Document No. :: IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.

0
:: IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
Final Report :: B - Wind Codes
IITK-GSDMA Project on Building Codes

IS: 875(Part3): Wind Loads on Buildings

and Structures
-Proposed Draft & Commentary
By

Dr.Prem Krishna
Dr. Krishen Kumar
Dr. N.M. Bhandari
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Roorkee
• This document has been developed under the project on Building
Codes sponsored by Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority,
Gandhinagar at Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur.
• The views and opinions expressed are those of the authors and not
necessarily of the GSDMA, the World Bank, IIT Kanpur, or the
Bureau of Indian Standards.
• Comments and feedbacks may please be forwarded to:
Prof. Sudhir K Jain, Dept. of Civil Engineering, IIT Kanpur,
Kanpur 208016, email: [email protected]
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
Foreword
0.1 This Indian Standard IS:875 (Part 3)
(Third Revision) was adopted by the
Bureau of Indian Standards on
________(Date), after the draft finalized
by the Structural Safety Sectional
Committee had been approved by the
Civil Engineering Division Council.
0.2 A building or a structure in general has to
perform many functions satisfactorily.
Amongst these functions are the utility of
the building or the structure for the
intended use and occupancy, structural
safety, fire safety and compliance with
hygienic, sanitation, ventilation and
daylight standards. The design of the
building is dependent upon the minimum
requirements prescribed for each of the
above functions. The minimum
requirements pertaining to the structural
safety of buildings are being covered in
loading Codes by way of laying down
minimum design loads which have to be
assumed for dead loads, imposed loads,
wind loads and other external loads, the
structure would be required to bear. Strict
conformity to loading standards, it is
hoped, will not only ensure the structural
safety of the buildings and structures,
which are being designed and
constructed in the country and thereby
reduce the risk to life and property
caused by unsafe structures, but also
reduce the wastage caused by assuming
unnecessarily heavy loadings without
proper assessment.
0.3 This standard was first published in 1957
for the guidance of civil engineers,
designers and architects associated with
the planning and design of buildings. It
included the provisions for the basic
design loads (dead loads, live loads,
wind loads and seismic loads) to be
assumed in the design of the buildings. In
its first revision in 1964, the wind
pressure provisions were modified on the
basis of studies of wind phenomenon and
its effect on structures, undertaken by the
special committee in consultation with the
Indian Meteorological Department. In
addition to this, new clauses on wind
loads for butterfly type structures were
included; wind pressure coefficients for

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 3 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
sheeted roofs, both curved and sloping
were modified; seismic load provisions
were deleted (separate Code having
been prepared) and metric system of
weights and measurements was
adopted.
0.3.1 With the increased adoption of this
Code, a number of comments were
received on provisions on live load
values adopted for different
occupancies. Live load surveys have
been carried out in America, Canada,
UK and in India to arrive at realistic live
loads based on actual determination of
loading (movable and immovable) in
different occupancies. Keeping this in
view and other developments in the
field of wind engineering, the Structural
Safety Sectional Committee decided to
prepare the second revision of IS: 875
in the following five parts:
Part 1: Dead loads
Part 2: Imposed loads
Part 3: Wind loads
Part 4: Snow loads
Part 5: Special loads and load
combinations
Earthquake load being covered in a
separate standard, namely,
IS:1893(Part 1)- 2002*, should be
considered along with the above loads.
0.3.2 This part (Part 3) deals with wind loads
to be considered when designing
buildings, structures and components
thereof. In its second revision in 1987,
the following important modifications
were made from those covered in the
1964 version of IS: 875:

*Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures (2002 revision).

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 4 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

(a) The earlier wind pressure maps

(one giving winds of shorter
duration and other excluding winds
of shorter duration) were replaced
by a single wind map giving basic
maximum wind speed in m/s (peak
gust speed averaged over a short
time interval of about 3 seconds
duration). The wind speeds were
worked out for 50 years return
period based on the up-to-date
wind data of 43 dines pressure
tube (DPT) anemograph stations
and study of other related works
available on the subject since
1964. The map and related
recommendations were provided in
the Code with the active
cooperation of Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD).
Isotachs (lines of equal wind
speed) were not given, as in the
opinion of the committee there was
still not enough extensive
meteorological data at close
enough stations in the country to
justify drawing of isotachs.
(b) Modification factors to modify the
basic wind speed to take into
account the effects of terrain, local
topography, size of structures, etc.
were included.
(c) Terrain was classified into four
categories based on characteristics
of the ground surface irregularities.
(d) Force and pressure coefficients
were included for a large range of
clad and unclad buildings and for
individual structural elements.
(e) Force coefficients (drag
coefficients) were given for frames,
lattice towers, walls and hoardings.
(f) The calculation of force on circular
sections was included
incorporating the effects of
Reynolds number and surface
roughness.
(g) The external and internal pressure
coefficients for gable roofs, lean-to
roofs, curved roofs, canopy roofs
(butterfly type structures) and multi-
span roofs were rationalized.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 5 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
(h) Pressure coefficients were given
for combined roofs, roofs with sky
light, circular silos, cylindrical
elevated structures, grandstands,
etc.
(i) An analysis procedure for
evaluating the dynamic response of
flexible structures under wind
loading using gust response factor
was included.
0.3.3 The Committee responsible for the
revision of wind maps, while reviewing
available meteorological wind data and
response of structures to wind, felt the
paucity of data on which to base wind
maps for Indian conditions on
statistical analysis. The Committee,
therefore, recommended to all
individuals and organizations
responsible for putting-up of tall
structures to provide instrumentation in
their existing and new structures
(transmission towers, chimneys,
cooling towers, buildings, etc.) at
different elevations (at least at two
levels) to continuously measure and
monitor wind data. It was noted that
instruments were required to collect
data on wind direction, wind speed and
structural response of the structure
due to wind (with the help of
accelerometers, strain gauges, etc). It
was also the opinion of the committee
that such instrumentation in tall
structures will not in any way affect or
alter the functional behaviour of such
structures, and the data so collected
will be very valuable in assessing more
accurate wind loading on structures.
0.3.4 It is seen at the time of undertaking the
third revision of this Code (during 2003-
2004) that:
(i) Not much progress has yet been
made in regard to
instrumentation and collection of
data in India as mentioned in
0.3.3 though additional data has
become available through
measurements of wind speed at
the meteorological stations. In
addition there is a need to
address the issue of cyclonic
winds and the damage caused
by these winds.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 6 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
(ii) There has been a substantial
research effort on determination
of wind effects on buildings and

structures, the world over, during

the past couple of decades, thus
making available additional
information of improved quality.
(iii) A better understanding has
developed concerning peak
suctions/pressures.
(iv) There is a better appreciation
about the randomness that
prevails in the directionality of
wind, and the degree of
correlation amongst pressures
that it causes on a surface.
(v) There is a better understanding
of the significant influence of the
averaging area used on the
pressures evaluated.
(vi) There is an appreciation of the
fact that wind loads on different
parts of the structure are not fully
correlated.
(vii) There is a significant effect
possible on the wind forces in a
building on account of
interference between similar or
dissimilar buildings.
(viii) It is realized that as a result of
the second revision, the
standard produced was on
contemporary lines. Changes
are therefore warranted only
where these would bring about
an improvement in the quality of
the standard.
In carrying out this revision, the above
observations have been taken into
account.
0.4 The Sectional Committee responsible
for the preparation of this Standard has
taken into account the prevailing
practice in regard to Loading Standards
followed in this country by the various
authorities and has also taken note of
the developments in a number of other
countries. In the preparation of this
Code, the following overseas
Standards have also been examined:
(a) BS 6399-2:1997 Loading for

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 7 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
Buildings, Part 2: Code of Practice
for Wind loads.
(b) AS/NZS1170.2: 2002 Structural
Design Actions-Part 2: Wind
Actions.
(c) ASCE 7-02 American Society of
Civil Engineers: Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures.
(d) National Building Code of Canada
1995.
(e) Architectural Institute of Japan
Recommendations for Loads on
Buildings, 1996.
Wind Resistant Design Regulations, A
World List. Association for Science
Documents Information, Tokyo.
0.5 For the purpose of deciding whether a
particular requirement of this Standard
is complied with, the final value,
observed or calculated, expressing the
result of a test or analysis, shall be
rounded off in accordance with IS:2-
1960*. The number of significant
places retained in the rounded off
value should be the same as that of
the specified value in this Standard.

*Rules for Rounding-off Numerical Values (Revised).

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 8 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
1. – Scope
1.1 - C1.1 –
This Standard gives wind forces and their This Code provides information on wind effects
effects (static and dynamic) that should be for buildings and structures, and their
taken into account while designing buildings, components. Structures such as chimneys, cooling
structures and components thereof. towers, transmission line towers and bridges are
outside the scope of this Code. There are Indian
Standards dealing with chimneys and cooling
towers separately. Information on bridges (only
static forces) is given in IRS and IRC
Specifications. For aerodynamics of bridges,
specialist literature may be consulted. With
substantial work being done worldwide in the area
of wind engineering, there is growing body of
new information. The user of this Code is advised
to consult specialist literature for the design of
large or important projects involving various
types of structures.
1.1.1– C1.1.1 –
Wind causes a random time-dependent load, Wind is not a steady phenomena due to natural
which can be seen as a mean plus a turbulence and gustiness present in it. However,
fluctuating component. Strictly speaking all when averaged over a sufficiently long time
structures will experience dynamic duration (from a few minutes to an hour), a mean
oscillations due to the fluctuating component component of wind speed can be defined which
(gustiness) of wind. In short rigid structures would produce a static force on a structure.
these oscillations are insignificant, and Superimposed on the mean/static component is
therefore can be satisfactorily treated as the time varying component having multiple
having an equivalent static pressure. This is frequencies spread over a wide band.
the approach taken by most Codes and
Standards, as is also the case in this
Standard. A structure may be deemed to be
short and rigid if its natural time period is less
than one second. The more flexible systems
such as tall buildings undergo a dynamic
response to the gustiness of wind. Methods
for computing the dynamic effect of wind on
buildings have been introduced in this
Standard.
Apart from tall buildings there are several
other structural forms (though outside the
scope of this Standard) such as tall latticed
towers, chimneys, guyed masts that need to
be examined for aerodynamic effects.
1.1.2 – C1.1.2 –
This Code also applies to buildings or other The construction period of a structure is much
structures during erection/ construction and smaller than its expected life. Therefore, a smaller
the same shall be considered carefully during return period of 5 to 10 years or longer may be
various stages of erection/construction. In considered for arriving at the design factor (factor
locations where the strongest winds and icing k1) for construction stages/period of a structure
may occur simultaneously, loads on
structural members, cables and ropes shall depending on its importance. In snowfall areas
be calculated by assuming an ice covering where icing occurs, wind loads have to be

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 9 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
based on climatic and local experience. assessed accordingly. Elements such as cables and
ropes can undergo a dynamic response in such
cases and have to be examined accordingly.

1.1.3–
In the design of special structures, such as C1.1.3 – See C1.1
chimneys, overhead transmission line towers,
etc., specific requirements as given in the
respective Codes shall be adopted in
conjunction with the provisions of this Code
as far as they are applicable. Some of the
Indian Standards available for the design of
special structures are:
IS: 4998 (Part 1) –1992 Criteria for design of
reinforced concrete chimneys: Part 1 -
Design Criteria (first revision)
IS:6533 –1989 Code of practice for design
and construction of steel chimneys
IS:5613 (Part 1/Sec 1)- 1985 Code of
practice for design, installation and
maintenance of overhead power lines:
Part 1 Lines up to and including 11 kV,
Section 1 Design
IS:802 (Part 1)-1995 Code of practice for use
of structural steel in overhead
transmission line towers: Part 1 Loads
and permissible stresses (second
revision)
IS:11504-1985 Criteria for structural design
of reinforced concrete natural draught
cooling towers
NOTE: 1 – This standard IS:875 (Part 3)-1987
does not apply to buildings or structures with
unconventional shapes, unusual locations,
and abnormal environmental conditions that
have not been covered in this Code. Special
investigations are necessary in such cases to
establish wind loads and their effects. Wind
tunnel studies may also be required in such
situations.
NOTE: 2 – In the case of tall structures with
unsymmetrical geometry, the designs ought
to be checked for torsional effects due to wind
pressure.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 10 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
2. – Notations
2.1–
The following notations shall be followed
unless otherwise specified in relevant
clauses. Notions have been defined in the
text at their first appearance. A few of the
notations have more than one definition,
having been used for denoting different
variables :
A= Surface area of a structure or
part of a structure
Ae = Effective frontal area
Az = Frontal contributory area at
height z
b= Breadth of a structure or
structural member normal to the
wind stream in the horizontal
plane
Bs =
B Background factor
CD = Drag coefficient
CL = Lift coefficient
Cf = Force coefficient
Cfn = Normal force coefficient
Cft = Transverse force coefficient
C′f = Frictional drag coefficient
Cdyn = Dynamic response factor
Cp = Pressure coefficient
Cpe = External pressure coefficient
Cpi = Internal pressure coefficient
Cfs = Cross-wind force spectrum
coefficient
d= Depth of a structure or
structural member parallel to
wind stream in the horizontal
plane
D= Diameter of cylinder or sphere;
Depth of structure
E= Wind energy factor
f0 = First mode natural frequency of
vibration
F= Force on a surface
Fn = Normal force
Ft = Transverse force
F′= Frictional force

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 11 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
gR = Peak factor for resonant
response
Notations have been defined also in the text at
gv = Peak factor for upwind velocity their first appearance. A few of the notations have
fluctuations more than one definition, having been used for
h= Height of structure above mean denoting different parameters.
ground level
hx = Height of development of a
speed profile at distance x
downwind from a change in
terrain category
hp = Height of parapet
Hs = Height factor for resonant
response
Ih = Turbulence intensity
IF Interference factor
k= Mode shape power exponent
k1
k2 Wind speed multiplication
k3 factors
k4
K= Force coefficient multiplication
factor for members of finite
length
Ka = Area averaging factor
Kc = Combination factor
Kd = Wind directionality factor
Km = Mode shape correction factor
l= Length of a member or greater
horizontal dimension of a
building
L= Actual length of upwind slope
Le= Effective length of upwind slope
Lh = Integral turbulence length scale
N= Reduced frequency
pd = Design wind pressure
pz = Wind pressure at height z
pe = External wind pressure
pi = Internal wind pressure
Re = Reynolds number
S= Size reduction factor
Sr = Strouhal number
T= Fundamental time period of
vibration
Vb = Regional basic wind speed
Vh = Design wind speed at height h
Vz = Design wind speed at height z

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 12 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
Vz = Hourly mean wind speed at
height z
W= Lesser horizontal dimension of
a building in plan, or in the
cross-section a structural
member;
W′ = Bay width in a multi-bay
building;
We = Equivalent cross-wind static
force
X= Distance downwind from a
change in terrain category;
fetch length
Z= Height above average ground
level
α= Inclination of roof to the
horizontal plane
β= Effective solidity ratio; Damping
ratio
ε= Average height of surface
roughness
φ= Solidity ratio
η= Shielding factor or eddy
shedding frequency
θ= Wind direction in plan from a
given axis; upwind ground / hill
slope

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 13 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
3. – Terminology
For the purpose of this Code, the following
definitions shall apply.
Angle of Attack / Incidence (α) - Angle in
vertical plane between the direction of
wind and a reference axis of the
structure.
Breadth (b) – Breadth means horizontal
dimension of the building measured
normal to the direction of wind.
Depth (D) – Depth means the horizontal
dimension of the building measured in
the direction of the wind.
Note – Breadth and depth are dimensions
measured in relation to the direction of wind,
whereas length and width are dimensions related to
the plan.

Developed Height – Developed height is the

height of upward penetration of the wind
speed profile in a new terrain. At large
fetch lengths, such penetration reaches
the gradient height, above which the wind
speed may be taken to be constant. At
lesser fetch lengths, a wind speed profile
of a smaller height but similar to that of
the fully developed profile of the terrain
category has to be taken, with the
additional provision that wind speed at
the top of this shorter profile equals that
of the unpenetrated earlier profile at that
height.
Effective Frontal Area (Ae) – The projected
area of the structure normal to the
direction of the wind.
Element of Surface Area – The area of
surface over which the pressure
coefficient is taken to be constant.
Force Coefficient (Cf) - A non-dimensional
coefficient such that the total wind force
on a body is the product of the force
coefficient, the dynamic pressure due to
the incident design wind speed and the
reference area over which the force is
required.
NOTE – When the force is in the
direction of the incident wind, the non-
dimensional coefficient will be called as
drag coefficient (CD). When the force is
perpendicular to the direction of incident
wind, the non-dimensional coefficient will
be called as lift coefficient (CL).

