Wireless By:

Lecturer
Kashif
Communication Laeeq Wasti

This is a complete document of subject Wireless Communication taught by Lecturer Kashif

Laeeq to BS-8, Batch-5 of Department of Computer Science & I.T of Federal Urdu
University of Arts, Science & Technology’ Karachi during the session from September-
December 2010.

Prepared by: Farrukh Ali

 Wireless Communication

Chapter#1
Introduction

Wireless Comes of Age

• Guglielmo Marconi invented the wireless telegraph in 1896.
• In 1901, he sent telegraphic signals across the Atlantic Ocean a
distance of about 3200 km.
• Allowed two parties to communicate by sending each other alphanumeric characters
encoded in an analog signal.
• Communications satellites were first launched in the 1960s.
• Those first satellites could only handle 240 voice circuits.
• Today, satellites carry about one-third of the voice traffic and all of the television signals
between countries.

Broadband
• Higher data rates obtainable with broadband wireless technology.

• Broadband wireless service shares the same advantages of all wireless services:
convenience and reduced cost.

• Operators can deploy the service faster than a fixed service and without the cost of a
cable plant. The service is also mobile and can be deployed almost anywhere.

Limitations & Difficulties of Wireless Technology

• Wireless is convenient and often less expensive to deploy than fixed services.

• There are limitations, political and technical difficulties that may ultimately prevent
wireless technologies from reaching their full potential.

• Incompatible standards and device limitations.

• Device limitations also restrict the free flow of data. The small display on a mobile
telephone can only displaying more than a few lines of text.

• Most mobile wireless devices cannot access the vast majority of WWW sites on the
Internet. The browsers use a special language, wireless markup language (WML), instead
of HTML.

Lecturer Kashif Laeeq Wasti Prepared by: Farrukh Ali

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Chapter#2
Transmission Fundamentals

Electromagnetic Signals
• An electromagnetic signal is a function of time or frequency.
• The signal consists of components of different frequencies.

Time Domain Concepts

• An analog signal is one in which the signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time
or there are no breaks or discontinuities in the signal.
• A digital signal is one in which the signal intensity maintains a constant level for some
period of time and then changes to another constant level.
• A periodic signal, in which the same signal pattern repeats over time.
S(t + T) = s(t) -∞ < t < +∞
Where T is the period of the signal.
• Aperiodic signal is an analog or a digital signal pattern that doesn't repeat over time

• The peak amplitude (A) is the maximum value or strength of the signal over time,
typically, measured in volts.
• The frequency (f) is the rate [in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz)] at which the signal
repeats.
• The period (T) of a signal is the amount of time it takes for one repetition.
T = 1/f
• Phase (φ ) is a measure of the relative position in time within a single period of a signal.
• The wavelength (λ) of a signal is the distance occupied by a single cycle or the distance
between two points of corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles.

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Sine Wave Parameters

• The general sine wave can be written as
s( t) = A sin(2πft + φ )
• A function with the form of above Equation is known as a sinusoid.

• Figure 2.3 shows the effect of varying each of the three parameters

(a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz, φ = 0; thus T = 1s

(b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5

(c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T = 1/2

(d) Phase shift; φ = π /4 radians (45 degrees)

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• note: 2π radians = 360° = 1 period

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Time vs. Distance

• In Figure 2.3 when the horizontal axis is time; the graphs display the
value of a signal at a given point in space as a function of time.
• With horizontal axis in space, the graphs display the value of a signal
at a given point in time as a function of distance.
• For example, at a particular instant of time, the intensity of the signal
varies as a function of distance from the source.

Frequency Domain Concepts

• When all of the frequency components of a signal are integer multiples
of one frequency, it’s referred to as the Fundamental frequency.
• The spectrum of a signal is the range of frequencies that it contains.
• The absolute bandwidth of a signal is the width of the spectrum.
• Many signals have an infinite bandwidth, but with most of the energy
contained in a relatively narrow band of frequencies. This band is
referred to as the effective bandwidth, or just bandwidth.
• Any electromagnetic signal can be shown to consist of a collection of
periodic analog signals (sine waves) at different amplitudes,
frequencies, and phases.
• The period of the total signal is equal to the period of the fundamental
frequency.

Relationship between Data Rate and Bandwidth

• The greater the bandwidth, the higher the information-carrying
capacity.
• Any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth.
• The transmission system will limit the bandwidth that can be
transmitted.
• For any given medium, the greater the bandwidth transmitted, the
greater the cost.
• Limiting the bandwidth creates distortions.

Data: Entities that convey meaning, or information.

Signals are electric or electromagnetic representations of data.

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Transmission is the communication of data by the propagation and processing of

signals.

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Analog Signals
• An analog signal is a continuously varying electromagnetic wave that
may be propagated over a variety of media, depending on frequency.
o Examples of media:

- Copper wire media (twisted pair and coaxial cable)

- Fiber optic cable

- Atmosphere or space propagation

• Analog signals can propagate analog and digital data

Digital Signals
• A digital signal is a sequence of voltage pulses that may be
transmitted over a copper wire medium.
o Advantages
- It is generally cheaper than analog signaling
- Less susceptible to noise interference.
o Disadvantage
- Digital signals suffer more from attenuation.
• Digital signals can propagate analog and digital data.

Analog Transmission
• Transmit analog signals without regard to their content.

• The analog signal will suffer attenuation that limits the length of the transmission link.

• Cascaded amplifiers boost signal’s energy to achieve long distance, but the signal
becomes more and more distorted.

o For analog data, quite a bit of distortion can be tolerated.

o For Digital data transmitted as analog signals, introduces errors.

