Number Systems and Digital Circuits 1

1- NUMBER SYSTEMS AND DIGITAL CIRCUITS

Introduction : Modern computers do not work with decimal numbers. Instead

of, they process binary numbers, groups of Os and 1s. Why binary numbers?
Because electronic devices are most reliable when designed for two – states
(Binary ) operation either on or off. People do not like working with binary
numbers because they are very long. Entering binary numbers into computer
becomes tadeous. Therefore octal and Hexadecimal numbers are widely used
to compress long strings of binary numbers.

Gate is a circuit with one or more input singles but only one output signal. It is
used to construct a logical circuits which are the building blocks of a computer.
Therefore it is necessary to study the basic operation of gates and logical circuits.
This chapter discusses various number systems, gates and concepts needed to
understand computer operation.

1.1 Number System: In general, in any number system there is an ordered set
of symbols known as digits with rules defined for performing arithmetic operations
like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. A collection of these
digits makes a number which in general has two parts – integer and fractional,
set a part by a radix point ( . ), that is
(N)b = dn-1, dn-2 ---- d2 , ...... d1 , ........ d0 . d-1 , d-2...... d-f ..... d-m
Interger portion redix fractional portion
point
The digits in a number are placed side by side and each position in the number is
assigned a weight or index. Table 1.1 gives the details of commonly used number
systems.

Number Base or symbol used weight assigned example

system radix (b) (di or d-f) to position

Binary 2 0,1 2-i 2-f 1011.11

Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4 8-i 8-f 3567.25
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5 10-i 10-f 3974.57
Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
A,B,C,D,E,F 16-i 16-f 3FA9.56

1.2. Binary number system: The number system with base (or radix ) two is
known as the binary number system. Only two symbols are used to represent
2 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

numbers in this system and these are 0 and 1. these are known as bits. It is a
positional system, that is every position is assigned a specific weight.

Table 1.2 illustrates counting in binary number system. The corresponding decimal
numbers are given in the right – hand column. Similar to decimal number system
the left – most bit is known as most significant bit ( MSB) and the right – most
bit is known as the least significant bit(LSB). Any number of Os can be
added to the left of the number without changing the value of the number. A
group of four bits is known as nibble and a group of eight bits is known as a
byte.

Binary number Decimal Number

B3 B2 B1 B0 D1 D0

0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 2
0 0 1 1 0 3
0 1 0 0 0 4
0 1 0 1 0 5
0 1 1 0 0 6
0 1 1 1 0 7
1 0 0 0 0 8
1 0 0 1 0 9
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 2
1 1 0 1 1 3
1 1 1 0 1 4
1 1 1 1 1 5

Table 1.2 4- bit binary numbers and their corresponding decimal numbers.

Binary – to – decimal – conversation:

Any binary number can be converted into its equivalent decimal number using
the weights assigned to each bit position. Since only two digits are used, the
weights are powers of 2. these weights are20 ( Units ), 21 ( two s), 22 ( fours )
23 ( eights ) and 24 ( sixteen ). If longer binary number involved, the weights
continue in ascending powers of 2.
Number Systems and Digital Circuits 3

The decimal equivalent of a binary number equals the sum of all binary
number equal the sum of all binary digits multiplied by their weights.

Example 1.1 : Find the decimal equivalent of binary number 111112.

Solution: The equivalent decimal number is,

4 3 2 1 0
=1 x2 + 1x2 + 1x2 + 1x2 + 1x 2
= 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1
= ( 31 )
10

The steps involved in fast and easy conversion.

1. Write the binary number

2. Write the weights 1,2,4, 8 ………… under binary digits.
3. Cross out any weight under a 0 .
4. Add the remaining weights.

Example 1.2 : Convert binary number 1 1 0 1 2 into decimal number.

1) 1 1 0 1 write binary number

3 2 1 0
2) 2 2 2 2 write weights

3) 8 4 2 1 cross weight under 0

4) 1 x 8 +1 x 4 + 2 x 0 + 1 x 1 = 13 add weights

Example 1.3 :Convert 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 2

into decimal number

1 1 1 0 1 0 1
64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Æ117

Example 1.4: Determine the decimal numbers represented by the following

binary numbers.

a) 101101. 10101 n) 1001 . 0101

4 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Solution: (101101. 10101) =

2

1x 2 5 + 0 x 2 4 + 1x 2 3 + 1x 2 2 + 0 x 21 + 1x 2 0 + 1x 2 −1
+ 0 x 2 −2 + 1x 2 −3 + 0 x 2 −4 + 1x 2 −5

1 1 1
= 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 + +0 + + 0 +
2 8 32
= (45.65625)10

b) (1001.0101)2 = 8 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 0 = 0.25 + 0 + 0.625

= (9.3125)10

Decimal – to binary conversation: Any decimal number can be converted

into its equivalent binary number. For integers, the conversion is obtained by
contineous division by 2 and keeping track of the remainders, while for fractional
parts, the conversion is effected by continuous multiplications by 2 and keeping
track of the integers generated. The conversion process is illustrated by the
following examples.

How to convert decimal 13 to its binary equivalent.

2 |13
2| 6 − 1
2| 3 − 0
2|1 − 1
2| 0 − 1
13 = 1 1 0 1 Read down to up of remainders which is
10 2
equalent to binary number.

In this final division, 2 does not divide into therefore, the quotient is 0 with a
remainder of 1.

Whenever you arrive at a quotient of 0 with a remainder of 1, the conversion is

finished the reminders when read downward give the binary equivalent. In this
example, binary 1 1 0 1 is equivalent to decimal 13.
Number Systems and Digital Circuits 5

Example 1.5: convert decimal 23 to binary.

2 | 23
2 |11 − 1
2| 5 − 1
2| 2 − 1
2 |1 − 0
2| 0 − 1

Read binary number 23 = 10111

10 2
Read down to up and becomes binary equialent number
This says that binary 1 0 1 1 1 is equivalent to decimal 23.