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 14 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

Ground Roughness – The nature of the

earth’s surface as influenced by small
scale obstructions such as trees and
buildings (as distinct from topography) is
called ground roughness.
Gust – A positive or negative departure of
wind speed from its mean value, lasting
for not more than, say, 2 minutes with the
peak occurring over a specified interval of
time. For example, 3 second gust wind
speed.
Peak Gust – Peak gust or peak gust speed is
the wind speed associated with the
maximum value.
Fetch Length (X) – Fetch length is the
distance measured along the wind from a
boundary at which a change in the type of
terrain occurs. When the changes in
terrain types are encountered (such as,
the boundary of a town or city, forest,
etc.), the wind profile changes in
character but such changes are gradual
and start at ground level, spreading or
penetrating upwards with increasing fetch
length.
Gradient Height – Gradient height is the
height above the mean ground level at
which the gradient wind blows as a result
of balance among pressure gradient
force, Coriolis force and centrifugal force.
For the purpose of this Code, the
gradient height is taken as the height
above the mean ground level, above
which the variation of wind speed with
height need not be considered.
Interference Factor – Ratio of the value of a
typical response parameter for a
structure due to interference divided by
the corresponding value in the ‘stand
alone’ case.
Mean Ground Level – The mean ground level
is the average horizontal plane of the
area in the close vicinity and immediately
surrounding the structure.
Pressure Coefficient – Pressure coefficient is
the ratio of the difference between the
pressure acting at a point on a surface
and the static pressure of the incident
wind to the design wind pressure, where
the static and design wind pressures are
determined at the height of the point
considered after taking into account the

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 15 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
geographical location, terrain conditions
and shielding effect.
NOTE: Positive sign of the pressure coefficient
indicates pressure acting towards the surface
and negative sign indicates pressure acting
away from the surface.
Return Period – Return period is the number
of years, the reciprocal of which gives the
probability of an extreme wind exceeding
a given speed in any one year.
Shielding Effect – Shielding effect or
shielding refers to the condition where
wind has to pass along some structure(s)
or structural element(s) located on the
upstream wind side, before meeting the
structure or structural element under
consideration. A factor called shielding
factor is used to account for such effects
in estimating the force on the shielded
structure(s).
Speed Profile – The variation of the
horizontal component of the atmospheric
wind speed with height above the mean
ground level is termed as speed profile.
Suction – Suction means pressure less than
the atmospheric (static) pressure and is
considered to act away from the surface.
Solidity Ratio – Solidity ratio is equal to the
effective area (projected area of all the
individual elements) of a frame normal to
the wind direction divided by the area
enclosed by the boundary of the frame
normal to the wind direction.
NOTE – Solidity ratio is to be calculated for
individual frames.
Terrain Category – Terrain category means
the characteristics of the surface
irregularities of an area, which arise from
natural or constructed features. The
categories are numbered in increasing
order of roughness.
Topography – The nature of the earth’s
surface as influenced by the hill and
valley configurations in the vicinity of the
existing / proposed structure.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 16 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

4. – GENERAL C4.1 -
For the purpose of this Code wind speed has been
4.1 - considered as that occurring at 10 m height above
Wind is air in motion relative to the surface the general ground level. Several new recording
of the earth. The primary cause of wind is stations have been established in the country by
traced to earth’s rotation and differences in the Indian Meteorological Department over the
terrestrial radiation. The radiation effects are last two decades, the information from which can
mainly responsible for convection current help upgrade the wind zoning map of India.
either upwards or downwards. The wind However, more extensive data are needed to make
generally blows horizontal to the ground at this exercise meaningful.
high speeds. Since vertical components of
atmospheric motion are relatively small, the
term ‘wind’ denotes almost exclusively the
horizontal wind while ‘vertical winds’ are
always identified as such. The wind speeds
are assessed with the aid of anemometers
or anemographs, which are installed at
meteorological observatories at heights
generally varying from 10 to 30 meters
above ground.

4.2 – C4.2 -
Very strong winds are generally associated Several atmospheric phenomena are responsible
with cyclonic storms, thunderstorms, dust for wind storms. Cyclonic storms, that hit some
storms or vigorous monsoons. A feature of of the coastal regions of India, are the most
the cyclonic storms over the Indian region is devastating due to extremely high wind speeds in
that they rapidly weaken after crossing the these storms accompanied by sea surge and
coasts and move as depressions/ lows flooding. These can last several hours. The
inland. The influence of a severe storm after current revised draft has recognized the fact that
striking the coast does not, in general exceed the high wind speeds that occur in cyclones far
about 60 kilometers, though sometimes, it exceed the wind speeds for design given in the
may extend even up to 120 kilometers. Very Code at present, and addresses the problem vis-à-
short duration hurricanes of very high wind vis the 60 km strip in the east coast and the
speeds called Kal Baisaki or Norwesters Gujarat coast by including suitable factors to
occur fairly frequently during summer months enhance the design wind speed, keeping in view
over North East India. the importance of the structure.
Tornados, which are a narrow band phenomenon
of limited time duration, often occur during the
summer, mostly in Northern parts of India.
These, however, have extremely high wind
speeds, often higher than in the severest cyclones.

4.3 – C4.3 -
Higher the intensity of a gust, lower is its
The wind speeds recorded at any locality are
duration. The Code specifies the basic wind
extremely variable and in addition to steady
speed as that of a gust of 3 second duration; or in
wind at any time, there are effects of gusts,
other words, the wind speed averaged over a 3-
which may last for a few seconds. These
second period. The effect of reduction in the
gusts cause increase in air pressure but their
average wind pressure with increase in the area
effect on stability of the building may not be
over which the pressure is considered (the

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 17 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
so important; often, gusts affect only part of tributary area) is accounted for by the ‘Area
the building and the increased local Averaging Factor, Ka’ defined in Section 5.4.2. A
pressures may be more than balanced by a maximum reduction of 20% in wind pressures is
momentary reduction in the pressure specified for tributary area beyond 100 m2.
elsewhere. Because of the inertia of the
building, short period gusts may not cause
any appreciable increase in stress in main Contrary to this, one may consider wind effects
components of the building although the over a limited (small) area of the surface. This is
walls, roof sheeting and individual cladding particularly important near the edges and ridge of
units (glass panels) and their supporting a structure or sharp corners elsewhere in a
members such as purlins, sheeting rails and building, where large suctions occur due to
glazing bars may be more seriously affected. separation of flow and generation of eddies. The
Gusts can also be extremely important for area of influence being small, there is better
design of structures with high slenderness correlation within these areas. These local area
ratios. effects are treated elsewhere in the Code.

C4.4 -
4.4 – The dynamic characteristics of a flexible structure
The response of a building to high wind defined by its time period of vibration and
pressures depends not only upon the damping would affect its response to the gustiness
geographical location and proximity of other or turbulence in wind, which itself gets modified
obstructions to airflow but also upon the due to presence of other structures/ obstructions,
characteristics of the structure itself. particularly those in the close vicinity of the
structure. The effect of the latter is difficult to
evaluate and a simplified approach has been
added for limited cases for the first time in the
Code to approximate these so called interference
effects in Section 7.

C4.5 -
4.5 – The pressures created inside a building due to
The effect of wind on the structure as a whole access of wind through openings could be suction
is determined by the combined action of (negative) or pressure (positive) of the same order
external and internal pressures acting upon of intensity while those outside may also vary in
it. In all cases, the calculated wind loads act magnitude with possible reversals. Thus the
normal to the surface to which they apply. design value shall be taken as the algebraic sum
of the two in appropriate/concerned direction.
Furthermore, the external pressures (or forces)
acting on different parts of a framework do not
correlate fully. Hence there is a reduction in the
overall effect. This has been allowed for in clause
6.2.3.13.

C4.6 -
4.6 – The stability of a structure shall be checked both
The stability calculations as a whole shall be with and without the wind loads, as there may be
done with and without the wind loads on reversal of the forces under wind besides a
vertical surfaces, roofs and other parts of the reduced factor of safety considered with the wind
building above average roof level. loads.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 18 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
4.7 – C4.7 -
Buildings shall also be designed with due Comfort of the inhabitants of a tall flexible
attention to the effects of wind on the comfort building can be affected by large wind induced
of people inside and outside the buildings. deflections or accelerations, particularly the latter.
There is no criterion included in this Code for
control on these parameters. Since there is no real
tall building activity yet in India, the problem has
not attained importance. Likewise, at the plaza
level around a tall building, there may be
accentuated flow conditions, particularly if the
building has other similar structures adjacent to it.
Thus the pedestrians at the plaza level can be put
to inconvenience. A wind tunnel model study is
required to determine the flow pattern and to
carryout the design accordingly.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 19 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
5. – WIND SPEED AND
PRESSURE

5.1 - Nature of wind in Atmosphere C5.1 -

In general, wind speed in the atmospheric As is explained in Code, wind speed can be taken
boundary layer increases with height from to comprise of a static (mean) component and a
zero at ground level to a maximum at a fluctuating component, with the magnitude of the
height called the gradient height. There is latter varying with time interval over which the
usually a slight change in direction (Ekman gust is averaged. Thus with reduction in the
effect) but this is ignored in the Code. The averaging time, the fluctuating wind speed would
variation with height depends primarily on the increase. The fluctuating velocity is normally
terrain conditions. However, the wind speed expressed in terms of turbulence intensity which
at any height never remains constant and it is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean
has been found convenient to resolve its wind speed and is expressed in percentage.
instantaneous magnitude into an average or
mean value and a fluctuating component
around this average value. The average
value depends on the averaging time
employed in analyzing the meteorological
data and this averaging time can be taken to
be from a few seconds to several minutes.
The magnitude of fluctuating component of
the wind speed, which represents the
gustiness of wind, depends on the averaging
time. Smaller the averaging interval, greater
is the magnitude of the wind speed.

5.2 – Basic Wind Speed (Vb) C5.2 -

Figure 1 gives basic wind speed map of Code defines the basic wind speed as the peak
India, as applicable at 10 m height above gust wind speed averaged over a period of 3
mean ground level for different zones of the seconds. It includes both the mean and the
country. Basic wind speed is based on peak fluctuating components of the turbulent wind. To
gust speed averaged over a short time obtain hourly mean wind speed, the 3-second
interval of about 3 seconds and corresponds value may be multiplied by factor 0.65. In the
to 10m height above the mean ground level open terrain category, since wind speed varies
in an open terrain (Category 2). Basic wind with height, ground roughness, local topography
speeds presented in Fig. 1 have been and return period of the storm, besides the region
worked out for a 50-year return period. The of the country, the conditions for which Vb is
basic wind speed for some important defined have been specified in this clause. The
cities/towns is also given in Appendix A. country has been divided into six wind zones and
certain coastal regions affected by cyclonic storms
as defined in clause 5.3.4.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 20 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
5.3 –Design Wind Speed (Vz) C5.3 -
The basic wind speed for any site shall be The basic wind speed, Vb corresponds to certain
obtained from Fig. 1 and shall be modified to reference conditions. Hence, to account for
include the following effects to get design various effects governing the design wind speed
wind speed, Vz at any height, Z for the in any terrain condition, modifications in the form
chosen structure: (a) Risk level, (b) Terrain of factors k1, k2, k3, and k4 are specified.

roughness and height of structure, (c) Local

topography, and (d) Importance factor for the
cyclonic region. It can be mathematically
expressed as follows:
Vz = Vb k1 k2 k3 k4,
where
Vz = design wind speed at any height z in
m/s,
k1 = probability factor (risk coefficient) (see
5.3.1),
k2 = terrain roughness and height factor
(see 5.3.2),
k3 = topography factor (see 5.3.3), and
k4 = importance factor for the cyclonic region
(see 5.3.4).

NOTE: The wind speed may be taken as constant upto a

height of 10 m. However, pressures for buildings
less than 10m high may be reduced by 20% for
stability and design of the framing.

5.3.1 – Risk Coefficient (k1) C5.3.1 -

Fig. 1 gives basic wind speeds for terrain The peak wind speed considered for design is
category 2 as applicable at 10 m height based on the probability of occurrence of the
above mean ground level based on 50 years maximum/severest storm over the design life of
mean return period. The suggested life span the structure. It is known that storms of greater
to be assumed in design and the severity are less frequent, that is, such storms
corresponding k1 factors for different class of have a longer return period. Thus for economical
structures for the purpose of design are given design of structures, the design wind speed has
in Table 1. In the design of all buildings and been related to the return-period of storms, with
structures, a regional basic wind speed Vb defined for 50-years return period considering
having a mean return period of 50 years shall the generally acceptable value of probability of
be used except as specified in the note of exceedence as 0.63 for the design wind speed
Table 1. over the life of the structure. This has been termed
as the risk level PN in N consecutive years (Table
–1) and the corresponding value of the risk
coefficient, k1, for N taken as 50 years, would be
1.0. The values of k1 for N taken as 5, 25 and 100
years, and for various zones of the country, are
given in Table-1. The designer may, however, use
a higher value of N or k1, if it is considered
necessary to reduce the risk level of an important
structure.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 21 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Figure 1: Basic wind speed in m/s (based on 50 year return period)

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 22 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 1: Risk coefficients for different classes of structures in different wind speed
zones [Clause 5.3.1]
Mean Probable
design life of
structure in k1 factor for Basic Wind Speed (m/s)
years of
Class of Structure
33 39 44 47 50 55
All general buildings and structures 50 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Temporary sheds, structures such as those
used during construction operations (for
example, formwork and false work), 5 0.82 0.76 0.73 0.71 0.70 0.67
structures during construction stages, and
boundary walls
Buildings and structures presenting a low
degree of hazard to life and property in the
event of failure, such as isolated towers in 25 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.89
wooded areas, farm buildings other than
residential buildings, etc.
Important buildings and structures such as
hospitals, communication buildings, towers 100 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.07 1.08 1.08
and power plant structures

NOTE – The factor k1 is based on statistical concepts, which take account of the degree of reliability
required, and period of time in years during which there will be exposure to wind, that is, life of the
structure. Whatever wind speed is adopted for design purposes, there is always a probability
(howsoever small) that it may be exceeded in a storm of exceptional violence; the greater the
number of years over which there will be exposure to wind, the greater is the probability. High return
periods ranging from 100 to 1000 years (implying lower risk level) in association with greater period
of exposure may have to be selected for exceptionally important structures, such as, nuclear power
reactors and satellite communication towers. Equation given below may be used in such cases to
estimate k1 factors for different periods of exposure and chosen probability of exceedence (risk
level). The probability level of 0.63 is normally considered sufficient for design of buildings and
structures against wind effects and the values of k1 corresponding to this risk level are given above.

⎡ ⎧ 1
X N ,P A − B ⎢ln ⎨− ln 1 − PN ( )⎫⎬⎤⎥
k1 = N = ⎣ ⎩ N ⎭⎦
X 50, 0.63 A + 4B

where
N = mean probable design life of the structure in years;
PN = risk level in N consecutive years (probability that the design wind speed is exceeded at least
once in N successive years), nominal value = 0.63;
XN,P = extreme wind speed for given value of N and PN; and
X50,0.63 = extreme wind speed for N = 50 years and PN = 0.63
A and B are coefficients having the following values for different basic wind speed zones:
Zone A B
33 m/s 83.2 9.2
39 m/s 84.0 14.0
44 m/s 88.0 18.0
47 m/s 88.0 20.5
50 m/s 88.8 22.8
55 m/s 90.8 27.3

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 23 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 2: k2 factors to obtain design wind speed variation with height in different
terrains [Clause 5.3.2.2]
Height (z) Terrain and height multiplier (k2)

Terrain Terrain Terrain Terrain

(m) Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4

10 1.05 1.00 0.91 0.80

15 1.09 1.05 0.97 0.80
20 1.12 1.07 1.01 0.80
30 1.15 1.12 1.06 0.97
50 1.20 1.17 1.12 1.10
100 1.26 1.24 1.20 1.20
150 1.30 1.28 1.24 1.24
200 1.32 1.30 1.27 1.27
250 1.34 1.32 1.29 1.28
300 1.35 1.34 1.31 1.30
350 1.37 1.36 1.32 1.31
400 1.38 1.37 1.34 1.32
450 1.39 1.38 1.35 1.33
500 1.40 1.39 1.36 1.34
NOTE: For intermediate values of height z and terrain category, use linear
interpolation.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 24 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
5.3.2 – Terrain and Height Factor
(k2)
5.3.2.1 – C5.3.2.1 -
The Code defines 4 types of terrains and explains
Terrain – Selection of terrain categories shall
that a structure may effectively lie in two different
be made with due regard to the effect of
types of terrain for two different wind directions.
obstructions which constitute the ground
In addition, the designer shall keep in mind, the
surface roughness. The terrain category used
future development of the surrounding area which
in the design of a structure may vary
may alter the ground roughness and hence the
depending on the direction of wind under
terrain category. It may be noted that Category 2
consideration. Wherever sufficient
has been considered as the datum with respect to
meteorological information is available about
which the other terrain categories have been
the wind direction, the orientation of any
defined. In a given situation, the effect of terrain
building or structure may be suitably planned.
condition, if deviated from the above reference
Terrain in which a specific structure stands terrain, is accounted for through the factor, k2.
shall be assessed as being one of the
Photographs CP1 to CP4 (Cook 1985) are given
following terrain categories:
to demonstrate how terrain categories 1 to 4 may
a) Category 1 – Exposed open terrain be assigned. This is merely for guidance purpose.
with a few or no obstructions and in
which the average height of any object
surrounding the structure is less than
1.5 m.
NOTE – This category includes open sea coasts
and flat treeless plains.

b) Category 2 – Open terrain with well-

scattered obstructions having height
generally between 1.5 and 10 m.
NOTE – This is the criterion for measurement of
regional basic wind speeds and includes
airfields, open parklands and undeveloped
sparsely built-up outskirts of towns and
suburbs. Open land adjacent to seacoast
may also be classified as Category 2 due
to roughness of large sea waves at high
winds.
c) Category 3 – Terrain with numerous
closely spaced obstructions having the
size of building-structures up to 10 m
in height with or without a few isolated
tall structures.
NOTE 1 – This category includes well-wooded
areas, and shrubs, towns and industrial
areas fully or partially developed.
NOTE 2 – It is likely that the next higher category
than this will not exist in most design
situations and that selection of a more
severe category will be deliberate.
NOTE 3 – Particular attention must be given to
performance of obstructions in areas
affected by fully developed tropical
cyclones. Vegetation, which is likely to be
blown down or defoliated, cannot be relied
upon to maintain Category 3 conditions.
Where such a situation exists, either an

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 25 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

intermediate category with speed

multipliers midway between the values for
Category 2 and 3 given in Table 2 may be
used, or Category 2 be selected having
due regard to local conditions.
d) Category 4 – Terrain with numerous
large high closely spaced obstructions.
NOTE – This category includes large city centers,
generally with obstructions taller than 25 m
and well-developed industrial complexes.

5.3.2.2 – C5.3.2.2 -
Variation of wind speed with height for The variation of wind speed with height is also
different terrains (k2 factor) – Table 2 gives dependent upon the ground roughness and is thus
multiplying factor (k2) by which the basic wind different for each terrain category, as can be
speed given in Fig. 1 shall be multiplied to visualized from Fig. C1. Wind blows at a given
obtain the wind speed at different heights, in height, with lesser speeds in rougher terrains and
each terrain category. with higher speeds in smoother terrains. Further,
in any terrain, wind speed increases along the
height upto the gradient height and the values of
the gradient heights are higher for rougher
terrains. By definition, wind speeds beyond
gradient heights in all terrains are equal. At any
height in a given terrain, the magnitude of wind
speed depends on the averaging time. Shorter the
averaging time, the higher is the mean wind
speed. Also it takes quite a distance, called fetch
length, for wind to travel over a typical terrain to
fully develop the speed profile idealized for that
terrain category.

