BUYER BEHAVIOR

UNIT – III
By: M Rafeeq

INDIVIDUAL DETERMINANTS OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

I. Personality and Self – Concept :-

These are two psychological notions that have been used by those
studying consumer behavior to account for the organized totality of the
consumer’s makeup.
Purpose: These variables are used to determine their usefulness in understanding
Consumers basic orientations and their brand and other facts of consumer
behavior.

A) PERSONALITY:-
Def:- The inner psychological characteristics that determine and reflect, how a
person responds to his/her environment.
-The Nature of Personality:-
1. Personality reflects individual differences :-
Every individuals personality has unique combination of factors
i.e., no two individuals are exactly alike, but are similar in terms of a
single personality characteristic, which is useful to categorize consumers
into different groups on the basis of a single trait or a few traits. (Trait –
distinguishing quality).
If each person has different aspects it is difficult to develop
standardized products and promotional campaigns.

2. Personality is Consistent and Enduring :-

The two qualities consistent and enduring are essential for
marketer to explain or predict consumer behavior. Individuals’
personality will be consistent, but consumption behavior often varies,
because of psychological, socio-cultural and economic factors that effect
the behavior.

3. Personality can change:-

Personality changes under certain circumstances even though it
tends to be consistent and enduring.
Personality can be altered by major life events i.e., as the birth of a
child, the death of a loved one, a divorce, a major career promotion.
Personality is a part of a gradual maturing process.

-Determinants of Personality :-
1. Biological Factors a) Heredity-Genetic i.e., from parents to younger.
b) Brain - Human personality and behavior
c) Physical features – External appearance of a
person i.e, tall, short etc.
2. Cultural Factors - It depends on how a person behave and what a
person learn.
Ex: Caste, Believes, Value System, etc.

3. Situational Factors - How a person behaves in a particular environment

or situation.
4. Family & Social Processes - Socialization Process.
Identification Process.
It starts at the time of birth, from family members, relations.
Eg:- Relation between parent and child.

-Theories of Personality :-
1. Freudian Theory :-
This theory was developed by Sigmund Freud’s, Psychoanalytic
theory of personality. He has divided the human brain into 3 elements.
a) The Preconscious – mind that can be recognized.
b) Conscious – through feeling, believes & desire.
c) The Unconscious – without the knowledge.
Freud proposed that the human personality consists of three
interacting systems – the Id, the superego & ego.
The following figure represents the inter relationships among the
three interacting systems.

Gratification ID EGO
System 1 System 3

Super
Ego
System 2

1. The Id :- It was conceptualized as a “Warehouse” of basic physiological

needs i.e., thirst, hunger and sex for which the individual seek, immediate
satisfaction.
2. The Superego:- It is internal expression of society’s moral and ethical
codes of conduct. The individual satisfies his needs in a socially
acceptable fashion. Thus superego is a kind of “brake” which stops the
impulsive forces of the id.
3. The Ego:- It is the individuals conscious control, which functions as
internal monitor that attempts to balance the impulsive demands of the id
and the socio-cultural constraints of the superego.
Stages of Personality Development :-
1. Oral Stage :- The infants’ first stage, experiences the social contact
with outside world through the mouth.
Ex: eating, drinking, sucking.
A crisis develops at the end of this stage when the child is
weaned from the mothers breast.
2. Anal Stage :- The Childs primary source of pleasure is the process
of elimination.
A second crisis develops at the end of this stage, when parents try
to toilet train the child.
3. Phallic Stage :- The child experiences self-oriented sexual pleasure during
this phase, with the discovery of sex organs.
 A third crisis occurs when the child experiences sexual desire for
the parent of the opposite sex.
4. Latency Stage :- In this stage no important personality changes occur
during this time.
5. Genital Stage :- At adolescence, the individual develops a sexual
interest in persons of the opposite sex, beyond self-oriented love and love
for parents.