Example 1.5: Convert ( 0.65625) 10 to an equivalent base –2 number.

Solution:
0.65625 0.31250 0.62500 0.25000
X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2
1.31250 0.62500 1.25000 0.50000

1 0 1 0
0.50000
X 2

1.00000

Thus, ( 0.62500 ) 10 = ( 0.10101 ) 2

Example 1.6: Express the following decimal numbers in the binary form.

a)25.5 b) 10.625

Solution:
a) Integer part:
6 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Thus, ( 25) 10 = ( 11001)2

2 | 25
2 |12 − 1
2| 6 − 0
2| 3 − 0
2 |1 − 1
2| 0 − 1

Read down to up

Fraction part 0. 5
X 2

1. 0

1
i.e 0 . 5 10 = 0.12

Therefore 25.510 = 11001.1 2

b) Integer part 1010 = 1010 2

Fractional part.
0.625 0.250 0.500
X2 X2 X2
1.250 0.500 1.000

1 0 1
i.e 10.625 = 1010.101
10 2

Therefore , 10.625 = 1010.101

10 2

1.3. Binary Arithmetic : We all are familiar with the arithmetic operations such
as additions, subtraction, multiplication and division of decimal numbers. Similar
operations can be performed on binary numbers. Binary arithmetic is much
simpler than decimal arithmetic because here only two digits, 0 and 1 are involved.
Number Systems and Digital Circuits 7

Binary addition: The rules of binary addition are given in the following table.

Augend 0 0 1 1 1 carry in from

addend +0 +1 +0 +1 1 previous table
sum 0 1 1 (1)0 (1)1

carryout to next most place

Example 1.7: Add the following binary numbers.

i) 1011 and 1100 ii) 0101 and 1111

Solution:i) 1 0 1 1 ii) 0 1 0 1
(+) 1 1 0 0 (+) 1 1 1 1

->1 0 1 1 1 Carry 1 0 1 0 0

Binary subtraction: The rules of binary subtraction are given in the table.

minus end 0 1 1 0
subtrats end -0 -1 -0 -1

difference 0 0 1 1

The first three rules are the same as in decimal subtraction. The last rule requires
a borrow from the next most significant place. The minuend is then binary 10
and the subtrahend is 1 with a difference of 1.

Example 1.8: perform the following subtraction.

i) 1011 ii) 01010101
__ 0110 __00111001

Solution: i) Subtraction ii) 10

0 10 10 0 10
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 __ 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1

1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
8 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Binary multiplication:

The rules of binary multiplication are given in the following table.

Multiplied 0 1 0 1
Multiplier X 0 X 0 X 1 X 1

Product 0 0 0 1

When the multiplier is 1 in binary multiplication, the multiplicand is copied as the

product. When the multiplier is 0, the product is always 0.

Example 1.9 perform the following multiplication

i) 1101 ii) 1001
X 101 X 1101

Sol: i) 1 1 0 1 X 1 0 1 ii) 1 0 0 1 X 1 1 0 1
1101 1001
0000 0000
1101 1001
111 1001

10110001 11 10 101

Observe: That binary multiplication is similar to decimal multiplication.

Binary division: Binary division is obtained using the same procedure as decimal
division. An example of binary division is given below.

Example. 1.10 divide 1 1 1 0 1 01 by 1 0 0 1

Solution: 1 1 0 1<------------------ quotient
Divisior: 1001) 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 <-- Dividend
1001
1011
1001
1001
1001
0
Number Systems and Digital Circuits 9

1.4. 1s complement of binary number: In a binary number, if each 1 is

represented by 0 and each 0 by 1, the resulting number is known as the one’s
complement of the first number. In fact, both the numbers are complement of
each other.

Example 1.11: find the one’s complement of the following.

Binary numbers. a) 1011000110 b) 00100101

s
Solution : a) 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 is 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
s
b) 00100101 1 complement number is 11011010
Two’s complement: If 1 is added to is complement of a binary number, the
resulting number is known as the two’s complement of the binary number. It
is also observed that the 2’s complement of the 2’s complement of a number is
the number is the number itself.

Example 1.12: Find the two’s complement of the following.

Solution: a) Number 01001110 b) 00110101

is complement 10110001 11001010
add 1 1 1
2’s complen 10110010 11001011

Octal number system : The number system with base ( or redixy) eight is
known as the octal number system. In this system eight symbols, 0, 1 , 2
,3,4,5,6, and 7 are used to represent the number. Similar to decimal and binary
number systems, it is also a positional system and has, in general, two parts :
Integer and fractional , set a part by a radix point. For example ( 6327. 4051)8
is an octal number. Using the weights it can be written as.

(6327. 4057 )8 = 6 x8 3 + 3 x8 2 + 2 x81 + 7 x8 0 +

4 x8 −1 + 0 x8 − 2 + 5 x8 −3 + 1x8 − 4
4 5 1
= 3072 + 192 + 16 + 7 + + 0 + +
8 512 4096
= (3287. 5100098)10
10 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Using the above procedure, an octal number can be converted into an equivalent
decimal number. The conversion from decimal to octal is similar to the conversion
procedure from decimal to binary. The only difference is that number 8 is used
tin place of 2 for division in the case of integers and for multiplication in the case
of fractional numbers.