Fig. C 1 – Boundary Layer Profile for

Different Approach Terrains

5.3.2.3 – C5.3.2.3 -
Ground obstructions in the path of wind may be
Terrain categories in relation to the direction
different for different directions of the wind.
of wind – As also mentioned in 5.3.2.1, the
terrain category used in the design of a

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 26 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
structure may vary depending on the
direction of wind under consideration. Where
sufficient meteorological information is
available, the basic wind speed may be
varied for specific wind directions.
5.3.2.4 –
C5.3.2.4 -
Changes in terrain categories – The speed
profile for a given terrain category does not Self explanatory.
develop to full height immediately with the
commencement of that terrain category but
develops gradually to height (hx) which
increases with the fetch or upwind distance
(x).
a) Fetch and developed height relationship
– The relation between the developed
height (hx) and the fetch length (x) for
wind-flow over each of the four terrain
categories may be taken as given in
Table 3.
b) For structures of heights greater than the
developed height (hx) in Table 3, the
speed profile may be determined in
accordance with the following:
(i) The less or least rough terrain, or
(ii) The method described in Appendix
B.

Table 3: Fetch and developed height relationship [Clause 5.3.2.4]

Developed Height hx (m)
Fetch (x)
(km) Terrain Terrain Terrain Terrain
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
0.2 12 20 35 60
0.5 20 30 55 95
1 25 45 80 130
2 35 65 110 190
5 60 100 170 300
10 80 140 250 450
20 120 200 350 500
50 180 300 400 500

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 27 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CP1 – Photograph Indicative of Terrain Category 1 Features

CP2 – Photograph Indicative of Terrain Category 2 Features

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 28 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CP3 – Photograph Indicative of Terrain Category 3 Features

CP4 – Photograph Indicative of Terrain Category 4 Features

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 29 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

5.3.3 – C5.3.3 -
Topography (k3 factor) – The basic wind The factor k3 is a measure of the enhancement
speed Vb given in Fig. 1 takes account of the that occurs in wind speeds over hills, cliffs and
general level of site above sea level. This escarpments.
does not allow for local topographic features
such as hills, valleys, cliffs, escarpments, or
ridges, which can significantly affect the wind
speed in their vicinity. The effect of
topography is to accelerate wind near the
summits of hills or crests of cliffs,
escarpments or ridges and decelerate the
wind in valleys or near the foot of cliffs, steep
escarpments, or ridges.
5.3.3.1 – C5.3.3.1–
The effect of topography will be significant at No increase in wind speed is indicated for upwind
a site when the upwind slope (θ) is greater ground slopes upto 3o, while a maximum increase
than about 3o, and below that, the value of k3 of 36% is specified for slopes beyond 17o.
may be taken to be equal to 1.0. The value of Maximum effect is seen to occur at the crest of a
k3 is confined in the range of 1.0 to 1.36 for cliff or escarpment and reduces gradually with
slopes greater than 3o. A method of distance from the crest. Also, locally k3 reduces
evaluating the value of k3 for values greater from the base of a structure to its top.
than 1.0 is given in Appendix C. It may be
noted that the value of k3 varies with height
above ground level, at a maximum near the
ground, and reducing to 1.0 at higher levels,
for hill slope in excess of 17o.

5.3.4 – C5.3.4–
Importance Factor for Cyclonic Region (k4) A belt of approximately 60 km width near sea
Cyclonic storms usually occur on the east coast in certain parts of the country is identified
coast of the country in addition to the Gujarat to be affected by cyclonic storms. The peak wind
coast on the west. Studies of wind speed and speeds in these regions may exceed 70 m/s.
damage to buildings and structures point to Therefore, factor k4 has been introduced with a
the fact that the speeds given in the basic maximum value of 1.30. However, the highest
wind speed map are often exceeded during value may be used only for structures of post-
the cyclones. The effect of cyclonic storms is cyclone importance such as cyclone shelters,
largely felt in a belt of approximately 60 km hospitals, school and community buildings,
width at the coast. In order to ensure greater communication towers, power-plant structures,
safety of structures in this region (60 km wide and water tanks, while a lower value of 1.15 may
on the east coast as well as on the Gujarat be used for industrial structures, damage to which
coast), the following values of k4 are can cause serious economic losses. For reasons of
stipulated, as applicable according to the economy, other structures may be designed for a
importance of the structure: k4 value of unity, that is, without considering the
effect of the possible higher wind speeds in
Structures of post–cyclone importance 1.30 cyclonic storms.
Industrial structures 1.15 For non-cyclonic regions, the factor k4 shall
All other structures 1.00 obviously be taken as 1.0.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 30 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

5.4 – Design Wind Pressure C5.4–

The wind pressure at any height above mean The relationship between design wind speed Vz
ground level shall be obtained by the and the pressure produced by it assumes the mass
following relationship between wind pressure density of air as 1.20 kg/m3, which changes
and wind speed: somewhat with the atmospheric temperature and
2 pressure.
p z = 0.6 Vz

where To obtain the design wind pressure, various

pz = wind pressure in N/m2 at height z, and modifications through factors Kd, Ka and Kc are to
Vz = design wind speed in m/s at height z. be applied. These factors are explained in
following Sections.
The design wind pressure pd can be obtained
as,
pd = Kd. Ka. Kc. pz
where
Kd = Wind directionality factor
Ka = Area averaging factor
Kc = Combination factor (See 6.2.3.13)

NOTE 1 – The coefficient 0.6 (in SI units) in the

above formula depends on a number of
factors and mainly on the atmospheric
pressure and air temperature. The value
chosen corresponds to the average Indian
atmospheric conditions.
NOTE 2 – Ka should be taken as 1.0 when
considering local pressure coefficients.

5.4.1 – C5.4.1 -
Wind Directionality Factor, Kd The factor recognizes the fact of (i) reduced
probability of maximum winds coming from any
Considering the randomness in the
given direction (ii) reduced probability of the
directionality of wind and recognizing the fact
that pressure or force coefficients are
maximum pressure coefficient occurring for any
determined for specific wind directions, it is
given wind direction.
specified that for buildings, solid signs, open
signs, lattice frameworks, and trussed towers
(triangular, square, rectangular) a factor of This factor has not been included in the 1987
0.90 may be used on the design wind version of the Code. Some of the other Codes
pressure. For circular or near – circular forms (ASCE/Australian) give varying values of the
this factor may be taken as 1.0. factor for different situations based on a more
detailed study of wind directionality. A flat value
For the cyclone affected regions also, the
of 0.9 has been used in the present revision except
factor Kd shall be taken as 1.0.
for circular, near – circular and axisymmetric
sections which offer a uniform resistance,
irrespective of the direction of wind. These have
been assigned a value of 1.0 for the factor Kd.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 31 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

5.4.2 – C5.4.2 -
Area Averaging Factor, Ka It is well recognized that the incoming wind
Pressure coefficients given in Section 6.2 are becomes increasingly un-correlated as the area
a result of averaging the measured pressure considered increases. This would naturally lead to
values over a given area. As the area a lack of correlation amongst pressures induced
becomes larger, the correlation of measured by the wind impinging on a surface, pressures
values decrease and vice-versa. The being directly proportional to the square of the
decrease in pressures due to larger areas wind speed. In fact, the lack of correlation
may be taken into account as given in Table amongst the pressures gets modified because of
4. the generation of local eddies and the distortion of
those contained in the incoming wind, as the wind
flows past a surface. The reduced correlation is
deemed to be accounted for by introducing the
area reduction factor, to be used as a multiplier
for the pressures/forces occurring on the structure.
The area to be considered for any part of the
building for computing the area reduction factor,
Ka, shall be the surface area from which the wind
Table 4: Area averaging factor (Ka) pressures/forces get transferred to the
[Clause 5.4.2] element/part of the structure being designed. This
area is defined as the tributary area for the
Tributary Area element/part of the structure. Thus, as an
Area (A) (m2) Averaging example, the tributary area will be smaller for a
Factor (Ka) purlin as compared to that for a roof truss or a
framework.
≤ 10 1.0
Conversely, near the edges and corners of a
25 0.9 structure, there are local area effects. Because of
≥ 100 0.8 separation of the flow at the edges and the
corners, suctions are experienced at these
locations, which can be quite high, though the
area of influence of such suction peaks is
expected to be small. The magnitude of these
suctions can be greatly influenced by the
geometry of the structure and the angle of wind
incidence. Local area effects are already being
taken into account in the 1987 version of the
Code for the design of the cladding and its
connections to the supporting framework. These
should not be used for calculating the forces on
the roof or the framework as a whole.
5.5 – Offshore Wind Speed
C5.5 -
Cyclonic storms form far away from the sea
coast and gradually reduce in speed as they The cyclonic storms are formed away from the
approach the sea coast. Cyclonic storms coasts and have wind speeds much higher than
generally extend up to about 60 kilometers recorded on the coasts. At least 15% higher wind
inland after striking the coast. Their effect on speed than at the coast may be considered for
land is already reflected in basic wind speeds distances upto about 200 kilometers into the sea
specified in Fig.1. The influence of wind in the affected regions.
speed off the coast up to a distance of about
200 kilometers may be taken as 1.15 times
the value on the nearest coast in the
absence of any definite wind data.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 32 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
6. – WIND PRESSURES
AND FORCES ON
BUILDINGS/STRUCT-
URES

6.1 – General C6.1 -

Wind load on a building shall be calculated A major purpose of the Code is to determine
for: forces and pressures on components of a building
or a structure as required for design purposes. For
a) The building as a whole,
clad buildings, pressures on the cladding are
b) Individual structural elements such as required in order to design the cladding and its
roofs and walls, and supporting elements, from which the forces get
transferred to the framework. Thus the building
c) Individual cladding units including frame experiences the cumulative effect of
glazing and their fixtures. pressures produces forces on different parts of the
cladding – both on the walls as well as the roof as
the case may be. These forces are used in
designing the framework. The Code provides
values of pressure coefficients for a variety of
cases covered. Besides, force coefficients are
given for (i) clad buildings and (ii) unclad
structures and (iii) elements. These coefficients
can be used to determine forces on an element, or
an assembly of members or a framework. Local
pressure coefficients given in Section 6.2.3.3 can
be used for individual cladding units including
their fixtures.
Both pressure and force coefficients are derived
on the basis of models tested in wind tunnels.

6.2 - Pressure Coefficients C6.2/6.2.1– Pressure Coefficients

Wind causes pressure or suction normal to the
The pressure coefficients are always given
surface of a building or structure. The nature and
for a particular surface or part of the surface
magnitude of these pressures/suctions is
of a building. The wind load acting normal to
dependent upon a large number of variables,
a surface is obtained by multiplying area of
namely, the geometry, the nature of the incident
the surface or its appropriate portion by the
wind, direction of wind incidence, point of
pressure coefficient (Cp) and the
separation etc., which determine the nature of
corresponding design wind pressure. The
wind flow over or around a building/structure. As
average values of these pressure coefficients
mentioned in C 6.1.2, separation of the flow at
for some building shapes are given in
the edges and corners and formation of vortices
Sections 6.2.2 and 6.2.3.
generates suctions, often large in magnitude. The
Areas of high local pressure or pressures caused are also often quite sensitive to
suction frequently occur near the edges of changes in geometry and the angle of wind
walls and roofs. In addition, higher values incidence. The most common approach to the
may also be experienced on small (local) determination of pressure distribution on
areas of walls. Coefficients for these are different building forms is to test geometrically
given separately for the design of cladding in similar rigid models in a simulated wind
Section 6.2.3.3. Coefficients for the local environment in wind tunnels. This is generally
effects should only be used for calculation of carried out by making ‘point’ pressure
forces on these local areas affecting roof measurements over the model and averaging the

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 33 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

sheeting, glass panels, individual cladding pressure values over a specified tributary area.
units including their fixtures. They should not Early wind tunnel work did not recognize the
be used for calculating forces on entire importance of simulating the ‘boundary layer’
structural elements such as roof, walls or flow of wind and its characteristics, primarily the
structure as a whole. turbulence. However, there has been a realization
of the importance of such simulation over the last
NOTE 1 – The pressure coefficients given in
different tables have been obtained 3-4 decades. The body of information that has
mainly from measurements on models in thus emerged is expected to better represent the
wind tunnels. wind effects expected in the field. The lack of
adequacy of the database, however, remains
NOTE 2 – For pressure coefficients for structures
because of the large variability involved both,
not covered here, reference may be
made to specialist literature on the with respect to the wind – its structure and
subject or advice may be sought from directionality - as well as the building geometry.
specialists in the subject. Typically, pressure coefficient contours over a
NOTE 3 – Influence of local values of suction or gable roof may be as seen in Figure C2.
pressure may not be of much Obviously, it will be ideal to divide the roof into
consequence for the overall safety of the a large number of zones to specify the pressures
structure but can be a cause of local for each zone. This would increase accuracy but
damage to cladding or glazing. This in will create difficulties in practical design work.
turn may have a ‘chain’ effect and lead
Making a coarser grid-work will lead to averaged
to much economic loss.
out values such as in Figure C 3. The approach
adopted in practice is to go by the latter and use
area averages which, in an overall analysis, may
be on the conservative side.
Pressure coefficients are commonly based on the
quasi – steady assumption, whereby the pressure
coefficient is taken to be the ratio of mean
pressure measured over a point or pressure
averaged over a small tributary area divided by
the dynamic pressure ( 12 ρV2) for the mean speed
of incident wind. Here ρ is the mass density of air
and V the wind speed. The approach followed in
the present Indian Code as well as the proposed
revision (and several other Codes) is to take V as
the peak gust value. Some Codes use the mean
wind speed averaged over a longer period. This
approach implicitly assumes that the fluctuations
in pressure follow directly those in the speed.
This of course may not be true, since the wind
turbulence gets modified as it approaches the
structure, and eddies form at separation.
However, the method has the advantage of
simplicity, though it may not be suitable for very
large structures. This is for two reasons – (i) the
increasing lack of correlations over an extended
area, and (ii) the dynamics of a large structural
system.
Pressures are caused both on the exterior as well
as the interior surfaces, the latter being dependent
on openings (or permeability) in the structure,
mostly in the walls. The following sections,
namely 6.2.2 and 6.2.3, respectively give values

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 34 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

of pressure coefficients for the interior and

exterior surfaces.
6.2.1 – Wind Load on Individual
Members

When calculating the wind load on individual

structural elements such as roofs and walls,
and individual cladding units and their fittings,
it is essential to take account of the pressure
difference between opposite faces of such
elements or units. For clad structures, it is,
therefore, necessary to know the internal
pressure as well as the external pressure.
Then the wind load, F, acting in a direction
normal to the individual structural element or
cladding unit is:
F = (Cpe – Cpi) A pd
where
Cpe = external pressure coefficient,
Cpi = internal pressure coefficient
A = surface area of structural element or
cladding unit, and
pd = design wind pressure

NOTE 1 - If the surface design pressure varies

with height, the surface areas of the
structural element may be sub-divided
so that the specified pressures are taken
over appropriate areas.
NOTE 2 – Positive wind load indicates the force
acting towards the structural element
(pressure) and negative away from it
(suction).

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 35 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

(a)

Cpmean

(b)

Fig. C2 : Typical Contours of Pressure Coefficients over a Pitched Roof (a) Cp min (b) Cp

mean

Fig. C3 : Variation of ressure over a Pitched Roof ( ) and the Average Value (- -)

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 36 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
6.2.2 – Internal Pressure C6.2.2 –
Coefficients Cpi
Internal air pressure in a building depends Internal pressures are not influenced much by the
upon the degree of permeability of cladding external shape or geometry of the building but
to the flow of air. The internal air pressure are primarily a function of the openings in it.
may be positive or negative depending on These can be positive or negative and have to be
the direction of flow of air in relation to combined algebraically with the external values,
openings in the building. Cpe, to obtain the critical design combination.
Internal pressures vary with the degree of
permeability, specified herein as small, medium
and large. Small permeability implies upto 5%
openings and may be deemed to occur even with
doors and windows closed, since flow can take
place through slits and recesses in doors,
windows, etc. Buildings with one large opening
may be treated as per Fig. 2 in the Code.
6.2.2.1 –
In case of buildings where the claddings
permit the flow of air with openings not more
than about 5 percent of the wall area but
where there are no large openings, it is
necessary to consider the possibility of the
internal pressure being positive or negative.
Two design conditions shall be examined,
one with an internal pressure coefficient of
+0.2 and other with an internal pressure
coefficient of –0.2.
The internal pressure coefficient is
algebraically added to the external pressure
coefficient and the analysis which indicates
greater distress of the member, shall be
adopted. In most situations a simple
inspection of the sign of external pressure
will at once indicate the proper sign of the
internal pressure coefficient to be taken for
design.
Note: The term small permeability relates to the
flow of air commonly afforded by
claddings not only through open windows
and doors, but also through the slits
round the closed windows and doors and
through chimneys, ventilators and
through the joints between roof
coverings, the total open area being less
than 5 percent of area of the walls having
the openings.