Digital Transmission
• Concerned with the content of the signal.

• Attenuation endangers the integrity of the data.

• Digital Signal

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o Repeaters achieve greater distance

o Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit

• Analog signal carrying Digital data

o The retransmission device recovers the digital data from the

analog signal.

o And generates a new, clean analog signal.

Channel Capacity
• A variety of impairments (such as noise, limit data rate) can distort or
corrupt a signal.

• The maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a given

communication path, or channel, under given conditions is referred to
as the channel capacity.

Concepts Related to Channel Capacity

• Data rate: This is the rate, in bits per second (bps), at which data can
be communicated.
• Bandwidth: This is the bandwidth of the transmitted signal as
constrained by the transmitter and the nature of the transmission
medium, expressed in cycles per second, or Hertz.
• Noise: Average level of noise over the communications path.
• Error rate: This is the rate at which errors occur,
o Where an error is the reception of a 1 when a 0 was transmitted
or the reception of a 0 when a 1 was transmitted.

Classifications of Transmission Media

• Transmission medium
o The physical path between transmitter and receiver.
• Guided media
o The waves are guided along a solid medium.
o Such as copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, or optical
fiber.
• Unguided media
o Provide a means of transmitting electromagnetic signals but do
not guide them.

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o This form of transmission is usually referred to as wireless

transmission.
o Examples are: The atmosphere and outer space.
o Transmission and reception are achieved by means of an
antenna.

o Configurations for wireless transmission

- Directional

- Omnidirectional

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General Frequency Ranges

• Microwave frequency range

o 1 GHz to 40 GHz

o Directional beams possible

o Suitable for point-to-point transmission

o Used for satellite communications

• Radio frequency range

o 30 MHz to 1 GHz

o Suitable for omnidirectional applications

• Infrared frequency range

o Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz

o Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications within

confined areas.

Multiplexing
• Capacity of the transmission medium exceeds the capacity required for
the transmission of a single signal

• Multiplexing - carrying multiple signals on a single medium.

o To make more efficient use of transmission medium.

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Lecturer Kashif Laeeq Wasti Prepared by: Farrukh Ali

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Reasons for Widespread Use of Multiplexing

• The cost per kbps of the transmission facility declines with an increase
in the data rate.
• The cost of transmission and receiving equipment, per kbps, declines
with increasing data rate.
• Most individual data communicating devices require relatively modest
data rate support.

Multiplexing Techniques

• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

o FDM takes advantage of the fact that the useful bandwidth of the
medium exceeds the required bandwidth of a given signal.

• Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

o TDM takes advantage of the fact that the achievable bit rate of
the medium exceeds the required data rate of a digital signal.

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Chapter#3
Communication Networks

Types of Communication Networks

1. Traditional (Traditional LAN, Traditional WAN)
2. Higher Speed (High-speed LAN, High-speed WAN, MAN)

Characteristics of WANs
• WANs cover a large geographical area.
• Circuits provided by a common carrier.
• A WAN consists of a number of interconnected switching nodes.
• WANs have provided only relatively modest capacity to subscribers.
o data rates of 64,000 bps
o Business subscribers using T-1 service operates at 1.544 Mbps,
being common
• Higher-speed WANs use optical fiber and transmission technique
known as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
o Provide user connections in the 10s and 100s of Mbps.

Characteristics of LANs
• A LAN is a communications network that interconnects a variety of
devices and provides a means for information exchange among those
devices.
• Traditional LANs provide data rates of 1 to 20 Mbps.
• High-speed LANS provide data rates of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps

LAN WAN
The scope of the LAN is small, WANs cover a large geographical
typically interconnects devices within area.
a single building or a cluster of
buildings.
LAN is owned by the same For WANs, most of network assets
organization that owns the attached are not owned by same organization.
devices.
The internal data rates of LANs are WANs have lesser internal data rate
typically much greater. compare to LANs.

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Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

• A MAN occupies a middle ground between LANs and WANs.
• The traditional point-to-point and switched network techniques used in
WANs may be inadequate for the growing needs of organizations.
• Need for high capacity at low costs over a large area.
• MAN provides:
o Service to customers in metropolitan areas.
o Required capacity at lower cost and greater efficiency than
obtaining an equivalent service from the local telephone
company.

Switching Techniques
• Switching nodes
o Intermediate switching device that moves data.
o The switching nodes are not concerned with the content of the
data.
• Stations
o The end devices that wish to communicate.
o Each station is connected to a switching node.
o The stations may be computers, terminals, telephones, or other
communicating devices.
• The collection of nodes is referred to as a communication network.

Techniques Used in Switched Networks

• Circuit switching
o A dedicated communication path between two stations.
o The most common example of circuit switching is the telephone
network.

• Packet Switching
o Data are transmitted in blocks, called packets.
o Each node determines next leg of transmission for each packet.

Phases of Circuit Switching

• Circuit establishment - Before any signals can be transmitted, an
end-to-end (station-to-station) circuit must be established.
• Information transfer
o Information transmitted through the network.
o Data may be analog voice, digitized voice, or binary data,
depending on the nature of the network.
• Circuit disconnect
o After some period of information transfer, the connection is
terminated.

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o Each node deallocate the dedicated resources.

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Characteristics of Circuit Switching

• Circuit switching can be rather inefficient.

o Channel capacity is dedicated for the duration of a connection.
o Utilization still does not approach 100%.
o A delay prior to signal transfer for call establishment.
• Once the circuit is established, the network is effectively transparent to
the users.
• Information is transmitted at a fixed data rate with no delay other than
the propagation delay.