Example 1.13
a) Convert 247 into octal
10
b) convert0.6875 into octal
10
c) convert 3287.5100098 into octal
10
Solution
8 | 247 Quotient Remainder
8 | 30 − 7 30 7
8|3 − 6 3 6
8|0 − 3 0 3
Read the number from down to up reminder part 3 6 7
b) 0.6 8 7 5 0.5000
X8 X8

5.5 0 0 0 4. 0 0 0 0

5 4 Thus (0.6875)10 = (0.54 )10

c) Integer Part:

8 | 3287 Quotient Remainder

8 | 410 − 7 410 7
8 | 51 − 2 51 2
8|6 − 3 6 3
8|0 − 6 0 6

Now read the number from down to up as 6327 = 3287

8 10
Number Systems and Digital Circuits 11

0. 5 1 0 0 0 9 8 0.0 8 0 0 7 8 4 0.6406272
X8 X8 X8

4. 0 8 0 0 7 8 4 0.6406272 5. 1250176

4 0 5

0.1250176
X8

1.0001408
Therefore 3287.5100098 = 6327. 4051
10 8

Octal to binary: Octal numbers can be converted into equivalent binary numbers
by replacing each octal digit by its 3 – bit binary equivalent. The following table
1.3 gives octal

Numbers and their binary equivalents for decimal numbers 0 to 15.

octal Decimal Binary
0 0 000
1 1 001
2 2 010
3 3 011
4 4 100
5 5 101
6 6 110
7 7 111
10 8 001000
11 9 001001
12 10 001010
13 11 001011

14 12 001100
15 13 001101
16 14 001110
17 15 001111
12 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Example 1.14: convert 7368 into an equivalent binary number.

Solution: From the above table, the binary equivalents of 7, 3 and 6 are 111,
011 & 110 respectively. Therefore 736 8 = 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 2

Binary to octal: Binary numbers can be converted into equivalent octal numbers
by making groups of three bits starting from LSB and moving towards MSB for
integer part of the number and then replacing each group of three bits by its
octal representation. For fractional part the groupings of three bits are made
starting from the binary point.

Example 1. 15: a) convert 1001102 to its octal equivalent.

Solution :
100110 = 001 001 110
2 2
= 1 1 6
8
= 116
8
Octal number:
0.10100110 = 0.101 001 100
2 2
= 0.5 1 4
8
= 0.514
8

Application of octal number system:

It is highly in convenient to handle long strings of binary numbers while entering

into the digital systems. It may cause errors also. Therefore, octal numbers are
used for entering binary data and displaying certain information.

Hexadecimal Number system: Hexadecimal number system is very popular

in computer uses. The base for hexadecimal number system is 16 which requires
16 distinct symbols to represent the number. These are numerals 0 through 9
and alphabets A through F. this is an alphanumeric number system because its
uses both alphabets and numericals to represent a hexadecimal number. Table
1.4 gives hexadecimal number with their binary equivalents for decimal numbers
0 through 15.
Number Systems and Digital Circuits 13

Table 1.4 Binary and decimal equivalents of hexadecimal numbers.

Hexadecimal Decimal Binary

0 0 0000
1 1 0001
2 2 0010
3 3 0011
4 4 0100
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
8 8 1000
9 9 1001
A 10 1010
B 11 1011
C 12 1100
D 13 1101
E 14 1110
F 15 1111

Hexadecimal – to decimal conversion: Hexadecimal numbers can be

converted to their equivalent decimal numbers.

Example 1.16: Obtain decimal equivalent of hexadecimal number

3A . 2F 16 solution.

3 A . 2 F16 = 3 x161 + 10 x 16 0 + 2 x 16 −1 + 15 x16 −2

2 15
= 48 + 10 + +
16 16 2
= 58.183610

Decimal – to Hexadecimal conversion: For conversion from decimal to

hexadecimal the procedure used in binary as well as octal system is applicable,
using 16 as the dividing ( nfor integer part) and multiplying ( for fractional part )
factor.
14 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Example 1. 17: convert the following decimal number into hexadecimal number.

Solution:

Integer Parat Quotient Remainder

16 | 95 5 15
16 | 5 - 15
16 | 0 - 5 0 5

5 F
Thus 95 = 5F
10 16

Fraction part: 0.5

x16
8.0

8 thus 0.5 = 0.8

10 16

Hexadecimal – to – binary conversion:

Hexadecimal numbers can be converted into equivalent binary numbers by
replacing each hex digit by its equivalent 4 – bit binary numbers.

Example 1.18: convert 2 F 9 A 16 to equivalent binary number using table 1.4

find the binary equivalent of each hex digit.
2 F . 9 A16 = 0010 1111 1001 1010 2
= 0010111110 011010 2

Binary – to Hexadecimal conversion: Binary numbers can be converted

into the equivalent hexadecimal numbers by making groups of four bits starting
from LSB and moving towards MSB for integers part and then replacing each
group of four bits by its hexadecimal representation.

For the fractional part, the above procedure is repeated starting from the bit
next to the binary point and moving towards the right.
Number Systems and Digital Circuits 15

Example 1.19. Convert the following binary numbers to their equivalent hex
numbers.

a) 10100110101111
b) 0.00011110101101.

Solution:

a) 101001101011112 = 0010
{ 1001
{ 1011
{ 1111
{
2 9 A F

∴ 101001101011112 = 29 AF16

b) 0.000111101011012 = 01
.0001
23 1110
{ 1011
{ 0100
{
1 E B 4

∴ 0.000111101011012 = 0.1EB 416

1.5. The ASCII code: To get information into and out of a computers, we need
to use numbers, letters, and other symbols. This implies some kind of alphanumeric
code for the I/O unit of a computer. At one time, every manufacturer had a
different code, which led to all kinds of confusion. Eventually, industry settle on
a input – output code known as the American Standard code for Information
Interchange ( abbreviated ASCII). This code allows manufacturers , to
standerdize I/O hardware such as keyboards, Printers, video displays, and so
on.

The ASCII ( Pronounced ask’ – ee ) code is a 7 – bit code whose format

(arrangement) is

Where each x is a 0 or a 1. for instant , the letter kA is coded as

16 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Table The ASCII code.