6.2.2.2 –
Buildings with medium and large openings -
Buildings with medium and large openings
may also exhibit either positive or negative
internal pressure depending upon the
direction of wind. Buildings with medium

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 37 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

openings between about 5 to 20 percent of

the wall area shall be examined for an
internal pressure coefficient of + 0.5 and
later with an internal pressure coefficient of –
0.5, and the analysis, which produces greater
distress in the members, shall be adopted.
Buildings with large openings, that is,
openings larger than 20 percent of the wall
area shall be examined once with an internal
pressure coefficient of + 0.7 and again with
an internal pressure coefficient of –0.7, and
the analysis, which produces greater distress
in the members, shall be adopted.
Buildings with one open side or openings
exceeding 20 percent of the wall area may
be assumed to be subjected to internal
positive pressure or suction similar to those
for buildings with large openings. A few
examples of buildings with one-sided
openings are shown in Fig.2 indicating
values of internal pressure coefficients with
respect to the direction of wind.
In buildings with roofs but no walls, the roofs
will be subjected to pressure from both inside
and outside and the recommendations are as
given in 6.2.3.2.
6.2.3– External Pressure Coefficients C6.2.3-
It has been explained in C 6.2/6.2.1 as to how
pressure coefficients are obtained. Since the
present version of I.S. 875 (Part 3)-1987 was
written, there have been further studies of wind
effects on low buildings. These have further
underlined the influence of wind incidence angle
particularly on edges and corners. Recent versions
of some international Codes have been revised on
the basis of these studies. However, a
comparative analysis has shown that the overall
design values as obtained by the present IS Code
do not differ by significant enough extent to
warrant a revision of these coefficients.
Furthermore, though the revised international
Codes have become more elaborate, and, also a
little more accurate, these have also become
somewhat more complex to use. Most part of this
section has therefore been retained as it occurs in
the current Code.
6.2.3.1– C6.2.3.1 –
Walls - The average external pressure Table 5 provides mean pressure coefficients for
coefficient for the walls of clad buildings of walls of closed rectangular buildings with
rectangular plan shall be as given in Table 5. different aspect ratios. Local pressure coefficients
In addition, local pressure concentration at the edges of the wall, which have relevance to
coefficients are also given. the design of the cladding and its connections to

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 38 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
the supporting framework, are also given in the
Table. Information on force coefficients for free
standing walls is given separately in 6.3.2.2.
6.2.3.2– C6.2.3.2 –
Pitched, Hipped and Monoslope Roofs of This clause provides information on the roofs of
Rectangular Clad Buildings– The average clad buildings, which are perhaps the most
external pressure coefficients and pressure commonly used. Table 6 gives pressure
concentration coefficients for pitched roofs of coefficients for pitched roofs with different aspect
rectangular clad buildings shall be as given in ratios and varying roof pitch for two directions of
Table 6. Where no pressure concentration wind incidence - 0o and 90o. The roof surface is
coefficients are given, the average divided into different zones for the purpose of
coefficients shall apply. The pressure specifying the design pressure coefficients. The
coefficients on the underside of any values on the leeward slope are not affected much
overhanging roof shall be taken in by the variations in geometry, which is not so for
accordance with 6.2.3.5. the windward slope where values vary from large
pressures to suctions. Local pressure coefficients
NOTE 1 - The pressure concentration shall be (for the design of cladding and its connections) at
assumed to act outward (suction the edges and ridge are also given – these act
pressure) at the ridges, eaves, cornices upwards, i.e., suction. It is now known that wind
and 90 degree corners of roofs.
directions other than 0o and 90o can give values
NOTE 2 - The pressure concentration shall not be higher than those at 0o and 90o. However, values
included with the net external pressure are given here for 0o and 90o only, for simplicity
when computing overall load. in design.
NOTE 3 – For hipped roofs, pressure coefficients For monoslope and hipped roofs also the pressure
(including local values) may be taken on
coefficients can be taken from Table 6, for the
all the four slopes, as appropriate from
Table 6, and be reduced by 20% for the applicable roof slope. It has, however, been
hip slope. shown that hipped roofs experience smaller
suction as compared to pitched roofs of
For monoslope roofs of rectangular clad corresponding geometry (see Fig. C4 and also
buildings, the average pressure coefficient C5). Thus a relief of 20% is being permitted in
and pressure concentration coefficient for the pressure coefficients for the hipped slopes.
monoslope (lean-to) roofs of rectangular clad
buildings shall be as given in Table 7. Furthermore, clad buildings with monoslope roofs
are covered in detail in Table 7. Pressure
coefficients for different angles of wind incidence
are given therein.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 39 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Fig. C 4: Worst Peak Negative Pressure Coefficients – all azimuths (Meecham 1992)
high uplift

Wind

(a) Gable ended roofs gets high uplift

Hip end Low uplift

Pushed

Push
Wind

(b) Hip roofs gets lower uplift

Lowest uplift

Wind

(c) Pyramidal roofs gets lowest uplift

Fig. C 5 : Effects of Roof Architecture on Uplifts

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 40 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

(a) For (b/d) > 1 (b) For (b/d) < 1

Wind +0.8 b
+0.8 b

d
d

-0.5
-0.7

-0.4 -0.3

(c) For (b/d) = 1, use average values

Arrows indicate direction of wind.

Figure 2: Large opening in buildings (values of coefficients of internal pressure) with

top closed [Clause 6.2.2.2]

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 41 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 5 External Pressure Coefficients (Cpe) for Walls of Rectangular Clad Buildings
(Clause 6.2.3.1)

h
> 6
W W
w

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 42 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 6 External Pressure Coefficients (Cpe) for Pitched Roofs of Rectangular Clad Buildings (Clause 6.2.3.2)

Roof Angle Wind angle θ Wind angle θ

Building Local Coefficients
α 0o 90o
Height
Ratio Degrees EF GH EG FH

0 -0.8 -0.4 -0.8 -0.4 -2.0 -2.0 -2.0 ---

W 5 -0.9 -0.4 -0.8 -0.4 -1.4 -1.2 -1.2 -1.0
h 1 10 -1.2 -0.4 -0.8 -0.6 -1.0 -1.4 -1.2
≤ h 20 -0.4 -0.4 -0.7 -0.6 -0.8 -1.2
w 2 30 0 -0.4 -0.7 -0.6 -1.1
45 +0.3 -0.5 -0.7 -0.6 -1.1
60 +0.7 -0.6 -0.7 -0.6 -1.1
0 -0.8 -0.6 -1.0 -0.6 -2.0 -2.0 -2.0 ---
W 5 -0.9 -0.6 -0.9 -0.6 -2.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0
1 h 3 10 -1.1 -0.6 -0.8 -0.6 -2.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1.2
< ≤ 20 -0.7 -0.5 -0.8 -0.6 -1.5 -1.5 -1.5 -1.0
2 w 2 h
30 -0.2 -0.5 -0.8 -0.8 -1.0 -1.0
45 +0.2 -0.5 -0.8 -0.8
60 +0.6 -0.5 -0.8 -0.8
0 -0.7 -0.6 -0.9 -0.7 -2.0 -2.0 -2.0 ---
W
5 -0.7 -0.6 -0.8 -0.8 -2.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0
3 h 10 -0.7 -0.6 -0.8 -0.8 -2.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1.2
< <6 20 -0.8 -0.6 -0.8 -0.8 -1.5 -1.5 -1.5 -1.2
2 w h 30 -1.0 -0.5 -0.8 -0.7 -1.5
40 -0.2 -0.5 -0.8 -0.7 -1.0
50 +0.2 -0.5 -0.8 -0.7
60 +0.5 -0.5 -0.8 -0.7

Contd…………

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 43 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

NOTE 1 – h is the height to eaves or parapet and w is the lesser plan dimension of a building.
NOTE 2 – Where no local coefficients are given, the overall coefficients apply.
NOTE 3 – For hipped roofs the local coefficient for the hip ridge may be conservatively taken as the central ridge value.

y y
y

E G

WIND
F H

θ
L

KEY PLAN

Y = h or 0.15 W,
whichever is the smaller

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 44 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
6.2.3.3– Canopy roofs with - The pressure C6.2.3.3 –
coefficients are given in Tables 8 and 9
separately for mono pitch and double pitch Tables 8 and 9 give pressure coefficients for the
canopy roofs such as open-air parking limited ratios of h/w ( 14 to 1) and L/W (1 to 3) for
garages, shelter areas, outdoor areas, free standing canopies for the roof slope varying
railway platforms, stadiums and theatres. between 0o and 30o. Positive values are not affected
The coefficients take account of the by the blockage under the roof while the suctions
combined effect of the wind exerted on and (negative values) are given for two cases, φ = 0 for
under the roof for all wind directions; the no blockage and φ = 1 for full blockage.
resultant is to be taken normal to the canopy.
Where the local coefficients overlap, the
greater of the two given values should be
taken. However, the effect of partial closures
of one side and / or both sides, such as those
due to trains, buses and stored materials
shall be foreseen and taken into account.
The solidity ratio φ is equal to the area of
obstructions under the canopy divided by the
gross area under the canopy, both areas
normal to the wind direction. φ = 0
represents a canopy with no obstructions
underneath. φ = 1 represents the canopy
fully blocked with contents to the downwind
eaves. Values of Cp for intermediate solidities
may be linearly interpolated between these
two extremes, and applied upwind of the
position of maximum blockage only.
Downwind of the position of maximum
blockage the coefficients for φ = 0 may be
used.
In addition to the pressure forces normal to
the canopy, there will be horizontal loads on
the canopy due to the wind pressure on any
fascia and due to friction over the surface of
the canopy. For any wind direction, only the
greater of these two forces need be taken
into account. Fascia loads should be
calculated on the area of the surface facing
the wind, using a force coefficient of 1.3.
Frictional drag should be calculated using the
coefficients given in 6.3.1.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 45 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 7 External Pressure Coefficients (Cpe) for Monoslope Roofs for Rectangular
h
Clad Buildings with < 2 (Clause 6.2.3.2)
w

He Le

H1 H L L1 W
WIND

H2 L2
l
y = h or 0.15 w,
whichever is the lesser

y
w

Note: Area H and area L refer to the whole quadrant

Roof
Angle Wind Angle θ
Local Cpe
α
o o o o o
0 45 90 135 180
Degree H L H L H&L H&L H L H L H1 H2 L1 L2 He Le
Length w/2 from
wind ward end

remainder
Applies to

Applies to

5 -1.0 -0.5 -1.0 -0.9 -1.0 -0.5 -0.9 -1.0 -0.5 -1.0 -2.0 -1.5 -2.0 -1.5 -2.0 -2.0

10 -1.0 -0.5 -1.0 -0.8 -1.0 -0.5 -0.8 -1.0 -0.4 -1.0 -2.0 -1.5 -2.0 -1.5 -2.0 -2.0
15 -0.9 -0.5 -1.0 -0.7 -1.0 -0.5 -0.6 -1.0 -0.3 -1.0 -1.8 -0.9 -1.8 -1.4 -2.0 -2.0
20 -0.8 -0.5 -1.0 -0.6 -0.9 -0.5 -0.5 -1.0 -0.2 -1.0 -1.8 -0.8 -1.8 -1.4 -0.2 -2.0
25 -0.7 -0.5 -1.0 -0.6 -0.8 -0.5 -0.3 -0.9 -0.1 -0.9 -1.8 -0.7 -0.9 -0.9 -0.2 -2.0
30 0.5 -0.5 -1.0 -0.6 -0.8 -0.5 -0.1 -0.6 0 -0.6 -1.8 -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 -0.2 -2.0
Note – h is the height to eaves at lower side, l is the greater horizontal dimension of a building and W is the smaller horizontal
dimension of a building.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 46 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 8 Pressure Coefficients for Monoslope Roofs (Clause 6.2.3.3)

Note – For monopitch canopies the centre of pressure should be taken to act at 0.3 W from the windward

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 47 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 9 Pressure Coefficients for Free Standing Double Sloped Roofs (Clause
6.2.3.3)

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 48 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
6.2.3.4– Pitched and saw-tooth roofs of C6.2.3.4 –
multi-span buildings - For pitched (Fig. 3) and The Figures and Tables are self-explanatory. It is to
saw-tooth roofs (Fig. 4) of multi-span be noted that whereas the roof surfaces of exterior
buildings, the external average pressure spans (A, B, C, Y for pitched roofs, and A, B, C, D,
coefficients shall be as given in Tables 10 W, X, Y for saw- tooth roofs) will experience
and 11 respectively provided that all spans different wind pressures, the roofs of interior spans
are equal. Where two values are given for a (M for pitched roof and M, N for saw-tooth roof) will
coefficient, both shall be considered for experience similar effects. Furthermore, for some
design. All pressure coefficients shall be surfaces, both negative as well as positive values are
used with the value of wind speed applied at applicable and should be considered, as found critical
average roof height (h). in design.
External pressure coefficients for wind
directions of θ = 90o / 270o shall be obtained
Tables 10 and 11 have to be used in conjunction with
from clauses 6.2.3.1 and 6.2.3.2 but [-0.05
Tables 5 and 6 to give the complete information on
(n-1)] shall be added to the roof pressure
wind forces on such structures.
coefficients in the region 0 to 1h from the
leading edge, where n is the total number of
spans. For this calculation, take n = 4, if n is
greater than 4. Local pressures may be taken
at the edges and ridge of each span, over a
width equal to h or 0.1 ds whichever is
smaller. For the end spans, take the local
coefficient as – 2.0 and for the intermediate
spans as – 1.5.

B C C M M M M M
α
Wind
direction
A Y h

Figure 3: External pressure coefficients (Cpe) for multi-span buildings having pitched roofs
[Clause 6.2.3.4 ]

Wind
B D N N X Wind
direction C M M W
o α direction
θ=0
θ = 180o
A h
Y

w
Figure 4: External pressure coefficients (Cpe) for multi-span buildings having saw-tooth
roofs [Clause 6.2.3.4 ]

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 49 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 10: External pressure coefficients (Cpe) for multi-span buildings having pitch roofs
[Clause 6.2.3.4]

Surface reference (see Figure3)

A B C M Y
o
Use Table 6 for (h/w) and α, as -0.3 and 0.2 for α < 10
0.7 -0.2
appropriate - 0.5 and 0.3 for α ≥10o

Table 11: External pressure coefficients (Cpe) for multi-span buildings having saw tooth
roofs [Clause 6.2.3.4]
Wind Surface reference (see Figure 4)
Direction θ
(degrees) A B C D M N W X Y

-0.5, -0.5, -0.5, -0.3,

0 0.7 -0.9 -0.9 -0.4 -0.2
0.2 0.5 0.3 0.5
-0.2, -0.2,
180 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.4 -0.7 -0.3 0.7
0.2 0.2

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 50 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
6.2.3.5– Pressure coefficients on overhangs C6.2.3.5 –
from roofs - The pressure coefficients on the
top-overhanging portion of a roof shall be Overhangs from a building are affected by wind
taken to be the same as that of the nearest pressure acting from underneath. These combined
top portion of the non-overhanging portion of with pressures (or suctions) on the top surface often
the roof. The pressure coefficients for the create a severe design condition.
underside surface of the overhanging portion
shall be taken as follows and shall be taken
as positive if the overhanging portion is on
the windward side:
a) 1.25 if the overhang slopes downwards,
b) 1.00 if the overhang is horizontal, and
c) 0.75 if the overhang slopes upwards.
For overhanging portions on sides other than
the windward side, the average pressure
coefficients on adjoining walls may be used.
6.2.3.6 – Curved Roofs -For curved roofs, C6.2.3.6 –
the external pressure coefficients shall be as This clause specifies values of pressure coefficients
given in Table12. on curved convex roof surfaces, which are perhaps
the most common amongst curved roofs. Most part
of the roof exterior is subjected to suction. A variety
of other curved shapes have been used in roofs, such
as, domical, singly curved concave, saucer shaped,
and doubly curved (hyperbolic paraboloid). Values
of wind pressure coefficients are available for such
shapes, more as a result of case specific studies, and
are contained in the literature (Krishna, 1989).
Considering that these roof shapes are not a common
occurrence, these are not covered in this Code or in
other International Codes.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 51 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 12: External pressure coefficients for curved roofs. [Clause 6.2.3.6]
C

–0.4
Wind
C1 H
0.7H

l
(a) Roof springing from ground level
H/l C C1 C2
C
0.1 -0.8 +0.1 -0.8
0.2 -0.9 +0.3 -0.7
–0.4
0.3 -1.0 +0.4 -0.3

0.7H H 0.4 -1.1 +0.6 +0.4

C2
0.5 -1.2 +0.7 +0.7
Wind NOTE – When the wind is blowing normal to
gable ends, Cpe may be taken as
+0.8 -0.6 equal to –0.7 for the full width of the
roof over a length of l/2 from the gable
ends and –0.5 for the remaining
portion.

l
(b) Roof on elevated structure

Central Half (C)

Leeward Quarter (–0.4)

Windward
Quarter (C2)

a H/L > 0.6

H a/l > 0.6

Portion of roof below this line

Wind to be treated as an extension
l
of vertical supports
L
+0.8 -0.6

(c) Doubly curved roofs

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 52 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
6.2.3.7 – Cylindrical structures C6.2.3.7 –
For the purpose of calculating the wind Wind effects on cylindrical structures are influenced
pressure distribution around a cylindrical by the Reynold’s Number, Re given by VD/ν, where
structure of circular cross-section, the value V is the velocity of wind, D the diameter, and ν the
of external pressure coefficients given in kinematic viscosity of air. The values given in the
Table 13 may be used provided that the Code are for Re greater than 10,000, a value
Reynolds number is greater than 10,000. commonly achieved in practice. These are given for
These may be used for wind blowing normal different proportions of a cylinder, and values of Cpi
to the axis of cylinders having axis normal to are specified for open ended cylinders.
the ground plane (that is, chimneys and silos)
and cylinders having their axis parallel to the
ground plane (that is, horizontal tanks) Slender cylinders, such as those with h/D greater
provided that the clearance between the tank than 5 may experience aerodynamic effects in the
and the ground is not less than the diameter along-wind as well as across-wind direction. These
D of the cylinder. are dealt with later in Sections 8 and 9.
h is height of a vertical cylinder or length of a
horizontal cylinder. Where there is a free flow
of air around both ends, h is to be taken as
half the length when calculating h/D ratio.
In the calculation of the resulting pressure on
the periphery of the cylinder, the value of Cpi
shall be taken into account. For open-ended
cylinders, Cpi shall be taken as follows:
a) -0.8 where h/D is not less than 0.3,
and
b) –0.5 where h/D is less than 0.3.
6.2.3.8– Roofs and bottoms of cylindrical C6.2.3.8 –
structures - The external pressure
The clause specifies forces on roofs over a
coefficients for roofs and bottoms of
cylindrical structure, placed on ground or elevated.
cylindrical elevated structures shall be as
The roof may be flat, sloping or domical. While
given in Table 14. For details of roof pressure
Table 14 gives the overall force coefficients, detailed
distribution see Fig. 5.
pressure distribution over a conical roof is given in
The total resultant load (P) acting on the roof Fig. 5.
of the structure is given by the following
formula: In addition to the external pressures/forces, internal
pressure may also occur on the roof of a container.
P = 0.785 D2 (pi – Cpe pd) This may be due to the vapour of the liquid stored, or
where pi is the pressure inside the tank due to wind where there is a degree of permeability
caused by the stored fluid vapours. to allow entry to the wind. Cpi should be taken as
zero for an R.C.C. water tank, as the roof is made
The resultant of P for roofs lies at 0.1 D from monolithic with the walls and the opening in roof is
the center of the roof on the windward side. always kept closed.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 53 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 13: External pressure distribution coefficients around cylindrical structures