2. Sheldon’s Physiognomy Theory :-

a) Endomorph - Never get angry, stout
b) Mesomorph - Strong, smile brighter.
c) Ectomorph - thin, long,absentminded, brilliant.
3. Jungian Theory :-
Carl Jung personality types that measures the following pairs of Jungian –
inspired psychological dimensions.
a) Feeling - Interpretation of a thing or event or a subject as a
whole.
Eg:- Emotional.
b) Thinking - Logical reasoning/analytical/rational
c) Extrovert - Optimistic outgoing and sociable.
Eg:- Communications capacity at all levels.
d) Introvert - They are less sociable, with drawn and absorbed in inner
life.
Ex: Negative attitude, Negative Opinions.
4. Trait Theory - The orientation of trait theory is primarily
quantitative/empirical, which focuses on the measurement of personality in terms
of specific psychological characteristics, called traits.
A trait is defined as “any thing distinguishing, relatively enduring way in
which an individual differs from another”.
The trait measures of personality are:
1. Consumer Innovativeness :-
This is to know the consumer willingness or acceptance towards
the new products, new services. This measurement is important to both
consumers and marketers, because both are beneficiable from right
innovation.
2. Dogmatism :-
Dogmatism is a personality trait that measures the degree of
rigidity, where individuals display towards the unfamiliar and toward
information that is contrary to their own established beliefs.

a) Consumers, who are low in dogmatism (open-minded) are

more likely to prefer innovative products.
b) Consumers who are high in dog matism (closed-minded) are
more likely to choose established rather than innovative
product alternatives.
3. Social Character: -
It focuses on the identification and classification of individuals into
Distinct socio-cultural types, which ranges from inner-directedness to
other directedness.
 a) Inner-directed consumers rely on their own “inner values or
standards in evaluating new products and are likely to be consumer
innovators.
b) Other directed consumers tend to look to others for direction on
what is right/wrong, thus they are less likely to be consumer
innovators.
Inner and other directed consumers are attracted to different
types of promotional message, i.e., Inner-directed people prefer ads
that feature a social environment or social acceptance.

4. Optimum stimulation level (OSL) :-

OSL reflects person’s desired level of lifestyle stimulation. If life
styles are equal to OSL, then use say they are quite satisfied. If lifestyles
are underestimated, they we say they are likely to be bored if lifestyle are
over-estimated, they are likely to seek rest or relief.

Measuring Personality :-
There are four general approaches for measuring personality,
which are multi-dimensional in nature, because personality is a single
concept and it interacts with many elements.
1. Rating Methods 2. Situational Tests 3. Projective Techniques
4. Inventory Schemes.

Subjective scoring & dependendent upon evaluator.

I. 1. Rating Methods :-
It involves one or more evaluators., which determines the
predetermined personality characteristics on a standardized scale, by using
a informal interview evaluation. The type of scale employed for
evaluation can be 5 point or 6 point.
2. Situational Tests :-
This techniques develops a situation, which closely resembles to
real-life situation. A topic for discussion will be given to a group of
people and the behavior of the subjects are observed and measured.
3. Projective Techniques :-
In this technique the individual is presented with an visual image
and is asked to explain it.
a) Rorschach Test :- It consists of ten inkblots, which varies in color,
shape and shading.
b) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):- It involves in presenting 20
pictures showing various situations, and asked to a develop a story
based on pictures, which is assessed by a trained evaluator.
4. Inventory Schemes :-
This method is in written form. The popular inventory method is,
Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI), consists of 550
statements.
Eg:- “I like to try new things” – True/false.
B) SELF CONCEPT:- [ Self – Image]
Individuals describe his or her own view of himself or herself i.e., develop
their self-images through interaction with other people i.e., initially their parents
and then other individuals/groups.
-How self concept develops :-
Products and Brands will have symbolic value for individuals, who
evaluate them on the basis of their consistency with their personal pictures or
images of themselves.
Behaviorists have formed various theories of how people develop their
self concepts, which is based on social interaction. There are 4 views of self
concept.
1. Self-appraisal - A person develops a self-concept by naming his
own dominant behavior patterns according to what is socially acceptable
and unacceptable behavior.
2. Reflected Appraisal - It is also termed as “looking – glass well”. In this
theory a person receives from others (i.e., Parents, friends) mold the self-
concept, which depends on the characteristics of the appraiser and his/her
appraisal.
3. Social Comparison:- It states that peoples self-concepts depends on, how
they see themselves in relation to others.
5. Biased Scanning :- It views in terms of identifying aspirations and
biased scanning of the environment for information to confirm
how ell the person is meeting his/her aspirations, i.e., collect
information and remove unnecessary/not required information.
-Self Concept and Consumer Behavior :
Consumer’s self-concept have a strong influence on their behavior in the
market place. Consumers perceives various products/services and are reflected by
his/her own-image. Based on the possible influences consumer researchers and
marketers have developed the following concerns.
1. Alternative Views of the Self :-
The self concept is generally divided into 2 groups.
a) Single Component perspective
b) Multiple Component perspective
The single component focuses on single component or dimensions
i.e., the actual self. The multiple component focuses on 2 or more
components or dimensions.
 Diagram