Components of Public Telecommunications Network

• Subscribers
o The devices that attach to the network (mostly telephones).
• Subscriber line
o The link between the subscriber and the network.
o The subscriber line is also known as a subscriber loop, or a
local loop.
• Exchanges
o The switching centers in the network.
o A switching center that directly supports subscribers is known as
an end office.
• Trunks
o The branches between exchanges.

Working of Packet Switching

• Data are transmitted in blocks, called packets.
• Each node determines next leg of transmission for each packet.
• Before sending, the message is broken into a series of packets
o Typical packet length is 1000 octets (bytes).
o Each packet consists of a portion of the data, plus a packet
header that contains control information.
o At each node en route, the packet is received, stored briefly, and
passed on to the next node.

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Lecturer Kashif Laeeq Wasti Prepared by: Farrukh Ali

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Advantages of Packet Switching

• Line efficiency is greater
o A single node-to-node link can be dynamically shared by many
packets over time.
• A packet-switching network can carry out data-rate conversion.
o Two stations of different data rates can exchange packets.
• When traffic becomes heavy on a circuit-switching network, some calls
are blocked while on a packet-switching network, packets are still
accepted, but delivery delay increases.
• Priorities can be used.

Disadvantages of Packet Switching

• Each time a packet passes through a switching node introduces a

delay.
• The overall packet delay can vary substantially.
o This phenomenon, called jitter.
o Caused by differing packet sizes, routes taken and varying delay
in the switches.
• Each packet requires overhead information
o Includes address of the destination and sequencing information.
o Reduces the communication capacity available for carrying user
data.
• More processing is involved in the transfer of information at each node.

Packet Switching Networks - Datagram

• Each packet is treated independently, with no reference to previous

packets.
• Each node chooses the next node on a packet's path.
• The packets, with the same destination address, do not follow the
same route and may arrive out of sequence.
• The exit node restores the packets to their original order before
delivering them to the destination.
• Responsibility of exit node or destination to detect the loss of a packet
and decide how to recover it.
• Advantages
o Call setup phase is avoided.
o Because it’s more primitive, it’s more flexible
o Datagram delivery is more reliable

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Packet Switching Networks – Virtual Circuit

• A preplanned route is established before any packets are sent.

• All the packets between source and destination follow this route.
• Routing decision not required by nodes for each packet
• Emulates a circuit in a circuit switching network but is not a dedicated
path
o A packet is still buffered at each node and queued for output
over a line.
• Advantages
o Packets arrive in original order.
o Packets arrive correctly.
o Packets transmitted more rapidly without routing decisions made
at each node.

Effect of Packet Size on Transmission Time

• Breaking up packets decreases transmission time because
transmission is allowed to overlap
• Figure 3.9a
o Entire message (40 octets) + header information (3 octets) sent
at once
o Transmission time: 129 octet-times
• Figure 3.9b
o Message broken into 2 packets (20 octets) + header (3 octets)
o Transmission time: 92 octet-times
• Figure 3.9c
o Message broken into 5 packets (8 octets) + header (3 octets)
o Transmission time: 77 octet-times
• Figure 3.9d
o Making the packets too small, transmission time starts increases
o Each packet requires a fixed header; the more packets, the more
headers.

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Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

• Also known as cell relay.
• Operates at high data rates
• Resembles like packet switching, i.e.
o Involves the transfer of data in discrete chunks.
o Allows multiple logical connections to be multiplexed over a
single physical interface.
• The information flow on each logical connection is organized into fixed-
size packets, called cells.
• Minimal error and flow control capabilities, this reduces the overhead
of processing & size.
• Fixed-size cells simplify the processing required at each ATM node.

ATM terminology
• Virtual Channel Connections (VCCs)
o Logical connection in ATM.
o Basic unit of switching in ATM network.
o A VCC is analogous to a virtual circuit in a packet-switching
network.
o Exchanges variable-rate, full-duplex flow of fixed-size cells.
• Virtual Path Connection (VPC)
o A bundle of VCCs that have the same endpoints.
o Advantages of Virtual Path
 Simplified network architecture
 Increased network performance and reliability
 Reduced processing and short connection setup time
 Enhanced network services.

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Lecturer Kashif Laeeq Wasti Prepared by: Farrukh Ali

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Virtual Channel Connection Uses

• Between end users
o Can carry end-to-end user data or control signaling between two
users
• Between an end user and a network entity
o Used for user-to-network control signaling
• Between two network entities
o Used for network traffic management and routing functions

Virtual Path/Virtual Channel Characteristics

• Quality of service
o Specified by parameters such as cell loss ratio and cell delay
variation
• Switched and semi-permanent virtual channel connections
• Cell sequence integrity
• Traffic parameter negotiation and usage monitoring
• Virtual channel identifier restriction within a VPC

ATM Cell Header Format

• Generic flow control (GFC) – 4 bits, used only in user-network interface
o Used to alleviate short-term overload conditions in network
• Virtual path identifier (VPI) – 8 bits at the user-network interface, 12
bits at network-network interface
o Routing field
• Virtual channel identifier (VCI) – 8 bits
o Used for routing to and from end user
• Payload type (PT) – 3 bits
o Indicates type of information in information field
• Cell loss priority (CLP) – 1 bit
o Provides guidance to network in the event of congestion
• Header error control (HEC) – 8 bit
o Error code

