSA (2001c)
Cheese 11/105 8 <10–95 European Commission (2004)
Cheese 4/9 12 <10–37 Crews et al. (2001)
Cheese 3/3 42 13–83 Svejkovská et al. (2004)
Coffee 11/15 12 <9–19 Doležal et al. (2005)
Fish
Anchovies, in olive oil 2/2 48 15–81 FSA (2001c)
Crumbed 5/6 37 <5–83 FSANZ (2003)
Smoked fish 6/8 37 <10–191 European Commission (2004)
Liquorice 2/2 22 20–23 European Commission (2004)
Meats
Bacon 3/6 11 <5–22 FSANZ (2003)
Beef 5/7 25 <10–71 FSA (2001c)
burger/hamburger
Beef 6/6 15 7–49 FSANZ (2003)
burger/hamburger
Salami 9/20 12 <10–69 FSA (2001c)
Salami 2/2 31 14–48 Svejkovská et al. (2004)
Sausages 3/6 16 <5–69 FSANZ (2003)
Smoked meats
Bacon 2/10 11 <10–47 FSA (2001c)
Fermented sausages/ 29/33 43 <5–74 Kuntzer and Weisshaar (2006)
smoked ham
a
b
to be very low. However, results from a recent survey of food products carried out by Food
Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ, 2003) revealed that, unlike soy sauces, 1,3-DCP
may be present in food without the presence of 3-MCPD or at levels substantially higher than
those of 3-MCPD. These foods were all raw meats (see Table 12.6) and the levels of 1,3-DCP
decreased when the samples were cooked. A subsequent survey of 28 raw meats from retail
outlets in the UK (FSA, 2004) did not find any quantifiable levels of 3-MCPD or 1,3-DCP
and to date the occurrence route for 1,3-DCP in the raw meats from the 2003 FSANZ survey
remains unknown.
12.4.1.3 Commercial food ingredients

Survey data on the occurrence of 3-MCPD in commercial food ingredients are given in Table
12.7. Occurrence data for other chloropropanols are very limited.
Table 12.6 Occurrence data for chloropropanols in raw meats.a
3-MCPD 1,3-DCP
Number of Range Range

Sample samples Incidenceb (μg kg−1 ) Incidence (μg kg−1 )
Beef, minced 10 0/10 <5 9/10 <3–110

Beef, steak 5 0/5 <5 1/5 70
Sausages 10 3/10 <5–13 7/10 <3–69
Ham, leg 5 2/5 <5–27 2/5 <3–21
Lamb, chops 6 0/6 <5 1/6 91
a
Adapted from FSANZ (2003).
b
Processed garlic accounted for the highest incidence and concentration, with 20/21 samples
containing between 5 and 690 μg kg−1 3-MCPD. The mechanism of formation of 3-MCPD
in these products is discussed in Section 12.6.
Mean 3-MCPD concentrations in 72 acid-HVPs ranged from 61 to 78 μg kg−1 and are
consistent with the efforts made by industry to reduce levels in these products. Levels of
2-MCPD in these products were frequently higher than 3-MCPD as a consequence of the
chloropropanol reduction process, discussed in Section 12.7. It is interesting to note that
3-MCPD was also found in HVPs produced by enzyme hydrolysis, a process developed
to avoid chloropropanol contamination by acid hydrolysis. The mechanism of formation of
3-MCPD in these products is not known although formation from residual 3-MCPD esters
present in the feedstock may be a possibility (see Section 12.6).
The presence of 3-MCPD in commercial smoke flavourings has recently been reported by
Kuntzer and Weisshaar (2006) in the concentration range 200–760 μg kg−1 . Based on these
findings the estimated contribution to, e.g. smoke-flavoured sausages was 9 μg kg−1 .
The occurrence of 3-MCPD was widespread in malt products and could be attributed to
the additional heat treatments to which these malts had been subjected to produce the desired
colours and flavours (Brereton et al., 2005). Although processing details were not available
for the modified starches, the two samples with quantifiable levels of 3-MCPD were both
Table 12.7 Commercial food ingredients containing quantifiable levels of 3-MCPD.
Meanb Range
Food ingredient Incidencea (μg kg−1 ) (μg kg−1 ) Reference
Breadcrumbs 1/6 7 <10–14 Hamlet et al. (2002)

Garlic, processed 20/21 106 <10–690 European Commission (2004)
HVP
Acid hydrolysed 21/50 78 <10–649 European Commission (2004)
Enzyme hydrolysed 1/3 26 78 Hamlet et al. (2002)
Flavouring ingredients 11/22 61 <10–550 Fromberg (2001)
Liquid smokes 6/6 –c 200–760 Kuntzer and Weisshaar (2006)
Malts 31/63 96 <10–850 European Commission (2004)
Meat extracts 1/5 7 <10–14 Hamlet et al. (2002)
Modified starches 2/9 59 <10–488 European Commission (2004)
a
b
c
Data not available.
maize yellow dextrins. These samples can be prepared by heat treatment in the presence of a
mineral acid, a process that can produce chloropropanols by a mechanism analogous to that
of acid-HVP (Hamlet et al., 2002).
12.4.1.4 Other sources of chloropropanols in foodstuffs

Epichlorohydrin copolymers with polyamines and/or polyamides are used to provide wet
strength to food contact papers. Typical applications include tea bag paper, coffee fil-
ters, absorbents packaged with meats, and cellulose casings (for ground meat products
such as sausage). These resins can accumulate chloropropanol forming species during stor-
age resulting in contamination of foodstuffs by migration of chloropropanols from treated
papers (Masten, 2005). Levels of 3-MCPD ranging from 0.005 to 219 mg kg−1 (mean
13.9 mg kg−1 ) were found in 7 of 16 edible sausage casings reported in the EC data compi-
lation on chloropropanols in foods (EC, 2004).
Levels of 1,3-DCP up to 1000 mg kg−1 have also been reported in dimethylamine-
epichlorohydrin copolymer (DEC) used at concentrations of up to 150 ng g−1 by weight
of sugar solids in sugar refining (Masten, 2005). DEC is used as a flocculent or decolouris-
ing agent for sugar liquors. It is also used to immobilise glucose isomerase enzymes for
production of high-fructose corn syrup (Masten, 2005).
Chloropropanols have been found in epichlorohydrin polyamine polyelectrolyes used in
drinking water treatment chemicals as coagulation and flocculation products (Masten, 2005)
and low concentrations of 3-MCPD have been found in finished water from flocculent use
in the United Kingdom (CCFAC, March 2001). In the UK, the Drinking Water Inspec-
torate (DWI, 2003) concluded that limiting the dosing rate of the flocculent to no more than
2.5 mg/L drinking water would indirectly regulate concentrations of the chloropropanols
1,3-DCP, 2,3-DCP and 3-MCPD.
Kuntzer and Weisshaar (2006) isolated 3-MCPD from smoke generated by heating com-
mercial food grade wood pellets; hence, foods in contact with smoke could become contam-
inated with 3-MCPD. Dichloropropanols were not detected in the generated smoke.
12.4.1.5 Other compounds of interest

Rétho and Blanchard (2005) identified 3-bromopropane-1,2-diol and 2-bromopropane-1,3-
diol at levels of 35, 45 and 7 μg kg−1 in grape seed, rape seed and sesame oils (total of both
isomers). In all cases it was a mixture (about 2.5:1.0) of the 3-bromo- and 2-bromo isomers.
12.4.2 Chloroesters
Data on chloroesters in foods, other than HVPs, are sparse at present and confined to the
occurrence of esters of 3-MCPD. However, recent findings indicate that the formation of
3-MCPD-esters (monoesters and diesters with higher fatty acids) may be widespread in
processed foods derived from cereals, potatoes, meat, fish, nuts and oils (Hamlet et al.,
2004a; Hamlet and Sadd, 2004; Svejkovská et al., 2004; Doležal et al., 2005; Zelinková et
al., 2006). These compounds represent a new class of food contaminants, which might release
3-MCPD into foods during processing and storage or possibly in vivo as a result of lipase-
catalysed hydrolysis reactions. Table 12.8 shows the levels of 3-MCPD-esters, measured as
3-MCPD released by hydrolysis of the esters, in a wide range of foods. In many cases the
amount of 3-MCPD-esters exceeded that of the free 3-MCPD.
Table 12.8 Levels of 3-MCPD-esters in foodstuffs quantified as 3-MCPD.
Number of Mean Range

Foodstuff samples (μg kg−1 ) (μg kg−1 ) Reference
Bread 1 6.7 6.7 Hamlet et al. (2004a);

Crumb 1 4.9 4.9 Hamlet and Sadd (2004)
Crust 1 547 547
Toast 7 86a 60–160
Crispbread 1 420 420 Svejkovská et al. (2004)
Coffee 15 140a <100–390 Doležal et al. (2005)
Cracker 1 140 140 Svejkovská et al. (2004)
DATEM 1 66 66 Hamlet et al. (2004a);
Doughnut 1 1210 1210 Hamlet and Sadd (2004)
French fries 1 6100 6100 Svejkovská et al. (2004)
Malt, dark 1 580 580 Svejkovská et al. (2004)
Nuts, roasted 3 1370 433–500 Svejkovská et al. (2004)
Oils Zelinková et al. (2006)
Virgin seed oils 9 63 <100–<300 Zelinková et al. (2006)
Roasted 1 337 337
Virgin olive oils 4 75 <100–<300
Virgin germ oils 2 100 <100–<300
Refined seed oils 5 524 <300–1234
Refined olive oils 5 1464 <300–2462
Pickled herring 1 280 280 Svejkovská et al. (2004)
Salami 1 1760 1760 Zelinková et al. (2006)
Wheat flour 1 <5 <5 Hamlet et al. (2004a);
Hamlet and Sadd (2004)
a
Hamlet et al. (2004a) and Hamlet and Sadd (2004) measured 3-MCPD-esters in bread and
toast. Highest levels were found in regions of the bread that attained the highest temperature,
i.e. the crust, and levels increased from 60 to 160 μg kg−1 when the bread was toasted
over 40–120 seconds. The highest level of 3-MCPD-esters (6100 μg kg−1 ) was found in
a sample of French fries (Svejkovská et al., 2004). The level of 3-MCPD-esters in roast
coffee was relatively low and varied between 6 μg kg−1 (soluble coffees) and 390 μg kg−1
(decaffeinated coffee) although it exceeded the free 3-MCPD level by a factor of 8–33
times (Doležal et al., 2005). The presence of 3-MCPD esters in bread crumb (Hamlet et al.,
2004a; Hamlet and Sadd, 2004), pickled olives and herrings suggests that these compounds
can also form at relatively low temperatures and even in acid media (Svejkovská et al.,
2004).
Zelinková et al. (2006) analysed 25 retail virgin and refined edible oils for the content
of free 3-MCPD and 3-MCPD-esters (as 3-MCPD released from its esters with higher fatty
acids). The oils contained free 3-MCPD ranging from <3 μg kg−1 (LOD) to 24 μg kg−1 .
Surprisingly, the 3-MCPD-ester level was much higher and varied between <100 μg kg−1
(LOD) and 2462 μg kg−1 . Generally, virgin oils had relatively low levels of 3-MCPD-esters
ranging from <100 μg kg−1 (LOD) to <300 μg kg−1 (LOQ). Higher levels of 3-MCPD-
esters were found in oils obtained from roasted oilseeds (337 μg kg−1 ) and in the majority
of refined oils (<300 μg kg−1 to 2462 μg kg−1 ), including refined olive oils. In general, it
appeared that the formation of 3-MCPD-esters in oils was linked with the preliminary heat
treatment of oilseeds and with the process of oil refining. The analysis of crude, degummed,
bleached and deodorised rapeseed oil showed that the level of MCPD-esters decreased during
the refining process. However, additional heating of seed oils for 30 minutes at temperatures
ranging from 100 to 280◦ C, and heating at 230 and 260◦ C for up to 8 hours led to an increase
of the level of 3-MCPD-esters. Conversely, heating olive oil resulted in a decrease in the
3-MCPD-ester level.
Analysis of fat isolated from a salami containing 1670 μg kg−1 of 3-MCPD-esters
mainly consisted of 3-MCPD-diesters together wither lesser amounts of 3-MCPD-monoesters
(Zelinková et al., 2006). The major types of 3-MCPD-diesters (about 85%) were mixed-
diesters of palmitic acid with C18 fatty acids (stearic, oleic, linoleic acids); 3-MCPD dis-
tearate (11%); and 3-MCPD dipalmitate (4%). The level of 3-MCPD as the free compound
in the fat extract was 31 μg kg−1 .
12.5 MECHANISMS AND PRECURSORS

12.5.1 From hydrochloric acid and glycerol/acylglycerols
In the laboratory, MCPDs and DCPs can be prepared by the action of concentrated hydrochlo-
ric acid or dry hydrogen chloride gas on glycerol alone, or in the presence of glacial acetic acid
(Conant and Quayle, 1947a,b). These reactions require prolonged heating at temperatures of
about 100◦ C and are applicable to the formation of chloropropanols in acid-HVP (Velı́šek
et al., 1979; Collier et al., 1991).
12.5.1.1 Formation in acid-HVP

In further studies of chloropropanols formed during the acid-hydrolysis of HVPs, Velı́šek et al.
(2002) showed that (R)-3-MCPD and (S)-3-MCPD were formed in equimolar concentrations.
Model experiments with glycerol, triolein and soya lecithin heated with hydrochloric acid in
solution confirmed that these materials were precursors of 2- and 3-MCPD and, as expected,
yielded racemic 3-MCPD. The mechanisms of formation were in agreement with the earlier
studies by Collier et al. (1991) and the yields of 3-MCPD decreased in the order triolein >
lecithin > glycerol. A summary of the main 3-MCPD forming reactions in HVP given in
Fig. 12.11 also illustrates how chloroesters are formed from acylglycerols.
12.5.2 From hypochlorous acid and allyl alcohol

Hypochlorous acid (HOCl, from chlorine and water) will add to the double bond of allyl
alcohol (2-propenol) to give 2- and 3-MCPD in accordance with Markovnikov’s rules gov-
erning carbenium ion stability (see Fig. 12.12). The reaction is reported to proceed rapidly at
50–60◦ C with an 88% yield of MCPDs (Myszkowski and Zielinski, 1965). Sources of allyl
alcohol include: (S)-allyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide (alliin), a cysteine amino acid found in garlic
and related species (Kubec et al., 1997) and a soft cheese made from ewe’s milk (Carbonell
et al., 2002). This mechanism is believed to account for the levels of 3-MCPD found in
processed garlic (Hamlet et al., 2002).
12.5.3 Formation in thermally processed foods and ingredients

12.5.3.1 Model system studies with (sodium) chloride and glycerol/acylglycerols
Hasnip et al. (2002), Doležal et al. (2003) and Calta et al. (2004) demonstrated that 3-MCPD
could be formed by heating sodium chloride with emulsified (Tween 80) glycerol/acylgycerol
CH2 OCOR CH2 OCOR CH2 OCOR CH2 OCOR CH2 OH
CH OCOR CH OCOR CH OH CH OH CH OCOR
CH2 Cl CH2 OH CH2 OCOR CH2 OH CH2 OH
TAG 1,2-DAG 1,3-DAG 1-MAG 2-MAG CH2 OH
CH OH
CH2 OH
CH2 OCOR CH2 OCOR CH2 OH
G
CH OCOR CH OH CH OCOR
CH2 Cl CH2 Cl CH2 Cl

Diester 1-Monoester 2-Monoester
CH2 OH
CH OH
CH2 Cl
(R,S)-3-MCPD
Fig. 12.11 Summary of main chloropropanol forming reactions from acylglycerols in HVPs according to
Velı́šek et al. (2002). TAG, triacylglycerol; DAG, diacylglycerol; MAG, monoacylglycerol; G, glycerol.
precursor mixtures in sealed vials. The generation of 3-MCPD increased with increas-
ing sodium chloride concentration and maximum formation occurred at a water content
of between 10 and 20%. The relative amounts of 3-MCPD (relative to monoacylglycerols,
mol/mol) formed by heating sealed samples at 200◦ C for 30 minutes were monoacylglycerols
(1.0) < triacylglycerols (1.1) < glycerol (1.6) < diacylglycerols (1.8) < lecithin (3.3).
OH
OH OH OH
H
H H H
+ Cl OH + + Cl
Cl Cl +
H H
H H H H H H
Allyl alcohol
HO− HO−
OH Cl
Cl OH OH OH
3-MCPD 2-MCPD
(Major isomer) (Minor isomer)
Fig. 12.12 Formation of MCPDs from allyl alcohol and hypochlorous acid.
H
OH H+ OH −H2O O
+
−H+ + H2O
OH OH OH2 OH OH
I
CI− CI−
OH CI
CI OH OH OH
3-MCPD ~3:1 2-MCPD
Fig. 12.13 Formation of MCPDs from glycerol via the intermediate epoxide, glycidol (I).
12.5.3.2 Formation in bakery products