Components (Or) Dimensions:

1. Actual Self - How consumers in fact see themselves.
2. Ideal Self - How consumers would like to see themselves.
3. Social self - How consumers feel others see them.
4. Ideal social self – How consumers would like others to see them.
5. Expected self – How consumers expect to see themselves at some
specified future time.
2. Major Areas of Investigation :-
The self concept has 5 major types of reseach investigations
relating to consumer behavior.
1. To determine the types of self – concepts, that are related to socio-
economic or psychological factors.
2. Study related to degree of congruity between their self-concepts
and their perception of product and brand images.
3. The degree to which consumers behavior is consistent with their
perceptions of themselves.
4. Studies related to self-images of products
5. Study on product images, whether they are consistent with the
consumers’ self-concept influence his/her self-image.
3. Consumer Behavior and Self – Concept/Product Image Congruence :-
Consumer develop and hold images of various products and these
images are viewed as symbols that communicate meaning about those who
purchase them.
The summary of this behavior is as follows:
1. Consumers form self – concepts through psychological
development and social interaction.
2. Products and Brands perceived by consumers have image or
symbolic meaning.
3. Because of their symbolic role, selective possession, displays
influence individual in defining and enhancing his self concept for
himself or for others.
4. The behavior of individuals will be motivated toward furthering
and enhancing their self – concept through the consumption of
goods as symbols.
5. The brands preferred by consumer are perceived with having
images, which are most consistent with his self-concept.
 -Diagram-

Fig: A model of the brand choice process as a function of self-

image and brand image.

The above shows the consumer’s preferred brands are

identified through a matching between self-image and brand
image. According to congruity theory the greater the self/brand
image, the more a brand will be preferred.

II. MOTIVATION & INVOLVEMENT :-

A. MOTIVATION :-
1. Model of Motivation Process :-

Learning

Unfulfilled
Needs, wants Tension Drive Behavior Goal or need
& desires fulfillment

Cognitive
Processes

Tension
Reduction

Motivation :-
It is described as the driving force within individuals that impels
them to action. This driving force is produced by a state of tension, which
exists as the result of an unfulfilled need. Individual reduces the tension
by both consciously and sub-consciously.
Needs :-
Every individual has needs some are inmate, others are acquired.
a) Inmate needs :- The physiological (i.e. biogenic), which includes the
needs like food, water, air, clothing, shelter, called as primary needs
(or) motives.
b) Acquired Needs :- The needs are learned in response to our culture or
environment, which includes the needs like self-esteem, for prestige,
affection, power, learning, called as Secondary needs (or) motives.
Goals :-
Goals are the sought after results of motivated behavior which are
goal – oriented.
a) Generic Goals :- i.e., the general classes or categories of goals that
consumers select to fulfill their needs.
b) Product – Specific Goals :- i.e, the specifically branded (Or) labeled
products, they select to fulfill their needs.
Eg:- Calci Tums (Product-specific goals, based on a generic goal)
The selection of goals :-
 For every need, there will be different goals, which are selected by
individuals based on their personal experience, physical capacity, values,
acceptability in physical social environment. The goal object should be
socially acceptable and physically accessible. The goal selection depends
upon the persons self-image.
Eg: A man who perceives himself as young may drive a Porsche, a
woman who perceives herself as rich and conservative may drive a
Mercedes.