[Clause 6.2.3. 7]

h/D = 25
h/D = 7
_
h/D = 1
h
Cpe

θ
Wind
D

Position of Pressure Coefficients, Cpe

Periphery θ
h/D = 25 h/D = 7 h/D = 1
(degrees)
0 1.0 1.0 1.0
15 0.8 0.8 0.8
30 0.1 0.1 0.1
45 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7
60 -1.9 -1.7 -1.2
75 -2.5 -2.2 -1.6
90 -2.6 -2.2 -1.7
105 -1.9 -1.7 -1.2
120 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7
135 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5
150 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4
165 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4
180 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 54 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 14: External pressure coefficients for roofs and bottoms of cylindrical
buildings [Clause 6.2.3. 8]

P
P
Direction e = 0.1 D e = 0.1 D
of wind Cpe
Cpe

(a) Flat roof

H
Cpe (d) Elevated
structure
D
(b) Curved roof
Z
Cpe Cpe

(c) Conical roof

H
h

Coefficient of External Pressure, Cpe

Roof shape / Bottom of Elevated Structure
a, b and c d
H/D Roof (Z/H)-1 Roof Bottom
0.5 -0.65 1.00 -0.75 -0.8
1.00 -1.00 1.25 -0.75 -0.7
2.00 -1.00 1.50 -0.75 -0.6

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 55 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

1.5 1.0
0.5

a α

0.2D < h < 3.D h

tan α < 0.2

(α < 11.5o)
D
SECTION AA

45o

Wind
A A

0.2a

Cpe = -1.5 Cpe = -0.5

a
Cpe = -1.0

a = 0.5D for 2< (h/D)<3 PLAN

= 0.15h + 0.2D for 0.2 < (h/D) < 2

(For Force Coefficient Corresponding to Shell Portion, See Table 20)

Figure 5 : External pressure coefficient on the upper conical roof surface of a

circular structure standing on ground.[Clause 6.2.3.8]

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 56 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 15: External pressure coefficients, Cpe for combined roofs. [Clause 6.2.3.9]

0.8 o
Direction 1 c d Direction 2 α1 ≤ 30
b1 ≤ b2
b
0.6 a
h1
h2
a
0.4
b1 b2

Cpe = 0.4 (h1/h2 )-0.6

0.2
0.13

1.2
Cpe 0.5 1.0 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 h1/h2

- 0.2
a
Cpe = (h1/h2)-1.7

- 0.4
Direction 1 c d Direction 2

b
- 0.6 a
h1
Cpe = 2(h1/h2)-2.9 e
h2

- 0.8
a

- 1.0

Values of Cpe
6.1.1.1 Portion 6.1.1.2 Direction 1 Direction 2
a From the Diagram
Cpe = -0.5, (h1/h2) ≤ 1.7 -0.4
b
Cpe = +0.7, (h1/h2) > 1.7
c and d See 6.2.3.2
e See 6.2.3.5

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 57 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 16: External pressure coefficients, Cpe for roofs with a skylight. –[Clause 6.2.3.10 ]

Wind +0.4 -0.6

-0.6 -0.5

-0.8
Wind b -0.6
a
-0.5

h2 h1

b1 b2

b1 > b2 b 1 ≤ b2
Portion a b a and b
Cpe -0.6 +0.7 See Table 15

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 58 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
6.2.3.9 – Combined roofs - The average C6.2.3.9 –
external pressure coefficients for combined
This clause deals with a situation often found in
roofs are shown in Table 15
practice – that of a pitched roof with a porch (or a
car park), both open and closed. The clause takes
recourse to the use of clauses 6.2.3.2 and 6.2.3.5
for assigning pressure coefficients on roof slopes
and on overhangs respectively. Two principal
wind directions are covered for the building with
varying geometrical proportions.

6.2.3.10 – Roofs with skylight - The average C6.2.3.10 –

external pressure coefficients for roofs with
The clause gives pressure coefficients and the
skylight are shown in Table 16.
corresponding figures/tables are self explanatory

6.2.3.11 - C6.2.3.11 –
Grandstands - The pressure coefficients on The clause gives pressure coefficients and the
the roof (top and bottom) and rear wall of a corresponding figures/tables are self explanatory
typical grandstand roof, which is open on
three sides, is given in Table 17. The
pressure coefficients are valid for a particular
ratio of dimensions as specified in Table 17
but may be used for deviations up to 20
percent. In general, the maximum wind load
occurs when the wind is blowing into the
open front of the stand, causing positive
pressure under the roof and negative
pressure on the roof.

6.2.3.12– C6.2.3.12 –
Spheres – The external pressure coefficients The clause gives pressure coefficients and the
for spheres shall be as given in Table 18. corresponding figures/tables are self explanatory.

6.2.3.13– C6.2.3.13 –
Frames – When taking wind loads on frames Pressure coefficients on different faces of a
of clad buildings it is reasonable to assume structure, namely the walls or the roof slopes are
that the pressures or suctions over the entire given in the Code. These values, as explained
structure will not be fully correlated. earlier, are obtained by averaging values of
Therefore when taking the combined effect of measured pressures in different parts of the
wind loads on the frame, the forces obtained structure. For analysing a frame, reactions from
in the frame may be reduced as per values of these different parts will be accounted for. Forces
Kc given in Table 19. on account of internal pressures will also be
included. The frame will experience the
integrated effect of these different force
components, caused by wind which is
characterized by randomness. Thus the forces
from different components are going to be only
partly correlated. A reduction factor on the
computed responses of the frame is thus being
permitted. The factor varies between 0.8 and 1.0.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 59 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

Table 17: Pressure coefficients at top and bottom of roof of grandstands open on
three sides (roof angle up to 5o) [Clause 6.2.3.11]
(h:b:l = 0.8 : 1 : 2.2)

Front and Back of Wall

AC EG
θ J K L M

0.4 h
0o +0.9 -0.5 +0.9 -0.5
B D F H
o
45 +0.8 -0.6 +0.4 -0.4
h
135o -1.1 +0.6 -1.0 +0.4
o
180 -0.3 +0.9 -0.3 +0.9
JL KM

A E
B F J K

θ
0o l

C G
D H
L M

Top and Bottom of Roof

θ A B C D E F G H
o
0 -1.0 +0.9 -1.0 +0.9 -0.7 +0.9 -0.7 +0.9
45o -1.0 +0.9 -0.7 +0.4 -0.5 +0.8 -0.5 +0.3
o
135 -0.4 -1.1 -0.7 -1.0 -0.9 -1.1 -0.9 -1.0
180o -0.6 -0.3 -0.6 -0.3 -0.6 -0.3 -0.6 -0.3

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 60 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 18: External pressure distribution coefficients around spherical structures

[Clause 6.2.3.12]

Cpe

θ
Wind
CL
D

Position of Cpe Remarks

Periphery, θ in
Degrees
0 +1.0 Cf = 0.5 for DVz < 7
15 +0.9 = 0.2 for DVz ≥ 7
30 +0.5
45 -0.1 where D is the diameter of the sphere
60 -0.7
75 -1.1
90 -1.2
105 -1.0
120 -0.6
135 -0.2
150 +0.1
165 +0.3
180 +0.4

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 61 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 19: Combination factors for wind pressure contributed from two or more
building surfaces to effects on major structural elements [Clause
6.2.3.13]

Combination
Design case Example diagrams
factor (Kc)
(a) Where wind action
from any single
surface contributes 1.0 ----
75 percent or more to
an action effect.
(b) Pressures from
windward and
leeward walls in
combination with
positive or negative
roof pressures 0.8

(c) Positive pressures on

roofs in combination
with negative internal
pressures (from a
0.8
wall opening)

(d) Negative pressures

on roofs or walls in
combination with
positive internal
pressures 0.95

(c) All other cases 1.0 ----

NOTE: The action combination factors less than 1.0 can be justified because wind pressures are highly
fluctuating and do not occur simultaneously on all building surfaces.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 62 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
6.3 – Force Coefficients C6.3 -
The value of force coefficients apply to a An obstruction to the flow of wind by an object
building or structure as a whole, and when results in creating a pressure on the surface of the
multiplied by the effective frontal area Ae of object, in a direction normal to it. When
the building or structure and by design wind multiplied by the area over which the pressure is
pressure pd, gives the total wind load on that acting, a force results. Since the pressure over a
particular building or structure. surface varies, the computation of force over an
area can be done by dividing the surface into
F = Cf Ae pd
small tributary areas, and then summing up the
where F is the force acting in a direction forces over these small areas. In other words, a
specified in the respective tables and Cf is force over an element of a structure, or the
the force coefficient for the building. structure as a whole is obtained as an integration
NOTE 1 –The value of the force coefficient differs
of the term ‘pressure × area’, as relevant. Such a
for the wind acting on different faces of a force can be obtained on a clad building, or an
building or structure. In order to unclad building or its components and can be
determine the critical load, the total wind expressed in terms of a force coefficient, as in this
load should be calculated for each wind clause. In deducing the force coefficient the
direction. direction of the force has to be specified. A force
NOTE 2 – If surface design pressure varies with taken to act in the direction of the wind is called
height, the surface area of the ‘drag’, while that in a direction perpendicular to it
building/structure may be sub-divided so is called ‘lift’.
that specified pressures are taken over
appropriate areas. Whereas the use of the force coefficients as given
NOTE 3 –In tapered buildings/structures, the force will only help in determining the overall force
coefficients shall be applied after sub- system on the structure and its foundation in order
dividing the building/structure into to design the framework or to compute stability;
suitable number of strips and the load on the distribution of pressure (and hence the local
each strip calculated individually, taking pressure coefficient) is essentially required for
the area of each strip as Ae. designing the fasteners, cladding, and its support
system.

6.3.1 – Frictional Drag: C6.3.1 –

A force due to frictional drag shall be taken The flow of wind around/over a structure, as
into account in addition to those loads mentioned already, causes surface pressures. In
specified in 6.2. For rectangular clad addition, there is friction between the surface of
buildings, this addition is necessary only the structure and the wind flowing over it. This
where the ratio d/h or d/b is greater than 4. results in a frictional force in the direction of
The frictional drag force, F′, in the direction of wind. This clause specifies the frictional drag for
wind is given by the following formulae: a rectangular clad building.
If h ≤ b, F′ = Cf′ (d - 4h) bpd + Cf′ (d - 4h) 2
hpd, and
If h > b, F′ = Cf′ (d – 4b) bpd + Cf′ (d – 4b) 2
hpd
The first term in each case gives the drag on
the roof and the second on the walls. The
value of Cf′ has the following values:
Cf′ = 0.01 for smooth surfaces without
corrugations or ribs across the wind
direction,
Cf′ = 0.02 for surfaces with corrugations or
ribs across the wind direction,

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 63 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

Cf′ = 0.04 for surfaces with ribs across the

wind direction,
For other buildings, the effect of frictional
drag has been indicated where necessary, in
the values of pressure coefficients and force
coefficients.

6.3.2 – Force Coefficients for Clad

C6.3.2 –
Buildings
Clad rectangular buildings with different
proportions are covered in this clause in addition
to buildings of a variety of other shapes, both
with sharp edges as well as rounded corners. For
cases where the edges are sharp, or nearly so, the
Reynolds number has only a limited influence on
the wind pressures or forces. However, for
rounded edges, or for shapes which are circular or
near circular, Reynolds number has a marked
effect. This has been accounted for in Table 20 by
specifying the applicable range of Vzb. The force
values are also a function of the aspect ratio.
However, noticing the lack of sensitivity to the
height/breadth ratio, Table-20 from the existing
Code has been consolidated.
6.3.2.1 – Clad buildings of uniform section -
The overall force coefficients for rectangular
clad buildings of uniform section with flat
roofs in uniform flow shall be as given in Fig.
6 and for other clad buildings of uniform
section (without projections, except where
otherwise shown) shall be as given in Table
20.

6.3.2.2 – Free standing walls and hoardings

Force coefficients for free standing walls and
hoardings shall be as given in Table 21 .
To allow for oblique winds, the design shall
also be checked for net pressure normal to
the surface varying linearly from a maximum
of 1.7 Cf at the windward edge to 0.44 Cf at
the leeward edge.
The wind load on appurtenances and
supports for hoardings shall be accounted for
separately by using the appropriate net
pressure coefficients. Allowance shall be
made for shielding effects of one element on
another.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 64 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
6.3.2.3 – Solid circular shapes mounted on
a surface - The force coefficients for solid
circular shapes mounted on a surface shall
be as given in Table 22 .
6.3.3 – Force Coefficients for C 6.3.3 –
Unclad Buildings and Force coefficients in this section are given for
Frameworks skeletal frameworks or individual elements,
This section applies to frameworks of unclad which imply considerations of their shape, aspect
buildings and to frameworks of buildings ratio, Reynolds number effect and shielding
while temporarily unclad. amongst members. The angle of wind incidence
can also affect the coefficients.
6.3.3.1 – Individual members - C6.3.3.1 –
(a) The force coefficients (Table 24) refer For a member of finite length, held in free space,
to members of infinite length. For members wind would escape at the two ends of the
of finite length, the coefficients should be member. Thus there is a reduction in the overall
multiplied by a factor K that depends on the wind force acting on the member. The shorter the
ratio l/b where l is the length of the member member the greater is this reduction. Table 23
and b is the width across the direction of gives the reduction factors. In reckoning the
wind. Table 23 gives the required values of length of the member, the end conditions play a
K. The following special cases must be noted role. For example, if a member is connected into
while estimating K. plates at the ends, its length is to be treated as
infinite, with reduction factor becoming 1.0.
i. Where any member abuts onto a plate or
wall in such a way that free flow of air
Table 24 provides the coefficients for flat–sided
around that end of the member is
members, in which Reynolds number will not
prevented, then the ratio of l/b shall be
have an influence. Table 25 likewise gives the
doubled for the purpose of determining K;
values for wires and cables, for which Reynolds
and
number will have a marked influence. Wind
ii. When both ends of a member are so forces will also be influenced by the surface
obstructed, the ratio l/b shall be taken as roughness.
infinity for the purpose of determining K.
(b) Flat-sided members – Force coefficients
for wind normal to the longitudinal axis of flat-
sided structural members shall be as given in
Table 24.
The force coefficients are given for two
mutually perpendicular directions relative to a
reference axis on the structural member.
They are denoted by Cfn and Cft, and give the
forces normal and transverse, respectively,
to the reference plane as shown in Table 24.
Normal force, Fn = Cfn pdK l b
Transverse force, Ft = Cft pdK l b
(c) Circular sections – Force coefficients for
members of circular section shall be as given
in Table 20.
(d) Force coefficients for wires and cables
shall be as given in Table 25 according to
the diameter (D), the design wind speed (Vz)
and the surface roughness.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 65 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

3.0
h/b = ∞
2.5 a
20
Cf 10 Wind b F
2.0
5

1.5 Plan

1.0 3
h F
1
0.5

0 Elevation
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
a/b F = Cf pd bh

6A Values of Cf versus a/b for h/b ≥ 1

1.4

1/4
1.2
1/4
Cf 1/2
1.0 h/b = 1/4
1/2 h/b = 1/2
0.8
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
a/b
6B Values of Cf versus a/b for h/b < 1

Figure 6: Force coefficients for rectangular clad buildings in uniform flow [Clause
6.3.2.1]

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 66 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 20: Force coefficients Cf for clad buildings of uniform section (acting in the
direction of wind) [Clause 6.3.2.1]

Cf for Height / Breadth Ratio

Plan Shape Vzb m2/s
≤2 10 ≥ 20
All Surfaces <6
Wind Rough or 0.7 0.9 1.2
b with ≥6
Vz
projections
Smooth ≥6 0.5 0.5 0.6

d
Ellipse < 10 0.5 0.6 0.7

b b/d = 1/2

≥ 10 0.2 0.2 0.2

d <8 0.9 1.1 1.7

Ellipse
b/d = 2
b
≥8 0.9 1.1 1.5

<4 0.6 0.8 1.0

r b/d = 1
r/b = 1/3
≥4 0.4 0.5 0.5

< 10 0.8 1.0 1.3

r b/d = 1
r/b = 1/6
≥ 10 0.5 0.6 0.6

d
b/d = 1/2 <3 0.3 0.3 0.4

r b r/b = 1/2
≥3 0.2 0.3 0.3

d
b/d = 1/2
All values 0.5 0.6 0.7
r b r/b = 1/6

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 67 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

b/d = 2
b All values 1.0 1.2 1.9
r/b = 1/12
r

d <6 0.8 1.0 1.6

b/d = 2
r
b r/b = ¼
≥6 0.5 0.5 0.6

< 10 0.9 1.1 1.5

d

b r/a = 1/3
r
≥ 10 0.5 0.5 0.6
a

r
r/a = 1/12 All values 0.9 1.2 1.6

a
o
45
r/a = 1/48 All values 0.9 1.2 1.6

< 11 0.7 0.9 1.2

r b
r/b = ¼

≥ 11 0.4 0.5 0.5

d

b
r/b = 1/12 All values 0.8 1.1 1.4
r

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 68 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

b r/b = 1/48 All Values 0.8 1.0 1.3

<8 0.8 1.0 1.3

b
r/b = ¼

≥8 0.4 0.5 0.5

d

r
1/48 < r/b <
All Values 1.2 1.6 2.1
1/12

< 12 0.8 1.0 1.3

12-sided
polygon
≥ 12 0.7 0.8 1.1
d

Octagon All values 1.1 1.2 1.4

Hexagon All values 1.2 1.4 1.5

Structures that, are in the supercritical flow regime because of their size and design wind
speed, may need further calculation to ensure that the greatest loads do not occur at some
wind speed below the maximum when the flow will be sub-critical.
The coefficients are for buildings without projections, except where otherwise shown. In this
table Vzb is used as an indication of the airflow regime.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 69 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 21: Force coefficients for low walls or hoardings (< 15 m high). [Clause 6.3.2.2]

b
b

h
h

h′

Above Ground h′ ≥ 0.25 h One edge on Ground

Width to Height Ratio, b/h

Drag Coefficient, Cf
Wall above Ground Wall on Ground
From 0.5 to 6 From 1 to 12 1.2
10 20 1.3
16 32 1.4
20 40 1.5
40 80 1.75
60 120 1.8
80 or more 160 or more 2.0