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ATM Service Categories

• Real-time service
o Constant bit rate (CBR)
o Real-time variable bit rate (rt-VBR)
• Non-real-time service
o Non-real-time variable bit rate (nrt-VBR)
o Available bit rate (ABR)
o Unspecified bit rate (UBR)

Examples of CBR Applications

• Videoconferencing
• Interactive audio (e.g., telephony)
• Audio/video distribution (e.g., television, distance learning, pay-per-
view)
• Audio/video retrieval (e.g., video-on-demand, audio library

Examples of UBR applications

• Text/data/image transfer, messaging, distribution, retrieval
• Remote terminal (e.g., telecommuting)

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Chapter#4
Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite
Features of a Protocol
• Syntax: Concerns the format of the data blocks
• Semantics: Includes control information for coordination and error
handling
• Timing: Includes speed matching and sequencing

Agents involved in Communication

• Applications
o Exchange data between computers (e.g., electronic mail)
• Computers
o Connected to networks
• Networks
o Transfers data from one computer to another

TCP/IP (Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

Layers
• Physical layer
• Network access layer
• Internet layer
• Host-to-host, or transport layer
• Application layer

• Physical Layer
• Covers the physical interface between a data transmission device
and a transmission medium or network.
• It specifies:
o the characteristics of the transmission medium
o the nature of the signals
o the data rate and
o other related matters
• Network access layer
• Concerned with the exchange of data between an end system and
the network to which it is attached.

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• The specific software used at this layer depends on the type of

network to be used;
o circuit switching
o packet switching (e.g., ATM)
o LANs (e.g., Ethernet)
o Others

• Internet layer
• Uses internet protocol (IP)
• Provide the routing function across multiple networks.
• Implemented in the end systems & routers.
• Host-to-host, or transport layer
• Commonly uses transmission control protocol (TCP)
• Provides reliability during data exchange
o Completeness
o Order
• Application layer
• Contains the logic needed to support the various user
applications.
• Uses separate modules that are peculiar to each different type of
application

Protocol Data Units (PDUs)

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TCP/IP Applications
• Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP)
o Provides a basic electronic mail facility
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
o Allows files to be sent from one system to another
• TELNET
o Provides a remote logon capability.

OSI (Open System Interconnection) Model

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Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP

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OSI Model TCP/IP

The OSI model however is a generic, TCP/IP Protocols are considered to be
protocol or independent standard. standards around which the internet
has developed.
OSI model is unnecessarily complex. TCP/IP appears to be a simpler model
and this is mainly due to the fact that
it has fewer layers.
OSI separates presentation and TCP/IP combines the presentation
session layers. and session layer issues into its
application layer.
OSI has separate data link and TCP/IP combines the OSI data link
physical layers. and physical layers into the network
access layer.
All packets are reliably delivered TCP reliably delivers packets, IP does
not reliably deliver packets
Internetworking not supported TCP/IP supports Internetworking
Strict layering Loosely layered

Elements of Standardization within OSI Framework

• Protocol Specification
o Format of protocol data units (PDUs) exchanged

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o Semantics of all fields

o Allowable sequence of PDUs
• Service Definition
o Functional description that defines what services are provided,
but not how the services are to be provided
• Addressing
o Entities are referenced by means of a service access point (SAP)

Internetworking
Internetworking is the practice of connecting a computer network with
other networks.

Internetworking can be extremely complex because it generally involves

connecting networks that use different protocols. Internetworking is
accomplished with routers, bridges, and gateways.

Terms of Internetworking
• Communication Network
o A facility that provides a data transfer service among devices
attached to the network
• Internet
o A collection of communication networks interconnected by
bridges/routers
• Intranet
o An internet used by a single organization for internal purposes
 Provides key Internet applications (e.g. World Wide Web)
 Can exist as an isolated, self-contained internet
• End System (ES)
o A device used to support end-user applications or services
• Intermediate System (IS)
o A device used to connect two networks.
• Bridge
o An IS used to connect two LANs that use similar LAN protocols
• Router
o An IS used to connect two networks that may or may not be
similar.

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Functions of a Router
Internetworking among dissimilar sub networks is achieved by using
routers. Essential functions of a router are:

• Provide a link between networks.

• Provide for the routing and delivery of data between processes on end
systems attached to different networks.
• Provide these functions in such a way as not to require modifications of
the networking architecture of any of the attached subnetworks.

Network Differences Routers Must Accommodate

• Addressing schemes
o Different schemes for assigning addresses
• Maximum packet sizes
o Different maximum packet sizes requires segmentation
• Interfaces
o Differing hardware and software interfaces
• Reliability
o Network may provide unreliable service

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Chapter#5
Antennas and Propagation
Antennas
• An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors used either for radiating
electromagnetic energy or for collecting electromagnetic energy.
o Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space
o Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space
• In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for both transmission and
reception.

Radiation Patterns
A common way to characterize the performance of an antenna is the radiation pattern,
• Radiation pattern
o Graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna
o Depicted as two-dimensional cross section
• Beam width (or half-power beam width)
o Measure of directivity of antenna
• Reception pattern
o Receiving antenna’s equivalent to radiation pattern

Types of Antenna
• Isotropic antenna (idealized)
o A point in space that radiates power in all directions equally.
• Dipole antenna
o the half-wave dipole, or Hertz, antenna (π/2)
- A half-wave dipole has a uniform or omnidirectional radiation pattern
in one dimension
o the quarter-wave vertical, or Marconi antenna (π/4)
- Commonly used for automobile radios and portable radios.
• Parabolic Reflective Antenna
o Used in terrestrial microwave and satellite applications.