Hamlet (2004) developed and validated a model system to determine the major precursors,
intermediates and the mechanisms of formation of MCPDs in bread. Free glycerol was shown
to be the major precursor of MCPDs in leavened dough (Hamlet et al., 2004b). This glycerol
was generated by yeast during proving and its subsequent reaction with added chloride
during baking could account for approximately 70% of the MCPDs formed. The production
of glycerol by yeast in dough was dependent upon time and temperature and limited by
available sugar. The addition of glucose promoted MCPD generation in dough but not via
increased glycerol production by yeast. The promoting effect of glucose was subsequently
shown to be due to the removal of potential amino inhibitors, e.g. amino acids, via the
Maillard reaction (Hamlet and Sadd, 2005). Breitling-Utzmann et al. (2005) found that the
addition of glucose and sucrose to bread dough promoted 3-MCPD formation during toasting
of bread slices, presumably by a similar mechanism. The generation of MCPDs in breads
also showed strong moisture dependence: levels increased with decreasing dough moisture
to a point where formation was limited by the solubility of chloride and competing reactions
involving glycerol and the reaction intermediate, glycidol (Hamlet et al., 2004b) shown in
Fig. 12.13.
Minor precursors of MCPDs (together with chloride) in dough were found to be monoa-
cylglycerols, lysophospholipids and phosphatidylglycerols, all present at significant levels in
white flour and germ, together with DATEM (diacetyl tartaric acid esters of monoacyl glyc-
erols), an emulsifier used in breadmaking (Hamlet et al., 2004c). These compounds could
account quantitatively for the remaining contribution (30%) to MCPD levels in bread. A
characteristic of these precursors was the proximity of -OH with respect to either acyl- or
phosphoryl-groups on the glycerol skeleton. It was concluded that (a) the subsequent reaction
with chloride ions involved a neighbouring group mechanism, and (b) the removal of the acyl
group from the resulting MCPD-ester intermediate was rate determining. These mechanistic
features could explain the relatively non-reactive nature of the di- and triacylglycerols with
respect to MCPD generation. The generation of MCPDs in bread was pH dependent and in-
creased with decreasing pH (see Fig. 12.16). This effect was not due to reduced degradation
of MCPDs at reduced pH (see Section 12.7) but attributed to an increased rate of hydrolysis
of intermediate MCPD-esters (Hamlet and Sadd, 2005).
R
R
R O O R
OH + O − CI O O
H CI
O O + O +
−H2O
OR1 OR1 OR1 OR1 CI
Acylglycerol 2- & 3-MCPD-esters
2-MCPD 3-MCPD
Fig. 12.14 Proposed mechanism of formation of MCPD-esters from mono- and di-acylglycerols (R =
alkyl, R1 = H or COR).
Hamlet et al. (2005a) studied the formation of 3-MCPD (and other process contami-
nants) in bread prepared in domestic bread machines in the UK. It is usual for such as the
domestic machines to employ extended proof times (e.g. 2–3 h) compared to commercial
bread production (e.g. 50 min). This extended proof leads to increased yeast activity and
hence higher glycerol precursor levels in the dough (Hamlet et al., 2004b). Despite these
conditions, MCPD generation was found to be only slightly higher than that of commercial
products. An explanation for this is the lower baking temperatures used in domestic bread
machines.
Evidence for the formation of MCPD-ester intermediates in bread was provided by Ham-
let et al. (2004a) and Hamlet and Sadd (2004) who showed that chloroester formation was
correlated with MCPD generation and that levels of both species increased on heating. The
presence of low levels of chloroesters in bread crumb, i.e. at temperatures <100◦ C, illustrates
that these compounds may form readily from partial acylglycerols, presumably as a conse-
quence of facile cyclic acyl oxonium ion formation and subsequent ring opening by chloride
ion (see Fig. 12.14).
12.5.3.3 Formation in malts and roasted cereals

Studies on the formation of chloropropanols in malts (Brereton et al., 2005) have shown
that 3-MCPD can form when malted or unmalted barley is dry roasted (above 170◦ C), and
that endogenous lipids and glycerol/acylglycerols in the grain are sufficient to promote this
synthesis. The 3-MCPD produced during roasting was correlated with colour development
while extended heating at temperatures of 200◦ C or greater gave a reduction in 3-MCPD
levels, presumably as a result of degradation (Brereton et al., 2005).
12.5.4 Mechanisms involving enzymes

The formation of MCPDs has been demonstrated in model systems comprising pepper, oil
and sodium chloride and over a period of several days (Robert and Stadler, 2003). As spices
are known to be a source of enzyme activity, this was subsequently shown to be a general
reaction of a lipase in the presence of chloride and lipid. The highest yield of 3-MCPD was
obtained in reaction mixtures containing lipase from Rhizopus oryzae, all the lipases studied
exhibited a high hydrolytic activity towards triglycerides from palm and peanut oil (Robert
et al., 2004). The authors proposed that MCPDs were formed by a lipase-catalysed reaction
between a triacylglycerol and chloride ion. However, it is more likely that MCPDs were
formed by the hydrolysis of residual MCPD-esters that are now known to be present in the
raw materials used (Zelinková et al., 2006).
12.5.5 Other mechanisms of interest

In a study of the smoking process Kuntzer and Weisshaar (2006) proposed that 3-MCPD gen-
erated in smoke from burning wood chips could be derived from cellulose. A mechanism was
proposed for the reaction of chloride ions with acetol (3-hydroxyacetone), a thermal degra-
dation product of cellulose and wood smoke. It is interesting to note that 3-hydroxyacetone
is isomeric with the known 3-MCPD intermediate glycidol.
12.6 REACTIONS OF CHLOROPROPANOLS

12.6.1 Stability of MCPDs
Hamlet et al. studied the degradation reactions of MCPDs in pure water (Hamlet and Sadd,
2002) and in bread (Hamlet et al., 2003; Hamlet, 2004). Under aqueous conditions, 3-MCPD
decayed to glycerol, via the intermediate epoxide glycidol, according to first-order kinetics.
The stability of 3-MCPD was sensitive to both pH and temperature, particularly over a range
applicable to baked cereal products. In bread dough, the decay of 2-MCPD and 3-MCPD was
slower than in pure water: the decay reaction was inhibited by a decrease in moisture content
and the pH drop seen in cooked bread dough at elevated temperatures. At high temperatures,
i.e. >100◦ C, 2- and 3-MCPD exhibited similar stability: at lower temperatures, i.e. <100◦ C
this behaviour was reversed and 2-MCPD was more stable. It was shown that in bread
dough, added 3-MCPD was converted into the isomeric compound 2-MCPD in a mechanism
involving the known decay intermediate, glycidol (Hamlet, 2004).
12.6.2 Reactions of 3-MCPD

The structure of 3-MCPD indicates that the compound should undergo reactions characteristic
of both alcohols and alkyl chlorides. For example, 3-MCPD is known to react readily with
alcohols, aldehydes, amino compounds, ammonia, ketones, organic acids and thiols (Velı́šek
et al., 1991a). These reactions are summarised in Fig. 12.15. Some of these reaction products,
e.g. 3-MCPD derived amino alcohols, dihydroxypropylamines and amino acids, have been
identified in HVPs (Velı́šek et al., 1991a,b, 1992). Model system studies (Velı́šek et al., 1991b,
1992) have shown that the reaction of 3-MCPD with either ammonia or amino acids occurs
readily and at moderate temperatures (20–90◦ C). The reactions of cysteine and glutathione
with 3-MCPD have also been reported (Velı́šek et al., 2003).
12.7 MITIGATION
Manufacturers of HVPs and soy sauces and producers of wet strength resins for food contact
applications have made considerable efforts to reduce chloropropanols in, and contamina-
tion of foods from, their products. For example, in alkaline media both 2- and 3-MCPD are
OH
S -(2,3-dihydroxypropyl)cysteine
S OH
H2N COOH
3-Chloro-2-hydroxypropyl ester SH 2,3-Dihydroxypropyl ester

OH OH
H2N COOH
Cl O R (acid pH) R O OH
O RCOOH RCOO− O
(acid pH) (alkaline pH)
R
OH OH O
ROH RCHO O
OR OH Cl OH Cl
3-Alkoxy (or phenoxy)-1,2-propanediol 3-MCPD 4-Chloromethyl-2-alky-[1,3]-dioxolane
NH3 R1COR2 R1 R2
OH R NH2 O
O
COOH
NH2 OH (alkaline pH) Cl
3-Amino-1,2-propanediol 4-Chloromethyl-2,2-dialkyl-[1,3]-dioxolane
OH
3-MCPD
R NH OH
bis(2,3-dihydroxypropyl)amine N-(2,3-dihydroxypropyl)-amino acid
COOH
tris(2,3-dihydroxypropyl)amine e.g. N-(2,3-dihydroxypropyl)-serine
Fig. 12.15 Reactions of 3-MCPD. (Adapted from Velı́šek et al., 1991a, 2003).
decomposed to glycerol (Doležal and Velı́šek, 1992, 1995) and hence alkalisation is a method
that is used commercially to reduce the level of MCPDs in protein hydrolysates (Sim et al.,
2004) and also in wet strength resins (Riehle, 2006). However, strategies to reduce chloro-
propanols and chloroesters in other products have not yet been fully explored and may not be
possible for all foodstuffs. These strategies need to consider whether interventions to reduce
the risk of chloropropanols and chloroesters might increase the risk of other process contam-
inants, e.g. furan or acrylamide (Konings et al., 2007). For example, Fig. 12.16 illustrates
how increasing dough pH to reduce 3-MCPD formation in cereal products has the opposite
effect on acrylamide generation. A summary of potential mitigation options together with
literature references is given in Table 12.9.
12.8 EXPOSURE
The most recent exposure assessments have considered 1,3-DCP and 3-MCPD and were car-
ried out by JECFA (2006). Unlike previous evaluations (JECFA, 2002), that mainly considered
Acrylamide (µg kg−1)

Fig. 12.16 Effect of pH on 3-MCPD and acrylamide formation in baked cereal products. (Adapted from
Hamlet and Sadd, 2005 and Hamlet et al., 2005b.)
exposure from soy sauces, the most recent evaluation was based on contributions from all
food groups in the diet using data from, e.g. the FSANZ survey (2003) and the EC compila-
tion produced under tasks for scientific cooperation (EC, 2004). Particular consideration was
given to groups that might have higher levels of exposure to chloropropanols.
JECFA also noted recent reports that fatty acid esters of 3-MCPD are present in foods,
and recommended that studies should be undertaken to enable their intake or toxicological
significance to be evaluated.
12.8.1 3-MCPD
Estimated exposures at the national level considered a wide range of foods, including soy
sauce and related products, ranged from 1 to 35% of the PMTDI for average exposure in
the general population. For the consumers at the high percentile (95th), the estimated intakes
ranged from 3 to 85% and up to 115% of the PMTDI in young children. The estimates were
based on concentrations of 3-MCPD derived before any remedial action had been taken by
government or industry. JECFA noted that reduction in the concentration of 3-MCPD in soy
sauce and related products made with acid-HVP could substantially reduce the intake of this
contaminant by certain consumers of this condiment.
JECFA (2006) concluded that a representative mean intake of 1,3-DCP for the general
population was of 0.051 μg kg−1 body weight per day and an estimated high-level intake
(young children included) was 0.136 μg kg−1 body weight per day. Comparison of these
mean and high-level intake values for consumers with the lowest calculated dose for incidence
data on tumour-bearing animals indicated margins of exposure of approximately 65 000 and
24 000, respectively. Based on these margins of exposure, JECFA (2006) concluded that the
estimated intakes of 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol were of low concern for human health.
BLUK145-Gilbert
Table 12.9 Summary of potential mitigation measures for chloropropanols and chloroesters in foods and food contact materials.
February 15, 2008
Product/application Potential control measure Chloropropanol(s) Reference
Bread/toast Time/temperature/minimum fermentation/ 3-MCPD Hamlet (2004); Hamlet et al.

recipe management (2004b,c, 2005b);
18:22
Breitling-Utzmann et al. (2005)

HVP and soy sauces produced Alkalisation/neutralisation 3-MCPD Sim et al. (2004)
by acid-hydrolysis Degradation by Pseudomonas sp. OS-K-29 Esters of dichloropropanols Kasai et al. (2006)
Roasted cereals/malts Time/temperature 3-MCPD Brereton et al. (2005)
Savoury foodstuffs Lipase inactivation of ingredients (temperature, 3-MCPD released from –
pH, water activity) chloroesters
Smoke CaCO3 pre-treatment of wood pellets 3-MCPD Kuntzer and Weisshaar (2006)
Unspecified Degradation by bacterial cultures 1,3-DCP & 3-MCPD Mamma et al. (2006)
1,3-DCP Bastos et al. (2002); Yonetani
et al. (2004)
Degradation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae 3-MCPD Bel-Rhlid et al. (2004)
Reactive food additives, e.g. cysteine, disodium 3-MCPD Velı́šek et al. (2003)
carbonate, glutathione, sodium bicarbonate
Wet strength resins Chemical (base)/enzyme/process treatment of 1,3-DCP Laurent et al. (2002)
epichlorohydrin copolymers
MCPDs Riehle et al. (2003, 2006);
Yamamoto et al. (2001)
Chloropropanols and their Fatty Acid Esters
349
Table 12.10 International maximum limits/specifications for chloropropanols in foodstuffs.
DCPs 3-MCPD
Country/region (mg/kg) (mg/kg) Scope Reference
Australia/New Zealand 0.005 0.2 Soy/oyster sauces FSANZ (2006)

Canada – 1 Soy/oyster sauces Health Canada (2005)
European Community – 0.02 HVP and soy sauces European Commission
(40% solids) (2001)
Korea – 0.3 Soy sauce containing WTO (2001a)
acid-HVP
– 1 HVP WTO (2001a)
Malaysia – 0.02 Liquid foods with WTO (2001b)
acid-HVP
– 1 Acid-HVP, industrial WTO (2001b)
product
Switzerland 0.05 0.2 Savoury sauces DFI (2006)
Thailand – 1 Hydrolysed soybean WTO (2002)
protein
USA 0.05 1 Acid-HVP Committee on Food
Chemicals Codex (1996)
12.9 REGULATORY STATUS

To date, maximum levels/specifications have been adopted for HVPs and soy sauces (see
Table 12.10) since chloropropanol intake levels from other foods are very low. With appro-
priate manufacturing controls the levels of chloropropanols can be controlled in HVPs and
soy sauces produced by acid hydrolysis. In instances where brand loyalty could result in
regular consumption of, e.g. contaminated soy sauces, these controls could markedly reduce
intake levels (JECFA, 2002). It has been demonstrated that 1,3-DCP is typically associated
with high concentrations of 3-MCPD. Hence, regulatory control of 3-MCPD should negate
the need for specific limits on 1,3-DCP, although some countries have imposed maximum
levels (see Table 12.10).
Conclusions and future prospects

The recent observations of chloropropanols in a wide range of foodstuffs have led to a renewal
of research worldwide on methods of analysis, occurrence and formation mechanisms of these
contaminants. Analytical methods for MCPDs and DCPs have been updated significantly and
robust procedures are available covering a wide range of matrices. Considerable progress has
been made on occurrence routes, particularly in thermally treated cereal products, where
the precursors and mechanisms of MCPD formation have been elucidated. Overall, the con-
tribution from foodstuffs (excluding soy sauces) to the dietary intake of chloropropanols is
relatively low and to date regulatory controls to minimise exposure have not been deemed nec-
essary. However, higher levels of chloropropanols, e.g. 3-MPCD, found in certain soy sauces
have necessitated maximum limits for these materials in some countries. With the appropriate
manufacturing controls, contamination of soy sauces by chloropropanols can be eliminated.
There is growing evidence that chloroesters may be widespread in processed foods and
that levels of these contaminants are higher than the corresponding chloropropanols. This
is of concern because model studies have shown that chloroesters can be hydrolysed to,
e.g. 3-MCPD by enzymes present in some foodstuffs. The extent to which the latter may
occur in foods, the toxicological significance of chloroesters and their contribution to dietary
intakes of chloropropanols will need to be assessed. Several potential mitigation measures
for chloroesters in foodstuffs have already been identified. However, it is important that
nutritionists, food chemists and toxicologists jointly consider the wider risks and benefits
of these measures. This will ensure that interventions to reduce chloroesters do not have a
negative impact on health and nutrition or increase the risk of other process contaminants.
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13 Heterocyclic Amines
Mark G. Knize and James S. Felton
Summary
Heterocyclic amines (HAs) are a class of mutagens found at low ng/g (part-per-billion – ppb)
levels in cooked food (meat and fish) and are derived from natural constituent precursors.
Some nine HAs are described being primarily of an amino-imidazo structure suggesting
that creatine or creatinine is an important precursor of the muscle meat reactions. There
is considerable variation in the extent of formation of HAs depending on the temperature
and mode of cooking and a knowledge of the formation conditions can suggest ways to
cook meat (lower temperatures, among others) that greatly inhibit the formation and, thus
reduce the human intake of HAs. A variety of analytical approaches have been successfully
applied to heterocyclic amine analysis including GC/MS, LC/MS, LC/MS/MS and capillary
electrophoresis. The compelling conclusion from meat consumption and cancer studies is
that humans are inevitably exposed to these genotoxic rodent carcinogens over a lifetime.
Intake levels are low and these HAs can be absorbed and then either activated and covalently
bound to DNA and proteins, or detoxified and excreted in the urine. The consequences of
such exposure in food safety terms are therefore difficult to assess.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides a historical account of the discovery of mutagens in cooked food and
then reviews current knowledge of their precursors and formation. Model reactions simulating
meat cooking clearly showed that these compounds are derived from natural constituents.
Analytical methods have been developed and used to determine levels of these bioactive
compounds in the human diet. Knowledge of the formation of these compounds has led to
cooking advice to reduce exposure. The risks of exposure in humans have been evaluated in
many laboratories.
The observation that cancer rates differ worldwide has implicated lifestyle and accompa-
nying diet as important factors (Doll and Peto, 1981; Holmes, 1998). A biologically plausible
hypothesis for at least part of this association was the discovery in the 1970s of mutagenic
activity, as detected by bacterial test systems, in meats cooked for human consumption
(Sugimura et al., 1977b; Commoner et al., 1978). The discovery of substances derived
from cooked meats to be mutagenic in bacterial tests paralleled the well-known pres-
ence of mutagens in the smoke collected from cigarettes at that time (Sugimura et al.,
1977a).