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 70 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 22: Force coefficients for solid shapes mounted on a surface. [Clause 6.3.2.3]

SIDE ELEVATION DESCRIPTION OF SHAPE Cf

CIRCULAR DISC
1.2

HEMISPHERICAL BOWL 1.4

HEMISPHERICAL BOWL 0.4

HEMISPHERICAL SOLID 1.2

SPHERICAL SOLID 0.5 FOR VzD < 7

0.2 FOR VzD ≥ 7

Table 23 : Reduction factor K for individual members. [Clause 6.3.3.1 (a)]

l /b or l /D 2 5 10 20 40 50 100 ∞
Circular cylinder, 0.58 0.62 0.68 0.74 0.82 0.87 0.98 1.00
subcritical flow
Circular cylinder, 0.80 0.80 0.82 0.90 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.00
supercritical flow
(DVz≥ 6 m2/s)
Flat plate perpendicular 0.62 0.66 0.69 0.81 0.87 0.90 0.95 1.00
to wind (DVz ≥ 6 m2/s)

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 71 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 24: Force coefficients (Cf) for individual structural members of infinite length [Clause 6.3.3.1(b)]

½b Ft Ft Ft Ft Ft Ft
b Fn 0.1 b
Fn Fn
o b 0o o 0o b
0 o 0 0 b 0o b Fn
b b
θ Fn b
Fn
Wind 0.1b 0.45 b 1.1 0.43 b
b

θ Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft
Degrees
0 +1.9 +0.95 +1.8 +1.8 +1.75 +0.1 +1.6 0 +2.0 0 +2.05 0
45 +1.8 +0.8 +2.1 +1.8 +0.85 +0.85 +1.5 -0.1 +1.2 +0.9 +1.85 +0.6
90 +2.0 +1.7 -1.9 -1.0 +0.1 +1.75 -0.95 +0.7 -1.6 +2.15 0 +0.6
135 -1.8 -0.1 -2.0 +0.3 -0.75 +0.75 -0.5 +1.05 -1.1 +2.4 -1.6 +0.4
180 -2.0 +0.1 -1.4 -1.4 -1.75 -0.1 -1.5 0 -1.7 ±2.1 -1.8 0
Ft Ft Ft Ft Ft

o 0.5 b Fn Fn b Fn *
b 0θ b
Fn 0o b 0o 0o Fn 0o
b

1.6 b
0.48 b
b 0.1 b

θ Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft Cfn Cft
Degrees
0 +1.4 0 +2.05 0 +1.6 0 +2.0 0 +2.0 0
45 +1.2 +1.6 +1.95 +0.6 +1.5 +1.5 +1.8 +0.1 +1.55 +1.55
90 0 +2.2 +0.5 +0.9 0 +1.9 0 +0.1 0 +2.0
NOTE: In this table, the force coefficient Cf is given in relation to the dimension b and not, as in other cases, in relation to effective frontal area Ae.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 72 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 25: Force coefficients for wires and cables (l/d =100). [Clause 6.3.3.1(d)]

Force Coefficients, Cf for

Moderately
Flow Regime Fine Thick
Smooth Smooth Wire
Stranded Stranded
Surface (Galvanized or
Cables Cables
Painted)
DVz < 0.6 m2/s -- -- 1.2 1.3
DVz ≥ 0.6 m2/s -- -- 0.9 1.1
2
DVz < 6 m /s 1.2 1.2 -- --
2
DVz ≥ 6 m /s 0.5 0.7 -- --

CODE COMMENTARY
6.3.3.2 – Single frames - Force coefficients C 6.3.3.2 –
for a single frame having either:
Force coefficients for single frames are given for
(a) all flat sided members, or flat sided members or members of circular
section, the latter being influenced by the flow
(b) all circular members in which all the
regime. Where a frame consists of both flat sided
members of the frame have either:
members and members of circular cross-section,
i) DVz less than 6 m2/s, or the coefficients for these respective shapes may
be taken from Table 26.
ii) DVz greater than 6 m2/s
shall be as given in Table 26 according to The solidity ratio of the frame also affects the
the type of the member, the diameter (D), the value of Cf. The solidity ratio implies the ratio of
design wind speed (Vz) and the solidity ratio net exposed area of the frame members divided
(φ). by the gross area bound by these members. See
Fig. C6.
Shaded area
φ =
Area a b c d
a b

c
d
Fig. C6

For latticed steel towers φ varies typically

between about 0.1 and 0.3. For lattice frames see
6.3.3.4.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 73 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Table 26: Force coefficients for single frames [Clause 6.3.3.2]

Force Coefficients, Cf
For Circular Members
Solidity Ratio φ Flat-sided
Sub-critical flow Supercritical flow
members
(DVz < 6 m2/s) (DVz ≥ 6 m2/s)
0.1 1.9 1.2 0.7
0.2 1.8 1.2 0.8
0.3 1.7 1.2 0.8
0.4 1.7 1.1 0.8
0.5 1.6 1.1 0.8
0.75 1.6 1.5 1.4
1.00 2.0 2.0 2.0
NOTE: Linear interpolation between the values is permitted.

CODE COMMENTARY
Force coefficients for a single frame not
complying with the above requirements shall
be calculated as follows:

Cf = γ Cf sup er + (1 − γ ) + (1 − γ )
A circ sub A flat
Cf sub Cf flat
A sub A sub

where
Cf super = force coefficient for the supercritical
circular members as given in Table 26.
Cf sub = force coefficient for subcritical circular
members as given in Table 26.
Cf flat = force coefficient for the flat sided
members as given in Table 26,
Acirc sub = effective area of subcritical circular
members,
Aflat = effective area of flat-sided members,
Asub = Acirc sub + A flat, and

⎛ Area of the frame in a supercritical flow ⎞

γ =⎜ ⎟
⎜ Ae ⎟
⎝ ⎠

6.3.3.3 – Multiple frame buildings - This C6.3.3.3 –

section applies to structures having two or
more parallel frames where the windward During the construction of a clad building, a
frames may have a shielding effect upon the situation will often occur when the framework
will still be unclad (This may occur for a structure

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 74 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

frames to leeward side. The windward frame or a part of it even permanently). For such unclad
and any unshielded parts of other frames frames, or parts thereof, force coefficients can be
shall be calculated in accordance with taken as in 6.3.3.2. If there are multiple frames, as
6.3.3.2, but the wind load on the parts of envisaged in this clause, and as will occur
frames that are sheltered should be commonly, one frame may shield the other. The
multiplied by a shielding factor which is manner of accounting for this shielding, and its
dependent upon the solidity ratio of the extent, is clearly explained in the Clause.
windward frame, the types of members
comprising the frame and the spacing ratio of
the frames. The values of the shielding
factors are given in Table 27.

Table 27: Shielding factor η for multiple frames [Clause 6.3.3.3]

Effective Frame Spacing Ratio

Solidity
Ratio, β <0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 > 8.0

0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

0.1 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.2 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.3 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.4 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.0
0.7 0.3 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0
1.0 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.8 1.0
NOTE: Linear interpolation between values is permitted.

CODE COMMENTARY

Where there are more than two frames of

similar geometry and spacing, the wind load
on the third and subsequent frames should
be taken as equal to that on the second
frame. The loads on the various frames shall
be added to obtain total load on the structure.
a) The frame spacing ratio is equal to the
distance, centre to centre of the frames,
beams or girders divided by the least overall
dimension of the frame, beam or girder
measured at right angles to the direction of
the wind. For triangular framed structures or

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 75 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

rectangular framed structures diagonal to the

wind, the spacing ratio should be calculated
from the mean distance between the frames
in the direction of the wind.
b) Effective solidity ratio, β:

β = φ for flat-sided members.

β is to be obtained from Fig.

7 for members of circular cross-
sections.

0.40

0.35

0.30
Effective solidity

0.25
Ratio, β

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Solidity Ratio, φ
Figure 7: Effective solidity ratio, β for round section members [Clause 6.3.3.3(b)]

6.3.3.4 – Lattice towers - C6.3.3.4 –

a) Force coefficient for lattice towers of The clause provides for force coefficients for
square or equilateral triangle section with flat- square as well as triangular based latticed towers
sided members for wind blowing against any with flat-sided or circular sections used for the
face shall be as given in Table 28. members. Such towers often taper from the base
towards the top. The frontal area exposed to the
wind as well as the solidity ratio therefore goes on
changing. It may thus become necessary to divide
the tower into several smaller parts along the
height and compute forces on each part
separately. (a), (b) and (c) deal with towers with
flat sided members, while (d) and (e) address
towers with circular members. For square based
towers, it is pertinent to distinguish between
‘wind onto face’ or ‘onto corner’. Former is
critical for the design of bracings while the latter
for tower legs.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 76 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

Table 28: Overall force coefficient for towers composed of flat-sided members [Clause
6.3.3.4(a)]

Solidity Ratio Force Coefficient for

φ Square Towers Equilateral Triangular Towers
0.1 3.8 3.1
0.2 3.3 2.7
0.3 2.8 2.3
0.4 2.3 1.9
0.5 2.1 1.5

b) For square lattice towers with flat-sided

members the maximum load, which
occurs when the wind blows into a
corner, shall be taken as 1.2 times the
load for the wind blowing against a face.
c) For equilateral-triangle lattice towers with
flat-sided members the load may be
assumed to be constant for any
inclination of wind to a face.
d) Force coefficients for lattice towers of
square section with circular members, all
in the same flow regime, may be as
given in Table 29.
e) Force coefficients for lattice towers of
equilateral-triangle section with circular
members all in the same flow regime
may be as given in Table 30.

Table 29: Overall force coefficient for square towers composed of rounded members
[Clause 6.3.3.4 (d)]
Solidity Force Coefficient for
Ratio of
Front Face Sub-critical flow Supercritical flow
(DVz < 6 m2/s)
(DVz ≥ 6 m2/s)
Onto face Onto corner Onto face Onto corner
0.05 2.4 2.5 1.1 1.2
0.1 2.2 2.3 1.2 1.3
0.2 1.9 2.1 1.3 1.6

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 77 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

0.3 1.7 1.9 1.4 1.6

0.4 1.6 1.9 1.4 1.6
0.5 1.4 1.9 1.4 1.6

Table 30: Overall force coefficient for equilateral-triangular towers composed of

rounded members [Clause 6.3.3.4 (e)]

Solidity Ratio of Front Force Coefficient for

Face Subcritical Flow Supercritical Flow
φ (DVz < 6 m /s)2
(DVz ≥ 6 m2/s)
0.05 1.8 0.8
0.1 1.7 0.8
0.2 1.6 1.1
0.3 1.5 1.1
0.4 1.5 1.1
0.5 1.4 1.2

CODE COMMENTARY

6.3.3.5 – Tower Appurtenances -The wind

loading on tower appurtenances, such as
ladders, conduits, lights, elevators, etc, shall be
calculated using appropriate net pressure
coefficients for these elements. Allowance may
be made for shielding effect from other
elements.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 78 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
7. – INTERFERENCE
EFFECTS
7.1 - General C7.1 -
Wind interference is caused by modification in When a structure is surrounded by other structures of
the wind characteristics produced by the similar size, the oncoming wind characteristics may
obstruction caused by an object or a structure in get substantially modified due to formation of a
the path of the wind. If such wind strikes highly turbulent wake zone on the downstream side
another structure, the wind pressures usually of the interfering structure(s). While the mean speed
get enhanced, though there can also be some may reduce (shielding effect), the fluctuating speed
shielding effect between two very closely component of the wind gets significantly enhanced
spaced buildings/structures. The actual on account of the high turbulence so generated.
phenomenon is too complex to justify Besides, large size eddies are formed and released at
generalization of the wind forces/pressures more or less regular intervals. As a result, narrow but
produced due to interference, which can only be unstable shear zones are created at the wake
ascertained by detailed wind tunnel/CFD boundaries. The modifications in the flow affect the
studies. However, some guidance can be small height (rigid) structures differently than the
provided for the purpose of preliminary design. flexible tall structures. The mean pressures over the
To account for the effect of interference, a wind short rigid structures may often reduce (shielding)
interference factor (IF) has been introduced as while the fluctuating ones may get enhanced. In tall
a multiplying factor to be applied to the design structures, whereas the mean along-wind response
wind pressure/force. Interference effects can be may often reduce, the fluctuating along-wind
more significant for tall buildings. Since the response (dynamic component) and the across-wind
values of IF can vary considerably based on response quite commonly get enhanced.
building geometry and location, the given
values of IF are a kind of median values and Interference is governed by a large number of
are meant only for preliminary design estimates. geometrical parameters (shape and size of various
The designer is adviced that for assigning interfering structures vis-à-vis those of the interfered
values of IF for final design particularly for tall structure, and, layout of interfering and interfered
buildings, specialist literature be consulted or a structures defined by their relative distances and
wind tunnel study carried out. orientations which could be innumerable), and flow
parameters (wind direction, wind angle of attack and
Strouhal Number/Reduced velocity, besides
Reynolds number in case of rounded bodies), which
has made generalization and codification of
interference effect difficult, though much research
has been done on the subject and a good amount of
literature is available on the same.
It is usual to express the effect of interference in
terms of the ratio of the modified pressure/force due
to interference and the wind pressure/force without
any interference (i.e., stand-alone condition). This
non-dimensional term is called Interference Factor
(IF).

7.2 – Roof of Low-rise Buildings C7.2 –

Maximum increase in wind force on the roof due As explained above, there could be some shielding
to interference from similar buildings in case of effect when the two buildings are too close (x < 0.5
closely spaced low-rise buildings may be upto b) to each other. Such situations may arise in row-
25% for distance (x) between the buildings of 5 housings or group/mass housing schemes. It would
times the dimension (b) of the interfering be conservative to neglect shielding (i.e., take IF as
building normal to the direction of wind. unity) in such cases or take specialist advice. The

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 79 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
Interference effect beyond 20b may be Code recommends IF values in the range of 1.0 to
considered to be negligible (Figure 8). For 1.25 considering worst wind direction.
intermediate spacings, linear interpolation may
be used. Figure C7 shows how the value of IF varies for a
typical case. Use of interference factors will be of
greater relevance for buildings in terrain categories 1
and 2.

Wind b

x ≤ 0.5 b IF = 1.00
2b ≤ x ≤ 5b IF = 1.25
x = 10 b IF = 1.10
x = 20b IF = 1.00
Figure 8 : Interference factor (IF) for roof of low buildings [Clause 7.2]

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 80 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Fig. C 7 : Typical Interference factor contours for design pressure coefficients over the roof of a
Gabled building (TB) as a building of same size is placed at different positions in plan (Kwatra 2000)

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 81 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
7.3 – Tall Buildings C7.3 -
Based on studies on tall rectangular buildings, Tall flexible buildings (Time period of vibration, T >
Fig. 9 gives various zones of interference. The 1.0 sec) would respond to wind dynamically not only
wind interference factor (IF) for preliminary in the direction of wind (along-wind or drag) but
estimate of the wind forces may be assumed as also normal to the flow direction (across-wind or
follows for interference caused by a tall building lift). Interference could increase the dynamic
of same or greater height. response substantially in either directions, generally
to different extent as one might expect. Interference
Zone Z1 Z2 Z3 Z4 effects are primarily due to modifications in the
IF 1.60 1.25 1.15 1.07 incident and wake flow characteristics. The
turbulence characteristics (like eddy sizes, etc.) of he
wind approaching the building face and then
The interference effect due to buildings of releasing from the sides get affected. Interfering
height less than one-third of the height of the structures sometime bring the vortex shedding
building under consideration may be considered frequency close to the natural frequency of the
to be negligible while for interference from a structure while in other situation they may push it
building of intermediate height, linear away from the natural frequency. There is a decrease
interpolation may be used between one–third in the interference effect as the height of the
and full height. interfering structure(s) becomes smaller than the
affected structure/building, becoming insignificant
for height of the interfering structure(s) smaller than
one-third the height of the building under
interference. The values may vary widely depending
upon the interf-se location of the buildings /
structures involved. The complex phenomenon of
interference due to several upstream or downstream
structures has to be studied through the wind tunnel
studies as generalization is difficult if at all possible.
The values of IF provided in the Code are for
guidance only and for assigning values of IF for final
design specialist literature be consulted or wind
tunnel model study carried out.

