VNTR, STR and RFLP

Terry Kotrla, MS, MT(ASCP)

Objectives

• Briefly describe VNTR, STR and RFLP

• Describe the principle, including the target, for:
Southern, Western, Northern and Southwestern
blots.
• Compare and contrast the 4 blotting methods.
• Given a target state the best method for
detection.
• State 2 clinical applications for detecting VNTRs,
STRs and RFLPs.
• Given the background information and results of a
blot, interpret the results.
Introduction

• A wide variety of techniques exist in the molecular

laboratory.
• Knowledge of the targets and appropriate
techniques to detect them are an integral part of
molecular methods in the clinical laboratory.
• The following slides provide a review of targets
and techniques used to detect the targets.
Introduction

• VNTR – variable number tandem repeats

– Location in a genome where a short nucleotide is
organized as a tandem repeat
– These can be found on many chromosomes and
often show variations in length
– Each variant acts as an inherited allele allowing used
for identification
– Useful in genetics, biology research, forensics and
DNA fingerprinting
Introduction

• STR – short tandem repeat in DNA

– Occurs when a pattern of TWO or more nucleotides
are repeated and the repeated sequences are
adjacent to each other.
– Pattern can range in length from 2 to 10 bp
– Typically in non-coding intron region
– Count how many repeats of a specific STR at a given
locus can create unique genetic profile
– Currently over 10,000 published STR sequences in
human genome
– Prevalent method for determining genetic profiles in
forensic cases.
Introduction

• STR
– Analysis is performed by extracting nuclear DNA
from cells of interest.
• DNA is amplified using PCR.
• Tested by gel electrophoresis or capillary
electrophoresis.
Introduction

• RFLP – restriction fragment length polymorphism

– Variation in the DNA sequence of a genome detected
by breaking DNA into pieces with restriction
enzymes.
– Analyze fragment by gel electrophoresis
– Important tool in genome mapping, localization of
genetic disease genes, determination of risk for a
disease, genetic fingerprinting and paternity testing
Blotting

• All techniques use electrophoresis to separate.

• Difference in techniques lies in the target
• Four applications
– Western
– Southern
– Northern
– Southwestern
Western Blot

• A technique used to identify and locate proteins

based on their ability to bind to specific
antibodies.
• Detect protein of interest from a mixture of a great
number of proteins.
• Gives information about size of protein in
comparison to size marker or ladder.
• Similar in principle to ELISA, but is more specific.
Western Blot

• Procedure
– Separate proteins by SDS-PAGE
– Transfer proteins onto membrane
– Add primary antibody to protein of interest
– Add secondary antibody, specific for primary
antibody, attached to an enzyme
– Add substrate to visualize bands.
• Question: What is the purpose of the blocking
agent? Hint: review SDS-PAGE link at end of
presentation.
Western Blot
Southern Blot

• Southern blot hybridization is one of the most

commonly used molecular techniques to detect
specific DNA sequences using labeled probes.
• Four steps:
– DNA extraction
– Electrophoresis to separate
– Transfer to membrane
– Use labeled probes, which will hybridize to specific
sequence, to identify sequence of interest
Southern Blot
Southern Blot
Northern Blot

• Used to study gene expression.

• Similar to Western Blot but MAJOR difference is
that RNA is analyzed.
• Gels may be run on either agarose or denaturing
polyacrylamide, the latter being preferable for
smaller RNA fragments.
• Formaldahyde is added to gel and acts as a
denaturant to agarose.
• For polyacrylamide, urea is the denaturant.
• Not used much for diagnostic, mainly used in
research.
Northern Blot

• Three types of RNA: tRNA, rRNA and mRNA

• Northern blot isolates and hybridizes mRNA
• Procedure
– mRNA extracted from cells and purified
– Separate with electrophoresis
– Transfer onto membrane
– Use labelled probes to identify mRNA of interest
Northern Blot
Northern Blot
Southwestern Blot