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Antenna Gain
• Antenna gain is a measure of the directionality of an antenna.
• The power output, in a particular direction, compared to that produced in any
direction by a perfect omnidirectional antenna (isotropic antenna).
• Effective area of an antenna
o Related to the physical size and shape of the antenna.
• The relationship between antenna gain and effective area is
4πAe 4πf 2 Ae
G= =
λ2 c2
Where,
G = Antenna gain
Ae = Effective area
f = Carrier frequency
c = Speed of light (≈ 3 * 108 m/s)
λ = carrier wavelength

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Problem
For a parabolic reflective antenna with a diameter of 2m , operating at 12GHz, what is
the effective area & antenna gain?
Given
Antenna type = Parabolic
Diameter = d = 2m
Operating frequency = 12GHz
To Find
Effective Area = Ae =?
Antenna Gain = G =?

Solution:
Area of Parabolic
A= πr2 ----------------Eq-(1)
For r
r = d/2 = 2/2 = 1m
Now, Eq-(1) becomes
A=π ---------------------Eq-(2)
Therefore,
Ae = 0.56π (Reference: Table 5.2)
As we know that
λ = c/f
= 3 * 108 / 12 * 109 (where c = 3 * 108 m/s)
λ = 0.025m
As we know that
G = 7A / λ2
= 7π / (0.025)2 (where A=π and λ=0.025)
G = 35,200
In dB
GdB = 10 log (35200) = 45.46 dB

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Propagation Modes
A signal radiated from an antenna travels along one of three routes:
1. Ground-wave propagation
2. Sky-wave propagation
3. Line-of-sight propagation (LOS)

Ground Wave Propagation

• Follows the contour of the earth
• Can propagate considerable distances,
• Found in frequencies up to about 2 MHz
• The best-known example of ground wave communication is AM radio.

Sky Wave Propagation

• A signal from an earth-based antenna is reflected from the ionized layer of the
atmosphere (ionosphere) back down to earth.
• A sky wave signal can travel through a number of hops, bouncing back and forth
between the ionosphere and the earth's surface.
• Reflection effect caused by refraction.
• Sky wave propagation is used for amateur radio, CB radio, and international
broadcasts.

Line-of-Sight Propagation
• The transmitting and receiving antennas must be within an effective line of sight of
each other.
o For satellite communication, a signal above 30 MHz is not reflected by the
ionosphere
o For ground-based communication, the transmitting and receiving antennas
must be within an effective line of sight of each other due to refraction.
• Refraction - Bending of microwaves by the atmosphere
o the velocity of an electromagnetic wave is a function of the density of the
medium
o When electromagnetic wave changes medium, its speed changes.
o Wave bends at the boundary between the mediums.

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 Wireless Communication

Lecturer Kashif Laeeq Wasti Prepared by: Farrukh Ali

 Wireless Communication

Optical and Radio Line of Sight

• The optical line of sight can be expressed as
d = 3.57 h
• Effective, or radio, line of sight
d = 3.57 Kh
Where,
d = distance between antenna and horizon (km)
h = antenna height (m)
K = adjustment factor to account for refraction, rule of thumb K = 4/3

• The maximum distance between two antennas for LOS propagation

3.57 ( Κh1 + Κh2 )
Where,
h1 = height of antenna one
h2 = height of antenna two

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 Wireless Communication

ProblemImp
The maximum distance between two antennas for LOS transmission if one antenna is
100m high and the other is at ground level.
Given:
Height of antenna one = h1 = 100m
To Find
Maximum distance b/w two antennas = d =?
Solution:
As we know that
d = 3.57 Kh (For h1)
d=3.57 ( 4 / 3)( 100 ) (where K=4/3)
d= 41km
Now,
(
d= 3.57 Κh1 + Κh2 )
41= 3.57 ( ( 4 / 3)(100 ) + ( Kh 2 ) (
=> 41 = 3.57 1.33 + ( Kh 2 )
( )
Κh2 = (41/3.57) -
2
1.33
h2= (7.84) / 1.33 (Simplify & Taking square both sides)
h2 = 46.2 m

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 Wireless Communication

LOS Wireless Transmission Impairments

• Attenuation and attenuation distortion
• Free space loss
• Noise
• Atmospheric absorption
• Multipath
• Refraction

Attenuation
• The strength of a signal falls off with distance over any transmission medium.
• For guided media reduction in strength, or attenuation, is generally exponential and
thus is typically expressed as a constant number of decibels per unit distance.
• Attenuation introduces three factors for unguided media:
o A received signal must have sufficient strength so that the electronic
circuitry in the receiver can detect and interpret the signal.
o The signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be
received without error.
o Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing distortion.

Free Space Loss

• A transmitted signal attenuates over distance because the signal is being spread over a
larger and larger area. This form of attenuation is known as free space loss.
• For the ideal isotropic antenna, free space loss is
Pt ( 4πd ) ( 4πfd )
2 2
= =
Pr λ2
c2
Where,
Pt = signal power at the transmitting antenna
Pr = signal power at the receiving antenna
λ = carrier wavelength
f = carrier frequency
d = propagation distance between antennas
c = speed of light (3 X 108 m/s)
Where d and λ are in the same units (e.g., meters)

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This Free space Loss equation can be recast as:

Pt  4πd 
LdB = 10 log = 20 log  
Pr  λ 
= −20 log ( λ) + 20 log ( d ) + 21 .98 dB

 4πfd 
= 20 log   = 20 log ( f ) + 20 log ( d ) −147 .56 dB
 c 

Free space loss accounting for gain of other antennas:

Pt ( 4π ) ( d ) ( λd ) = ( cd )
2 2 2 2
= =
Pr Gr Gt λ 2
Ar At f 2 Ar At

Where,
Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna
Gr = gain of the receiving antenna
At = effective area of the transmitting antenna
Ar = effective area of the receiving antenna

Free space loss accounting for gain of other antennas can be recast as:
LdB = 20 log ( λ ) + 20 log ( d ) − 10 log ( At Ar )

= −20 log ( f ) + 20 log ( d ) −10 log ( At Ar ) + 169 .54 dB

Noise
• Unwanted signals that are inserted somewhere between transmission and reception.
• Noise may be divided into four categories:
o Thermal or White noise
- Thermal noise is due to thermal agitation of electrons.
- Thermal noise is uniformly distributed across the frequency spectrum
and hence is often referred to as white noise.
o Intermodulation noise
- When signals at different frequencies share the same transmission
medium.
o Crosstalk
- An unwanted coupling between signal paths.
o Impulse noise
- Is non-continuous, consisting of irregular pulses or noise spikes of
short duration and of relatively high amplitude.

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Atmospheric Absorption
• An additional loss between the transmitting and receiving antennas.
• Water vapor and oxygen contribute most to attenuation.
• At frequency 22 GHz attenuation is on peak.
• At frequencies below 15 GHz, the attenuation is less.

Multipath
• The signal can be reflected by obstacles so that multiple copies of the signal with
varying delays can be received.

Question: Describe Microwave line of sight multipath problem.

For wireless facilities where there is a relatively free choice of where antennas are to
be located, they can be placed so that if there are no nearby interfering obstacles, there is a
direct line-of-sight path from transmitter to receiver.
For fixed microwave, in addition to the direct line of sight, the signal may follow a
curved path through the atmosphere due to refraction and the signal may also reflect from the
ground.

Weaknesses
• Paths could be blocked by buildings
• Spectral congestion
• Interception possible
• Possible regulatory delays
• Sites could be difficult to maintain
• Towers need periodic maintenance
• Atmospheric fading

Refraction
• Bending of radio waves as they propagate through the atmosphere
• The refraction is caused by changes in the speed of the signal with altitude.

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Multipath Propagation
• Reflection
o Occurs when an electromagnetic signal encounters a surface that is large
relative to the wavelength of the signal.
• Diffraction
o Occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large compared to the
wavelength of the radio wave.
• Scattering
o Occurs when incoming signal hits an object whose size in the order of the
wavelength of the signal or less.

Effects of Multipath Propagation

• Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different phases.
o If these phases add destructively, the signal level relative to noise declines,
making signal detection at the receiver more difficult.
• InterSymbol Interference (ISI)
o One or more delayed copies of a pulse may arrive at the same time as the
primary pulse for a subsequent bit.

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Fading & its Types

• The time variation of received signal power caused by changes in the transmission
medium or path.
• Fading is affected by changes in atmospheric conditions, such as rainfall.
• Types of Fading
o Fast fading
- Rapidly changes of amplitude as much as 20 or 30 dB over a short
distance.
o Slow fading
- Arises when the coherence time of the channel is large relative to the
delay constraint of the channel.

o Flat or Non-Selective fading

- All frequency components of the received signal fluctuate in the same
proportions simultaneously.
o Selective fading
- Affects unequally the different spectral components of a radio signal.

o Rayleigh fading
- Occurs when there are multiple indirect paths between transmitter and
receiver and no distinct dominant path, such as an LOS path.
o Rician fading
- Best characterizes a situation where there is a direct LOS path in
addition to a number of indirect multipath signals.

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Chapter#9

Satellite Communications

Satellite Parameters and Configurations

• Earth Station
o The antenna systems on or near the earth.
• Uplink
o A transmission from an earth station to the satellite.
• Downlink
o Transmissions from the satellite to the earth station.
• Transponder
o The component in the satellite that takes an uplink signal and converts it to a
downlink signal.

Categories of Communications Satellites

There are a number of different ways of categorizing communications satellites:

• Coverage Area
o Global, regional, or national.
• Service Type
o Fixed service satellite (FSS), broadcast service satellite (BSS), and mobile
service satellite (MSS).
• General Usage
o Commercial, military, amateur, experimental.

Classification of Satellite Orbits

Satellite orbits may be classified in a number of ways:

1) Circular and Elliptical Orbits

a. In circular, the center of the circle at the center of the earth,
b. In elliptical, the earth's center at one of the two foci of the ellipse.

2) Orbit around earth in different planes

a. An equatorial orbit is directly above the earth's equator.
b. A polar orbit passes over both poles.
c. Other orbits are referred to as inclined orbits.

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3) Altitude of Satellites
a. Geostationary orbit (GEO)
b. Medium earth orbit (MEO)
c. Low earth orbit (LEO)

Geometry Terms

• Elevation Angle (θ)

o The angle from the horizontal to the point on the center of the main beam of the
antenna when the antenna is pointed directly at the satellite.
• Minimum Elevation Angle
o The minimum elevation angle of the earth station's antenna be somewhat
greater than 0°
• Coverage Angle (β)
o The coverage angle is a measure of the portion of the earth's surface visible to
the satellite taking into account the minimum elevation angle.

Reasons affecting minimum elevation angle of earth station’s antenna (>0o)

• Buildings, trees, and other terrestrial objects block the line of sight
• Atmospheric attenuation is greater at low elevation angles
• Electrical noise generated by the earth's heat near its surface adversely affects
reception.