5b 10b 15b 20b

4b 3b
5b
Z4 Z2 Z2 Z3 Z4 Wind
Z Z
b
2b 4b
5b

4b 3b 5b 10b 15b 20b

Z1 – Zone of high interference

Z2 – Zone of moderate interference
Z3 – Zone of low interference
Z4 – Zone of insignificant interference
Figure 9 : Interference zones for tall rectangular buildings of same or greater height
[Clause 7.3]

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 82 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY

8. - DYNAMIC EFFECTS
C 8.1 –
8.1 - General
Section 8 of the Code contains methods of
Flexible slender structures and structural evaluating the dynamic effects of wind on flexible
elements shall be investigated to ascertain the structures that can oscillate in the wind. The wind on
importance of wind induced oscillations or earth’s surface is turbulent in nature that gives rise to
excitations along and across the direction of randomly varying wind pressures about a certain
wind. value associated with the mean wind speed. The
In general, the following guidelines may be dynamic part of the wind pressures would set up
used for examining the problems of wind- oscillations in a flexible structure, which may be
induced oscillations: defined as one having the fundamental time period
of vibration more than 1.0 second. Oscillations will
a) Buildings and closed structures with a thus be caused in the along-wind direction.
height to minimum lateral dimension ratio of Furthermore, flexible structures also respond in the
more than about 5.0, or across-wind direction on account of vortex shedding.
b) Buildings and closed structures with In the cross-wind direction, a flexible structure
natural frequency in the first mode less than 1.0 would tend to oscillate due to shedding of the eddies
Hz. alternately from either sides of the structure at
regular intervals, thus imposing a dynamic force that
Any building or structure which satisfies either has a major component in a direction normal to that
of the above two criteria shall be examined for of the wind (lift) and only a small component along
dynamic effects of wind. For buildings and the direction of wind (drag). This force due to
closed structures with natural frequency in the regular shedding of the eddies was first observed by
first mode more than 1 Hz, the dynamic Von Karman. The frequency of eddy shedding is
response factor Cdyn may be taken as 0.90. dependent on structure size, shape and wind speed,
NOTE 1 – The fundamental time period (T) may all grouped into a non-dimensional parameter called
either be established by experimental observations Strouhal Number. The IS:875(Part 3) – 1987 Code
on similar buildings or calculated by any rational does not lay down any specific procedure for
method of analysis. In the absence of such data, T determining the design wind force related to the
may be determined as follows for multi-storied cross-wind motion.
buildings:
(a) For moment resistant frames without Structures which are relatively stiff are not
bracings or shear walls for resisting the lateral loads dynamically sensitive to wind. The dynamic
response factor for rigid structures is reported to be
T = 0.1 n
less than 0.85 (ASCE 7-02). However, a somewhat
where conservative value is recommended in this revised
n = number of storeys including basement storeys; draft.
and The dynamic response induced by the wind can be
(b) For all others attributed to the following actions of wind:
0.09H (a) Non-correlation of the fluctuating along-
T = wind pressures over the height and width of a
d structure.
where (b) Resonant vibrations of a structure.
H = total height of the main structure of the building
in meters, and
(c) Vortex shedding forces acting mainly in a
direction normal to the direction of wind causing
d = maximum base dimension of building in meters in across-wind as well as torsional response.
a direction parallel to the applied wind force.
The fluctuating wind pressures are random in nature
NOTE 2 – If preliminary studies indicate that wind- and have a wide range of frequencies. The
induced oscillations are likely to be significant,
investigations should be pursued with the aid of
frequencies away from the natural frequencies of
analytical methods or, if necessary, by means of vibration of a structure (about ± 20% on either sides)
wind tunnel tests on models. have relatively very small dynamic effect and the

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 83 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
NOTE 3 – Cross-wind motions may be due to lateral associated wind pressures are almost static in nature
gustiness of the wind, unsteady wake flow (for while those in the narrow bands around the natural
example, vortex shedding), negative aerodynamic frequencies of vibration of the structure produce a
damping or due to a combination of these effects. large response that is essentially dynamic and
These cross-wind motions may become critical in the
design of tall buildings/structures.
limited only by damping in the system. At the same
time, the lower frequency components of the wind
NOTE 4 – Motions in the direction of wind (known speed and pressures have the greatest energy, so that
also as buffeting) are caused by fluctuating wind the higher frequency modes of a structure would be
force associated with gusts. The excitation depends subjected to lower excitation forces. Thus, generally
on gust energy available at the resonant frequency.
the major dynamic response of a flexible structure
NOTE 5 – The eddies shed from an upstream body due to wind is confined only to the fundamental
may intensify motion in the direction of the wind, and mode of vibration of the structure. This is
may also affect crosswind motion. particularly true of tall buildings and towers, the
NOTE 6 – The designer shall also be aware of the contribution from higher modes of vibration being
following three forms of wind induced motion which rarely significant.
are characterized by increasing amplitude of
oscillation with the increase of wind speed. The dynamic along-wind response of a structure
a) Galloping – Galloping is transverse comprises of a non-resonant component and a
oscillations of some structures due to the resonant component, on which is superimposed a
development of aerodynamic forces which are in static component due to the mean wind speed. Thus
phase with the motion. It is characterized by the the total along-wind response (deflection, force, etc.)
progressively increasing amplitude of transverse is obtained as the sum of ‘mean’ value and a ‘peak’
vibration with increase of wind speed. The cross- value. The latter can be determined by applying the
sections which are particularly prone to this type of theory of distribution of random variables and
excitation include the following:
expressed in terms of standard deviation, also called
i) All structures with non-circular cross- as the root mean square (rms). value, by the
sections, such as triangular, square, polygons, as following expression:
well as angles, crosses, and T-sections.
ii) Twisted cables and cables with ice x pk = x + gσ
encrustations.
where xpk, ⎯x and σ are the peak, mean and
b) Flutter - Flutter is unstable oscillatory motion
standard deviation respectively of the variable x and
of a structure due to coupling between aerodynamic
force and elastic deformation of the structure.
g is called the peak factor having a value between
Perhaps the most common form is oscillatory motion 3.5 and 4.0.
due to combined bending and torsion. Although The across-wind response, on the other hand, has
oscillatory motion in each degree of freedom may be
zero mean and involves a different mechanism of
damped, instability can set in due to energy transfer
from one mode of oscillation to another, and the excitation (vortex shedding) and is more structure
structure is seen to execute sustained or divergent specific, needing calculation models that are based
oscillations with a type of motion which is a on spectra generated from wind-tunnel studies.
combination of the individual modes of vibration.
Such energy transfer takes place when the natural
frequencies of modes, taken individually, are close to
each other (ratio being typically less than 2.0). Flutter
can set in at wind speeds much less than those
required for exciting the individual modes of motion.
Long span suspension bridge decks or any member
of a structure with large values of d/t ( where d is the
length of the member and t is its dimension parallel
to wind stream) are prone to low speed flutter. Wind
tunnel testing is required to determine critical flutter
speeds and the likely structural response. Other
types of flutter are single degree of freedom stall
flutter, torsional flutter, etc.
c) Ovalling – Thin walled structures with open
ends at one or both ends such as oil storage tanks
and natural draught cooling towers, in which the ratio
of the diameter of minimum lateral dimension to the

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 84 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
wall thickness is of the order of 100 or more, are
prone to ovalling oscillations. These oscillations are
characterized by periodic radial deformation of the
hollow structure.
NOTE 7 – Buildings and structures that may be
subjected to serious wind excited oscillations require
careful investigations. It is to be noted that wind
induced oscillations may occur at wind speeds lower
than the static design wind speed for the location.
NOTE 8 – Analytical methods for the response of
dynamic structures to wind loading can be found in
the following publications:
i) Wind Effects on Structures by E. Simiu and R.H.
Scanlan, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1996.
ii) Supplement to the National Building Code of
Canada, 1980, NRCC, No.17724, Ottawa,
National Research Council of Canada, 1980.
iii) Wind forces on structures by Peter Sachs,
Pergamon Press, 1978.
iv) Flow Induced Vibration by Robert D. Blevins,
Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. New York, 1990.
v) Wind Engineering – A Handbook for Structural
Engineers by Henry Liu, Prentice Hall, New
Jersey, 1991
vi) Wind Effects on Civil Engineering Structures
(Part 2) by V. Kolousek, M. Pirner, O. Fishcer
and J. Naprstek, Elsevier Science Pub. Co.,
Amsterdam, 1984.
vii) Appropriate Indian Standards (See 1.1.3)
NOTE 9 – In assessing wind loads due to such
dynamic phenomenon as galloping, flutter and
ovalling, if the required information is not available
either in the references of Note 8 or other literature,
specialist advise shall be sought, including
experiments on models in wind tunnels.

8.2 - Motion due to Vortex

Shedding
8.2.1 – Slender Structures C 8.2.1 –
For a structure, the eddy shedding frequency η
shall be determined by the following formula: Expression for the frequency of vortex shedding by a
structure / member has been given. Strouhal number
S r Vz values for shapes often encountered are also given.
η= Explanatory notes 1 to 4 give more information on
where b
the phenomenon and its effect.
Sr = Strouhal number,
Vz = design wind speed, and
b = breadth of a structure or structural member
normal to the wind direction as well as the axis
of the structure/member.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 85 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
a) Circular Structures – For structures
circular in cross-section:
Sr = 0.20 for bVz not greater than 7,
and
= 0.25 for bVz greater than 7.
b) Rectangular Structures – For
structures of rectangular cross-
section:
Sr = 0.15 for all values of bVz.
NOTE 1 – Significant cross wind motions may be
produced by vortex shedding if the natural frequency
of the structure or structural element is equal to the
frequency of the vortex shedding within the range of
expected wind speeds. In such cases, further
analysis should be carried out on the basis of
references given in Note 8 of 8.1.
NOTE 2 – Unlined welded steel chimneys/stacks
and similar structures are prone to excitations by
vortex shedding.
NOTE 3 – Intensification of the effects of periodic
vortex shedding has been reported in cases where
two or more similar structures are located in close
proximity, for example, at less than 20 b apart,
where b is the dimension of the structure normal to
the wind.
NOTE 4 – The formulae given in 8.2.1 (a) and (b)
are valid for infinitely long cylindrical structures. The
value of S decreases slowly as the ratio of length to
maximum transverse width decreases; the reduction
being up to about half the value, if the structure is
only three times higher than its width. Vortex
shedding need not be considered if the ratio of
length to maximum transverse dimension is less
than 2.0.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 86 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
9. – Dynamic Response
Factor
9.1 – Along Wind Load C 9.1 –
For calculation of action effects (bending To obtain the along-wind response of a flexible
moments, shear forces, member forces) at a structure (time period > 1.0 sec), the design wind
height s on the structure, the wind pressures on pressure pz has to be multiplied by the dynamic
the structure at a height z shall be multiplied by response factor Cdyn. This approach is based on the
dynamic response factor Cdyn. This factor is stochastic response of an elastic structure acted upon
dependent on both z and s and s < z < h (Fig. by turbulent wind producing random pressures. The
10). structure is considered to vibrate in its fundamental
For calculation of base bending moment, mode of vibration. The dynamic response factor,
deflections and acceleration at the top of the Cdyn includes the effect of non-correlation of the
structure, a single value of Cdyn shall be used peak pressures by defining a size reduction factor, S.
with s taken as zero. It also accounts for the resonant and the non-
resonant effects of the random wind forces. The
definition of dynamic response factor Cdyn has
changed from that in the earlier Code (1987 edition)
which was applied to the wind loading due to hourly
mean wind speed, against the 3-sec gust speed being
used now.
The equation for Cdyn contains two terms, one for the
low frequency wind speed variations called the non-
resonant or ‘background’ effects, and the other for
resonance effects. The first term accounts for the
quasi-static dynamic response below the natural
frequency of vibration of the structure while the
second term depends on the gust energy and
aerodynamic admittance at the natural frequency of
vibration as well as on the damping in the system.
The resonant response is insignificant for rigid
structures (T < 1.0 Sec). For flexible structures, the
background factor Bs may be small resulting in
B

reduced wind forces obtained from dynamic analysis

as compared to the static analysis.
Turbulence intensity, Ih is defined as the average
level of fluctuations in the wind speed as a ratio of
the mean wind speed.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 87 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Level at which
action effects
are calculated

h h = average roof height

of structure above
s the ground
z

Figure 10 : Notation for heights [Clause 9.1]

CODE COMMENTARY
Along-wind load on a structure on a strip area
(Ae) at any height (z) is given by:
Fz = Cf Ae pz Cdyn
where
Fz = along-wind equivalent static load on
the structure at any height z
corresponding to strip area Ae,
Cf = force coefficient for the building,
Ae = effective frontal (strip) area
considered for the structure at height z,
pz = wind pressure at height z obtained as
0.6 V z (N/m2),
2

Cdyn = Dynamic response factor (= total

load/ mean load), and is given by:
0.5
⎡ 2 H g SE ⎤
2

1 + 2I h ⎢g v Bs + s R ⎥
⎣ β ⎦
Cdyn =
(1 + 2gv Ih )
where
Ih = turbulence intensity, obtained from
Table 31 by setting z equal to h
gv = peak factor for the upwind velocity
fluctuations, which shall be taken as 3.5
Bs B = background factor, which is a
measure of the slowly varying
background component of the
fluctuating response, caused by low
frequency wind speed variations, given
as follows:

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 88 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
1
Bs =
1+
[36(h − s ) 2
+ 64bsh ]
2 0.5

2L h

Hs = height factor for the resonant response

= 1+(s/h)2

gR = peak factor for resonant response (1

hour period) given by:

gR = [2 log e (3600 f 0 )]

S = size reduction factor given as follows:

1
S=
⎡ 4f0h(1 + gv Ih ) ⎤ ⎡ 4f0b0 h (1 + gv Ih ) ⎤
⎢1 + ⎥ ⎢1 + ⎥
⎣ Vh ⎦⎣ Vh ⎦
E = (π/4) times the spectrum of
turbulence in the approaching wind
stream, given as follows:
πN
E=
(1 + 70 N ) 2 5/6

β = ratio of structural damping to critical

damping of a structure, as given in
Table 32.
bsh = average breadth of the structure
between heights s and h
Lh = measure of the integral turbulence
length scale at height h = 100 (h/10)0.25
f0 = first mode natural frequency of
vibration of a structure in the along-
wind direction in Hertz
b0h = average breadth of the structure
between heights 0 and h
N = reduced frequency
= f0Lh [1+(gvIh)]/ Vh,
Vh = design wind speed at height h

9.1.1 – Peak Along-wind C9.1.1 –

Acceleration Acceleration is assumed to be produced only by the
The peak acceleration, ..xh at the top of a tall resonant component of the response, hence only the
building in the along-wind direction shall be second term under the square-root has been
obtained from the following expression. considered. Also only the first mode response is

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 89 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
SE assumed to dominate and it is assumed that the mode
g R Ih shape is linear. Thus the acceleration would also
.. 6 β ⎡ h ⎤
xh = ⎢∑ C f p z A e Z ⎥ vary linearly with height
m 0 h (1 + 2g v Ih ) ⎣ z = 0
2
⎦
where
m0 = average mass per unit height (kg/m).
The acceleration at any height may be obtained
by considering it to vary linearly with height.

Table 31 : Turbulence intensity (Iz) [Clause 9.1]

Height (z) m Terrain Terrain Terrain Terrain
category 1 category 2 category 3 category 4
10 0.157 0.183 0.239 0.342
15 0.152 0.176 0.225 0.342
20 0.147 0.171 0.215 0.342
30 0.140 0.162 0.203 0.305
40 0.133 0.156 0.195 0.285
50 0.128 0.151 0.188 0.270
75 0.118 0.140 0.176 0.248
100 0.108 0.131 0.166 0.233
150 0.095 0.117 0.150 0.210
200 0.085 0.107 0.139 0.196
250 0.080 0.098 0.129 0.183
300 0.074 0.092 0.121 0.173
400 0.068 0.082 0.108 0.155
500 0.058 0.074 0.098 0.141

Table 32: Damping coefficient [Clause 9.1]

Nature of Structure Damping Coefficient, β

Welded steel structures 0.010
Bolted steel structures 0.020
Reinforced or prestressed concrete 0.020

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 90 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
10. – CROSS-WIND
RESPONSE
10.1 – General C 10.1 -
This Section gives method for determining Forces causing cross-wind response of tall structures
equivalent static wind force and base are of three kinds.
overturning moment in the cross-wind direction
(a) Incident turbulence : Turbulence In the
for tall enclosed buildings and towers of
wind gives rise to fluctuations in wind speeds and
rectangular cross-section. Calculation of cross–
directions which in turn produce forces varying with
wind response is not required for lattice towers.
time. The magnitude of the across-wind force (also
called as lift) and the pitching moment thus
produced would depend not only on the turbulence
level but also the mean wind speed and the angle of
attack (angle of wind incidence in elevation). This
effect is important for canopy and similar roofs and
bridge decks particularly with fast rate of change of
the lift and moment coefficients with respect to the
angle of attack. Computation of these forces need
wind tunnel studies and / or CFD analysis and are
outside the scope of this Code.
(b) Cross-wind displacement : Mechanisms
that may get activated under the cross-wind
displacements are of different nature. The excitations
under all these mechanisms are dependent on
displacement and their derivatives, including
rotations. They are named differently depending
upon the type of excitation, such as galloping,
flutter, lock-in, etc. All these excitations are also
affected by turbulence in the wind. They occur only
in very flexible structures with damping that is a
fraction of 1% of the critical damping. The analysis
of these structures is also beyond the scope of this
Code.
(c) Wake Excitation : It is the most common
type of across-wind excitation and is caused by
shedding of the vortices by a structure at regular
intervals alternately from its two opposite sides.
The periodicity of eddy shedding is defined by
Strouhal Number that depends on the shape of
cross-section of the structure. Resonance would
result when the frequency of eddy shedding
matches the natural frequency of vibration of the
structure. This would give rise to large amplitudes
of vibration which are limited only by the damping
present in the system. In case of tall structures the
wind speed as well as turbulence vary with the
height of structure. The latter is spread over a band
of frequencies. For this reason wake excitation
includes also the response due to non-resonant
frequencies. This Code describes the methods of
computing the cross-wind response at resonant
wind speeds due to wake excitation

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 91 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
10.2 – Cross-wind response of tall C10.2 -
enclosed buildings and towers of The excitation of the building/structure is considered
rectangular cross-section in its natural mode of vibration. The forcing function
for the across-wind excitation is based on studies
conducted by Saunders, Melbourne and others on
specific cases of width-to-length ratios and height-
to-width ratios of the buildings and is expressed in a
non-dimensional spectral form.