Heterocyclic Amines 359
The discovery of mutagenic substances in cooked meats was followed by demonstrations

in many laboratories worldwide that the mutagens were formed during high temperature
cooking and that the formation process was both time- and temperature-dependent. A large
range of foods was analyzed and it was determined that the cooked muscle-meats from any
vertebrate source were the major sources of extractable mutagenic activity in the human diet
(Bjeldanes et al., 1982).
The precursors responsible for the mutagens were proposed when the chemical structures
of the first compounds from cooked fish (Kasai et al., 1980, 1981a) and beef (Kasai et al.,
1981b; Felton et al., 1986) were determined to be heterocyclic amines (HAs). These muta-
genic chemicals were primarily of an amino-imidazo structure suggesting that creatine or
creatinine was a component of the muscle meat reactions.
Early work in adding creatine to meat before cooking showed that the addition increased
mutagenic activity (Jägerstad et al., 1983). Experiments relating creatine levels in fish, which
varied over a range of 2.5-fold, showed mutagenic activity after cooking to be only somewhat
correlated with the creatine concentration (Marsh et al., 1990). A later study of cooked meat
from 17 animal species also showed that creatine or creatinine levels do not explain differences
in mutagenic activity. These results suggested that other components were also important in
determining the mutagen levels in cooked meats. Other work showed free amino acids to be
involved in the development of mutagenic activity (Övervik et al., 1989), but not amino acids
included in the polypeptide chain of proteins (Jägerstad et al., 1983).
Analysis of the specific mutagenic compounds formed during cooking shows that amino
acids are important and changes in these can affect the amount and types of mutagens found
in the cooked meat. Importantly, knowledge of the formation conditions does suggest ways
to cook meat (lower temperatures, among others) that greatly inhibit the formation, and thus
reduce the human intake, of HAs.
13.2 FORMATION OF HETEROCYCLIC AMINES

Figure 13.1 shows the structure, common name, and chemical name of nine HAs found in
cooked meats. All but one of these structures (AαC) contain the five-membered imidazo
ring with an amino group and N -methyl group. Other HAs have been isolated from model
systems based on heated or pyrolyzed protein, and can occasionally be found in foods, but
this report focuses on these commonly reported HAs.
From Fig. 13.2, it can be seen that the structure of creatine resembles the imidazo ring,
including the amino and N -methyl groups. Modeling experiments show that the four amino-
imidazo heterocyclic amine mutagens shown can be pyro-synthesized in laboratory experi-
ments from creatine and other small molecules, such as amino acids and glucose. It is easy to
see that the N -methyl-amino-imidazo moiety could form intact from creatine, but the source
of other rings are derived from other small molecules, and their sources are not apparent from
the reactants. These HAs were isolated by following their mutagenic activity in Salmonella-
based mutation tests during extraction and chromatographic purification (Kasai et al., 1980,
1981a, b; Felton et al., 1984; Knize et al., 1990; Hayatsu et al., 1991). Interestingly, in deter-
mining the exact chemical structure for the naturally produced HAs, many structural features
were shown to greatly affect mutagenic potency. Such structure/activity relationships have
been the subject of many research efforts worldwide (Nagao, 1981; Jagerstad, 1985; Hatch,
1997, 2001; Knize et al., 2006).
360
BLUK145-Gilbert
NH 2 NH 2
N N
CH 3
N N N N CH 3
H 3C N CH 3 H 3C
NH 2
N N N CH 3
N
February 15, 2008
PhIP MeIQx DiMeIQx

(2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine) (2-Amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline) (2-Amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline)
18:22
NH 2
N CH 3
CH 3 CH 3
N N
O N H 3C CH 3 H 3C N N
H 3C NH 2 NH 2
N H 3C
N N N N
IFP 7,8-DiMeIQx 7,9-DiMeIgQx
(2-Amino-1,6-dimethylfuro[3,2-e ]imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine) (2-Amino-3,7,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline) (2-Amino-1,7,9-trimethylimidazo[4,5-g]quinoxaline)
H 3C NH 2
N CH 3
N N N
H 3C
NH 2
N N N NH 2
N N H
Iso-MeIQx IQ[4,5-b] A C
(2-Amino-1,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline) (2-Amino-1,6-dimethylfuro[3,2-e ]imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine) (2-Amino-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole)
Fig. 13.1 Structures, common names, and chemical names of heterocyclic amines found in cooked meats.
NH2
N
N N
H3C CH3
N
MeIQx
CH3
N
NH2
N
* N
PhIP
H2N
NH * NH2
Amino acids N
Sugars
+ HOOC N
CH 3 H3C N N CH3
Creatine
* N CH3
DiMeIQx
* CH3
O N
H3C NH2
N N
*Heat
IFP
Fig. 13.2 Scheme of heterocyclic amine formation showing the precursors of amino acids and sugars in
meat or model systems forming known heterocyclic amines.
13.2.1 Model systems

Model systems have been developed to understand the formation of the mutagenic/
carcinogenic HAs, to help identify the foods and cooking conditions favoring their for-
mation and to develop strategies to reduce their formation and, thus, human intake. Defined
model systems composed of creatine or creatinine, amino acids, and sugars have been a good
model for the trace level formation of these HAs. Jägerstad et al. developed a system for
heating components in diethylene glycol (Jägerstad et al., 1983) and the work was followed
by many studies investigating HA precursors (Negishi et al., 1984; Skog and Jägerstad, 1993;
Johansson et al., 1995) and kinetics (Arvidsson et al., 1997) in a sealed-tube aqueous model.
It was shown that 37◦ C is warm enough to produce 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-
b]pyridine (PhIP) from a mixture of phenylalanine with creatinine and glucose or 2-amino-
3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5- f ]quinoxaline (MeIQx) from glycine with creatinine and glucose
in aqueous buffers (Manabe et al., 1992; Kinae et al., 2002). But, no PhIP was found in a
similar model system kept at room temperature for 2 weeks in another study (Zochling and
Murkovic, 2002).
Simply dry-heating HA precursors produces HAs in the same relative amounts and
molecule types which have been shown to form in cooked meats. Pais et al. (1999) showed that
heating the amino acids, creatine, and glucose for 30 minutes at 225◦ C, in ratios mimicking
25
20
Sum heterocyclic amines (ng/g)
Flipped once
Flipped many
15
10
0
150 170 190 210 230 250 270
Pan temperature (°C)
Fig. 13.3 Plot of heterocyclic amine formation during the frying of beef hamburgers to an internal
temperature of 70◦ C with pan temperatures of 160, 180, 200, or 250◦ C. Diamond symbols show results
from meat turned over once, at 5 minutes, during frying. Square symbols show results from meat turned
over every minute until the final temperature is reached. (Reproduced from Salmon, C.P., Knize, M.G.,
Panteleakos, F.N., Wu, R., Nelson, D.O. and Felton, J.S. Minimization of heterocyclic amines and thermal
inactivation of Escherichia coli in fried ground beef. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 92, 773–1778,
copyright 2000 with permission of Oxford University Press.)
their content in beef muscle, chicken breast, or codfish, produced a family of HAs (Pais et al.,
1999). As is seen in the meats themselves, PhIP and MeIQx are formed in relatively large
quantities in all three mixtures, but the model based on chicken meat produces the largest
amount of PhIP. Surprisingly, IQ was only detected in the codfish model.
13.2.2 Conditions for formation in meats

The temperature dependence of the formation of HAs in beef patties cooked to 70◦ C, close
to the U.S. Department of Agriculture/Food Safety and Inspection Services recommended
internal temperature of 71.1◦ C, is shown in Fig. 13.3. The sum of the mass amounts of indi-
vidual HAs identified, per gram of cooked meat, is shown for each of four pan temperatures,
indicating a direct correspondence between increased cooking temperature and HA content
(Salmon et al., 2000). Also shown (square symbols) is the result of turning the meat over
in the frying pan every minute, compared to turning the meat over once, after 5 minutes of
cooking (diamond symbols). Heat flow simulations to understand HA formation during this
pan-frying experiment were carried out by Tran et al. (2002). These simulations accurately
modeled the experimental temperature increases, meat cooking times, HA spatial distribu-
tion, and total amount of HAs produced (Tran et al., 2002), but the measured experimental
result for HA content, based on turning the meat over every minute was greater than that
expected from the computer simulation of meat cooking.
Together these data show the actual variation in formation (13-fold), for meat patties
cooked to 70◦ C. These results suggest the variation in HA formation, and, thus, the statistical
range of the human HA dose.
13.2.3 Food sample analysis

The HAs isolated from cooked foods have stable multi-ring aromatic structures, and all have
an exocyclic amino group. They all have characteristic UV spectra and high extinction co-
efficients, some of the compounds fluoresce (i.e., PhIP), and all can be electrochemically
oxidized making electrochemical detection a suitable method. The aromatic structures of
these HAs give little fragmentation and therefore show large base peaks, making mass spec-
trometry a good detection method (Knize et al., 1992). With each of these detection methods,
confirmation of peaks, for instance, by mass or UV spectra, is important to prevent false
positives in the complex sample extracts.
There are several factors that make the analysis of HAs from foods a difficult problem.
HAs are present in foods at very low ng/g levels (i.e., part-per-billion – ppb levels). Because
of these low levels, chromatographic efficiency, detector sensitivity, and detector selectivity
must be optimized. Several of the HAs are formed under the same reaction conditions, so
the number of compounds to be quantified requires that the extraction, chromatographic
separation, and detection be general enough to detect several of the HAs per sample. The
complexity and diversity of food samples to be analyzed requires a rugged method not
affected by the sample matrix. Several extraction and analysis methods were developed
over the last 20 years, including solid-phase extraction (SPE), HPLC/UV, derivatization/
GC/MS, and LC/MS/MS. These methods have made analysis cheaper and more accurate,
enabling hundreds of samples from cooked meats and model systems to be investigated for HA
content.
13.3 SAMPLE EXTRACTION

The detection of bacterial mutagens in cooked meats led to efforts to isolate these chemicals
using a variety of extraction methods. Samples were extracted with acid or organic solvents
(Sugimura et al., 1977b; Felton et al., 1981; Krone and Iowoka, 1981). The purity of the
extracts obtained was generally not sufficient to measure specific HAs, and typically muta-
genic potency was measured using the Ames/Salmonella test, an assay that performs well
with crude mixtures.
Murray et al. (1988) devised an analysis method specific enough to be used on samples
after a simple liquid/liquid extraction procedure. These were then derivatized and analyzed
by GC/MS as described below.
The most widely used HA sample preparation scheme is the SPE method that uses liq-
uid/liquid extraction on a solid support of diatomaceous earth as the first step. The inert
diatomaceous earth carrier allows efficient and rapid organic solvent extraction without any
risk of emulsion formation, a commonly encountered problem when extracting food.
SPE refers to procedures that use disposable cartridges typically containing 100–500 mg
of a solid, often silica-based, sorbent. Gross developed a method to purify HAs from foods
and related products with the goal of high sample throughput and high analytical sensitivity
(Gross, 1990). The key to this method is the coupling of liquid/liquid extraction to a cation
exchange resin column (propylsulfonic acid silica), concentrating the sample diluted from the
large volume of organic solvent resulting from the first step in the extraction. Using the cation
exchange properties of the column allows selective washing and elution to further purify the
sample. This extraction method, followed by various detection schemes, was evaluated in
interlaboratory comparisons in Europe (Santos et al., 2004).
Another HA extraction method uses a solid support containing blue copper phthalocyanine
trisulfonate linked to cotton (or rayon) and was developed for its ability to adsorb aromatic
compounds having three or more fused rings. HAs can be adsorbed to the blue cotton from
saline solutions and eluted with a methanol/ammonia solution (Hayatsu et al., 1983), and
this scheme has been used in many food analysis studies (Turesky et al., 1988; Wakabayashi
et al., 1992).
A single SPE scheme was used to isolate three classes of genotoxic compounds from
charcoal-grilled meat: HAs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and nitrogen-containing poly-
cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Rivera et al., 1996). The method gave detection limits of 0.3–
8.4 ng/g in a charcoal-grilled meat sample for the 12 compounds assessed. Very few studies
have analyzed the same meat sample for more than one class of mutagen/carcinogen. We
showed pan-fried hamburgers to have HAs only, and flame-grilled meat had both PAH and
HAs, with a total of 37 ng/g of six PAH, and 17.2 ng/g for combined PhIP and MeIQx (Knize
et al., 1999).
13.3.1 Chromatography and detection

Baseline separation of all HAs is a prerequisite for the multi-compound analysis method.
Chromatographic conditions were optimized by Gross et al. for the separation of 12 HAs
in 1992 (Gross and Grüter, 1992). A more recent study evaluated HPLC columns for the
separation of HAs for LC/MS, and the same column material favored by Gross, containing
ODS-80 was found to be optimal for HAs in the newer study (Barcelo-Barrachina et al.,
2004b).
Peak confirmation is a crucial problem when working with such low levels of HAs since
co-elution with other co-extracted compounds can occur. The most convenient and acces-
sible instrument to identify HAs on-line during an HPLC separation is the UV photodiode
array detector. Most instruments allow the recording of UV spectra even at a 0.1 ng level.
A photodiode array detection system efficiently prevents most false peak identifications and
is essential to prevent the interpretation of false positive results. Even with modern photo-
diode array detection with spectral library matching by computer, human interpretation is
still needed for confirmation in many cases. Changes in separation selectivity were shown to
further improve peak identification for complex samples (Pais and Knize, 1998). In addition,
fluorescence detection is typically used in-line as a complement to photodiode-array detec-
tion. Not all HAs fluoresce, however, but PhIP a common HA in foods shows about a 9-fold
greater peak signal with fluorescence than with the photodiode-array UV detection method.
Gross determined the standard error of repeated extractions to range from 6 to 11% for
cooked fish, very acceptable for low-level analysis (Gross, 1990). Reproducibility of the
SPE and HPLC method over time was determined in a blind study. Two hamburger samples,
one cooked rare and one cooked “well-done,” were repeatedly sent in separate aliquots for
quality control determination. For the two samples analyzed repeatedly during the 24 months,
MeIQx, PhIP, and DiMeIQx were consistently detected in the sample cooked “well-done,”
but not in the sample cooked rare. Relative standard deviations (coefficients of variation) for
the amounts determined were 34% for MeIQx, 22% for PhIP, and 38% for DiMeIQx for the
“well-done” cooked samples (Knize et al., 1995a). No sample degradation was seen in the
samples stored frozen at −4◦ C.
13.3.2 Mass spectrometry

Mass spectrometry has many desirable features as a detector of HAs. Mass spectrometry
offers the selectivity of mass detection with the possibility of adding heavy-isotope-labeled
internal standards to determine extraction recovery and act as chromatographic standards
simultaneously.
13.3.3 GC/MS
A very sensitive approach for HA analysis was devised using gas chromatography/mass spec-
trometry (GC/MS). Most of the HAs exhibit poor chromatographic behavior for gas chro-
matography, and thus require derivatization prior to injection. For this method, extracts of food
from a liquid/liquid extraction scheme were derivatized with 3,5-bistrifluoromethylbenzyl
bromide at room temperature, washed with hexane and extracted with ethyl acetate. The total
yield for these extraction steps was reported to be about 40% as determined by [14 C]MeIQx
tracer (Murray et al., 1989). PhIP can give multiple products upon derivatization with this
method, and another derivatizing agent, pentafluorobenzyl bromide, was reported to give a
single product (Friesen et al., 1994). Additional derivatization methods for GC analysis of
HAs were also reported (Kataoka and Kijima, 1997; Reistad et al., 1997).
With mass spectrometry, recovery for extraction and derivatization can be calculated by the
use of heavy-isotope-labeled internal standards as mentioned above. The chemical ionization
and negative-ion detection gave a reported 1 pg detection limit using selected-ion monitoring
(Murray et al., 1988). GC/MS methods have not been optimized for as many different HAs
as HPLC/UV methods, and IQ reportedly could not be detected by one GC/MS method
(Vainiotalo et al., 1993). Several groups reported GC/MS analysis gives limits of detection
at least 20-fold lower than HPLC/UV methods (Murray et al., 1989; Vainiotalo et al., 1993).
13.3.4 LC/MS
The HAs are more easily separated by liquid chromatography (LC) and there are many more
examples of groups successfully using LC/MS for food analysis. Gross et al. (1993) reported
LC/MS-single-ion plots for 11 HAs and showed extracts of bacon to be free of interfering
peaks at the masses monitored for the HAs (Gross et al., 1993). Pais et al. separated 14 HAs
and related compounds using LC/MS, reporting instrument detection limits of 10–600 pg
depending on the HA (Pais et al., 1997).
Three LC/MS systems with electrospray interfaces, an ion trap, a single quadrupole and a
triple quadrupole, were compared for the analysis of HAs. The results clearly showed that the
ion trap instrument was least sensitive for detection of HAs spiked into meat extract; the single
quadrupole instrument was usually 2- to 7-fold better, and the triple quadrupole instrument,
operated in the multiple reaction monitoring mode, was typically 10-fold more sensitive than
the single quadrupole instrument, with levels of detection of 0.5–5 pg, depending on the HA
(Barcelo-Barrachina et al., 2004a). Multiple reaction monitoring with a triple quadrupole
mass spectrometer was used to evaluate food samples by Klassen et al. (2002) and Turesky
et al. (2005). These three studies, in three separate laboratories, confirm that triple quadrupole
LC/MS/MS can detect multiple HAs concurrently at the picogram level.
13.3.5 High pressure LC-MS/MS

A promising new liquid chromatography system, using higher than normal pressure to provide
high efficiency and resolution, was optimized for the mass spectral analysis of HAs. Sixteen
HAs were separated and limits of detection were determined, showing this system to be
sensitive and reproducible for routine analysis of meat extracts (Barcelo-Barrachina et al.,
2006).
13.3.6 Capillary electrophoresis

Capillary electrophoresis with photodiode-array detection was developed for the analysis of
12 HAs in foods (Wu et al., 1996) and meat extracts (Olsson et al., 1997; Puignou et al.,
1997). Capillary electrophoresis with field-amplified sample injection, coupled to a mass
spectrometer used in either the MS or MS/MS mode, was evaluated for 16 HAs by Sentellas
et al. (2003). They showed extraction of the amines from spiked urine, however, rather than
the more difficult food analysis. Levels of detection are in the range of LC/UV for this
separation method.
13.4 INCIDENCE AND OCCURRENCE