Geostationary Satellites (GEO)

If the satellite is in a circular orbit 35,863 km above the earth's surface and rotates in the
equatorial plane of the earth, it will rotate at exactly the same angular speed as the earth and
will remain above the same spot on the equator as the earth rotates.

Advantages
• There is no problem with frequency changes due to the relative motion of the satellite
and antennas on earth (Doppler Effect).
• Tracking of the satellite by its earth stations is simplified.
• High coverage area

Disadvantages
• The signal can get quite weak after traveling over 35,000 km.
• The Polar Regions are poorly served by geostationary satellites.
• Signal sending delay is substantial.

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Low-earth-orbiting satellites (LEO)

Characteristics
• Circular/slightly elliptical orbit under 2000 km
• Orbit period ranges from 1.5 to 2 hours
• Diameter of coverage is about 8000 km
• Round-trip signal propagation delay less than 20 ms
• Maximum satellite visible time up to 20 min
• System must cope with large Doppler shifts
• Atmospheric drag results in orbital deterioration

Categories

1) Little LEOs
• Frequencies below 1 GHz
• 5MHz of bandwidth
• Data rates up to 10 kbps
• Aimed at paging, tracking, and low-rate messaging

2) Big LEOs
• Frequencies above 1 GHz
• Support data rates up to a few megabits per sec
• Offer same services as little LEOs in addition to voice and positioning services

Medium-earth-orbiting satellites (MEOS)

Characteristics
• Circular orbit at an altitude in the range of 5000 to 12,000 km
• Orbit period of 6 hours
• Diameter of coverage is 10,000 to 15,000 km
• Round trip signal propagation delay less than 50 ms
• Maximum satellite visible time is a few hours

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Frequency Bands Available for Satellite Communications

Satellite Footprint
At microwave frequencies, which are used in satellite communications, highly
directional antennas are used. Thus, the signal from a satellite is not isotropically broadcast
but is aimed at a specific point on the earth, depending on which area of coverage is desired.
The center point of that area will receive the highest radiated power, and the power drops off
as you move away from the center point in any direction. This effect is typically displayed in
a pattern known as a satellite footprint.

Lecturer Kashif Laeeq Wasti Prepared by: Farrukh Ali

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Lecturer Kashif Laeeq Wasti Prepared by: Farrukh Ali

 Wireless Communication

Chapter#10

Cellular Wireless Networks

Principles of Cellular Networks & its Organization

• The essence of a cellular network is the use of multiple low-power transmitters, on

the order of 100W or less.
• Due to small range transmitters an area can be divided into cells, each one served by
its own antenna.
• Each cell is allocated a band of frequencies and is served by a base station, consisting
of transmitter, receiver, and control unit.
• Adjacent cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid interference or crosstalk.
• If the width of a square cell is d, then a cell has four neighbors at a distance d and four
neighbors at a distance .
• For a cell radius R, the distance between the cell center and each adjacent cell center
is
d=

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Frequency Reusability
• To use the same frequency band in multiple cells at some distance from one another.
• This allows the same frequency band to be used for multiple simultaneous
conversations in different cells.
• In characterizing frequency reuse, the following parameters are commonly used:

D = minimum distance between centers of cells that use the same frequency band (called co-
channels )
R = radius of a cell
d = distance between centers of adjacent cells (d = )
N = number of cells in a repetitious pattern (each cell in the pattern uses a unique set of
frequency bands), termed the reuse factor

Increasing Capacity
In time, as more customers use the system, traffic may build up so that there are not
enough frequency bands assigned to a cell to handle its calls.
Following approaches have been used to cope with this situation:

• Frequency borrowing
o Frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by congested cells.

• Cell splitting
o Cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells.

• Cell sectoring
o A cell is divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors, each with its own set
of channels, typically 3 or 6 sectors per cell.

• Microcells
o As cells become smaller, antennas move from the tops of tall buildings or
hills, and finally to lamp posts, where they form microcells.
o Microcells are useful in city streets in congested areas, along highways, and
inside large public buildings.

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Cellular Systems

• Center of each cell is a base station (BS).

• The BS includes an antenna, a controller, and a number of transceivers, for
communicating on the channels assigned to that cell.
• The controller is used to handle the call process between the mobile unit and the rest
of the network.
• Each BS is connected to a mobile telecommunications switching office (MTSO).
• The link between an MTSO and a BS is by a wire line.
• Two types of channels are available between the mobile unit and the base station
(BS):
1. Control channels
 Used to exchange information having to do with setting up and
maintaining calls and with establishing a relationship between a mobile
unit and the nearest BS.

2. Traffic channels
 Carry a voice or data connection between users.

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Mobile Telecommunications Switching Office (MTSO) IMPORTANT

• The MTSO connects calls between mobile units.

• The MTSO is also connected to the telecommunications network and can make a
connection between a fixed subscriber to the public network and a mobile subscriber
to the cellular network.
• The following are the steps in a typical call between two mobile users within an area
controlled by a single MTSO:
o Mobile unit initialization
o Mobile-originated call
o Paging
o Call accepted
o Ongoing call
o Handoff

• Other functions
o Call blocking
o Can termination
o Call drop
o Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber

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GSM
(Global System for Mobile communications)

What is GSM?
GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is the technology that
underpins most of the world's mobile phone networks.

OR

A network which generally covers a fairly broad geographic area and which offers
customized travel, financial, reference and commercial information to smart-phone
subscribers.

GSM Network Architecture

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The GSM network can be divided into three broad parts. The Mobile Station is
carried by the subscriber; the Base Station Subsystem controls the radio link with the
Mobile Station. The Network Subsystem, the main part of which is the Mobile services
Switching Center, performs the switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or
mobile network users, as well as management of mobile services, such as authentication.