X X X X X X X
2 2 1 0 6 5 4

010 011 100 101 110 111

0000 SP 0 @ P P
0001 ! 1 A Q A q
0010 ,, 2 B R b r
0011 # 3 C S C S
0100 $ 4 D T d t
0101 % 5 E U e u
0110 & 6 F V f v
0111 , 7 G W g w
1000 ‘ 8 H X h x
1010 * 9 I Y i y
1011 + : J Z j z
1100 , ; K
1101 - = M
1110 . > N n
1111 1 ? 0 0

Table shows the ASCII code. Read the table the same as a graph. For instance
the letter A has an xxx of 100 and an X X X X of 0001. Its ASCII code is
3 2 1 0
100 0001 ( A)
Table includes the ASCII code for lowercase letters. The letter is coded as.
110 0001 (a)

1.6. Logic gates: Circuits used to process digital signals are called logic gates.
Logic symbols are used to identify these circuits. They have one or more input
signals but only one output signal. Gates are often called logic circuits because
they can be analyzed with Boolean algebra

INVERTERS:

An inverter is a gate with only one input signal and one out put signal; the out put
state is always the opposite of the input state :
Number Systems and Digital Circuits 17

Transistor Inverter

Fig. 1.1 shows a transistor inverter. This common – emitter amplifier switches
between cut off and saturation when V in is low ( approximately ) , the transistor
cuts off and Vout is high(1). On the other hand, a high Vin saturates the transistor,
forcing Vout to go low.

Table 1.5. summarizes the operation a low input produces a high outputs and a
high input results in a low output. Table 1.5 gives the same information in binary
form; binary 0 stands for low voltage and binary 1 for high voltage.

An inverter is also called a NOT gate because the output is not the same as the
input. The output is sometimes called the complement ( opposite) of the input.
Table 1.5 truth table of Not gate

V V V V
IN OUT IN OUT

Low High 0 1
High Low 1 0

V V Fig. No.1.1
IN OUT

Logic Symbol

OR gates

The OR gate has two or more input signals but only one output signal. If any
input signal is high, the output signal is high.

Diode OR Gate

Fig. 1.2 shows one way to build an orgate. If both inputs are low , the output
is low. If either input is high, the diode with the high input conducts and the
output is high. Because of the two inputs, we call this circuit a 2 – input OR
gate.
A
V0
B
Fig. No.1.2
18 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Table 1.6 two input OR gate:

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Table 1.6 summarizes the action; binary 0 stands for 10 w voltage and binary 1
for high voltage. Notice that one or more high inputs produces a high output;
this is why circuit is called an OR gate.

An OR gate can have as many inputs as desired; add one diode for each
additional input. Three diodes results in a 3 – input OR gate. No matter how
many inputs, OR gates always produce high output when one or more inputs
are high Fig. Shows the logic symbols for 2 and 3 OR gates.

A A
Y B Y
B C
Fig.No.1.3(a) Fig.No.1.3(b)
Its logical equation is given by

Y = A or B or C ---------- or N
= A + B + C + --------- + N

AND GATES:

The And gate has two or more input signals but only one output signal. All
inputs must be high to get a high output.
5V

A
Y
B
Fig. No. 1.4

Diode AND gate by using diodes

Number Systems and Digital Circuits 19

Diode and gate

Fig. 1.3 shows one way to build on AND gate. In this circuit the inputs can be
either low or high . when both inputs are low, both diodes conduct and pull the
output down to a low voltage. If one of the inputs is low and the other high, the
diode with the low input conducts and this pulls the output down to a low
voltage. The diode with the high input is reverse biased or cut off.

When both inputs are high both diodes are cut off since three is no current in the
resistor, the supply voltage pulls the output up to a high voltage ( + 5V)

Table 1. 7 – two – input AND gate:

A
A B Y B
Y

0 0 0
0 1 0 A
1 0 0 B Y
C
1 1 1
Fig No. 1.5

AND gates Logic Symbol

Table 1.7 summarize the action. As usual , binary zero stands for low voltage
and binary 1 for high voltage. As you see, A and B must be high to got a high
output; this is why the circuit is called an AND gate.

AND gates can have as many inputs as desired ; add one diode for each additional
input. Three diodes, result in an 3 – input and gate; No matter how many
inputs, and gate has, the action can be summarized like this; all inputs must be
high to get a high output for shows the logical symbols for 2 and 3 input and
gates. Its logical equation is given by

Y = A x B x C …………
Y = A.B.C …………N inputs
= ABC …………N inputs
20 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

NOR gates:

The NOR gate has tow or more input signals but only one output signal. All
inputs must be low to get a high output?

Fig No. 1.6

NOR gates logic Symbol

Fig . 1.4 NOR gate : a) logical meaning; b) standard symbol two – input gates

Fig. 1. 4 ( a) shows the logical structure of a nor gate, which is an OR gate

followed by an inverter. Therefore the final output is not the OR of the inputs.
Now , the circuit is now referred to as a NOR gate.

Fig. 1.4 b) is the standard symbol for a NOR gate. Notice that the inverter
triangle has been deleted and the small circle OR bubble moved to the OR gate
output. With fig 1.4 a) and b) the following ideas are clear. If both inputs are
low, the final output is high. If one input is low and the other high, the output is
low. and if both inputs are high. The output is low Table 1.8. two input NOR
gate
A B Y=A + B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

Table. 1.8. summarizes the circuit action. The NOR gate recognizes only the
input word whose bits are all Os in other words, all inputs must be low to get a
high output. The Boolean equation for a 2 – input NOR gate is

Y=A+B

Read this as “Y” equals NOT, A or B”. If you use this equation, remember
that the OR is done first, then the inversion.

Regardless of how many inputs a NOR gate has, it is still logically equivalent to
an OR gate followed by an inverter. Therefore, the boolean equation is
Number Systems and Digital Circuits 21

Y = A+B+C+………. + N
NAND GATES:

The NAND gate has two or more input signals but only one output signal. All
input signals must be high to get a low output.
A
B Y Y = ABC
C logical meaning

Fig. 1.6. NAND gate : standard symbol.

Two – Input – NAND gates

Fig 1.5 a) shows the logical structure of a NAND gate an gate followed by an
inverter. Therefore, the final output is NOT the AND of the inputs. Now the
circuit is referred to as a NAND gate.

Fig. 1.5 b) is the standard symbol for a NAND gate. The inverter triangle has
been deleted and the bubble moved inputs are low the result of anding is
low; therefore , the final inverted output is high only when all inputs are high
does the AND ing produce a high signal; then the final output is low.