Positive & Negative Motivation :-

Positive motivation is deriving toward some object or condition,
refers to positive drives, such as needs, wants or desires.
Negative Motivation is a driving force away from some object or
condition, refers to negative drives such as fears.
Eg: Tooth paste for decay prevention.
Insurance to protect loved ones.
Positive & Negative Goals:-
A positive goal is one towards which behaviour is directed, and is
referred as an approach object.
A negative goal is are which behavior is directed away, and is
referred as an avoidance object.
Conscious Vs Unconscious Motives :-
Conscious motives says about awareness.
Unconscious motives says about unawareness.
Eg:- Color preference while purchasing a product, we really don’t
understand, why we prefer certain colors.
Rational Vs. Emotional Motives :-
In rational motives, consumers select goals based on total objective
criteria i.e., size, weight, price.
In emotional motives, consumers select goals according to
personal or subjective criteria.
Eg: The desire for individuality, pride, fear, affection, status.
2. Maslaws’ hierarchy of Human Needs :-
(Dr Abraham Maslow, a clinical psychologist)
Self actualization
(self – fulfillment)
Ego needs
(prestige, status, self-respect)
Social needs
(Love, affection, friendship, belonging)
Safety & Security Needs
(Protection, order, stability)
Physiological needs
(Food, water, air shelter, sex)
3. The dynamic nature of Motivation :-
Motivation is a highly dynamic construct that is constantly
changing in reaction to life experience.
Motive is an internal energy, which directs the selective fashion
towards goals usually located in the external environment.
 1. Needs and goals are constantly changing :-
Needs and goals are growing and changing, because of
individuals physical condition, environment, interactions with
others and experiences.
a) Needs are never fully satisfied.
b) New needs emerges as old needs are satisfied.
c) Success and failure influence goals.
d) Substitute goals.-
Eg: Pepsi – diet pepsi
Coke - diet coke.
Whole milk - Skimmed milk.

2. Frustration :-
Failure to achieve a goal results to frustration. Every one
has to experience the frustration that comes from the inability to
attain a goal. The barrier that prevents attainment of a goal maybe
personal to the individual.
Eg: Physical or financial limitations.
Inability to achieve a goal as a personal failure and
experience leads to frustration.
3. The measurement of motives :-
Measuring motives is difficult, because they cannot be seen
or touched, handled, smelled etc., so no one measurement method
is considered as reliable. Researchers rely on a combination of
observations., self reports and projective techniques to try to
establish the presence and / or the strength of various motives.

B. INVOLVEMENT: -
There are two different types of buying situations.
E.g.: -
1. Purchasing a new pair of shoes for running: -
a) Can talk to other runner
b) Read magazines and advertisements
c) Collect information from sales people at sports store.
Based on above three sources consumer can confirm their
choice and lead to a purchase. This decision – making
process takes nearly 2 weeks.
2. Distamlur to house: -
a) Advertisement
b) Local hardware store to purchase.
The above process can be done in one day and
involvement with little effort.
The above two buying situations differ considerably
in terms of the energy devoted to purchase decisions.
The level of involvement affects the amount of
effort that consumers give to learn about products
and decide, which brands to buy.
- Dimensions of Involvement: -

Moderating Factors
-Opportunity to process
-Ability to process.
 -Diagram-

Fig: Major dimensions of Involvement.

The concept of involvement is multifaceted, which appears

to have a number of important dimensions.

1. Antecedents: - These are the sources that interact with each other
to generate the degree of involvement, which is based on
consumers experience. The variables involved are:
a) Person: – Personal needs, values, experiences and interests.
Eg:- Body fitness – people have strong value to show
interest on fat and fiber contents in foods.
Pepsi - diet Pepsi.
b) Stimulus/object: - Products that are closely related to
consumer values, interests, etc lead to high involvement.
Involvement is influenced buy stimuli used to
promote products and brands.
c) Situational – Type of situation also influence the level of
involvement.
Eg: Purchase of rope for a clothes line, where involvement
is less.
2. Moderating Factors :- The variables or conditions that may exist
to limit or constrain the impact of antecedents an consumers state
of involvement.
Eg: A person interested to buy a sterio, watching a TV
Advertisement of sterio, the door bells rings and he is distracted
from the ad.
a) Opportunity to process: - Information and consequently
influence the level of involvement that will be experienced.
b) Ability to process : - Information may influence the level of
involvement that is experienced. This happens when consumer
has poor knowledge and he can’t understand and evaluate
alternative products.
3. Involvement Properties: - It is an internal state, where the
consumer experiences i.e., by motivation.
a) Intensity: - It refers to the degree of involvement that the
consumer experiences. It has 2 categories.
1) High involvement: - Consumer will be interested in
differentiating different brands of a product and invest
considerable energy in decision making about
purchasing them.
2) Low Involvement: - Consumer does not go for active
search about alternative brands.
b) Direction: - It refers to the focus or target of involvement the
possible targets are actual products i.e., cars and perfumes.
 The target is a purchase decision itself, where involvement will
be high, because of variant product category.
c) Persistence :- It deals with the length of time, where the
consumer involves in purchasing a product.
1. Enduring involvement – long term interest in a product or
object.
3. Situational involvement – Temporary (Short- term) involvement
interest in a product. This occurs because of purchase situation
i.e., gift low knowledge about products etc.