Table 13.1 shows typical amounts of PhIP and MeIQx for cooked beef, poultry, and pork
meats cooked in a variety of ways. Cooking in the laboratory setting allows for determination
of temperature and time, yet commercially cooked meats (labeled “Com.”) are perhaps a
better sample of foods from which to determine human exposure since these reflect meats
cooked specifically for human consumption.
Beef cooked as steaks or ground and formed into patties, show levels in the low ng/g
range, many samples containing both PhIP and MeIQx, with the highest sample totaling over
30 ng/g for these HAs. Commercially cooked “fast food” hamburgers and roast meat have
low or undetectable levels of HAs.
Poultry samples differ from the beef or pork in that several labs show levels of PhIP
greater than 50 ng/g, although MeIQx values are in the range of beef or pork samples.
Roasted chicken, though, has very low or undetectable levels of HAs (Sinha et al., 1995;
Skog et al., 1997), as does commercially fried chicken (Tikkanen et al., 1993; Knize et al.,
1995). Chicken has notably more phenyalanine, tyrosine, and isoleucine compared to beef
and pork, which appears to explain the high amounts of PhIP reported.
In pork samples cooked a variety of ways, PhIP and MeIQx are seen in the most “well-
cooked” samples. Bacon appears to have the highest amount of HAs per gram. Commercially
grilled pork or pork sausage have low levels. Pan residues from pork chops and bacon can
also contain PhIP and MeIQx (Gross et al., 1993; Johansson et al., 1994; Skog et al., 1995).
Cajun-style pork (not shown), although very black in color, has low levels of HAs, a combined
total of 3.5 ng/g (Knize et al., 1996). The HAs in pork are dependent on the preparation: hot
dogs, having a casing, and thus, low surface area, are much lower in HAs than the thinly
sliced and fried bacon.
Studies of the amounts of HAs produced in foods as a result of regional cooking practices
are reported for Great Britain (Murray et al., 1993), Sweden (Johansson and Jägerstad,
1994; Skog et al., 1997 ), Switzerland (Zimmerli et al., 2001), Spain (Busquets et al.,
2003), Japan (Wakabayashi et al., 1993), and the United States (Knize et al., 1995b, 1998).
Table 13.1 Heterocyclic amine amounts (ng/g) in beef, poultry, and pork.
BLUK145-Gilbert
Cooking Surface Total

Food method temperature (◦ C) time (min) PhIP MeIQx Reference
Beef
Ground patty Fried – – 16.4 2.2 Murray et al., 1993
Ground patty Fried or grilled – 12–20 <0.1–1.2 0.03–2.8 Johansson and Jägerstad, 1994
Ground patty Com. fried – – 0.1–0.6 <0.1–0.3 Knize et al., 1995a
Ground patty Com. fried – – 0.62–1.8 0.75–1.64 Klassen et al., 2002
Ground patty Fried 150–180 10 0.16–15.2 1.4–5.3 Turesky et al., 2005
February 15, 2008
Roast Roast 160 96–182 <0.1 <0.1 Sinha et al., 1998b

Steak Broiled – – 16 2.1 Wakabayashi et al., 1992
Steak Fried 150–225 7 0.1–1.8 0.02–1.6 Skog et al., 1995
18:22
Steak Grilled – – 14 6 Fay et al., 1997

Steak Griddled – – 4.8 2.9 Busquets et al., 2003
Steak Fried 180–191 6–20 <0.1–23 1.3–8.2 Sinha et al., 1998b
Poultry
Chicken Barbecue – – – 0.3 Murray et al., 1993
Chicken Broiled – – 38 2.3 Wakabayashi et al., 1992
Chicken breast Fried 197–211 14–36 12–70 1–3 Sinha et al., 1995
Chicken breast Grilled 180–260 10–43 27–480 <0.1–9 Sinha et al., 1995
Chicken breast Pan fried 140–220 12–34 <0.1–38.2 0.1–1.8 Solyakov and Skog, 2002
Chicken Fried 175–225 15 0.5–10 0.4–0.5 Skog et al., 1997
Chicken Fried – – 44.9 nd Busquets et al., 2003
Chicken Fried – – <0.06–2.1 <0.06–1.8 Klassen et al., 2002
Chicken Fried 150–180 10 0.34 Turesky et al., 2005
Chicken Com. various <0.1–1.75 <0.1–1.26 Wong et al., 2005
Turkey Fried – 20 3.8 1.4 Murkovic et al., 1997
Pork
Bacon Fried 170 12–16 <0.1–53 0.9–27 Gross et al., 1993
Bacon Fried 225 12 1.6–2.7 0.9–1.2 Murray et al., 1993
Bacon Fried 150–225 4–8 0.3–4.5 N < 0.03–23.7 Skog et al., 1995
Bacon Fried <0.1–36 1.0–27 Knize et al., 1997
Chop Fried 150–225 8–9.5 <0.01–4.8 <0.03–2.6 Skog et al., 1995
Chop Fried 175 5–15 <0.1 <0.1–3.8 Sinha et al., 1998a
Ham Grilled – – 1.5 2.3 Knize et al., 1997
Heterocyclic Amines
Pork Barbecued – – 4.2 0.4 Murray et al., 1993

Pork loin Fried – – 2.5 1.9 Busquets et al., 2003
Pork Com. various <0.1–5.41 <0.1–0.94 Wong et al., 2005
367
Sausage Com. fried – – <0.1 <0.1–0.3 Knize et al., 1995a

Sausage Fried 160 6 0.1 0.7 Johansson and Jägerstad, 1994
In most cases, 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) and 2-amino-3,8-

dimethylimidazo[4,5- f ]quinoxaline (MeIQx) tend to be the most mass-abundant of the HAs.
Their concentrations in cooked meats typically range from nearly undetectable levels (typi-
cally 0.1 ng/g) to tens of ng/g for MeIQx and up to a few hundreds of ng/g for PhIP, depending
on the cooking method.
13.4.1 Pan residues and food flavors

A source of HAs related to the meats themselves are pan residues and process flavors. Pan
residues are sometimes consumed after being made into gravy and can be a source of HAs
equivalent to or greater than that of the meat itself (Johansson and Jägerstad, 1994; Skog
et al., 1997; Pais et al., 1999).
Process flavors are commercially produced flavors derived from heated mixtures of pro-
teins, fats, and carbohydrates. These are added to foods in amounts up to a few percent by
weight to improve the food’s taste and color, and they can also be used as a base for soups.
Because of their chemical complexity, specific sample preparation methods for HA analysis
have been developed for these types of samples (Gross et al., 1992; Perfetti, 1996; Pais et al.,
1997). Although most process flavors have undetectable levels of HAs, some samples contain
as much as 20 ng HAs per gram of solid or liquid flavor (Jackson et al., 1994; Stavric et al.,
1997; Solyakov et al., 1999). However, since process flavors are greatly diluted and then
consumed as only a tiny percentage in the food, we believe the bulk of HA exposure is not
from process flavors, but is from “well-cooked” meats.
13.4.2 Modifying cooking practices to reduce the formation

of heterocyclic amines
As shown in Fig. 13.3, the formation of HAs is related to pan temperature, even when meat
is cooked to the same final internal temperature. Surprisingly, the time needed to reach the
70◦ C USDA-recommended internal temperature is nearly the same at 250◦ C (7 min) as it
is at 160◦ C (9 min) (Salmon et al., 2000). This is due to the slow heat transfer through the
meat, suggesting that simply using lower pan temperatures is a practical way to reduce HA
formation, without greatly increasing cooking time.
As shown above, turning pan beef patties over every minute, compared to turning the meat
over once during the cooking period, and cooking at moderate pan temperatures until the
target internal temperature of 70◦ C is reached, seems to be the most effective way to reduce
HA content when frying. Monitoring the temperature avoids undercooking, which is defined
as cooking to a final temperature below 70◦ C, the internal temperature needed to kill harmful
bacteria in the meat (Salmon et al., 2000).
Minor changes in recipes for preparing different meat dishes may provide another way
to reduce the HAs formed. Schemes for reducing mutagenic activity or HAs by adding
substances to ground meat have been reported. Additives such as soy flour or antioxidants,
(Wang et al., 1982) or glucose or lactose (Skog et al., 1992) were shown to lower mutagenic
activity when added to ground meat prior to frying.
The heat flow and mass transport in meat during frying is very complex. Water is important
for the transport of water-soluble precursors for formation of HAs within the food. The
transport of precursors from the inner parts of the food to the surface can be restricted by
the addition of water-binding compounds, such as salt, soy protein, or starch to ground meat,
thus reducing the formation of HAs. It has been shown that there is a significant effect with
the addition of sodium chloride/sodium tripolyphosphate (Persson et al., 2003). Enzyme

treatment with creatinase was also used to reduce the available creatine in meat (Vikse and
Joner, 1993).
HA formation can also be affected by meat surface treatment. The application of a 7-
component marinade to chicken breast meat before grilling can greatly decrease PhIP, al-
though MeIQx is increased at the longest cooking time. This increase is probably due to
sucrose in the marinade (Salmon et al., 1997). No change in HAs was seen after marinating
chicken in another study (Tikkanen et al., 1997), possibly due to differences in marinating
or cooking conditions. Conversely, an HA reducing effect was seen when sugar was mixed
with ground meat formed into patties before frying (Skog et al., 1992). Experiments with
eggs, bean cake and pork show that added sugar and soy sauce increases most of the HAs
(Lan and Chen, 2002).
A microwave pre-treatment method reduced the amount of HAs formed during the frying
of ground beef (Felton et al., 1994). Beef patties received microwave pre-treatment for various
times before frying. Microwave pre-treating for 2 minutes, then pouring off the resulting liquid
and frying at either 200◦ C or 250◦ C for 6 minutes per side, reduced HAs. The liquid released
by the microwave pre-treatment contained creatine, creatinine, amino acids, glucose, water,
and fat, and discarding these precursors presumably reduced the concentration of reactants
resulting in less HAs being formed. The sum of the HAs present decreased 3-fold following
microwave cooking (1.5 min) and frying at 200◦ C (6 min per side) or 9-fold following
microwave cooking and then frying at 250◦ C, compared to controls (non-microwave pre-
treated beef patties fried under identical conditions).
13.5 EXPOSURE ASSESSEMENT

The primary method for assessing dietary consumption of different food types is through
food frequency questionnaires. Exposures to HAA have been assessed using questionnaires
for frequency of meat consumption, estimates of amounts consumed, and meat “doneness”
preference, often using photographs to aid in assessing “doneness” (Sinha et al., 1998a;
Augustsson et al., 1999; Keating et al., 2000; Le Marchand et al., 2002; Sinha, 2002).
Worrisome is that validation of the “doneness” classification by analyzing foods consumed
by the study population is typically not carried out, yet exposure estimates derived from
these questionnaires and reported with great certainty often fail to consider meat prepara-
tion and cooking factors known to be important in HA formation. Nevertheless, numer-
ous studies have used this data to correlate HA exposure with risk of cancers at many
sites.
Despite the common endpoint temperature for the samples in Fig. 13.3, the sum of the
four HAs varied from 0.14 ± 0.08 ng/g total to 17.05 ± 4.28 ng/g of cooked meat depending
on pan temperature. This greater than 100-fold difference shows that the internal temperature
of the meat (which was the same in all cases) may be meaningless for detecting an exposure
gradient over the expected range in the human population. This is despite the reported use
of endpoint temperature for classification. Asking the correct questions to get accurate HA
exposure information is difficult, but clearly the cooking temperature and cooking time are
the important parameters.
An investigation of HA amounts in meats obtained from survey participants demonstrates
the limitations of food frequency questionnaires. For a study of foods cooked under typical
household conditions, grilled meat samples were obtained from volunteers in households in
the Midwestern United States as a part of a published study on pan-fried meats (Keating
et al., 2000). Participants were volunteers responding to an initial survey that they pre-
ferred their meat “well-done” or “very well-done.” The participants were surveyed a second
time several years later, and surprisingly, 46% of the participants changed their stated meat
“doneness” preference. To correlate the stated “doneness” preference with HA levels, 92
samples of cooked meat were obtained and analyzed by SPE and reverse phase HPLC with
photodiode-array detection, using published methods (Knize et al., 1995a). Surprisingly, in
this collection of meat samples thought to be cooked to a “well-done” or “very well-done”
state, approximately 20% of the samples had undetectable levels of HAs. The standard ques-
tionnaires would categorize meats with these undetectable levels of HAs as high exposure
samples. In addition, the quantified HA content of the meat samples spanned over two orders
of magnitude, and the difficulty predicting quantities based on “doneness” assessments, the
variation in HA formation, and the changing of stated meat “doneness” preference indicate
that exposure estimates using diet surveys need to be made with caution. If misclassifications
were reduced, the power of the epidemiology studies could be greatly improved. Additional
information about the cooking method, temperature, and time should be coupled with the
doneness results.
The bioavailable dose is an even better exposure measurement than the dietary intake, as it
reflects the absorption of the carcinogens through the digestive system. Pioneering work was
done in 1982 showing that exposure to mutagen-containing fried pork or bacon resulted in a
spike of detectable mutagenic activity in urine (Baker et al., 1982). It has also been shown
that the ingestion of fried ground-beef hamburgers resulted in mutagenic activity in urine that
was not detected in urine from the same individuals collected before the hamburgers were
consumed (Hayatsu et al., 1985).
Later, using oral or intra-peritoneal dosing of synthetic HAs, it was shown that in rodents,
most of the dose was excreted in urine as metabolites (Turteltaub et al., 1989; Alexander
et al., 1991; Buonarati et al., 1992; Turesky et al., 1993), suggesting it would be possible to
monitor the exposure in humans as urinary metabolites.
The presence of specific HAs in human urine after a cooked-meat meal was shown by
using a sensitive GC/MS detection method (Murray et al., 1989). They showed that only a
low percentage of the parent compound was in the urine. Other studies showed four HAs were
detected in urine from volunteers on their normal diet (Ushiyama et al., 1991) and PhIP and
MeIQx conjugates detected in urine led to conclusions about Phase II conjugation reactions
(Stillwell et al., 1997). Another study showed PhIP metabolites were detected in a racially
diverse population (Kidd et al., 1999). One drawback of the analysis of urine for HAs and
their metabolites is the short duration of the detectable exposure signal. It has been shown
in many studies in humans and rodents that most of the dose is excreted within 12 hours,
so detecting urinary HAs or their metabolites is not the desired long-term marker of dose or
bioavailable dose, but only really useful for studying exposure after a single meal.
In 1992, it was discovered that PhIP has a high binding to pigmented tissues (Brittebo
et al., 1992). This finding led to detection of PhIP bound to human hair as a marker of dietary
exposure and bioavailability (Reistad et al., 1999). Interestingly, PhIP incorporation appears
to vary with hair color and be dependent upon the eumelanin concentration in hair (Hegstad
et al., 2002). Because a hair sample may provide a record of exposure over a period of several
months or longer, hair analysis may be a promising avenue for determining human exposure
and internal dose.
13.6 RISK
Epidemiological studies relating cancer outcome and meat cooking “doneness” suggest ef-
fects in the breast, colon and prostate, plus esophagus, larynx, lung, lymphocytes, stomach,
and pancreas. There are 31 such studies compiled by Knize and Felton (2005). Most of
these studies show positive associations, but some are negative, as would be expected given
the variety of cancer sites evaluated. Improved classification of exposure levels, however,
would tend to elevate odds ratios and improve statistical significance if the hypothesis of
HA involvement is true. Thus, improved determination of exposures would refine the risk
assessment considerably.
Based on these observations it is apparent that quantifying human HA exposure is not a
simple task. Formation of HAs in meat during cooking is highly dependent upon cooking
method (time and temperature) and “doneness” levels. Individual exposure depends upon
meat consumption patterns. The compelling conclusion for these meat and cancer studies
is that humans are exposed to genotoxic rodent carcinogens over a lifetime. Intake levels
are low; 1 mg of MeIQx (the total from a 200 g steak with 5 ng/g) consists of 2.8 × 1015
molecules that can be absorbed and then either activated and covalently bound to DNA and
proteins, or detoxified and excreted in the urine.
An alternate route of HA exposure is through the respiratory tract via the fumes and smoke
generated when meat is cooked. Although the HAs are not volatile chemicals, collected parti-
cles generated during cooking were shown to have mutagenic activity and to contain specific
HAs (Nagao et al., 1977; Rappaport et al., 1979; Vainiotalo et al., 1993; Thiebaud et al.,
1994; Thiébaud et al., 1995). The total exposure to HA appears to be much greater through
consumption of “well-done” meat than breathing of cooking fumes, but the metabolism and
types of tissue exposed differs between the two routes. Occupational exposure to HA is not
expected to be a large factor in human exposure, although the inhalation exposure noted
above may be important in some occupational circumstances experienced by chefs.
13.7 REGULATIONS
There are no regulations of HA content in foods or process flavors. The State of California,
using its Proposition 65 law to warn consumers about carcinogens, has listed PhIP as a
carcinogen, but a no significant risk level (NSRL) has not been established for PhIP.
Conclusion
Human exposure to HAs can now be estimated with a degree of accuracy because HAs are
easily measured in meat and human exposure to them can be estimated from food consumption
surveys. The difficulty in assessing exposure arises from the number of different HAs of
concern, variation in their formation depending on meat cooking conditions, and the lack of
validated long-term biomarkers for either intake or biological consequences
The compelling part of HA research for population studies is that there are more than a
100-fold variations in human exposure, and, therefore, most study populations have enough
range in variation to test the hypothesis that HA exposures are involved in human cancer
etiology. Large cohort studies would be best for these types of studies. Also, compelling is
the fact that these exposures can be modified through changes in cooking practices, if changes
are warranted from risk assessment, without having to abstain from meat intake.
In most cases, 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) and 2-amino-
3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5- f ]quinoxaline (MeIQx) tend to be the most mass-abundant HAs.
Their concentrations in cooked meat typically range from nearly undetectable levels (typically
0.1 ng/g) to tens of ng/g for MeIQx and up to a few hundreds of a ng/g for PhIP, depending
on the cooking method and food source. Because of their prevalence in cooked meat, and
their carcinogenic potency in rodents, these two compounds were used in most studies to
understand the mechanisms of mutagenesis and carcinogenesis of HAs. The effects of these
two compounds have been explored in model systems using biological endpoints related to
mutagenesis in bacteria, cultured cells, and rodents.
Acknowledgments
This work was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by the
University of California, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under Contract No.
W-7405-Eng-48 and supported by NCI grant CA55861.
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14 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Laura Cano-Lerida, Martin Rose and Paul Walton
Summary
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons comprise a group of non-functionalised aromatic com-
pounds containing either two or more CH-fused aromatic rings, and additionally their func-
tionalised derivatives and heterocyclic analogues (totalling around 250 compounds). PAHs
are ubiquitous as environment contaminants in the food chain, originating from a variety of
pyrolysis sources, as well as directly contaminating foods from cooking and drying processes.
Surveys have identified PAHs in vegetable oils, fish, shellfish, smoked and barbecued foods.
Total diet studies have shown that the highest contributions to dietary intakes of PAHs come
from miscellaneous cereals, fats and oils, and green vegetable food groups. PAHs are toxic,
many of the compounds in this class are both genotoxic and carcinogenic. On the basis of
risk assessments, the EU regulates PAHs in foods based on limits for individual compounds.
14.1 OCCURRENCE AND MECHANISM OF FORMATION