• Combines features of Southern and Western

blotting techniques.
• For rapid characterization of both DNA binding
proteins and their specific sites on genomic DNA.
• Involves identifying and characterizing DNA-
binding proteins (proteins that bind to DNA) by
their ability to bind to a specific oligonucleotide
probes.
• Identification of protein factors that bind to genes
to turn them on or off is therefore important in
investigating gene functions.
• Primary use is for research, not clinical
applications.
Southwestern Blot

• Procedure
– Separate proteins using SDS-PAGE
– Renatured by removing SDS in presence of urea
– Transfer to membrane
– Genomic DNA of interest is digested by restriction
enzymes, labeled and added to separated proteins.
Comparison of Blotting Methods
Southern Northern Western Southwestern

What is DNA cut with Denatured RNA Protein denatured Characterizes

separated restriction with SDS DNA binding
enzymes proteins

Probe Radioactive Radioactive gene Antibody against Labelled DNA

gene X DNA X DNA protein X, labeled probes
with enzyme or
radioactivity

What do you Restriction map How much gene X How much protein Identify
learn of gene X mRNA is present. X is present. expression of
chromosome How long is gene How large is specific DNA
X mRNA protein X. binding proteins.
VNTR

• Rectangle blocks represent repeated DNA sequences at a

particular VNTR location
• Repeats are tandem – clustered together and oriented in
same direction
• Repeats can be removed or added leading to alleles with
different numbers of repeats.
VNTR

• VNTR blocks can be extracted with restriction enzymes

and analyzed by RFLP or amplified by PCR and size
determined by electrophoresis
• The picture below illustrates VNTR allelic length variation
among 6 individuals.
VNTR

• Important source of RFLP genetic markers used

in linkage analysis (mapping) of genomes.
• Has become essential to forensic crime
investigation.
• May use PCR.
• Size determined by gel electrophoresis and
Southern blotting to produce pattern of bands
unique to each individual.
• The likelihood of 2 unrelated individuals having
same allelic pattern extremely improbable.
• VNTR also being used to study genetic diversity
and breeding patterns in animals.
VNTR – Clinical Applications

• Microbiology
– VNTR typing as the next gold standard in the
molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis
– Genotyping for early diagnosis of M. tuberculosis
super-infection or mixed infection.
– Visit http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genomes/lproks.cgi
for list of organisms
• DNA fingerprinting
STR

• The following diagram illustrates how VNTR analysis can

be used to diagnose sickle cell anemia in a family.
• Parents are carriers (heterozygotes)
• Refer to http://tinyurl.com/c9xxr2 for the case study.
STR – Applications

• Forensics
– The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has
chosen 13 specific STR loci to serve as the standard
for CODIS.
– Mass disasters
– Paternity testing
– Military DNA “dog tag”
– Convicted felon DNA databases
• Bone marrow transplant follow up
– Important for establishing graft rejection and disease
relapse
– The ratio of allele peak heights between donor and
recipient good indication of success
RFLP - Applications

• Agriculture – direct method for selecting desirable

genes such as disease resistance
• Forensics
• Genetic mapping
– Determine disease status of an individual, ie,
Huntington’s chorea
– Cystic fibrosis
– Sickle cell anemia
• Genetic counseling – very important when
discussing results with patients or parents who
use this technology to have children who are free
of genetic disease.
Activities
• Review tutorial on Western Blot http://tinyurl.com/awaut3
• Review VNTR animation http://tinyurl.com/dawjau
• Review DNA fingerprinting http://tinyurl.com/co2yml
• Review DNA forensics Problem set 1 http://tinyurl.com/clsglg
• Review DNA forensics Problem set 2 http://tinyurl.com/b4tftq
• Review the RFLP applications http://tinyurl.com/djddcc
Vocabulary and Acronyms to review

• Intron
• PCR
• Restriction enzyme
• SDS-PAGE – review http://tinyurl.com/5c4wrx
References
• Molecular Technologies http://tinyurl.com/b56l43
• Molecular Searching Techniques http://tinyurl.com/bfbeal
• DNA Initiative http://www.dna.gov/basics/analysis/str
• DNA Diagnostics Center http://www.forensicdnacenter.com/dna-str.html
• RFLP http://tinyurl.com/djddcc
• Brief History of Forensic DNA Typing http://tinyurl.com/dmbgvl