Table 1.9 two input NAND gate:

Table 1.9 summarizes the action of a 2 – input NAND gate. As shown, the
NAND gate Recognizes any input word with one or more Os that is one or
more low inputs produce a high output. The Boolean equation for a 2 – input
NAND gate is.

A B AB
0 0 1
Y = AB 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
22 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Read high as “Y equals NOT, AB” if you use this equation remember that the
AND ing is done first then the inversion.

Regardless of how many inputs a NAN D gate has, it’s still logically equivalent
to an AND gate followed by an inverter. Therefore, the Boolean equation is

Y = ABC … N

Note : The NAND and NOR operation have become very popular and are
widely used, because either NAND or NOR are sufficient for the realization of
any logical expression. Because of this reason NAND and nor gates are known
as universal gates.

Ex– OR gates( Exclusive OR gate):

An OR gate recognizes words with one OR more 1s as inputs. Exclusive OR

gate is different; it recognizes only inputs that have an odd number of 1s.

A
Y = AB + AB
B

Fig. No. 1.7

Two input:

The above fig shows one way to build an exclusive – OR – gate, abbreviated
EX-OR. The upper and gate forms the produce AB, and the lower and gate
gives AB. The Boolean equation is
Y = AB + AB
In EXCLUSIVE - OR gate as got output, If and only if the two inputs are
different then only there is a output. If both inputs are equal there is no output.

A B AB + AB
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Number Systems and Digital Circuits 23

In Boolean algebra the sign (+) stands for EX - OR addition this means the
above equation can be written.
Y = AB + AB
Read this as “Y equals A EX - OR B”

EXCLUSIVE – NOR gates:

The EX – NOR gate, abbreviated nor is logically equivalent to an EX - NOR

gate followed by an inverter. For example fog. 1.7 (a) shows a 2 – input
EX - NOR gate.

A
Y =AB + AB
B

Fig 1.8. – A 2-input EX- NOR gate Symbol

Because of the inversion on the output side, the truth table of an xnor gate is the
complement of an xor truth table. As shown in table.1.11 the output is high
when the inputs are the same.

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Y = AB + AB

All the logic functions introduced are commercially available in integrated circuit
(IC) form. For example, available in 14 – pin DIP). It has four identical,
independent requires a + 56 V d.c. supply ( to be connected between Vcc and
GND Pins) for operation of gates. Table gives connections , electrical
characteristics, etc can be obtained from manufactures data catalogues.
24 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

1.7. Block diagram of 7400 IC

IC NO. DESCRIPTION
7400 Quad 2 - input Nand gates
7402 Quad 2 - input Nor gates
7404 Hex inverters
7408 Quad 2 - input and gates
7432 Quad 2 - input or gates
7486 Quad Ex - or gats
74135 Quad Ex - or / nor gatse
14 13 12 11 10 9 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig. No. 1.9
Block Diagram of 7400 IC
Some of available IC gates
1.8. HALF ADDER : A logical circuit for addition of two one bit numbers is
referred
to as an half – adder. fig.1.10 shows how to build a half adder. Here A and B
are two inputs. The output of the EX - OR gate is called the SUM. While the
output of the AND gate is the CARRY
The AND gate produces a high output only when both inputs are high. The
exclusive – or gate produces a high output if either input, but not both is high.
Table 1.12 shows the truth table of a half adder.

A B CARRY SUM
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
Number Systems and Digital Circuits 25

A
AB= carry
B

sum = AB+AB

Fig. No. 1.10

Half - Adder

When you examine each entry in table you can know the fact that a half – adder
performs binary addition. It does electronically when we do mentally when we
odd 2 bits. Here is the action, entry by entry.

1. when A = 0 and B = 0 , the sum is 0 with carry of 0;

2. When A = 0 and B = 1 the sum is 0 with carry of 0;
3. When A = 1 and B = 0 the sum is 1 with carry of 0;
4. When A = 1 and B = 1 the sum is 0 with carry of 1;

Applications for the half – adder are limited. We need a circuit that can add
3 – bits at a time.

1.10. Full adder : A logic circuit that can odd 3 bits at a time is to referred to
as a full adder. The third bit is the carry from, a lower column. Fig 1.11. shows
how to build a full adder. The output of the EX – OR gate is called the sum.
While the output of the orgate is the carry.
A B C

Carry

SUM

Fig. No. 1.11 Full - adder

26 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Fig. 1.9. A full adder

Table 1.13. full adder truth table

A B C CARRY SUM
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1

Table 1.13 shows the truth table of a full adder. When you examine each entry
in table you can see that a full adder performs. Binary addition on 3 bits.

Half – Subs tractor : A logic circuit for the substraction of B ( subtrahand )

from A ( minuend ) where A and B are 1 bit numbers is referred to as a half –
subtractor. Here, A and B are the two inputs and difference and borrow are the
two outputs.

Fig. 1.10 Realization of a half – substractor.

Table 1.14 Truth table of a half - substractor

A B Difference Borrow
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
Number Systems and Digital Circuits 27

Short answer questions

1) What is an ASCII code?

2) What is a logic circuit ?
3) What is meant by or gate?
4) What is meant by not gate?
5) What is meant by not gate
6) Why nor and nand gates are called universal gates ?
7) What is Half – adder?
8) What is full – adder ?
9) Draw the symbols of or and not gates?
10) Draw the symbols of nand, nor gates?
11) What is ex – or gate ?