14.1.1 Definition
Polycyclic (Roy et al., 2005) aromatic hydrocarbons (Baran et al., 2003) or arenes form
a large family of non-functionalised aromatic compounds containing either two or more
fused aromatic rings made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms (Flowers et al., 2002). This
definition is strictly valid for unsubstituted parent PAHs and their alkyl substituted deriva-
tives, and this is how the term is used in this chapter. The term PAH, however, can also be
used for functionalised derivatives (Baran et al., 2003) and heterocyclic analogues (i.e. indole,
quinoline, benzothiophene, 9-cyanoanthracene, dibenzothiophene). There are about 250 com-
pounds generally included in the term PAH and the structures of some of them are shown in
Fig. 14.1.
14.1.2 Sources of PAHs

PAHs and their derivatives are widespread in the environment from both natural and anthro-
pogenic sources, such as burning fossil fuels and processes shown in Table 14.1 (Larsson
et al., 1987; Mastrangelo et al., 1996). They are created when substances such as coal, oil,
gas and organic waste are burned incompletely (Phillips, 1983). At high temperatures organic
compounds are partially cracked to smaller unstable fragments (Li et al., 2003), mostly radi-
cals, that recombine to give relatively stable PAHs (pyrosynthesis). Another source of PAHs

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 379
(1) (2) (3) (4)
(5) (6) (7) (8)
(9) (10) (11) (12)
(13) (14) (15)
(16) (17) (18)
Fig. 14.1 Some members of the PAH family. (1) Phenanthrene, (2) anthracene, (3) benz[a]anthrecene,
(4) pyrene, (5) chrysene, (6) naphthacene, (7) benzo[c]phenanthrene, (8) benzo[ghi]fluoranthene, (9)
dibenzo[c, g]phenanthrene, (10) benzo[ghi]perylene, (11) triphenylene, (12) o-tephenyl, (13) o-terphenyl,
(14) p-terphenyl, (15) benzo[a]pyrene, (16) tetrabenzonaphthalene, (17) phenanthro[3,4-c]phenanthrene,
(18) coronene.
is aromatisation that occurs at lower temperatures (100–150◦ C), but this requires much more
time and produces large quantities of alkylated PAHs (Moret and Conte, 2000).
PAHs are ubiquitous, being present in the atmosphere, surface water, sediments and soil,
food and lipid tissues. For the general population, exposure to PAHs is mainly from food and
inhaled air, although there have been cases of high level occupational exposure (European
Commission, 2002).
14.1.3 Sources of PAHs in foods

14.1.3.1 Environmental sources
PAHs of lower molecular mass (generally those with three or fewer aromatic rings) are
numerous in the atmosphere and those of higher molecular mass (the majority) enter the
Table 14.1 Sources of PAHs.
Anthropogenic sources
• Industry
◦ Cokeries
◦ Petroleum catalytic cracking
◦ Iron and steel foundries
◦ Aluminium works
◦ Wood preservation using carbolineum and creosote
◦ Road building
◦ Roofing
◦ Industrial incinerators
• Domestic combustion
◦ Wood and kerosene stoves
◦ Oil burners
◦ Barbecues
◦ Coal
◦ Other fuels
◦ Tobacco smoke
• Traffic
◦ Diesel vehicles
◦ Gasoline vehicles
◦ Other vehicles
Natural sources
◦ Forests fires and volcanoes
◦ Lignite, coal and crude oil
European Commission (2002).
environment adsorbed onto particulate matter. The hydrosphere and geosphere are affected
by dry and wet deposition of PAHs.
Solubility in water is a crucial characteristic for determining distribution patterns of PAHs
in food (Lerario et al., 2003). For example, Table 14.2 shows water solubility values (Leonard
et al., 2000) for some PAHs. Phenanthrene, for example, has a relatively high solubility when
compared with other PAHs, and is therefore likely to have a higher environmental mobility;
in fact, phenanthrene is the PAH found in highest concentrations in aquatic samples. As
PAHs are lipophilic compounds, uptake by absorption by plants from contaminated soils
is low. The waxy surfaces of vegetables and fruits can concentrate low molecular mass
Table 14.2 Examples of PAH water solubility.
PAH MWa SW (mg/L)b
Phenanthrene 178.24 1.290

Anthracene 178.24 0.073
Pyrene 202.26 0.135
Fluoranthene 202.26 0.265
a
MW, molecular weight.
b
Solubility in water.
Reproduced from Paschke, A., Popp, P. and Schuurmann, G. Solubility
and partitioning studies with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons using an
optimized SPME procedure. Fresenius Journal of Analytical Chemistry, 363,
426–428. Copyright 2004 with kind permission from Springer Science and
Business Media.
PAHs through surface adsorption (European Commission, 2002). In marine sediments, PAHs
become strongly bound and constitute a pollutant reservoir. In reality, only sediment dwelling
organisms are likely to be adversely affected by these PAHs. Bivalves like mussels or oysters
may accumulate high levels because they filter large quantities of water and unlike most
other living organisms, they cannot metabolise the PAHs (Wootton et al., 2003; Oros and
Ross, 2005). Contamination can spread over the food chain. However, bio-magnification has
not been reported in aquatic systems because of metabolism of PAHs by organisms (e.g.
vertebrates) at higher trophic levels of the food chain (Narbonne et al., 2005).
Other animals consumed by humans, such as cattle or poultry, may be exposed as a result
of ingestion of other contaminated animals or plants or by breathing in contaminated air or
by drinking contaminated water (Ciganek et al., 2000, 2002; Schaum et al., 2003). But most
animals will metabolise the PAHs before any food products reach humans.
14.1.3.2 PAHs originating from processing and cooking

Despite PAHs present in foodstuffs due to environmental exposure, processing of food (such
as smoking, industrial drying, barbecuing and other cooking methods) is thought to be the
major source of PAHs in food (Mottier et al., 2000). Charcoal grilling can generate high
levels of PAHs, quantities produced being related to factors such as fat content, temperature
and cooking time. For example, levels as high as 320 μg/kg of PAHs in charcoal-grilled duck
breast steaks have been measured.
Vegetable oils such as coconut, sunflower, olive and grape-seed oils and fats contribute
significantly to the presence of PAHs in the diet. Their contamination is mainly due to the
industrial drying processes to which the seeds are subjected to when the seeds come into
contact with combustion gases (Moret et al., 2000). It is common practice to use open fires
to heat seeds in industrial processes used to extract oils. Fortunately, refining can reduce
the amount of these contaminants. Deodorisation methods remove the most volatile of these
PAHs whereas charcoal treatment can remove higher PAHs (as a general rule, those with
more than four rings) (Moret and Conte, 2000; Moret et al., 2000). In coffee and tea, the
roasting procedure can contribute to additional production of PAHs (European Commission,
2002).
Reports of the presence of PAHs in smoked food are numerous (Guillen and Sopelana,
2004; Jira, 2004; Stolyhwo and Sikorski, 2005). There are many variables intervening in
this process: type of wood, type of generator (internal or external), oxygen accessibility,
temperature and smoking time can all make the final concentration of PAHs very different in
similar types of food.
14.1.4 Environmental fate and degradation

Environmental fate of PAHs is very varied; in terms of environmental distribution, parti-
tioning between water and air, between water and sediment and between water and biota
are the most important processes. Airborne emissions of PAHs from coal coking, exhausts
of vehicles, combustion of fuels in general can release PAHs into the atmosphere. PAHs
of higher molecular mass, entering the environment via the atmosphere are adsorbed onto
particulate matter and are transferred into soils or watercourses by dry and wet deposition.
PAHs bind strongly to soil organic matter (Laor and Rebhun, 2002) with an unusually slow
rate of degradation (Siddiqi et al., 2002). They reach watercourses and are rapidly transferred
to sediments (Baran et al., 2003).
Meat, poultry, fish, milk, eggs and their products are considered to be the major source of
human exposure to PAHs (as well as to other lipophilic contaminants such as polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated dibenzo-
dioxins (PCDDs). Sources of food contamination are from direct intake from contaminated
water and/or soils where plants and animals are produced and also from some methods of food
preparation such as smoking, frying, baking, roasting, barbecuing and seed drying processes
(vegetable oils and cereals). PAHs can also contaminate foodstuffs by diffusion from some
packaging materials such as recycled polyethylene film (Moret and Conte, 2000; Tamakawa,
2004).
PAHs may be broken down as a result of photodegradation, microbial degradation and
metabolism in higher biota (e.g. vertebrates). Photodegradation or photooxidation is a rela-
tively facile process that occurs on exposure of many PAHs to air and light in air and water in
the presence of sensitising radicals like OH, NO3 and O3 (Mallakin et al., 2002). PAHs are
microbiologically degraded under aerobic conditions and the biodegradation rate decreases
drastically with the number of aromatic rings on the PAH. Anaerobic degradation is much
slower (Demaneche et al., 2004; Amir et al., 2005).
Metabolism in higher biota is a route of transformation of minor importance for the overall
fate of PAHs in the environment, but it is important for biota and therefore for the food chain
and for the equilibrium of ecosystems (Jones et al., 2000; Dreij et al., 2005). Biomagnification
(the increase in the concentration of a substance in animals in successive trophic levels of
food chains) of PAHs has not then been observed and would not be expected, because most
organisms have a high metabolic potential for PAHs. Organisms at higher trophic levels in food
chains show the highest potential for biotransformation. Bioaccumulation (the accumulation
of material over a life time) is nevertheless a problem for organisms that lack the microsomal
oxidase enzyme, which allows for the breakdown of PAHs to more water-soluble products
for excretion (European Commission, 2002).
As PAHs are usually chemically stable, with no reactive groups, hydrolysis plays no role
in their degradation. Calculations based on physicochemical and degradation parameters
indicate that PAHs with four or more aromatic rings persist in the environment (IPCS, 1998).
Table 14.3 shows some examples of some PAHs persistence in air, water, soil and sediment
(based on model calculations) (Mackay and Shiu, 1992).
Interest in the biodegradation mechanisms and environmental fate of PAHs is prompted by
their ubiquitous distribution and their dangerous effects on human health. PAHs are persistent
pollutants with long life cycles in the environment, and there is evidence that suggests a direct
relationship between PAH size and biodegradation rate. For example, reported half-lives in
soil and sediment of phenanthrene (three rings) may range from 16 to 126 days while for the
five-ring molecule benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) the reported range is from 229 to >1400 days
(Kanaly and Harayama, 2000).

14.2.1 Current status
Due to the ubiquity of PAHs and their potentially deleterious effects on human health, these
compounds are often analysed in a variety of matrices such as foods, oils, waters, soils
etc. Being such a large and diverse family, standard methods, based on field sampling and
laboratory analysis, are often used (Fisher, 2000). The following section does not provide an
Table 14.3 Suggested half-life classes of PAHs in various environmental compartments.
Half-life (h)
Class Mean Range
1 17 10–30
2 55 30–100
3 170 100–300
4 550 300–1000
5 1700 1000–3000
6 5500 3000–10 000
7 17 000 10 000–30 000
8 55 000 >30 000
Compound Class in air Class in water Class in soil Class in sediment
Acenalphthylene 2 4 6 7
Anthracene 2 4 6 7
Benz[a]anthracene 3 5 7 8
Benzo[a]pyrene 3 5 7 8
Benzo[k]fluoranthene 3 5 7 8
Chrysene 3 5 7 8
Dibenz[a,h]anthracene 3 5 7 8
Fluoranthene 3 5 7 8
Fluorene 2 4 6 7
Naphthalene 1 3 5 6
Perylene 3 5 7 8
Phenanthrene 2 4 6 7
Pyrene 3 5 7 8
Reproduced from Mackay, D.P. and Shiu, W.Y. Generic models for evaluating the regional fate of chemicals.
Chemosphere, 24, 695–717. Copyright 1992 with permission from Elsevier.
exhaustive list of analytical methods, but aims to identify well-established methods that are
used as standard methods of analysis.
There are several well-established analytical procedures for the analysis of PAHs. Most
of them involve pre-treatment of the sample, where the PAHs are extracted from the complex
mixtures in which they are present, into a new matrix by liquid/liquid, solid-phase and/or
ultrasonic extractions. Pre-treatment methods often serve the purpose of being a pre-cleaning
of interfering compounds and also a pre-concentration step (Mastral et al., 2004). The ap-
plication of ultrasound for accelerating or assisting PAH (and other inorganic and organic
compounds), extraction from solid materials is sometimes used (Rodriguez-Sanmartin et al.,
2005). Extracts are measured by either HPLC or GC (depending on the nature of the sam-
ple and its volatility) with the detectors being mass spectrometer (MS), ultraviolet (UV) or
fluorescence spectrophotometers (Li et al., 2003).
The conventional method for dust and soils consists of sample extraction, sample clean up
(if needed) and sample analyses by GC-MS (Weisshoff et al., 2002). With a few exceptions
PAHs are analysed by HPLC with fluorescence or UV detection, or sometimes by GC-MS
or GC-FID (Sluszny et al., 2002). Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is an inexpensive,
quick analytical technique, but has low separation efficiency and is commonly used only for
identification purposes of individual compounds or for very simple sample types.
With the exception of TLC, these techniques are accurate and can handle complicated
mixtures, but at the same time they are expensive and require highly qualified personnel to
operate. Their widespread use is justified by the high complexity of ‘real’ samples mostly
containing a large number of PAHs. As an example, a standard GC column containing 3000
plates/metre allows good separation of mixtures of about 100 PAHs (IPCS, 1998). The limits
of detection of these analytical methods for PAHs need to be extremely low as they are
normally present at trace amounts (<ppb), especially in water, and are potentially toxic at
these low concentrations (Manoli, 1999).
Immunoassays have been extensively applied to evaluate environmental contamination
and analysis of biological fluids. Molecules detected by immunoassays vary widely in size,
chemical and physical properties and biological activity. PAHs are enzymatically converted
to highly reactive metabolites that bind covalently to macromolecules such as DNA, thereby
causing mutagenesis and carcinogenesis in experimental animals (Section 14.3). For example,
B[a]P is activated by microsomal enzymes to 7β,8α-dihydroxy-(9α,10α)-epoxy-7,8,9,10-
tetrahydrobenzo[a]pyrene (Pavanello et al., 1999) and binds covalently to DNA, resulting
in formation of BPDE-DNA adducts (Pavanello et al., 1999; Wani et al., 2002; Smith and
Hurtubise, 2004). Immunoassays are sensitive methods and able to detect PAH-DNA adducts
in the blood and tissues of humans and animals and include, for example, enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assays (ELISA) (Chuang et al., 1998), radioimmunoassay (Schneider et al.,
1995; Baran et al., 2003), dissociation-enhanced lanthanide fluoroimmunoassay (DELFIA)
(Divi, 2002) and ultrasensitive enzyme radioimmunoassay (USERIA) (Ovrebo, 1992, 1994);
32
P- and 35 S-postlabelling with radioactivity counting (Gorelick and Reeder, 1993); surface-
enhanced Raman spectroscopy (Olson, 2004); and synchronous luminescence spectroscopy
(SLS) (Matuszewska, 2000).
The US EPA has developed a standard immunoassay method (number 4035) for screening
of soils for PAHs. This method is a semi-quantitative enzyme immunoassay and correctly
identifies 95% of samples that are PAH-free and those containing 1 ppm total PAH (as
phenanthrene). The immunoassay is based on the use of antibodies immobilised on the walls
of the test tubes that bind either PAH or PAH-enzyme conjugate. When PAH is present in the
sample, it competes with the PAH-enzyme conjugate for a limited number of binding sites
on the immobilised antibodies.
Table 14.4 lists some of the most representative methods in general use for PAHs analysis.
The most commonly used are chromatographic methods like GC and LC with different
detectors depending on the nature of the samples.
Solid-phase extraction (Biernoth and Rost, 1968) and solid-phase microextraction
(Paschke et al., 1999; Guillen and Sopelana, 2005; Hawthorne et al., 2005; Hu et al., 2005; Ter
Laak et al., 2005) are also attracting some attention in the field of PAH analysis. Supported
liquid membrane extraction (SLM) (Zabiegala et al., 2000), supercritical fluid extraction
(SFE) (Rigou et al., 2004; Chiu et al., 2005; Librando et al., 2005), online capillary microex-
traction (Bigham, 2002) and membrane extraction with sorbent interface (MESI) have also
been used although less frequently (Roy et al., 2005). Recent work by Roy et al. demonstrates
the coupling of stir bar sorptive extraction to a new generation of gas chromatography mass
spectrometry (GC-MS), using the field apparatus EM 640 S from Bruker (Roy et al., 2005).
14.2.2 Analytical methods – forward look

The available standard methods have a series of drawbacks:
r They are very time-consuming

r They require highly trained operators
Table 14.4 Conventional analytical methods for the determination of PAHs (ATSDR, 1995; European
Commission, 2002).
Analytical method Sample Detection limit Per cent recovery
GC/MS Biological tissues 5–50 ng/g 52–95

Air 1 pg/sample No data
1 × 10−5 ppm No data
0.5–100 ng/m3 74–90
Water 1.9–7.8 μg/L No data
Sub-ng/L range 80
Sediments 2.8–7.3 μg/g 91–97
Coal-fly ash No data No data
Seafoods 1–5 μg/kg 73–144
Cigarette smoke 1–6 μg/cigarette No data
LC-GC/MS Vegetable oil 1 pg/sample No data
Aerosol samples pg/m3 No data
GC/FT-IR Water and sediments 0.01–0.06 μg/g No data
Soil 0.025–0.25 μg/sample 0.998–0.85 μg/sample
GC/GPFD Air 1 × 10−6 ppm 100.5
HRGC Air 0.001–0.03 ng/m3 No data
GC/FID Biological tissues 50 ng/g 83–95
Urine 1.2–6.48 μg PAH/mmol No data
creatine
Air 0.05 ng/m3 No data
GC/FID Sea water 0.024–0.045 μg/L No data
Sediments 0.014–0.093 μg/g 76–110
HPLC/UV Lungs 20 ng/g 93.7 (fluoroanthene);
65.3 (pyrene)
Blood 20 ng/mL 107 (fluoroanthene);
108.6 (pyrene)
Urine 5 × 10−12 mol/10 μg of No data
labelled B[a]P
Water 0.01–3 μg/L No data
Coal and petroleum 0.1–7.1 μg/L 45–95
Barley malt 2.5–5 ng/g 78–97
HPLC/fluorescence Blood 5 × 10−12 g BPDE/sample No data
detector
Urine <1 μg PAH/mmol creatine 10–85
Air <0.01 ng/sample No data
Water 180 × 10−15 g/sample 89–100
Low ng/L 86–87
Cigarette smoke 3 pg/sample 89–108
HPLC/fluorescence Coal and petroleum 3.5–46 μg/L 56–100
detector
Smoked foods 2–27 pg/sample 28–142
0.1 μg/kg 75–90
Charcoal-boiled beef 20–50 ng/g No data
Fat products 0.1–0.5 ppb 76–85
HPLC/SFS Urine 0.01 pmol/mL >30
HPLC/MS Sediments pg range No data
ELISA Blood 0.38–2.2 × 10−15 mol No data
BPDE/μg DNA
(continued)
Table 14.4 (continued)
Analytical method Sample Detection limit Per cent recovery
0.06–0.2 × 10−15 mol No data