10.2.1– Equivalent static wind force C10.2.1 -

The equivalent cross–wind static force per unit It represents a lateral load varying with height and is
height (We) as a function of z in Newton per proportional to the mode shape of the fundamental
meter height, shall be as follows: mode of vibration of the structure, defined by the
power exponent k. The force spectrum coefficient
We (z) = 0.6 [Vh]2 d Cdyn
Cfs for some typical cases is given in 10.2.3 for
where d = Lateral dimension of the structure buildings having square and rectangular plan shapes.
parallel to the wind stream, and

πCfs
k
⎛b⎞ Km ⎛z⎞
C dyn = 1. 5 g R ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ (1 + g v I h ) β
2
d ⎝h⎠
where
Km = mode shape correction factor for
cross–wind acceleration
= 0.76 + 0.24 k
where
k = mode shape power exponent for the
fundamental mode of vibration
= 1.5 for a uniform cantilever
= 0.5 for a slender framed structure (moment
resistant)
= 1.0 for building with central core and moment
resisting façade
= 2.3 for a tower decreasing in stiffness with
height, or with a large mass at the top
Cfs = cross–wind force spectrum coefficient
generalized for a linear mode shape
(Figures 11–14).
GR, gv, Ih and β have been defined in 9.1.

10.2.2– Cross–wind base C10.2.2 -

overturning moment It is obtained from the equivalent static wind force
The cross–wind base overturning moment (M0) given in the preceding clause.
in Newton – meters is given by:
⎡ 0.6(Vz )2 ⎤ 2 ⎛ 3 ⎞ πCfs
M 0 = 0. 5 g R b ⎢ 2 ⎥
h ⎜ ⎟K m
⎣ (1 + g v I h ) ⎦ ⎝ k + 2 ⎠ β

⎛ 3 ⎞
where the value ⎜ ⎟K m is the mode shape
⎝k +2⎠

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 92 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

CODE COMMENTARY
correction factor for cross–wind base
overturning moment.
10.2.3 Cross–wind force spectrum C10.2.3 -
coefficient (Cfs) Since the spectra given in the Code are based on
The reduced velocity (Vn) shall be calculated as linear mode shape, these need a correction to be
follows: applied for the non-linear mode shapes defined by
mode shape power exponent (k) values other than
Vz unity. Thus a correction factor Km has been
Vn =
f0b(1 + gv Ih ) incorporated in the expression for Cdyn given in
Section 10.2.1.
Values of the cross–wind force spectrum
coefficient (Cfs) generalized for a linear mode
shape shall be calculated from the reduced
velocity (Vn) given in Figures 11–14.

-1.0

-1.5
Turbulence intensity
at 2h/3 of 0.12

-2.0 Turbulence intensity

at 2h/3 of 0.20
Log10 (Cfs)

-2.5
3:1:1

-3.0

-3.5

-4.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Reduced Velocity (Vn)

Figure 11: Cross–wind force spectrum coefficient for a 3:1:1 square section [Clause 10.2.3]

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 93 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

-1.0

-1.5

Turbulence intensity
Log 10 (Cfs)

-2.0 at 2h/3 of 0.12

-2.5 Turbulence intensity

at 2h/3 of 0.20

-3.0

-3.5 6:1:1

-4.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Reduced Velocity Vn

Figure 12: Cross–wind force spectrum coefficient for a 6:1:1 square section [Clause
10.2.3]

-1.0

-1.5 Turbulence intensity

at 2h/3 of 0.12
-2.0
Log 10 (Cfs)

Turbulence intensity
at 2h/3 of 0.20
-2.5

-3.0 6:2:1

-3.5

-4.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Reduced Velocity Vn

Figure 13: Crosswind force spectrum coefficient for a 6:2:1 rectangular section [Clause
10.2.3]

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 94 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

-1.0 Turbulence intensity at

2h/3 of 0.12
Log 10 (Cfs)

-1.5
Turbulence intensity at
2h/3 of 0.20
-2.0

-2.5

-3.0
6:1:2

-3.5

-4.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Reduced Velocity Vn

Figure 14: Cross–wind force spectrum coefficient for a 6:1:2 rectangular section [Clause
10.2.3]

CODE COMMENTARY

10.2.4– Peak Across-wind

.. C10.2.4 -
Acceleration In the cross-wind direction, accelerations are
The peak across-wind acceleration, yh at the top obtained from the expression for the cross-wind
of a tall building is given by the following force given in Section 10.2.1. The mass per unit
expression height, mo has been assumed to be constant. The
variation of displacement and hence the
acceleration is assumed to be linear along the
height.
..0.90 bg R ⎡ V h ⎤
2
π C fs
yh = ⎢ ⎥ Km
m0 ⎣1 + g v I h ⎦ β
where m0 = mass per unit height.

The acceleration at any level may be obtained by

linear interpolation, assuming acceleration at the
base to be zero.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 95 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Appendix A
(Clause 5.2)
Basic Wind Speed at 10m Height for some Important Cities/Towns

Basic Wind Speed Basic Wind

City/Town City/Town
(m/s) Speed (m/s)
Agra 47 Kanpur 47
Ahmedabad 39 Kohima 44
Ajmer 47 Kolkata 50
Almora 47 Kurnool 39
Amritsar 47 Lakshadweep 39
Asansol 47 Lucknow 47
Aurangabad 39 Ludhiana 47
Bahraich 47 Madurai 39
Bangalore 33 Mandi 39
Barauni 47 Mangalore 39
Breilly 47 Moradabad 47
Bhatinda 47 Mumbai 44
Bhilai 39 Mysore 33
Bhopal 39 Nagpur 44
Bhubaneshwar 50 Nainital 47
Bhuj 50 Nasik 39
Bikaner 47 Nellore 50
Bokaro 47 Panjim 39
Calicut 39 Patiala 47
Chandigarh 47 Patna 47
Chennai 50 Pondicherry 50
Coimbatore 39 Port Blair 44
Cuttack 50 Pune 39
Darbhanga 55 Raipur 39
Darjeeling 47 Rajkot 39
Dehra Dun 47 Ranchi 39
Delhi 47 Roorkee 39
Durgapur 47 Rourkela 39
Gangtok 47 Shimla 39
Guwahati 50 Srinagar 39
Gaya 39 Surat 44
Gorakhpur 47 Tiruchirapalli 47
Hyderabad 44 Trivandrum 39
Imphal 47 Udaipur 47
Jabalpur 47 Vadodara 44
Jaipur 47 Varanasi 47
Jamshedpur 47 Vijaywada 50
Jhansi 47 Visakhapatnam 50
Jodhpur 47

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 96 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Appendix B
[Clause 5.3.2.4 (b)(ii)]
Changes in Terrain Categories

B–1 Low To High Number

B–1.1 In case of transition from a low
category number (corresponding to a low
terrain roughness) to a high category number
(corresponding to a rougher terrain), the
speed profile over the rougher terrain shall
be determined as follows:
(a) Below height hx, the speeds shall be
determined in relation to the rougher
(nearby) terrain; and
(b) Above height hx, the speeds shall be
determined in relation to the less rough
(more distant) terrain.

B–2 High To Low Number

B–2.1 In case of transition from a more rough
to a less rough terrain, the speed profile shall
be determined as follows:
(a) Above height hx, the speeds shall be
determined in accordance with the
rougher (more distant) terrain; and
(b) Below height hx, the speed shall be
taken as the lesser of the following:
i. That determined in accordance with
the less rough (nearby) terrain, and
ii. The speed at height hx, as
determined in relation to the rougher
(more distant) terrain.
NOTE: Examples of determination of speed profiles in
the vicinity of a change in terrain category are
shown in Fig. 15 a and 15 b.

B–3 More Than One Category

B–3.1 Terrain changes involving more than
one category shall be treated in similar
fashion to that described in B-1 and B-2.
NOTE: Example involving three terrain categories is
shown in Fig. 15 c.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 97 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

x4 = fetch, h4 = height for category 4

Profile for category 4
Profile for category 2
Design profile at A

Wind h4 x4
Direction

h4

A
Category 2 x4 Category 4

(a) Determination of Speed Profile near a change in Terrain Category from less
rough to more rough.

x2 = fetch, h2 = height for category 2

Profile for category 4
Profile for category 2
Design profile at A

h2 x2
Wind
Direction
h2

Category 4 A
Category 2
x2

(b) Determination of Speed Profile near a change in Terrain Category (more rough to
less rough)

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 98 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

x4 = fetch, h4 = height for category 4 h4

x1 = fetch, h1 = height for category 1 h4 x4
h1 h1

h1 x1 h4
Wind Direction

A B
Category 3 Category 1 Category 4
x4
x1

Velocity profile for category 4

Velocity profile for category 3
Velocity profile for category 1
Design Profile

h1
h4
h1
Height
Height

Height

h4

h4

Velocity Velocity Velocity

Speed Profile at A Speed Profile at A Speed Profile at B

(c) Determination of Design Profiles involving more than one change in Terrain Category

Figure 15: Speed Profile in the vicinity of a change in Terrain Category

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 99 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0
 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Appendix C
[Clause 5.3.3.1]
Effect of a Cliff or
Escarpment on Equivalent
Height above Ground
(k3 FACTOR)

C-1. The influence of the topographic feature

is considered to extend 1.5 Le upwind and
2.5 Le downwind of the summit of crest of the
feature where Le is the effective horizontal
length of the hill depending on slope as
indicated below (see Fig. 15).
Slope Le
3o < θ ≤ 17o L
o
> 17 Z/0.3

where
L = actual length of the upwind slope in the
wind direction,
Z = effective height of the feature, and
θ = upwind slope in the wind direction.
If the zone downwind from the crest
of the feature is relatively flat (θ < 3o) for a
distance exceeding Le, then the feature
should be treated as an escarpment. If not,
then the feature should be treated as a hill or
ridge. Examples of typical features are given
in Figure 16.
NOTE:1–No difference is made, in evaluating k3
between a three dimensional hill and a
two dimension ridge.
NOTE: 2 – In an undulating terrain, it is often not
possible to decide whether the local
topography to the site is significant in
terms of wind flow. In such cases, the
average value of the terrain upwind of
the site for a distance of 5 km should be
taken as the base level to assess the
height Z, and the upwind slope θ, of the
feature.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 100 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0

 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

C-2. Topography Factor, k3

The topography factor k3 is given by the

following:
k3 = 1 + C . s
where C has the following values:

Slope C
o o
3 < θ ≤ 17 1.2 (z/L)
> 17o 0.36
and s is a factor derived in accordance with
C-2.1 appropriate to the reference height, H
on the structure above the mean local ground
level, and the distance, x from the summit or
crest, relative to the effective length, Le.
C-2.1 The factor, s, should be determined
from:
(a) Fig. 17 for cliffs and escarpments, and
(b) Fig. 18 for hills and ridges.
NOTE: Where the downwind slope of a hill or
ridge is greater than 3o, there will be
large regions of reduced accelerations or
even shelter and it is not possible to give
general design rules to cater for these
circumstances. Values of s from Fig. 18
may be used as upper bound values.

Region affected by Topographical

1.5 Le Cres H 2.5 Le
Ht
Wind Upwind x Downwind
Z slope slope
Average x
ground level θ
L
5 km
-ve upwind +ve Downwind

(a) General Notations

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 101 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0

 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Crest

Wind
Downwind Slope > 3o

(b) Hill and Ridge

Wind
Crest
Downwind slope < 3o

(c) Cliff and Escarpment

Figure 16: Topographical dimensions

Crest Crest
2.0 2.0

1.5 1.5

H/Le 1.0 1.0

H/Le
0.5 0.4 0.5
0.6
0 08 0
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Upwind X/Le Downwind X/Le

Figure 17: Factors for cliff and escarpment

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 102 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0

 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

Crest Crest
2.0 2.0

1.5 1.5

H/Le 1.0 1.0 H/Le

0.5 0.4 0.5

0.6
08
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Upwind X/Le Downwind X/Le
Figure 18 : Factors for ridge and hill

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 103 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0

 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Ahmad, Shakeel, “Wind pressures on low rise hip roof buildings”. Ph.D. Thesis, Civil Engineering
Department, University of Roorkee (Now Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee), May 2000.
2. Bailey, P.A., and Kwok, K.C.S., “Interference Excitation of Twin Tall Buildings”. Journal of
Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 21, 1985, pp. 323–338.
3. Bayar, D.C., “Drag coefficients of latticed towers”. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol.
112, 1986, pp. 417–430.
4. Bowen, A.J., “The prediction of mean wind speeds above simple 2D hill shape”. Journal of Wind
Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 15, 1983, pp 259–220.
5. Cook, N.J., The designer’s guide to wind loading of building structures – Part 1”. Butterworths,
London, 1985.
6. Davenport, A.G., “Gust loading factors”. Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 93, 1967,
pp. 11–34.
7. Gumley, S.J., “A parametric study of extreme pressures for the static design of canopy structures”.
Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 16, 1984, pp 43–56.
8. Gupta, Abhay, “Wind tunnel studies on aerodynamic interference in tall rectangular buildings”.
Ph.D. Thesis, Civil Engineering Department, University of Roorkee (Now Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee), 1996.
9. Holmes, J.D., “Mean and fluctuating internal pressures induced by wind”. Proc. 5th International
Conference on Wind Engineering, Fort Collins, 1979, pp. 435–450.
10. Holmes, J.D., “Recent development in the codification of wind loads on low–rise structures”, Proc.
Asia–Pacific Symposium on Wind Engineering, Roorkee, India, December 1985, pp. iii–xvi.
11. Hussain, M., and Lee, B.E., “A wind tunnel study of the mean pressure forces acting on large
groups of low rise buildings”. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 6,
1980, pp 207–225.
12. Krishna, P., “Wind loads on curved roofs”, Proceeding of Second Asia Pacific Conference on
Wind Engineering (APCWE-II), Beijing, China, 1989.
13. Kwatra, Naveen, “Experimental studies and ANN modelling of wind loads on low buildings”.
Ph.D. Thesis, Civil Engineering Department, University of Roorkee (Now Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee), February 2000.
14. Lakshmanan, N., Arunachalam, S. and Harikrishna, P., “Parameters of risk coefficients for
structures located in cyclone prone regions”. Proc. of the National Conference on Wind
Engineering, 145–153, April 2002, Roorkee.
15. Letchford, C.W. and Holmes, J.D., “Wind loads on freestanding walls in turbulent boundary
layers”. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 51, 1994, pp 1 to 27.
16. Macdonald, P.A., Holmes, J.D., and Kwok, K.C.S., “Wind loads on circular storage bins, silos and
tanks. II. Effect of grouping”. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 34,
1990, pp. 77–95.
17. Meecham, D., “The improved performance of hip roofs in extreme wind – A case study”, Journal
of Wind Engineering & industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 41-44, p.1717-1726, 1992.
18. Melbourne, W.H., “Cross–wind response of structures to wind action”. 4th International
Conference on Wind Engineering Effects on Buildings and Structures, Cambridge University
Press, London, 1975.
19. Paterson, D.A., and Holmes, J.D., “Computation of wind flow over topography”. Preprints, Journal
of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 46–47, 1993, pp 471–476.
20. Robertson, A.P., Hoxey, R.P., and Moran, P., “A full scale study of wind loads on agricultural
canopy structures and proposal for design”. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
Aerodynamics, Vol. 21, 1985, pp 167–205.
21. Saathoff, P. and Stathopoulos, T., “Wind loads on buildings with sawtooth roofs”. J. Struct.
Engrg., ASCE, 118(2) 429–446.
22. Sachs, P., “Wind forces in engineering”. Pergamon Pres, 1978.
23. Saunders, J.W., and Melbourne, W.H., “Tall rectangular building response to cross–wind
excitation”. Proc. 4th International Conference on Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures,
Cambridge University Press, September 1975, pp. 369–379.
24. Saunders, J.W., and Melbourne, W.H., “Buffeting effects of upwind buildings”. 5th International
Conference on Wind Engineering (Fort Collins), U.S.A. Pergammon Press, 1979.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 104 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0

 Code & Commentary IS 875 (Part 3)

25. Shanmugasundaram, J., Annamalai, G., and Venkateswaralu, B., “Probabilistics models for
cyclonic wind speeds in India”. Proc. of Second Asia Pacific International Conference on Wind
Engineering 123–130, 1989, Beijing, China.
26. Simiu, E. and Scanlan, Robert H., “Wind effects on structure – Fundamentals and applications to
design”, – third edition. Book published by John Willey & Sons Inc. 605 Third Avenue, New
York, 1996
27. Stathopoulos, T. and Saathoff, P., “Wind pressures on roofs of various geometries”. J. Wind
Engrg. and Industrial Aerodynamics, 38, 273–284, 1991.
28. Stathopoulos, T., and Mohammadian, A.R., “Code provisions for wind pressures on low buildings
with mono slope roofs”. Proc. of Asia Pacific Symposium on Wind Engineering, December 5–7,
1985, Roorkee.
29. Venkateswaralu, B., Arumugam, M., and Arunachalam, S., “Risk analysis of cyclonic wind data”.
Prof. of National Seminar on Tall Reinforced Concrete Chimneys, 25–27, April 1985, New Delhi.
30. Vickery, B.J., “On the reliability of gust loading factors”. Civil Engineering Transactions, I.E.
Aust., Vol. 13, 1971, pp. 1–9.
31. Yahyai, Mahmood, “Aerodynamic interference in tall buildings”. Ph.D. Thesis, Civil Engineering
Department, University of Roorkee (Now Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee), December
1990.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been supported through a project entitled Review of Building Codes and
Preparation of Commentary and Handbooks awarded to IIT Kanpur by the Gujarat State
Disaster Management Authority (GSDMA), Gandhinagar through World Bank finances. The
views and opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the
GSDMA or the World Bank.
Prof. Ashiwini Kumar, IIT Kanpur, Dr. N. Lakshmanan, Structural Engineering Research Centre,
Chennai and Prof. P.N. Godbole of VNIT Nagpur were the reviewers of the document. Prof.
L.M. Gupta of VNIT Nagpur also contributed through review comments.

IITK-GSDMA-Wind02-V5.0 105 IITK-GSDMA-Wind04-V3.0