SELF – TESTING REVIEW

1. Binary means ___________ binary numbers have a base of 2. the
digits used in a binary number system are ___________ and
___________( two ; 0; 1)
2. A gate is a logic circuit with one or more input signals but only
___________ output signal. These signals are either ___________
or high. ( one low )
3. An inverter is a gate with only ___________ input ; the output is always
in the opposite state from the input. An inverter is also called as
___________ gete. Sometimes the output is referred to as the
complement of the input ( 1 , not)
4. The orgate has two or more input signals; if any input is ___________
the output is high. The numbers of input words in a truth table always
equals ___________ where n is the number of input bits.
5. A nor gate has two or more input signals. All inputs must be
___________ to get a high output. A nor gate recognizes only the
input word whose bits are ___________the nor gate is logically
equivalent to or gate followed by an ___________ (low Os inverter)
6. A NAND gate is equivalent to an AND gate followed by an inverter.
All inputs must be ___________ to get a low output. Demorgan’s
second theorem says that a nand gate is equivalent to a bubbled
___________ gate ( high , or )
28 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

PROBLEMS
1. Convert the following binary numbers to decimal numbers
a) 0011 b) 110011

2. Convert 0 the following hexadecimal numbers to binary.

a) FF b) ABC

3. Convert the binary numbers to hexadecimal number.

a) 111 0 1000 b) 11001011

4. Convert the hexadecimal numbers to decimal equivalent

a) FF b) 9B
5. Convert the decimal numbers to hexadecimal;
a) 4,095 b) 16, 383

6. If you cascade seven inverters, does the overall circuit act like
an inverter or non inverter?

Long Answers & questions

1. Explain the operation of two input or gate with its truth table?
2. Explain the operation of transistor INVERTER?
3. Explain the operation of two input And gate with its truth table ?
4. Explain the operation of nand gate with its truth?
5. Explain the operation of half – adder circuit?
6. Explain the operation of nor gate with its truth table ?
7. Explain the operation of full adder circuit?
8. What is ex – or and ex – nor gates ? explain ?
Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters 29

2- FLIP – FLOPS , REGISTERS AND COUNTERS

2.0.Introduction :

Gates are decision making elements. As studied in the preceeding chapter,

they can perform binary addition and subtractions. But these elements are not
enough. A computer also needs memory elements, devices that can store a
binary digit. A flip – flop is one such circuit, and characteristics of the most
common types of flip – flops are used in digital systems are considered in this
chapter. They are used in the construction of Registers and counters, and in
numerous other applications.

A register is another important digital building block. It is simply a group of flip

– flops that can be used to store binary information. The other kind of Registers
will modify the stored word by shifting its bits left or right. A counter is a special
kind of register, designed to count the number of clock pulses arriving at its
input. This chapter discusses some basic registers and counters used in micro
computer. A brief introduction of Multiplier / Demultiplexer and encoder /
decoder is presented.

2.2. RS LATCHES:
A flip flop is a device with two stable states; it remains in one of these states until
triggered into the other. The RS latch/flip-flop , discussed in this section, is one
of the simplest flip-flop.

Transistor Latch:
In fig 2.1 a each collection drives the opposite has through a 100 kΩ resister. In
this circuit, one of the transistors is saturated and the other is cut off. For instance,
if the right transistor is saturated, its collector voltage is approximately OV. This
means that there is no base abive for the left transistor so it cuts off and its
collector voltage approaches. + 5 . V this high voltage produces enough base
current in the right transistor to sustain its saturation. The overall circuit is latched
with the left transistor cut off ( dark shading ) and the right transistor saturated.
O is approximately OV.

By a similar arguments, if the left transistor is saturated, the right transistor is cut
off fig b illustrates this other state. Q is approximately 5 V for this condition.
Output Q can be low or high binary 0 or 1.
30 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

+5V +5V
5k 5k
SK SK Rc SK SK Rc

RB RB RB RB

100k 100k 100k 100k

Latched state (a) Latched state (a)

Fig. No.2.1
Control Inputs:
The control the bit stored in the latch , we can add the inputs shown in fig. 2.1
these control inputs will be either low ( OV) or high (+ 5 V). A high set input S
forces the left transistor to saturates. As soon as the left transistor saturates.
The overall circuit latches and Q = 1.
+5V
5k
SK SK Rc

RB RB

100k 100k

S trigger inputs
R
Fig. No.2.2

Once set, the output will remain a 1 even though the S input goes back to OV a
high reset input R drives the high right transistor into saturation. Once this
happens the circuit latches and Q = 0.

Truth Table:

Table 2.1 summarizes the operation of the transistor latch. With both control
inputs low no change can occur in the output and the circuit remains latched in
the last state.
Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters 31

Table 7.1 Transistor Latch

R S Q COMMENTS

0 0 NC No Changes
0 1 1 Set
1 0 0 Reset
1 1 * Race

When R is low and S is high, the circuit sets the Q output to a high. One the
other hand, if R is high and S is low the Q output resets to a low.

S Q
RACE CONDITION

R Q-

Fig. No.2.3
Look at the last entry in table 7.1 R and S are simultaneously. This is called a
race condition; it is never used because it leads to unpredictable operation.
If both control inputs are high both transistors saturated when the R and S inputs
return to low, both transistor try to come out of saturation. It is a race between
the transistors to see which one desaturates first. The faster transistor ( the one
with the shorter saturation delay time) will win the race and latch the circuit. If
the faster transistor is on the left side of fig C, the Q output will be 10 W. If the
faster transistor is on the right side, the Q output will go high.

NOR LATCHES:

A discrete circuit like Fig. 2.1 C is rarely used because we are in the age of
integrated circuits. Now a days you build Rs. Latches with nor gates or NAND
gates.
R
Q

S Q-

Fig. No.2.4
32 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Fig. 2.2 shows how it’s done with NOR gates.

It is the most basic and useful sequential logic circuit. It is called the R – S flip
– flop because it has two inputs. The S( set ) and R ( reset ) inputs. The two
outputs denoted by Q and Q are complementary to each other. Whenever, Q is
at the state 1 , the Q is at the state 0 and vice versa.

Table 2.2 NOR latch.

R S Q COMMENTS
0 0 NC No Changes
0 1 1 Set
1 0 0 Reset
1 1 * Race
As shown in table a low R and a low S give us the inactive state; that is
remain circuit remains in the same state. A low R and a high S represent the set
state, while a high R and a low S give the reset state. Finally, a high R and a high
S produce a race conditions therefore, we must avoid R = S = 1 when using a
NOR latch.