4. Response factors :- It characterizes how a consumer behaves under

different involvement conditions i.e., it describe mental and
physical actions.
a) Search – Consumer goes for active search of sources of
product and brand information i.e., involvement will be
high.
Consumer goes for little active search of sources of
product and brand information i.e., involvement will be
how.
b) Information Processing: - After searching information, the
Consumer process this to determine its meaning. The steps
in information processing are viewed in terms of a
hierarchy of effects, because they appear to describe mental
processes that lead to purchase decision.

High – Involvement Low – Involvement

Hierarchy hierarchy

Cognition Cognition
Attitude Behavior
Behavior Attitude
Fig: The hierarchy of effects under high and low involvement
Conditions.
c) Decision/Persuasion:- The output of processed information
is a decision, i.e., which leads to purchase a product. The
decision depends on the involvement i.e., either low or
high.
III. LEARNING & MEMORY :-
A) LEARNING
Learning results in relatively permanent changes in behavior.
Def :- It is the process by which individuals acquire the purchase
and consumption knowledge and experience they apply to future related
behavior.
The role of experience in learning helps for careful search for
information.
-Types of Learned Behavior :-
 Every type of behavior, that we exhibit are all learned.
1. Physical Behavior :-
It is to respond a variety of situations faced in every day life.
Eg: Humans learn to walk, talk and interact with others.
Modeling – where consumers learn physical activity i.e., they
mimic the behavior of celebrities.
2. Symbolic Learning and Problem Solving :-
Symbolic meanings are highly efficient communications
through the development of languages. Marketers use these
symbols to communicate with consumers through vehicles
as brand names (Kodak& Sony), Slogans (“You got the
right one, Baby” – diet Pepsi) and signs (Charminar – an
Cigarette packets)

Problem solving learning has two processes, they are

thinking and insight.
Thinking involves mental manipulation of symbols
representing the real world to form various combinations of
meaning, which leads to insight, i.e., understanding the
relationships involved in the problem.
3. Affective Learning :-
Learning involves in their wants, goals & motives.
Learning influences consumers to develop favourable or un
favorable attitudes towards a company and its products, i.e.,
learns to elements which have a certain value.
-Elements of learning :-
The 4 elements included in most learning theories are: most
motivation, cues, response, & reinforcement.
1. Motivation :-
It is important to learning theory. Motivation is
based on needs and goals. Motivation acts as a spur to
learning with needs and goals serving as stimuli.
2. Cues :-
Motives serve to stimulate learning, Cues are the
stimuli that give direction to those motives.
In market, the cues are place, price, styling,
packaging, advertising and store plays. Cues help
consumers to fulfill their needs in product, specific ways.
Cues provides direction to motivated activity i.e.,
cues do not upset those expectation.
3. Response :-
It is a mental or physical activity, where consumers
makes in reaction to a stimulus situation. Response are
learned overtime through experience.
4. Reinforcement :-
It is any thing that follows a response and increases
the tendency for the response to re-occur in a similar
situation i.e., in the future.
Eg:- An advertisement on headache tablets enabled him to
get relief, next time also be will purchase the same tablet,
because the tablet was up to expectations.
 -Classifying Learning :-
Learning Theories

Connectionist Cognitive

Classical instrumental
Conditioning Conditioning

Fig: Classification of learning theories.

Reinforcement has two fundamentally different methods of

learning connections: classical & instrumental conditioning.
1. Classical Conditioning :-
(respondent conditioning)
It involves on already established response to stimulus.
The outcome is not dependent on learner’s actions. The influences
development and changes in opinions, tastes and goals.
2. Instrumental Conditioning :-
(Operant conditioning)
It involves in developing connections between stimuli and
responses, but no previous stimuli – response connection is
necessary. The outcome is dependent on learner’s action. The
influences changes in goal – directed behavior.
B. MEMORY :-
It says how consumers store, retain & retrieve information.
Sensory Sensory Rehearses Short term Encoding long-term Retriever
input Store Store Store

Forgotten Forgotten Forgotten

Lost Lost Un available.