BPDE/μg DNA
Water ng/L range No data
Soil 100–10 000 ppm range 140 B[a]P
USERIA Blood 0.38–2.2 × 10−15 mol No data
BPDE/μg DNA
TLC Blood 0.3 × 10−15 mols adduct/μg No data
DNA
Sediments 0.2–2.7 μg/g 86–89
Cooking oil fume 0.11–0.41 ng 96–99
Coal and petroleum μg/L range No data
Time-related Blood <1 adduct/108 nucleotides No data
fluorometry
(PAH-DNA adduct)
Spectrofluorometry Sediments 0.008–4.5 ng/mL 80–95
r They are expensive to run and buy the equipment

r There is a strong dependence on the extraction conditions, which can sometimes produce
lack of reproducibility
r There is a high risk of contamination during sampling prior to analyses
r There is also a lack of in situ and fast method of analyses
The major disadvantage of classical chromatographic analysis of PAHs, especially for

heavily contaminated samples, is that it cannot be used as a tool to quickly identify total
PAH content of a sample. As PAH identification is based on retention times, unambiguous
compound identification requires either PAH separation (which might not be achieved in the
HPLC column) or complete chromatographic resolution of sample components (Environ-
mental Protection Agency, 1991). Because PAH separation might not be achieved, the use
of a support analytical technique such GC-MS is preferable. In chromatographic analysis
of PAHs, long elution times are typical (Larsson et al., 1987), and standards must be run
periodically to verify retention times, along with reference materials and other quality con-
trol procedures. If the concentrations of target species are found to lie outside the detector’s
response range, the sample must be diluted or concentrated and the process repeated.
Current investigations focused on direct on-site measurement of PAHs in soil and water
described below, could address the problems of sample contamination prior to analysis and
save time in the analyses (Sluszny et al., 2004). Unfortunately, natural materials, such as
humic acids found in water and soil, greatly reduce sensitivities of such techniques. Thus,
at present, these methods are only capable of a semi-quantitative analysis when applied to
‘real world’ samples. There is some work reported that investigates the use of novel materials
as selective sorbents for organic pollutants; various applications of polymer films have been
suggested (Ensing and de Boer, 1999; Patel et al., 2000; Sluszny et al., 2004). An example
of this includes a polymer film sensor for sampling and remote analysis of PAHs in aqueous
environments (Sluszny et al., 2004). A novel material for SPE with improved properties with
respect to the normally used in conventional SPE methods (such as the C-18-reverse phase
material) (Sluszny et al., 2004) using a polymeric film as extraction medium for the direct
analysis by fluorescence of PAHs has been developed. The polymer film is selective for pyrene
Microscope
objective
Nd-YAG
Laser
Spectro Intensified
photometer PDA
Polymer film PAH

solution
Polymer film
Laser
Spectrophotometer
(PDA)
PAH solution
Fig. 14.2 Experimental set-up of Sluszny et al. (Reprinted from Sluszny, C., Gridin, V.V., Bulatov, V. and
Schechter, I. Polymer film sensor for sampling and remote analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
in clear and turbid aqueous environments. Analytica Chimica Acta, 522, 145–152. Copyright 2004 with
and anthracene with respect to ‘interfering substances’ (Laor and Rebhun, 2002). The polymer
is made out of a 1:2 ratio of bis(2-ethyl-hexyl) phthalate as a softening agent and poly(vinyl
chloride-co-vinyl acetate) containing approximately 90% vinyl chloride in tetrahydrofuran
(THF). After leaving thin films of this polymer into contact with samples spiked with PAHs
for 45 minutes, the remote laser-induced fluorescence (Oliferova et al., 2005) of these films
was measured with an experimental set-up like the one depicted in Fig. 14.2.
A dual-branch fibre-optic fluorescence probe was used for direct excitation of the PAH-
containing polymer, as well as for the measurement of the emitted fluorescence. A special
holder coupled the polymer film to the fibre-optic assembly at an angle of 55◦ with respect to
the fibre-optic head and a laser light was focused onto the optical fibre by a microscope objec-
tive. The back-emitted fluorescence was transmitted through the optical fibres and the spectra
were obtained by a PC-interfaced spectrometer, equipped with a photodiode array detector.
The advantage of polymeric film sampling over direct fluorescence analysis in solution is sup-
ported by measurements carried out in the presence of humic acids as interfering substances.
A quantitative evaluation of the method was given with fluorescence quenchers present at
various concentrations (represented by humic substances) and when micro-particulates were
suspended in the water (represented by various clay suspensions).
Environmental samples often contain high amounts of these natural materials includ-
ing humic substances and clay suspensions. A major drawback for the wide application of
this method is the fact that environmental samples also contain a wide range of different
compounds that may became absorbed in the polymer films and can contribute to the total
fluorescence or act as quenchers. In either case they would interfere with the quantification
of PAHs. Work on novel materials for SPE applied to PAHs analysis has been reported by
Oliferova et al. (2005). This consisted of an automated on-line method, which included both
preconcentration (Biernoth and Rost, 1968) and analysis (Bystol and Campiglia, 2003) of
water samples spiked with PAHs.
Hydrophobic organic substances are normally determined by on-line SPE-HPLC systems
with microcolumns packed with non-polar sorbents. The most popular of these sorbents
is octadecyl-bound silica gel (Booth and Gribben, 2005). These materials present several
improvements such as the existence of residual polar groups (i.e. in ODS silanol groups,
-Si-OH) that provide strong binding points for analytes making difficult their later desorp-
tion (Thurman and Mills, 1998). Due to these silanol groups ODS does not possess a high
selectivity towards hydrophobic substances, it extracts not only hydrophobic but also hy-
drophilic substances (Hennion, 1999). Oliferova et al. (2005) proposed the use of fluorocarbon
polymers (FPs) as sorbent materials to overcome these problems. FPs are highly hydrophobic,
thus being ideal sorbents for recovery of hydrophobic substances from aqueous solutions.
According to Oliferova et al. (2005) application of FP sorbents resulted in better extraction
selectivity towards PAHs in comparison with several other sorbents.
14.3 PAHs IN FOOD, EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT AND

HEALTH EFFECTS
14.3.1 PAHs in food and dietary intake
A risk assessment carried out by the EC Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) recommended
further investigation and monitoring of 15 PAHs. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee
on Foods Additives (JECFA) in 2005 highlighted an additional PAH, benzo[c]fluorine as a
compound of concern. Because of the continued development of European legislation in this
area, analytical methodology for multiple PAHs in food is required in order to get a clearer
picture of human exposure (Wenzl, 2006).
In view of uncertainties about the levels of PAHs in foods, especially those possessing
both genotoxic and carcinogenic properties as identified by the former EC SCF, a review of
regulations will be undertaken by early 2007. Information is required to support this review,
and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has been asked to initiate and coordinate
PAH-data collection in various food categories. In response, EFSA has established an on-line
analytical database in collaboration with EU Member States in order to collect data. This
information should also show whether or not B[a]P is a suitable marker for more general
PAH exposure (Wenzl, 2006).
There have been a large number of studies on PAHs in vegetable oils (Biernoth and Rost,
1968; Tiscornia, 1982; Larsson, 1987; Sagredos, 1988; Speer, 1990; Dennis et al., 1991;
Menichini, 1991; Gertz, 1994; Swetman, 1999; Moret et al., 2000) and some studies of PAHs
in fish and smoked and barbecued foods (Speer, 1990) and in fish and shellfish (Jones, 2001;
Storelli, 2001; Mostafa, 2002; O’Connor, 2002).
A few estimates of dietary intakes of PAHs have been carried out, and these are sum-
marised in Table 14.5. In the UK, the total diet survey (TDS) is one method used to provide
information on dietary exposures of the general UK population to chemicals such as nu-
trients and contaminants. It allows a check to be made that intakes of these chemicals do
Table 14.5 Estimated dietary intakes by adults of PAHs estimated in other countries.
Estimated dietary exposure

(ng/kg bw/day)
Type of samples
analysed Country Year B[a]P Total PAHsa Reference
Total diet study UK 2000 1.6 69 FSA, 2002

Total diet study Milan, Italy ns ns 50 Lodovici et al., 1995
Market basket Netherlands 1984–86 4.8 284 de Vos et al., 1990
Retail foods USA ns 0.3–1.3b n/a Kazerouni et al., 2001
a
The sets of PAHs analysed were not the same in all the surveys.
b
Range of dietary intakes by 90% of the consumers.
ns, not stated.
not give any general cause for health concern (Pufulete et al., 2004) and also allows an
evaluation of time trends in exposure. The design of the TDS is described more fully else-
where (Peattie, 1983; Ministry of Agriculture, 1994), but it involves the preparation of a
number of food group samples, each of which reflects the relative importance of different
foods in the diet within 20 major food groups, e.g. fish, carcass meat or green vegetables etc.
Average and high level (97.5 percentile) adult lower bound (assumes compounds not detected
are at zero concentration) dietary intakes of B[a]P were estimated using the lower bound av-
erages of the concentrations in the 24 composites of each food group. The average and high
level adult lower bound dietary intakes of B[a]P in 1979 were estimated at 2.4 and 4.4 ng/kg
body weight/day. The results showed that the highest contributions to dietary intakes of PAHs
came from the miscellaneous cereals, fats and oils, and green vegetables food groups, and
a follow-up survey in 1984 showed that vegetable oils were responsible for the presence of
PAHs in the fats and oils food groups (Dennis et al., 1991). The same work also showed
that the concentrations of some PAHs were reduced significantly during the refining process.
Dietary intakes by UK consumers of PAHs were estimated from the fresh weight concen-
trations in the 2000 TDS samples using consumption data from the Dietary and Nutritional
Survey of British Adults (Gregory et al., 1990), the National Diet and Nutrition Survey
(NDNS) of young people aged 4–18 years (Gregory et al., 2000) and the NDNS of children
aged 11/2–41/2 years (Gregory et al., 1995). For comparison purposes, the dietary exposures
of UK consumers to the PAHs of greatest concern (Class A as described in Section 14.3.3.1
below) in 1979 were re-estimated. The estimated upper bound (assumes ‘not detected’ com-
pounds are present at the limit of detection and is therefore the precautionary approach)
average and high-level dietary intakes by adults of B[a]P in 2000 were 1.6 and 2.7 ng/kg
body weight/day, and this compared with approximate lower bound values of 2.4 and 4.4
ng/kg body weight/day in 1979. Note that upper bound estimates from 1979 are not possible
since limits of determination were not reported. The estimated dietary intakes by schoolchil-
dren and toddlers of B[a]P in 2000 were higher than for adults, with average and high level
(97.5 percentile) intakes of up to 3.8 and 6.2 ng/kg body weight/day respectively for tod-
dlers, largely due to the greater amount of food that children eat per unit of body weight.
The estimated upper bound average and high level dietary intakes by adults to the sum of
the PAHs analysed in the samples from year 2000 were 69 and 116 ng/kg body weight/day.
These figures cannot be compared directly with the results for 1979 as different sets of PAHs
were analysed. Since certain PAHs were detected at concentrations exceeding the limit of
determination (LOD) in only a few of the food groups, the upper bound estimates are likely
to be significantly higher than the true values.
B[a]P was detected at concentrations exceeding the limit of determination (Hu et al.,
2005) in only four food groups (bread, miscellaneous cereals, oils and fats, and nuts). Five of
the PAHs (acenapthalene, fluorine, fluoranthene and phenanthrene), all ranked relatively low
by the scheme shown below in Section 14.3.2.1 (Department of Health, 1998) were detected
at concentrations exceeding the LOD in all or all but one of the food groups, whilst two
of the PAHs (dibenz[ah]anthracene and anthanthrene) were not detected at concentrations
exceeding the LOD in any of the food groups. Only one of the PAHs ranked as amongst those of
greatest concern, benz[a]anthracene, was detected in the majority of food groups. In general,
the PAHs with the lower rankings in terms of health risk were detected more frequently, and
at higher concentrations, than those with higher health rankings. The highest concentrations
of PAHs were found in the bread, miscellaneous cereals, fats and oils, and fish, food groups.
This is to be expected as fish tend to accumulate PAHs from the marine environment, and
the direct drying of vegetable oils (Dennis et al., 1991; Moret et al., 2000) tends to introduce
PAHs into products made from them. The concentrations of the PAHs of greatest concern have
fallen in the fish, and the fats and oils food groups since then. Concentrations in the other food
groups cannot be compared directly as the TDS food groups have changed since 1979 (Peattie,
1983). Although the dietary exposures from the beverages, milk and milk product food groups
appear to have risen, in 1979 the PAHs were seldom detected at concentrations above the
limits of determination in these food groups. The available lower bound concentrations would
therefore have been considerable underestimates of the true concentrations. Further details
of the total diet study including the measured concentrations in different food groups can be
found in the Food Standards Agency information sheet (FSA, 2002).
14.3.2 Health effects and risk assessments

14.3.2.1 Health effects
In 1992, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences identified PAHs and other semi-volatile
organic compounds amongst the highest priorities for research in terms of exposure to chem-
icals through the diet. The control of their presence and reduction of concentrations is of great
and growing importance in the context of both food safety and health and safety regulations
(Fent, 2003).
Much work has been done in assessing the risks of PAHs to human health. A comprehensive
review by the European Commission on 4th December 2002 deals with the key aspects
involving PAHs risks and effects on humans (‘Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food
on the risks to human health of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in food’). A brief review
will be on health risks and effects caused by PAHs are given below, although an in depth
review of this aspect is not given here.
PAHs are toxic, many of the compounds in this class are both genotoxic and carcino-
genic. They are actively involved in enzyme induction, immunosuppression and teratogenic-
ity (Flowers et al., 2002; Ritchie et al., 2003). Many PAHs are complete carcinogens as
well as initiators, thus, in addition to their capacity of inducing mutations (via genotoxic
mechanisms) they can also promote tumour formation (Baird et al., 2005).
Modern research on PAH-induced carcinogenesis began with the isolation by Cook et al.
of B[a]P from coal tar in 1930 and the demonstration that the compound initiates tumours
when repeatedly painted on mouse skin. A review article published by Nature covers the first
50 years since the isolation of B[a]P and the subsequent progress in unravelling the metabolic
fate and mechanisms of chemical carcinogenesis (Phillips, 1983). Because of the knowledge
accumulated on B[a]P toxicity, it has by default become the reference chemical for PAH
mixtures. The concept of toxicity equivalency factors for each PAH as an order of magnitude
estimate of the relative toxicity of each PAH compared to B[a]P. This is similar to the scheme
widely used and accepted for dioxins, although is less advanced and not so widely accepted
for PAHs (see below under Risk Assessments – The Relative Potency Factor).
The binding capacity of PAHs to DNA was thought to be responsible for the PAH-induced
carcinogenic potency (Fig. 14.3). This relationship was first discovered by Brookes and
Lawley in 1964. However, recent results have shown that relative to B[a]P, a PAH mixture
forms low levels of DNA adducts, yet is highly tumourigenic in mouse skin (Baird et al.,
2005). This is indicative of factors contributing to PAH-induced carcinogenesis beyond DNA
binding ability.
Evidence that PAHs are carcinogenic to humans comes primarily from occupational studies
of workers following inhalation and dermal exposure. No data are available for humans for
Fig. 14.3 Picture showing how a PAH will adhere to DNA (white patch). (Reprinted from Leonard, S.S.,
Wang, S. and Shi, X.L. Wood smoke particles generate free radicals and cause lipid peroxidation, DNA
damage, NFKB activation and TNF-a release in macrophages. Toxicology, 150, 147–157. Copyright 2000
with permission from Elsevier.)
other routes of exposure. However, there is a vast collection of data for animals such as mice
(Rizova et al., 2005).
Human exposure to PAHs occurs principally by direct inhalation, ingestion or dermal
contact, as a result of their widespread presence and persistence in the environment (mostly
urban ones). This exposure to ambient PAHs is usually in combination with other PAHs
and other substances. These other substances may account for a more significant portion of
the carcinogenicity of some mixtures, such as cigarette smoke, diesel emissions and urban
aerosol (IPCS, 1998). For example, iron and steel foundry workers are exposed to PAHs and
other potentially carcinogenic substances such as nickel, chromium, silica, soot, asbestos and
benzene. Isolating the health effects associated with exposure to specific PAHs is, therefore,
a complicated task and has been limited to experimental studies involving volunteers and
accidental exposures (Rizova et al., 2005).
For certain groups of workers there is an excess risk of lung, breast and urinary bladder
cancer. These workers are those at coke ovens, coal gasification plants, petroleum refineries,
aluminium smelters, iron and steel foundries and those working with bitumen, diesel and as-
phalt (Zmirou et al., 2000; Jeffy et al., 2002; Booth and Gribben, 2005). Chronic respiratory
abnormalities risks are also higher for people submitted to PAHs contaminants, such as sili-
cosis, asthma-like symptoms, lung function abnormalities and chronic bronchitis, especially,
in aluminium plant workers (Mastrangelo et al., 1996).
There are a number of schemes that have been used to rank PAH toxicity. One such scheme
(Department of Health, 1998) uses the following categories:
A There is a high level of concern about a carcinogenic hazard for humans.