NAND LATCHES:
A slightly different latch can be constructed by using NAND gates as shown in
figure 2.3 to understand how this circuit functions, recall that a low on any input
to a nand gate will force its output high. Thus a low R and high S set a Q to low
and Q = 0 A high R and low S reset Q to low.

Because of NAND gate inversion, the in active and race conditions are reversed.

R Q R S Q Comments
Q

0 0 * Race
Q-
0 1 1 Set
S 1 0 0 Reset
Fig. No.2.5
1 1 NC No Changes

2.3 NAND gate latch and truth table.

Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters 33

Clocked RS flip – flop

Two different methods for constructing an RS flip – flop were discussed in the
previous section with NOR gate and NAND gate realization. Both of these RS
flip – flops or latches, are said to be “transparent “; that is any change in input at
R or S is transmitted immediately to the output at Q and Q thus they acts as
short term memory.

It is possible to store or clock the flip – flop in order to store information ( set it
or reset it ) at any time, and then hold the stored information for any desired
period of time. This flip – flop is called clocked RS flip – flop.

The circuit of a clocked RS flip – flop is shown in figure 2.6 with its symbol and
truth table.

R R1

Q
CLK

Q-

S1
S
Fig. No. 2.6

CLK R S Q
0 0 0 NC
0 0 1 NC
0 1 0 NC
0 1 1 NC
1 0 0 NC
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 * ( Race)
34 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Fig. 2.4 clocked RS flip – flop x symbol and its truth table

It consists of two additional and gates added at the input of R S flip – flop.
In addition to control inputs R and S, there is a clock input CK.

The output of the two and circuits ( S1 and R1 ) will be 0 as long as CK = 0. then
the state of the flip – flop will remain unchanged and if S = 0 , R = 1 then S = 0
R = 1 and the flip – flop is reset to 0. On the other hand if S = 1 , R = 0 then
S =1 R = 1 and the flip flop is set to 1. the presence of R1 =1 and S1 =1 , will
however , results in an undetermined state.

JK FLIP – FLOP
Fig. 2.5 shows one way to build a JK flip – flop the variables J and K are called
control inputs because they determine what the flip – flop does on the arrival of
a positive clock edge.

J
S Q

CLK

R Q
K

CLK K L Q
0 X X NC
1 X X NC
X X NC
X 0 0 NC
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 Toggle

Fig2.7 JK flip flop symbol and its truth table.

Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters 35

Inactiver: When J and K are both low, both AND gates are disabled and the
circuit is inactive at all times including the rising edge of the clock.

Reset : When J is low and K is high, the upper gate is disabled; so there is no
way to set the flip - flop. The only possibility is reset. When Q is high, the lower
gate passes a reset trigger as soon as the next positive clock edge arrives. This
forces Q to become low. Therefore, J=0 and K=1 means that the next positive
clock edge resets the flip-flop.

Set: When J is high and K is low, the lower gate is disabled; So it is impossible
to reset the flip-flop. But you can set the flip-flop as follows. When Q is low, Q
is high; therefore, the upper gate passes a set trigger on the positive clock edge.
This drives Q into the high state. That is , J=1 and K =0 means that the next
positive clock edge sets the flip - flop.

Toggle: When J and K both are high ( notice taht this is the forbidden state with
an RS flip - flop), it is possible to set or reset the flip - flop. If Q is high, the lower
gate passes a reset trigger on the next positive clock edge. When Q is low, the
upper gate passes a set trigger on the next positive clock edge. Either way Q
changes to the compliment of the last state. Therefore, J =1 and K=1 means
that the flip - flop will toggle on the next positive clock edge.
(“toggle” means switch to opposite state)

JK MASTER - SLAVE FLIP-FLOP:

a master - slave flip-flop is a combination of two clocked latches. The
first one is called master and second one is the slave. Here are master is positively
clocked while slave is negatively clocked.
This means:
1. While the clock is high, the master is active and slave is inactive.
2. While the clock is low, the master is inactive and slave is active.

Fig. 2.8. shows the logic diagram of JK master - slave flip - flop; symbol and its
truth table.
CLK J K Q
X 0 0 NC
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 Toggle
36 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

J Q S J Q

Master Slave
F.F F.F
R
K Q K Q

Logic diagram

J Q

M/S

K Q

LLR
Symbol Fig No. 2.8

Set: To start tghe analysis, let’s assume low Q and high Q. For an input
condition of high J, law K and high CLK, the master goes into the set state,
producing high S and Low R. Nothing happens to the Q and Q outputs because
the slave is inactive while the clock is high. When the clock goes low, the high
S and low R forces tghe slave into the set state, producing a high Q and a low
Q.

Reset: When the slave is set, Q is high and Q is low. for the input condition of
low J, high K and high CLK, tghe master will reset, forling S to go low and R
to go hig. again, no changes can occur in Q and Q because tghe slave is in
active while the clock is high. When the clock returns to low state, the low S
and high R forces the slave to reset.

Toggle: If the J and K inputs are both high, the master toggles once while the
clock is high and then slave toggles once when the clock goes low.

The basic idea behind the master slave flip - flop is that, every action the
master slave flip - flop is that, every action of the master with high CLK is
copied by teh slave when CLK goes low. It is used to avoid reacing condition.
Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters 37

D Flip - flop: We will modify the design of Rs flopo flop to eliminate the possibility
of a raced condition. the rsult is a new kind of flip - flop known as D loatch.