Fig: Information processing and Memory stores.

The central important processing of information is the human memory
The structure of Memory :-
As information processing occurs at several stages it is generally
believed that there are separate “store houses” in memory, where information is
kept temporarily, waiting to be processed further:
1. Sensory Store :- The data come from sensory input, which lasts for just a second
or two in the minds of sensory store.
Eg: a T.V. image.
2. Short – term store :- It is the real memory, where information is processed and
held for a period. If information in the short – term store undergoes the process
called rehearsal, which will be transferred to the long-term store. This can be
about 4 or 5 items.
3. Long – term store :- It retains information for relatively extended periods of
time. Storage last for days, weeks or even years.
Rehearsal and Encoding :-
The purpose of rehearsal is to hold information in short-term storage, long enough
for encoding to takes place, encoding is the process by which use select and assign a word
 or visual image to represent a perceived object.
When consumers are presented with too much information it is called information
overload.
Retention :-
Information in long-term memory, should be constantly organized and re-organized
to get new links, where this process is called as activation.
The total packages of associations brought to mind when a cue is activated is called
a Schema.
In Long-term information is stored in 2 ways.
a) episodically – by the order in which it is acquired.
b) Semantically – according to significant concepts.
Retrieval :-
It is the process by which, we recover information from long-term storage. Most
people do not recollect. Information – processing theorists look on such forgetting as a
failure of the retrieved system.
Advertising Implications :-
1. Advertising messages with unique aspects have a greater potential for being
remembered
2. The order in which material is presented.
3. Messages that encourage immediate rehearsal.
4. More information can be processed and retained.
5. The amount of information that can be transferred to long-term memory is a
function of time available for processing.
6. Memory is Cue-dependent and presentation of relevant cues will stimulate recall.
7. Meaningful material is learned quickly.
8. Material retained in long-term is different from the information presented in a
learning situation.

Marketer should develop the following to learn quickly for the consumers.
1. Visual Material - “Say it with pictures”, which is more memorable than
verbal content.
2. Interactive imagery - Use pictures, symbols and other visual devices,
showing the two concepts how they relate to each other.
Eg : - Sun, kissing, an Orange – for Sunkist brand oranges.
3. Showing Mistakes :- During demonstration of mechanical skills, it is often
useful to show how things should not be done, as well as how they should
be done.
Eg:- All electronic goods – how to prevent shocks.
4. Incomplete messages :- Leaving some messages open-ended, so that
consumers must become involved to complete them.
5. Mnemonic Techniques :- It allows consumers to see some pattern for
associating otherwise meaningful facts will usually be helpful.
Eg: Music, Jingles.

IV ATTITUDES & PERCEPTIONS :-

A) ATTITUDE :-
Involvement has the following sequencing of steps:
1. Processing information
2. Forming attitudes
3. Making choices in the market place.
Attitude influences the lives of everyone and affect the ways in which
individuals judge and react towards other people, objects and events.
Def : An attitude is a learned predisposition to behave in a consistently
favourable or un-favourable way with respect to a given object.
Def: A person’s overall feeling towards some object.
 Attitudes - Behaviour
(Manner/Feeling)
-Characteristics of Attitudes :-
1. Attitudes have an object :- It is a physical thing such as product or it can
be action. It can be either one item, such as a person or a collection of
item such as social group.
2. Attitudes have direction, Degree and Intensity :-
Direction - Favourable/Un favourable towards the object.
Degree - Likes/dislikes of the product.
Intensity - The level of sureness/confidence of expression
about the object or how strongly a person feels about his/her
conviction.

3. Attitudes have structure :-

The structure of human attitudes are complex, which consists of
individual important values and self-concept. Attitudes are learned,
so they are more resistant to change i.e., newly formed attitudes are
easier to change.
4. Attitudes are learned :-
Attitudes develop from our experiences with reality as well as
from information from friends, sales people and news media.
Attitudes are derived from both direct and indirect
experiences in life.