The boundaries at Um, Abis, and A refer to interfaces between functional

elements that are standardized in the GSM documents.

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GSM Interfaces

The different interfaces used in GSM are as follows:

1. Um (Radio Air) Interface – Interface between MS (Mobile Station) & BSS (Base
Station System). Um is used for providing circuit & packet data services over the
radio interface to the MS.
2. Abis Interface - The interface between BTS (Base Transceiver Station) & BSC
(Base Station Controller). This is responsible for carrying traffic and maintenance
data.
3. A Interface – This is the interface between a BSC & a MSC.

GSM Channels
GSM supports two types of channels:

1. Traffic Channels

These channels carry digitally encoded user speech or data. A GSM traffic channel
(TCH) carries speech and data traffic. Of each 26-frame multiframe, 24 frames are
used for traffic channels, one is used for the slow associated control channel
(SACCH) and one is measuring signal strength.

2. Control Channels (D Channel)

Signaling and synchronizing commands between Base Station and Mobile Station
are transmitted through these channels. There are three types of GSM control
channels:

i. Broadcast channels - The GSM broadcast channels are used to provide

information to a mobile station about the network and timing information
required for synchronization.
ii. Common control channels - The GSM common control channels are used
to inform mobile stations of incoming calls and to request and grant
channels.
iii. Dedicated control channels - GSM dedicated control channels carry data
used during connection establishment and for handover decisions.

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Mobile Station (MS)

A mobile station communicates across the Um interface, with a base station
transceiver in the same cell in which the mobile unit is located.

A mobile station is a combination of terminal equipment and subscriber data. The

terminal equipment as such is called ME (Mobile Equipment) and the subscriber’s data
is stored in a separate module called SIM (Subscriber Identity Module).

The SIM is a portable device in the form of a smart card or plug-in module that
stores the subscriber's identification number, the networks the subscriber is authorized to
use, encryption keys, and other information specific to the subscriber.

Base Station SubSystem (BSS)

Base Station Subsystem is composed of two parts that communicate across the
standardized Abis interface allowing operation between components made by different
suppliers.

A base station subsystem (BSS) consists of a BSC (Base Station Controller) and one or
more BTS (Base Transceiver Stations).

1. Base Transceiver Station (BTS) - The base transceiver station (BTS) handles the
radio interface to the mobile station. The base transceiver station is the radio
equipment (transceivers and antennas).

2. Base Station Controller (BSC) - The BSC provides the control functions and
physical links between the MSC (Mobile Switching Center) and BTS. It handles
radio channel setup, frequency hopping, and handovers. A number of BSCs are
served by a MSC.

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Network SubSystem (NS)

The network subsystem provides the link between the cellular network and the
public switched telecommunications networks. The NS controls handoffs between cells
in different BSSs, authenticates users and validates their accounts, and includes functions
for enabling worldwide roaming of mobile users.

The main part of network subsystem is MSC (Mobile Switching Center) which
performs the switching of calls between the mobile & other fixed or mobile network
users, as well as the management of mobile services such as authentication.
It has three main jobs:
1) Connects calls from sender to receiver
2) Collects details of the calls made and received
3) Supervises operation of the rest of the network components

The switching system includes the following functional elements.

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

The central component of the Network Subsystem is the MSC. The MSC performs the
switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network users, as well as
the management of mobile services such as such as registration, authentication, location
updating, handovers, and call routing to a roaming subscriber. It also performs such
functions as toll ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signaling, and others.
Every MSC is identified by a unique ID. It is supported by four databases that it controls:

VLR AUC

NS
MSC

HLR EIR

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1. Home Location Register (HLR)

The HLR is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions. The HLR is
considered the most important database, as it stores permanent data about subscribers,
including a subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity status. When an
individual buys a subscription in the form of SIM then all the information about this
subscription is registered in the HLR of that operator.

2. Visitor Location Register (VLR)

The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers that is
needed by the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is always integrated
with the MSC. When a mobile station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to
that MSC will request data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile
station makes a call, the VLR will have the information needed for call setup without
having to interrogate the HLR each time.

3. Authentication Center (AUC)

The Authentication Center is a protected database that stores a copy of the secret key
stored in each subscriber's SIM card, which is used for authentication and ciphering of
the radio channel. The AUC protects network operators from different types of fraud
found in today's cellular world.

4. Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid
mobile equipment on the network, where its International Mobile Equipment Identity
(IMEI) identifies each MS. An IMEI is marked as invalid if it has been reported stolen or
is not type approved.

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Basic Features Provided by GSM

• Call Waiting - Notification of an incoming call while on the handset

• Call Hold - Put a caller on hold to take another call
• Call Forwarding - Calls can be sent to various numbers defined by the user
• Multi Party Call Conferencing - Link multiple calls together

Advanced Features Provided by GSM

• Calling Line ID - Incoming telephone number displayed
• Closed User Group - Call by dialing last for numbers
• Fax & Data - Virtual Office / Professional Office
• Roaming - Services and features can follow customer from market to market
• On-the-air privacy -The privacy is maintained by encryption of the digital data
according to a specific secret cryptographic key that is known only to the cellular
carrier and the key is changed with time.

Advantages of GSM
• Cleaner quieter calls
• Security against fraud and eavesdropping
• International roaming capability in over 100 countries
• Improved battery life
• Efficient network design for less expensive system expansion
• Advanced features such as short messaging and caller ID
• A wide variety of handsets and accessories

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