B There is concern about a carcinogenic hazard for humans, but the data are incomplete or
the mechanism is unclear.
C The compound is a non-genotoxic carcinogen.
D The data are inadequate for assessment.
E There is no concern about carcinogenic hazard.
Three Class A PAHs were considered to be of greatest concern. These were B[a]P,
benz(Amir)anthracene and dibenzanthracene.
14.3.2.2 Risk Assessments

Currently, there are at least three different approaches to conduct a health risk assessment of
PAHs: (a) the surrogate approach; (b) the comparative potency approach; and (c) the relative
potency factor.
The surrogate approach. The surrogate approach estimates the potency of the PAH fraction
of a complex mixture of concern, based on the assumption that the health risk of this
fraction is proportional to the level of an indicator or index chemical (typically B[a]P)
in the sample. This approach treats the problem sample as a conceptual ‘dilution’ of a
‘surrogate’ mixture of PAHs. The ‘surrogate’ being a potent PAH-containing mixture,
the chemical and toxicological properties of which are well known. An assumption must
be made that the composition of the PAH mixture of concern is sufficiently similar to a
surrogate PAH mixture. The extent of the ‘dilution’ is worked out examining the ratios
of common PAHs formed in the problem sample and the surrogate (Costales and Bruya,
2005).
The comparative potency approach. The comparative potency approach was initially devel-
oped by EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) in the 1980s to evaluate adverse health
effects of diesel fuels. The main assumptions made under this approach were similar
mixtures (i.e. combustion mixtures) act in a similar way toxicologically, and the relative
potency of a mixture in an in vivo or in vitro bioassay is directly proportional to its relative
potency in humans (Amir et al., 2005), the proportionality constant being represented by
k (Pufulete et al., 2004).
The relative potency factor. In this approach a marker compound is chosen as a reference for
a toxicity scale (e.g. B[a]P). The carcinogenic and toxic properties of selected PAHs are
determined with respect to that of the marker. The toxic equivalency factor (TEF) relates the
toxicity of individual PAHs to that of the marker (Table 14.6). Individual PAH risks are then
summed to yield a cancer risk estimate of the whole mixture. The key assumption of this
approach is that carcinogenic risks for individual PAHs are additive and no cancellation or
synergistic effects of these carcinogenic effects exist when in a complex mixture (Pufulete
et al., 2004).
All three approaches have strengths and limitations and supporters and critics. The US EPA
sponsored a 2-day peer consultation workshop in October 2001 to examine these alternative
approaches to the health assessment of PAH mixtures. More recently, a symposium held
in 2005 on ‘Toxicology of Chemical Mixtures’ by the US National Capital Area Chapter
Society of Toxicology (NCAC-SOT) dealt with this issue.
The Relative Potency Factor approach is the one most commonly used but even so it is
agreed that it should be employed only ‘as a last resort’. The reason it is seen as the favoured
option is because it is the one relying most on scientifically feasible assumptions, although
there are still significant data gaps resulting in considerable uncertainty. Another disadvantage
to this approach is the fact that it may underestimate risk due to all PAH by considering only
a few compounds. It may be that other compounds such as substituted PAHs contribute to
the total toxicity and also it depends on extrapolation from animal models to humans which
always adds to the uncertainty.
The comparative potency approach’s main disadvantages are that it does not define the
contribution of PAH to estimated overall risk, and it is therefore difficult to use for assessing
speciated components of a mixture. Also, the assumption that mixtures from the same source
are associated with similar risks may not be supported by the available data, and the levels
Table 14.6 TEFs based on B[a]P for 19

PAHs (Data from Burger, 1992).
PAH TEF
Acenaphthylene 0.001
Acenaphthene 0.001
Fluorene 0.001
Phenanthrene 0.001
Anthracene 0.01
Fluoranthene 0.001
Pyrene 0.001
Benzo(b)naphtho(2,1-d)thiophene 0
Cyclopenta(c,d)pyrene 0
Benz(a)anthracenea 0.1
Chrysene 0.01
Benzo-(b)-fluoranthenea 0.1
Benzo-(k)-fluoranthenea 0.1
Benzo(e)pyrene 0
Benzo-(a)-pyrenea 1
Indeno-(1,2,3-cd) pyrenea 0.1
Dibenz-(ah)-anthracenea 5
Anthanthrene 0
Benzo-(g,h,i ) perylene 0.01
a
Toxicity relative to benzo-(a)-pyrene.
of compounds extractable in organic solvents are not usually reported, and the analytical
methods are not standardised.
The main disadvantages of the surrogate approach are that it may result in an overestimate
of the risk of PAH within a mixture and that there is no reason to believe that B[a]P is a
good indicator of the potency of non-PAH compounds such as dioxins and dibenzofurans
or volatile organic compounds such as benzene and 1,3-butadiene, which may be present in
some complex samples. This is the reason why, in general, the surrogate approach does not
predict the potency of a real complex mixture as a whole but only it’s PAH component. The
contribution of non-PAH to the overall risk of exposure to complex mixtures must thus be
assessed separately.
Other more general concerns are that there are no human toxicity data on any of the
individual PAHs (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002). As there is a fairly extended
consensus within the scientific community on the fact that any approach that utilises the
toxicity of a mixture as a whole is preferable to the use of a relative potency factor. This topic
was reviewed in 2004 in Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology with a UK perspective
(Pufulete et al., 2004). There is a clear need for a more systematic collection of data on PAHs.
The US EPA identifies another challenge facing PAH risk assessments as the complexity
of the scientific literature regarding PAHs and the different approaches for handling these
assessments: surrogate, comparative potency and relative potency factor as discussed above
(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002).
14.4 REGULATIONS
Given the long-term evidence suggesting PAHs elevate the risk of various cancers, immuno-
toxic and respiratory problems, the EU has issued a number of Directives with an overall
aim for the protection of human health. Directive 76/769/EEC harmonises Member States’
controls over the marketing and use of certain dangerous substances. The Directive imposes
restrictions on the market and use of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon B[a]P as a substance
or constituent of preparations in extender oils and tyres in a concentration equal or higher than
1 mg/kg, or more than 10 mg/kg for the sum of all polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon. Directive
2455/2001/CE includes PAHs as priority contaminants and establishes a maximum acceptable
concentration of 0.2 g/L in drinking water for the sum of six PAHs including fluoranthene,
benzo(3,4)fluorantene, benzo(11,12)fluoranthene, benzo(1,12)perylene, benzo(3,4)-pyrene
and indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene). Within the recommendations given by the European Union
are directions for eliminating or minimising emissions in occupational settings, improved
monitoring of urban air pollution and public education.
Early in 2005, three Commission documents relating to PAHs were published. They
include a Regulation limiting levels of B[a]P in foods [Commission Regulation (EC) No
208/2005, ‘Amending Regulation (EC) No 466/2001 as regards polycyclic aromatic hy-
drocarbons’, Official Journal of the European Union, L34/3, 8.2.2005], a Directive covering
sampling and analysis [Commission Directive 2005/10/EC, ‘Laying down the sampling meth-
ods and the methods of analysis for the official control of the levels of benzo[a]pyrene in
foodstuffs’, Official Journal of the European Union, L34/15, 8.2.2005], and a Recommen-
dation for further work to be carried out by Member States [Commission Recommendation,
‘On the further investigation into the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in certain
foods’, Official Journal of the European Union, L34/43, 8.2.2005], prior to a review of the
Regulation due in 2007.
There has also been publication of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Foods Ad-
ditives (JECFA) opinion on the risk from PAHs in food, which is summarised in the report:
JECFA/64/SC Sixty-fourth meeting, Rome, 8–17 February 2005 (pp. 32–38).
Future legislation, including EU Regulations, Directives and other programmes are ex-
pected to toughen control and to review maximum permitted levels of PAHs in the environ-
ment and especially in foodstuffs.
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Index
2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo 368 Amanita 111, 118

3-Aminopropionamide 255 Amatoxins 111–5, 125
Absorbance 273 Amino acids 255, 263, 270, 284, 291–2,
Absorption 115, 182, 189 294–5, 303, 319, 344, 346, 359, 361
Acetaldehyde 213, 292, 295 Amino-imidazo structure 359
Acetaldehyde-condensation products 210 Ammonia 228–9
Acetone 143, 149–50, 153, 332–3 Amnesic shellfish poisoning 56, 68
Acetonitrile 21, 149, 153, 155, 160 Amnesic shellfish poisoning, see ASP
Acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine 215 Analogues, hydroxy 71
Acid HVP 324 Anhydrous conditions 327, 331–2
Acid hydrolysis step 185 Animal foods 255
acid modification 34 Anions 231, 233–5
Acid, acetic 269 Anisaldehyde 208
Acid, hypochlorous 342–3 Antagonists 189, 192
Acid-HVP 326–7, 339–40, 342, 348, 350 Anthracene 379–80, 387, 389, 391
Acid-hydrolysed vegetable protein 323 Anthropogenic sources 380
Acids, organic 273, 284–5 Antibodies 87, 141, 158
Acrylamide 303–5, 318–19, 347–8 Anti-oestrogenic effects 176, 183
Acrylic acid 255 Antioxidant capacity 215–6
Activation of toxins 18 Antioxidants 208, 212, 215–6, 218
Activity, genotoxic 24 APCI 21–2
Acylglycerols 342, 345 API interfaces 22
Adducts, haemoglobin 255, 282 Apple juice 157–8
Aflatoxin B1 138, 142–3, 145–6, 160 Apples 240
Aflatoxin M1 143, 146 Application 22, 383, 386–8
Agaricus bisporus mushrooms 125 Artifacts 202–3
Agaritine 125–29 Ascorbic acid 237, 291–301, 303–4, 318–21
Aglycones 185–6 Asian foods 178
Agrochemicals 7 ASP (Amnesic shellfish poisoning) 53, 56,
Agronomic practices 32–3 68–9, 88–9, 94
Alcohol 111, 122, 346 Asparagine 255–8, 261, 263–4, 266–7, 284
Alcoholic beverages 204, 207, 213 Aspergillus 136, 157
Aldehydes 200–3, 206, 208, 213–4 Assays, cytotoxicity 87
Algae 54, 64, 72, 75, 83 Atmospheric nitrogen 228
Alkaloids 200, 202, 215 AZA-1 67, 70–4, 87, 95–6
Allyl alcohol 342–3 AZA-2 70, 74, 87
Allyl isothiocyanate 41 AZA-3 70, 74
Alternaria 136, 161 Azanza 57
Alternariol 161 Azo dye 232
Altertoxins 161 AZP 54, 56, 69, 70, 95

402 Index
Baby foods 147, 149–50, 152, 232, 246–7, Capillary electrophoresis 366
291, 303, 305–8, 310, 314, 317–8 Carbohydrates 212–3
Bacon 365–6, 370 Carbolines 200–1, 209, 211–3
Bacteria 231, 244, 257 Carbonyl 263–4
Bakery products 242 Carcinogenesis 40
Barley 147, 153, 156 Carcinogenic 181, 227, 244, 246, 390, 392
Beans 5, 307, 310, 317 Carcinogenic properties 255, 282
Beef 359, 366 Carcinogenicity 18, 326–7
Beer 134, 147–9, 181–2 Carcinogens 370–1
Bees 14 Carotenoids 291–2, 303, 319
Benzaldehyde 208 Carrots 234–5, 238–9
Benzo, five-ring molecule 382 Cauliflower 33
Berries 235, 240 Cells 67, 70–5, 77–8
Beta-carboline alkaloids 200, 202, 206 Cellular metabolites 187
Beta-carbolines 200 Cellulose 346
Beta-carbolines 212, 214 Cereal products 334, 347
Beta-sitosterol 179, 181 Cereals 235, 242, 245, 336–7, 340
Beverages 207, 209, 211–3 CFP toxins 75, 77, 91
Bioactivation of pyrrolizidine alkaloids 18 Chains 32, 34–7, 39
Bioassays 70, 79, 83, 85, 93–5, 187–8, Channels 72, 74–5, 79
193 Cheese 134, 142, 160–1, 232, 241
Biodegradation rate 382 Chemical ionization (CI) 21
Biomarkers 81 Cherries 240
Biosynthesis 13 Chicken 366
Biscuits 261, 280 Chilli powder 145
Bivalve molluscs 93 Chillies 145
Black pepper 145 Chloroform 143, 149, 153, 157, 160–1
Blanching 284 Chopping 44–5
Blood plasma 39 CID, in-source 22
Blooms 68, 82–3 Ciguatoxins 59, 67, 72, 75–6, 88, 91
Body weight 243–5 Citrinin 138, 159–60
Boronic acids 331 Clean-up 143, 150, 153, 269–70, 272
Brain 81, 191–2 Clitocybe mushrooms 117
Brassica vegetables 32–3, 38, 40, 42–5 CN code 152
Bread 147, 151–2, 154, 160, 261, 280, 341, CNS 119, 121
344–6, 389 Codex 93, 95
Breadmaking 344 Codex Committee on Fish and Fishery
Breast 78 Products (CCFFP) 93
Breast tumours 191 Coffee 134, 147–8, 257, 262, 268, 270–2,
Brevetoxins 54, 59, 72, 75 277, 280
Broccoli 33 Coffee brews 203, 206–7, 215
Browning 266–7, 285 Color reactions 20, 23
Bulb 114 Colorimetric assay 233, 235
Colorimetry 229, 233–4
Cabbage 33, 42–3 Columns 20, 203
Cadmium columns 232 Committee on Natural Toxins and Food
Cancer 40–1, 43, 46, 182, 191, 369 Allergens 84
Cancers, primary 42 Comparative potency approach 392
Canned mushrooms 128 Complex mixtures 383, 392–3
Canning process 91 Computer vision 276, 279
Index 403
Concentration of phytoestrogen inhibitor 192 Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, see DSP

Confirmation 21–2 Diarrhetic shellfish toxins 62
Congeners 73–4, 80, 82 Diarrhoea 111, 115, 118–9, 125
Consumers 15, 17, 43, 348 Diatoms 53, 68
Content, moisture 149 Dibenzanthracene 391
Control 4, 5 Dibenzofurans 393
Cooked meats 359, 361, 363, 366, 368–70 Dichloropropanols 324, 326, 328, 333, 340,
Cookies 261, 284–5 349
Cooking Boiling 129 Diet, human 359
Cooking temperature 369 Dietary exposures 388–90
Cooking water 44–5 Dietary intake 148, 151, 158, 388–9
Coprine 121–2 Digestive glands 65, 82
Cornflakes 155 Dimethyl-tryptamine 119–20, 214
Coumestrol 176, 183, 185–8 Dioxins 174
Creatine 359, 361, 369 Directives 393–4
Creatinine 359, 361 Distribution, environmental 381
Crops 7, 8 Diversity 24
Cultivated mushrooms 127 DNA 384, 386, 390–1
Cultures 80, 88 Domoic 90, 94–5
Cyanobacterial toxins 82–3 domoic acid, see DA
Cyclic peptides 113, 115 Dose 370
Cyclization 295–6, 298–9 Dried mushrooms Psilocybe
Cyclopiazonic acid 141, 160 subaeruginosa 120
Cysteine 295 Drinking water 227, 229, 241–3, 394
Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) 340
2-Deoxyaldotetrose 296, 298 Drugs 121–2
3-Dichloro-2-propanol 326 DSP (Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning) 53–4,
3-Dichloropropanol 324 56, 62, 64–6, 70, 78–9, 85, 89, 94–5
3-Dioxolane 333 DSP toxins 64, 68, 70–2, 80, 85–8, 91
8-Dimethylimidazo 368, 372 DTX-1 64–5, 67, 79, 86, 96
DA (domoic acid) 59, 60, 67–9, 84, 86, 90–2, DTX-2 65
94 DTX-4 65–6
DA concentrations 91 DTXs 62, 64–8, 94–5
Daidzein 176, 183, 187–8
Dairy products 136, 138, 142, 233, 240–2 EC (European Commission) 145–6, 148,
Database 176 151–2, 154, 158
DCPs 324–5, 327–8, 334, 336, 342, 350 EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) 7,
Decarboxylation 295–6, 299 148, 302, 305–8, 310
Degradation products, amine 39, 40 Eggs 14
Dehydration 295–6, 298–9 Electron ionization 203–5
Dehydroascorbic acid 293 ELISA 87, 94
Deoxybenzoins 184 Endocrine disruptors 174, 189, 191
Deoxymiroestrol 181, 188 Endogenous oestrogens 189
Deoxynivalenol 149 Environment 4, 7, 227, 229, 380–2, 391
Deoxyviroidin 114, Environmental fate of PAHs 381
Derivatisation 20–1, 143, 186, 203–4, 327–8, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 255,
331–3 268, 392–3
Derivatives 20–1, 126–7 Enzymes 33–5, 41, 181–2
D-glucose 295–6 EPA 384, 392–3
Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning 56, 64 Esters 324, 327, 335, 340–1, 349
404 Index
Ethanol 149, 153, 160–1 Frying 257–60, 262, 266–7, 283–4, 362,
Ethyl acetate 328, 332, 334 368–9
EU (European Union) 143, 145, 148–9, 152, FSA (Food Standards Agency) 338
154 FSAI (Food Safety Authority of Ireland) 97
Experimental mammalians 255, 282 FSANZ (Food Standards Australia New
Experiments 115, 128–9 Zealand) 338–9
Exposure Assessement 112, 115, 117–9, Fumonisin B1 155–7
121–2, 124, 128, 369 Fungi 134, 136, 138, 142
Exposure, human 13–4, 17 Furans 4, 6, 9
Extraction 20, 94–5, 270, 363–5 Fusarium 149, 152–3, 155, 162
Extracts 363, 365
Extracts, vegetable 39 GC/MS 6
Gene expression 188–9
2-Furfural 299, 303 Generic method 269, 276
2-Furoic acid 291, 299 Genistein
FAC (Food Advisory Committee) 326 Genotoxic 326–7
FAPAS 317–8 Genotoxicity 18, 154
Fate, environmental 381–2 Ginger 145
Fatty Acid Esters 324–5, 327, 329, 331, 333, Glucose 35–6, 38, 206–7, 255–8, 266–7, 295,
335, 337, 339, 341, 345, 347–9 297–8, 305, 344, 359, 361, 368
Fatty acids 324, 335, 340–1 Glucosinolate/myrosinase system 36
Fermentation 212–3 Glucosinolates 8
Fermented cabbage 45 Glucuronides 186–7
Fertilization 238–9 Glutamate receptors 67, 69
Fertilizers 228, 242–3 Glycerol 342–4, 346–7
Fibre 313 Glycerol/acylgycerol 342
Fish 179, 181, 189, 382, 388–90 Glycidamide 280, 282
Fisheries 15–6 Glycolaldehyde 292, 295
Flavonoids 182 Glycyrrhizin 183–4
Flavour 36, 43–5 Grain 148–50
Flocculent 340 Grapes 134, 147, 149, 158
Fluids 200, 215, 218 Gravimetric determination of agaritine 127
Fluorescence 202, 205 Gymnodimine 70, 81, 87
Fluorescence detection 144, 155 Gyromitrin 122–5
Fluoroanthene 385
Food chain 76, 83 4-Hydroxy-2-butenal 296
Formaldehyde 202, 213 Hair sample 370
Formic acid 291, 299 Harvest 134, 136, 142, 148, 152
Formononetin 176–7, 188 Harvesting 89, 92–3, 227, 237–8
Formylhydrazones 122–3 Hazelnuts 301–2
Fortification 303, 311 Headache 54, 111, 122, 125
Free glycerol 344 Healthy foods, designing 43
French fries 258–9, 278, 280, 284 Heat 308, 310
Fresh mushrooms 115, 127, 129 Heated foodstuffs 315f
Freshwater toxins 84 Heptafluorobutyryl ester derivatives 327
Fructose 257–8, 263, 265 Heptafluorobutyryl imidazole, see HFBI
Fruit 299, 305–6, 308 Herbal medicines 13, 15, 17–8
Fruit juices 207, 212 Herbs 16–7, 24
Fruits 207, 210, 213, 227, 232, 235, 239–40, Hexane 328, 331
245, 247 HFB esters of 3-MCPD 328
Index 405
HFBA 327–8 Jars 305–6, 308, 310