-Diagram-

Fig:- A simple diagram of the inter relationships of an attitude

toward a product/brand and other psychological process.
-Structural Models of Attitudes :-
1. Tri component attitude model :-
According to this model, attitudes consist of three major
components: a cognitive component, an affective component and a
conative component, which are mutually inter dependent.

-Diagram-

a) The Cognitive Component :- [Cognitive – Knowledge]

It consists of person’s cognitions i.e., the knowledge
 and perceptions, which are developed by direct experience and
from and other sources.
The knowledge and perceptions commonly takes the form
of beliefs.
b) The affective Component :- [Affective – Emotional]
Consumers emotions or feelings about a particular
product or brand, which constitute the affective component of an
attitude.
The emotions and feelings are evaluated by researchers i.e.,
as favourable/un favourable, good/bad.

c) The Conative Component :- [conative – behavioural tendency]

It is concerned with the likelihood or tendency that an
individual will undertake a specific action or behave in a particular
way with regard to the attitude object.
In marketing and consumer research, this component is
expressed as attention to buy.
2. Multi – Attribute Attitude Models :-
This model is to examine attitudes in terms of selected product
attributes or beliefs. The models given by Fish-bein are considered.
a) The attitude-toward-object Model :-
This model is especially suitable for measuring attributes
toward a product category or specific brands.
Consumers generally have favourable attitudes towards those
brands and they believe that they have an adequate level of attributes., which are
evaluated as +Ve. Un-favourable attitudes towards those brands and they belive
that they believe that they do not have an adequate level of attributes, which as
evaluated as –Ve attributes.
It is usually depicted in the form of equation:

Ao = Σ n bi
ej

Where Ao = The persons overall attitude toward the object.

bi = Strength of belief that the objective is related to
attribute i.
Eg: Jeans – durable.
cj = evaluation or intensity of feelings
(liking/disliking) toward attribute i.
n = the number of relevant beliefs for that person.
Calculating Consumer’s Attitude :-
This model determines a person’s overall attitude toward some object.
The strength of each belief can be measured on a bipolar scale.
The wristwatch is high in price.

Likely (+3) (+2) (+1) (0) (-1) (–2) (-3) un likely.

Calculating a Consumer’s Attitude

Toward a Brand of Wrist watch.
Sl. Salient beliefs Belief Strength Evaluation Product (bi ej)
No. (bi) Score (ej)
1. Keeps Accurate Time +3 +2 6
2. Has Waterproof case +2 +3 6
3. Has day/date calendar +2 +2 4
4. Is high in price +1 -2 -2
5. Has digital display +1 -2 -2
Ao = Σ n bi ej +12
i=1

b) The attitude – toward – Behavior Model :-

It is the individuals attitude toward behaving or acting with respect to an
object, rather than the attitude toward the object itself.

AB = Σ n bi ej
i=1

Where AB - The individuals’ overall attitude toward

performing the specific behaviour.
bi - The person’s belief that performing that
behavior results in consequence i.
ej - the person’s evaluation of consequence i.
n - the number of relevant behavioral beliefs.
c) Theory – of - reasoned - Action Model :-

Beliefs that the behaviour Attitude toward

leads to certain outcomes The behavior

Evaluation of the outcomes Intention Behavior

Beliefs that specific referents think

I should/should not perform the
behaviour Subjective norm

Motivation to comply with

the specific referents

Fig: - The relationship of components in Fish bein’s behavioral intentions

attitude model.

- Attitude Theories :-
Attitude theories are primarily concerned with how attitudes
Develop and Change
1. Congruity (Agreement/Harmony) Theory :-
This theory is based on the consideration of holding positive and
negative attitudes towards a particular brand.
 If consumer is in a state of incongruity, which produces uncomfortable
tension, leads to resolution. The company should: now drop the product and reintroduce
with another name (Or) introduce a new formulated brand.
Strong attitudes are more difficult to change than weak or moderate ones.

2. Balance Theory :-
This theory was developed based upon the work of Fritz Heider.
According to this theory, a person perceives his/her environment in terms of
traids i.e., it involves a triangular relationship of 3 elements (persons, ideas and
things) has either +Ve (liking, favourable) or negative (dis linking, unfavourable)
relationships with each other. This relationship is termed as sentiment.

“ I ”

Like (+) don’t like (-)

“large, luxurious cars” Energy – wasting products

are (+)

Fig: - An unbalanced attitudinal structure.

This model is unbalanced, when the relationship among the 3 elements is
–Ve and balanced , when the relationship among the 3 elements is +Ve.
3. Cognitive dissonance (lack of harmony / agreement) :-
This theory was developed by Leon Festinger. Cognitive dissonance is a
psychological state, which results, when a personpercieves that 2 cognitions
(thoughts), bath of which he believes to be true, do not ‘fit’ together i.e.,
inconsistent.
Dissonance can arise in 3 basic ways:
1. Logical Consistency - can create dissonance.
Eg: “all candy’s are sweet, my candy is sour”.

2. Dissonance can be created when a person experiences an inconsistency

either between his attitude and his behaviour or between two of his
behaviors.
3. Dissonance can occur when a strongly held expectation is disconfirmed.
Cognitive dissonance can be reduced by the following three ways:
1. Rationalization (Conformable)
2. Seeking additional information
3. Eliminating/altering same dissonant elements.
B) PERCEPTION :- (Immediate / Intuitive recog.).
Sensation :-
 It is the immediate and direct response of the sensory organs to simple
stimuli ( an ad, a package, brand name).
Def: - Perception :- It is defined as the process by which an individual selects,
organizes and interprets stimuli into a meaningful and Coherent
(Consistent/logical)) picture of the world.
A stimulus is any unit of input to any of the sense. Eg: Of Stimuli –
includes products, packages, brand names, advertisements and commercials.
Sensory receptors – Eyes, Ears, Nose, Mouth & Skin.
Sensory functions – See, Hear, Smell, Taste, Feel & Touch.
-Perceptual Mechanism : ( 3 aspects of perception)
1. Perceptual Selection :- -Selective expose – avoid painful
-Selective attention – needs & interact.
A person exposed to 20,000 products of different colors, sizes
and shapes in super market, selects and pays for the items they need.

2. Perceptual Organization :-
The specific principles underlying perceptual organization are
often referred by the name Gestalt psychology. The 3 principles are.
a) Figure and Ground – depends on sound (louder/softer) on color
(bright/pale)
Eg: Fig of Old and 20’s.
b) Grouping – Grouping stimuli automatically develops a unified
picture/impression.
Eg: A adult for tea may show a young man & woman sipping tea
in a beautiful appointed room, i.e., drinking is associated with tea
with romance, fine living, and winter warmth.
c) Closure :- The pattern of the stimuli to which they are exposed to
incomplete, expressing needs should form a complete picture.
3. Perceptual Interpretation : -
People select stimuli according to how they perceive, organize
there stimuli on the basis of certain psychological principles.
The interpretation of stimuli is uniquely individual, and is based
on the past experience.
Weak – Poor visibility
Stimuli are often highly ambiguous - Strong – varies in angles of
viewing.
Stimuli are highly ambiguous - Serve to fulfill personal needs.
- Distorting Influences :- (Distortion – to give false meaning)
1. Stereotypes :- It is an idea/expression, which lacks in originality in the
mind. Individuals tend to carry “Picture” in their minds with various
stimuli. There stereotypes are called as expectations.
2. First Impression :- It tends to be lasting, because of subsequent
information about its advantages.
Eg: Shampoos.
3. Halo Effect :- It includes the evaluation of multiple objects (Eg: Product
line) on the basis of the evaluation of first one dimension (a brand name)
using this, marketers take advantage of the halo effect, when they extend
a brand name associated with on line of products to another.
Eg: Disposable Pen, Disposable Razors.

Brand Perception of
name Brand

Perception of
Store Store
name
 Perceived
quality
Objective Perception
price of Price Perceived Willingness
Perceived Value to buy
sacrifice

Sensation :-
a) Absolute Threshold :- The lowest level at which an individual can experience
a sensation is called absolute threshold.
b) Differential Threshold :- The minimal difference, that can be detected
between 2 similar stimuli is called differential threshold i.e., identifiable (just
noticeable difference)
- Subliminal Perception :- Stimuli that are too weak or too brief to be
consciously seen or heard may nevertheless be strong enough to be perceived by
one or more receptor cells. This process is called subliminal perception.

Subliminal message - I chew slowly,

I eat less.
I am capable, etc.,