HFB-esters 335 Juice, orange 300, 303, 314
HFBI (Heptafluorobutyryl imidazole) 327–8 Juices 210, 301, 308, 310
HMF (Hydroxymethylfurfural) 158
Honey 14, 19, 20, 22 Ketones 332–3, 346
HS (Headspace) 291, 294, 310–3, 316, Key intermediates 263
318 Kinetics 262–3, 266
Human cancer 371 Kinetics of furan formation 302
Human consumption 145, 149, 161 Knowledge 359
Human exposure to PAHs 391
Human health 68–9, 72, 82–3, 92, 96, 136, LC/MS 6
145, 159 LC/MS-MS method 117–8
Human intoxication 55–6, 64, 78, 82, 89 LD50 values 148, 151
Human poisonings 123 Leafy vegetables 234, 239
Human urine 370 Lecithin 342–3
Hydrazine derivatives 128–9 Legislation 148, 152, 154
Hydrazines 122, 125, 127–8 Lettuce 235, 237, 239, 246
Hydrogen peroxide 213 Licorice 183–4
Hydrolysis products of glucosinolates 36 Ligands 192
Hydrophobic 387–8 Lignans 176
Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) 158 Linoleic acid 294, 300–1
Lipase 345
Ibotenic acid 111, 118–9 Lipid oxidation 291, 296, 302, 319
Images 276 Lipids 324, 345
Imidazoline receptors 215 Lipids, polyunsaturated 291–2, 296, 303
Immunoassays 84, 87–8, 187, 384 Liquid chromatography 39, 127
Individual PAH risks 392 Liquid extraction 202–3
Indole glucosinolates 34, 36 Liver 17–8
Indoleamines 203, 212–3 LOQs 328, 331–2
Indoles 200, 205, 215 Losses 295, 307, 309, 311, 313, 317
Indolethylamines 200–1, 206, 213 Lycopsamine 16–7
Ingestion of pyrrolizidine alkaloids 17
Ingredients 261 1-Methyl-1 208, 216
Injection, field-amplified sample 366 2-MCPD 327, 332–3, 336–7, 343, 346
Input variables 266 3-MCPD diesters 324
Insects 13, 43–4 3-MCPD, esters of 334, 340
Inspection purposes 278–9 3-MCPD, free 340–1
Intact glucosinolates 35, 38–40 3-MCPD, quantifiable levels of 338–9
Intake, human 359, 361 3-MCPD-d5 331–2
Interferences 270–1, 314–5 3-MCPD-esters 340–1, 345
Intermediates 291–2 3-MCPD-esters, measured 341
Intestine 67, 71, 79 Machines, coffee-making 307
Ionization, chemical 21 Magic mushrooms 121
Iron 307, 317, 391 Maillard reaction 255, 260, 263, 265–7, 274,
Irradiation 301, 304–5 284
Isoflavones 176–9, 184–7 Maitotoxin 76
Isoflavonoids 182 Maitotoxin, see MTX
Isothiocyanates 32, 36–7, 39–41 Maize 138, 144, 146, 151–7, 160–1
Isotopomers 298–9 Malts 339, 345
Isoxanthohumol 181, 188 Marker 388, 392
406 Index
Mass information 6 Mutagenic activity 326

Mass spectrometry 20, 39, 55, 86, 270, 273 Mutagenicity 326
Maximum concentrations 94 Mutagens 359
MCPD generation 344–5 Myrosinase 32, 35–8, 44
MCPD-ester intermediates 345
MCPD-esters 334–5, 342, 344–5 N-methylformamide (NMFA) 123
MCPD-esters, residual 346 Naringenin 182
MCPDs and DCPs in HVPs 334 Naturally Occurring Nitrates and Nitrites 229,
Meat 291, 305, 308, 310 231, 233, 235, 237, 239, 241, 243, 245
Meat products 234–5, 246 Nefrotoxin 116, 118
Meats 207, 213, 242, 336, 340 Negative ion 203, 205
Medicines 17, 20 Neosolaniol 149–51
MeIQx 362, 364, 366, 368–9, 371–2 Nervous system 255, 282
Metabolic 176 Neuronal 61, 67, 73
Metabolism 17–8,174, 179, 182, 186, 188–9, Neurotoxic 53–4, 73
217, 382 Neurotoxins 216–7
Metabolite, toxic 136, 160 Nitrates, estimated intakes of 245
Metabolites 134, 136, 152–3, 157 Nitric oxide 232, 244
Methaemoglobin 227, 244 Nitriles 36–7, 40, 42, 45
Methanol 20–1, 271–3, 276 Nitrogen 227–9, 238, 243, 272
Methylfuran 294f Nivalenol 149, 151
Methylhydrazine 123–4 N-methyl-beta-carbolinium cations 217
Methylsulfinylalkyl 35 N-methylhydrazine 123
Microwave pre-cooking 284 NMFA (N -methylformamide) 123
Migration 4, 5 NMR (Nuclear magnetic resonance) 22
Milk 14, 240–2 N-nitroso compounds 32, 217, 244
Miroestrol 181 Nodes 266
Model systems 295–9, 302, 304, 319, 359, Normalized acrylamide 260
361, 363 N-oxidation 19
Modifications 34–5 N-oxides 13–4, 17–8, 20–1
Modified starches 339 NSP (Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning) 53–4,
Moisture 227, 237–9, 257, 259 56, 72, 75, 85, 87, 89
Molecular ions, protonated 205–6 Nutmeg 145
Moniliformin 139, 161 Nuts 134, 142, 145, 148, 161, 340–1
Monoacylglycerols 343–4
Monochloropropanediols 324 2-Oxo acid 34
Monomethylhydrazine 123 OA (okadaic acid) 59, 62, 64–8, 72, 79, 83–4,
Mouse skin 390 86, 90, 94–6
MTX (Maitotoxin) 67, 76–7, 79, 84 OA/DTX 95
Multi-residue GC/MS 6 Oats 151–2
Muscaria cap 119 Occupational exposure 371
Muscarine 117–8 Oestrogenic 174, 176, 179, 183, 188–9
Muscimol 111, 118–9 Oestrogenicity 174, 179, 182–4, 188
Muscle meat reactions 359 Oestrogens 188–93
Muscles 54, 67 Official Method (OM) 86
Mushrooms 112, 114–6, 118–22, 124, 127–31 Oils 340–1, 345, 382, 389
Mushrooms, wild 121 Okadaic acid, see OA
Mussels 53, 55, 64, 69, 70, 77, 79–82, 85, 88, OM (Official Method) 86
90–1, 96 Orellanine
Mutagenic 255, 282, 361 Orelline 116
Index 407
Oxazolidine-2-thiones 36–7 Processed foods 257, 262, 268–9, 274–7, 284,

Oxazolidinethiones 32, 40 291, 295, 299, 301, 303, 305, 307, 310–1,
Oxidants 212–4 313, 315, 317
Oxidation 34–5, 76, 232–3, 244, Processing 122, 124, 128–9
296–9 Processing contaminants 8, 9
Properties, anticarcinogenic 40, 43
PAH 364 Prorocentrolides 70, 81–2
PAH contamination of foods 9 Protein phosphatases 80
PAH-enzyme conjugate 384 Protein, epithiospecifier 36–7
Paprika 145 Proteins 359, 368, 371
Paralytic shellfish Protocols 84–5, 95
Particle size 152 Psilocybin 111, 119–21,
Pasta 146, 151–2 PSP 53–8, 75, 85, 87–9, 94
Pathway 295–6, 298–9 PTX family 77–8
Patulin 140, 157–8 PTX-1 77–8, 80, 86, 95
P-CTX-1 76–7 PTX-12 77–8
Peanuts 143–4, 160 PTX-2 77–9
Pesticides 4, 8 PTXs (Pectenotoxins) 55, 62–3, 66–7, 77–80,
Phallotoxins 111–5, 117 84, 88, 93, 95–6
Pharmacology 214–5 PUFAs 292, 296, 300, 302–3, 319
Phenanthrene 379–80, 382, 384, 389 Pyrene 379–80, 382, 384–6
Phenolic aldehydes 206–8 Pyridine 368
Phenolic compounds 183 Pyrolysis 213
Phenylhydrazines 125–31 Pyrolysis conditions 292, 295
Phosphatidylglycerols 344 Pyrrolizidines 12, 14–5
Photodegradation 382
Photosynthesis 229, 238 Quantifier 314–6
Phyoestrogens 185 Quinoxaline 368
Phytoestrogenic 178, 184
Phytoestrogenicity 192 Radical scavengers 215–6
Phytoplankton monitoring 92 Rat stomach 68
Phytosterols 179, 181 Ratio vegetable/water 45
Pigs 148, 152–3, 156, 160 Rats 19, 22, 66–7, 73, 79, 81, 94
Pinnatoxins 82 Raw cereal grains 149
Plants, cruciferous 36 Reaction pathways, competing 294, 303
Plants, maturity of 227, 237–8 Receptors, specialized 119
Plasma analyses 186 Regulations 17, 77, 80–1, 92–3, 95, 136,
Poisoning, acute 145–6 145–6, 154, 371, 388, 393–4
Poisonings 115, 118, 121, 124 Residual nitrate content 238
Poisonous 112, 114, 117 Residues 4, 6
Polar mushroom toxins 117 Resins, wet strength 325, 346–7
Polarography 229–30, 235 Resveratrol 182–3
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 379–81, Reverse osmosis 243–4
385, 387, 389–91 Rice 146, 159–61
Pork 366–7, 369 Risk assessment 371–2, 388, 390, 392
Post-sampling metabolic processes 231 Roasted coffees 262, 277, 279
Potato chips 304, 306
Potency 181, 188–9, 392–3 S-Amino acid Aldoxime Thiohydroximic 35
Potential precursors 302 Sample preparation 202–3
Poultry 381–2 Saxitoxin 55, 57–8, 61, 82, 87, 90
408 Index
SAXITOXIN, see STXs 4-Tetrahydro-b-carboline-3-carboxylic

Scallops 53, 70, 90–2 acid 207–8, 216
Seafood 55–6, 68–9, 77, 83, 92–3, 96 Tablets 16
Sealed containers 306, 308 Taste 43
Seasonings 33 TCDD (Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin) 174
Sediments 379, 381–2, 385 Tenuazonic acid 160–2
Seeds 381 Tetrabenzonaphthalene 379
Selection bias 283 Tetrahydro-beta-carboline alkaloids 216
Selective oestrogen modulators, potential Tetrahydro-beta-carboline-1 213
182 Tetrahydro-beta-carboline-3-carboxylic
Selectivity 268, 273 Tetrahydro-beta-carbolines
Semi-automatic segmentation algorithm 277 tetraol 149–50
Sensitivity 21–2, 150, 313, 317 The toxic equivalency factor (TEF) 392
Serine 294–6 Thermal processing 257, 283–4
Shellfish 388 Thermal treatment 293, 301, 303, 318
Smoked foods 204–5, 207, 213 Threonine 295
Soaking 239, 283–4 Thymus 67, 71
Sodium channels, voltage-dependent 67, 75 Toast 341
Soil composition 227, 237–8 Toasting steps 260
Soils 228–9, 238–9, 243, 379, 381–6 Tomato juice 314
Sorbents 387–8 Tomatoes 138, 160
Soups 308, 310 Toxic Algal Blooms 96–7
Soy sauces 328, 331, 334–8, 346, 348, Toxic doses of ibotenic acid 119
350–7 Toxicity, acute 244
Soybeans 178 Trans-resveratrol 174f
Specificity 185, 191 Triacylglycerols 343–4, 346
Spices 134, 138, 142, 144–5, 148–9 Trichothecenes 149–52, 161
Spiking 300 Triglycerides 345
Spinach 235, 238–9, 246 Tryptophan 202, 206–7, 210, 212–3
Steaming 44–5 Tryptophan derivatives 200
Sterigmatocystin 140, 160 Tryptophan-acetaldehyde 213
Stomach contents 111 Turbidity 233
Storage 44–5, 136–7, 157
Strawberries 239–40 Uncertainties 388, 392
Stress factors 44 Urine 142, 147, 153, 370–1
Structural features 359 spiked 366
Structural information 22 UV
STXs (SAXITOXIN) 55, 57–9, 61, 67, 82, detection 39, 40
84, 87–8, 90, 94 UV light 116
Sugar-asparagine adduct 255 UV-induced decomposition of orellanine 116
Sugars 292, 294–5, 301, 303, 319
Sugars, reducing 255, 257, 261, 283–5 Varieties 283
Sulfate 36, 38, 235, 244 Vegetable products 232
Sulforaphane 41–2 Vegetables 32–3, 40, 43–5
Supplements 178–9, 182 Verrucosum 147, 149, 159
Supply chain, food 44 Versicolor 160
Surrogate approach 392–3 Veterinary drugs 4
Symptoms 53–4, 61, 66, 69, 72, 75, 77–8, 85, Vinegars 204, 207, 212–3
118, 122, 125 Virosa 114
Symptoms of orellanine poisoning 117 Virotoxins 111–5
Index 409
Vision-based image analysis 274–5, 278 Wet deposition 380–1

Vivo rat bone marrow micronucleus 326–7 Wheat 147, 151, 153, 156, 160–2
Volatiles 313, 318 White cabbage 45
Volatilization 311, 313 Wine 134, 147–9
Volunteers 369–70 Wounding 178
Vomiting 111, 115, 118–9, 122, 125
Xanthohumol 181, 188
Water-soluble 55, 58, 65, 68–9, 76 Xenoestrogens 189–90
Water-soluble products 382
Wavelength range 273 Yeast 344
Wavelengths 279 Yessotoxin 78–80

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BLUK145-Gilbert March 5, 2008 22:30

Bioactive Compounds in Foods

Bioactive Compounds in Foods Edited by John Gilbert and Hamide Z. Senyuva.

Bioactive Compounds in Foods

This edition first published 2008

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bioactive compounds in foods/edited by John Gilbert, Hamide Z. Şenyuva.

Set in 10/12 pt, Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India

For the cover:

PART ONE: NATURAL TOXICANTS 1

4.9 The ciguatera toxin (CTX) group (CFP) 75

5 Mushroom Toxins 110

6.1 Introduction 134

8 β-Carboline Alkaloids 199

PART TWO: MAN-MADE COMPONENTS 225

9 Naturally Occurring Nitrates and Nitrites in Foods 227

9.2 Methods of analysis 229

10 Acrylamide in Heated Foods 254

11 Furan in Processed Foods 291

11.2 Formation and mechanisms 292

12 Chloropropanols and their Fatty Acid Esters 323

12.8 Exposure 347

13 Heterocyclic Amines 358

14 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 378

14.3 PAHs in food, exposure assessment and health effects 388

Color plate section between pages 224 and 225

Bioactive Compounds in Foods Edited by John Gilbert and Hamide Z. Senyuva.

Normalized acrylamide (C/Cmax) 12.0

CIE redness (a*)

Frying time (min)

Bioactive Compounds in Foods Edited by John Gilbert and Hamide Z. Senyuva.

1.1 DIFFERENT PERCEPTIONS OF CHEMICALS IN FOOD

Bioactive Compounds in Foods Edited by John Gilbert and Hamide Z. Senyuva.

4 Bioactive Compounds in Foods

1.2 RESIDUES AND CONTAMINANTS IN FOODS

1.3 NATURAL TOXICANTS IN FOODS

Whilst there is no problem in categorising residues in foods and no problem in categoris-

6 Bioactive Compounds in Foods

1.4 DEVELOPMENTS IN ANALYTICAL METHODOLOGY

1.5 EMERGING RISKS

1. Changes in the environment – trends in environmental pollution (increased/reduced),

8 Bioactive Compounds in Foods

1.6 BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS IN FOODS

Bioactive Compounds in Foods Edited by John Gilbert and Hamide Z. Senyuva.

2.2 THE PYRROLIZIDINE ALKALOIDS

Fig. 2.1 The major bases of the pyrrolizidine alkaloids.

12 Bioactive Compounds in Foods

Fig. 2.2 Typical pyrrolizidine alkaloids.

2.3.1 Formation and function

14 Bioactive Compounds in Foods

2.4.1 Contamination of foods

2.4.2 Pyrrolizidines in herbal preparations

16 Bioactive Compounds in Foods

2.6 TOXICITY AND METABOLISM

18 Bioactive Compounds in Foods

2.6.3 Carcinogenicity and mutagenicity

DHP protein and DNA adducts

2.7 ANALYTICAL METHODS

20 Bioactive Compounds in Foods