D R

Q
D Q
0 0
1 1
Q
S

Fig. No. 2.9

Fig. 2.9. shows one way to build a D latch ( unlocked) because of the
inverter, data bit D drives the S input of a NAND latch and compliment D drives
tghe R input. Therefore, a high D sets the latch, and low D reset it. Observe,
there is no race condition in this truth table. The inverter guarantees that S and
R will always be in opposite states. Therefore it is impossible to set up a race
condition in the D latch.
Applications of Flip - Flops: Some of the common uses of flip - flops are:

1) latch
2) Registers
3) Counters
4) Memory ( RAM)

2.3. Need for a Register: As discussed in previous section a flip – flop can
store
1 – bit of digital information ( 1 or 0 ) it is also referred to as a 1- bit register.

But in digital system a situation will a raise to store more than 1 – bit of
information. For example, the binary number 0101 is called as 4 bit binary
number. A 4 – bit register is needed to store this 4 bit binary number. There are
4 flip flop’s in an 4 bit register 8 flip flops in an 8 bit register, and so on.

The 8 bit and 16 bit registers are extensively used as a part of CPU of a
8/ 16 – bit microprocessors. They are involved in all mathematical / logical
operations that can be performed by CPU and in storing the information
temporarily.
 38 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Register : . A register is simply a group of flip – flops ( memory elements ) that

can be used to store binary information. There must be one flip – flop for each
bit in the binary number. For example a register used to store an 8 – bit binary
number must have eight flip – flops.

Types of Register :
E
Registers are classified depending upon the way in which data are entered and
retrieved. There are four possible modes of operation :
1. Serial in – serial out
2. Serial in – parallel out
3. Parallel in – serial out
4. Parallel in – parallel out
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

A B C D E F G H

a b c d e f g h

2.4. Transferring data from Register to Register : A register is used to

enter data into a microprocessor or computer and extract data from it. Wire
cables are generally used in transferring the data. If a parallel register is used,
the data is shifted in parallel . an 8 – bit register required a cable having at least
8 wires, and 16 wires for a 16 –0 bit register and so on.
R R R R
e e e e
g g g g

i i i i
A (8) s B A (16)
s s s B

t t t t
e e e e

r r r r

(a) An 8-bit data bus (b) An 16-bit data bus

Fig. No. 2.10
Data also transferred ( shifted) between register within a digital system. It is
common registers within a digital system. It is common practice to use an arrow
between registers for these collections of wires. The number 8 in parentheses
means that there are 8 wires and used to transfer 8 bit of data in parallel from
register A to register B.
Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters 39

The eight wires represented by this arrow are called a data bus. The double
arrow shown in fig. 2. 10 (b) means 16 – bits of data can be shifted in parallel
from A to B or from B to A. this is a 16 – bit bi-directional data bus.

Buffer Register : A buffer register is the simplest land of registers. If simply

stores a digital word. The given fig. 2.11 shows a buffer register built with
positive edge triggered
X D flip – flops
X X X

Q3 D3 Q2 D1 Q1 D1 Q0 D0

CLK

Fig. No. 2.11

The X – bits ( X3 X2 X1 X0 ) are used for loading ( storing ) the flip –

flops. Therefore when a positive clock pulse arrives, the “X” bits entered into
the flip – flops and stored word becomes.
Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0 = X 3 X 2 X1 X 0

2.5. Shift Registers: Registers in which data are entered obtain out in serial
form are called as shift Registers. It moves the stored bits in the right direction
( right - shift – register ) or in the left direction ( left – shift register ) with the
occurrence of clock pulses. This bit shifting is essential for certain arithmetic and
logical operations used in micro processors.

2.6. Left – shift register: Fig. 2.12 is a shift left register. As shown dim sets
up the right flip – flop. Q sets up the second flip – flop Q the third, and so on.
When the positive clock strikes the stored bits move one position to the left.
Q1 D1 Din
Q3 D3 Q2 D1 Q0 D0

CLK

Fig. 2.12 Shift left register

As an example , consider
40 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Q = 0 0 0 0 and dim = 1 ( i.e D = 1)

All data inputs except the one on the right are OS. The arrival of first clock
pulse sets the right flip flop and the stored word becomes, Q = 0001

This new word means D as well as D now equal 1. when the next clock pulse
hits, the Q flip – flop sets and the stored word becomes Q = 0011

One the arrival of third clock pulse Q becomes. Q = 0111 and the fourth clock
pulse gives Q = 1111.

Right – Shift Register: Fig. 2.12 is a shift right register. As shown each Q
output sets up the D input of the preceding flip flop. When the positive clock
pulse arrives, the stored bits move one position to the right.

Q3 D3 Q2 D1 Q1 D1 Q0 D0
Din

Fig. 2.13 Shift Right register

As an example , consider Q = 0000 and Dim = 1 ( That is D == 1) All

data inputs except the one on the left are O s. The arrival of first clock pulse sets
the left flip – flop and the stored word becomes, Q = 1000.

This new word means D as well as D1 now equals 1 . when the next
clock pulse hits, the Q2 flip – flop sets and the stored word becomes Q = 1100

The third clock pulse give Q = 1110 and the forth clock pulse give Q = 1111.

2.70. Counters: A counter is a special kind of register, designed to count the

number of clock pulses arriving at its input. It is one of the most useful subsystem
in a digital systems. The input to this counter is a rectangular waveform called
clock. Each time the clock signal changes state from low to high, the counter
will add one (1) to the number stored in its slip flop. This means the counter will
count the number of clock transitions from low to high.
Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters 41

A B C D E n

|H 1 2 3 4 5 6

L
0000
(Begin) 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0110
(End)

Fig. No. 2.14

A clock having a small circle (bubble) in the input side would count clock
transitions form high to low. Since clock pulses occur at know intervals, the
counter can be used as an instrument for measuring time and therefore frequency.
There are basically two different types of counters synchronous and
Asynchronous.

A ripple counter can be constructed by use of clocked JK flip flops as

shown in the Fig. 2.14. here negative edge triggered, JK flip – flops are
connected in cascade. The clock pulse ( square wave ) drivers flip – flop A.
the output of A drives B, and the output of B drives flip flop C. All the J and K
inputs are tied to + Vcc. This means that each flip – flop will change state(
toggles) with negative transition at its input.

High
Q3 J3 Q2 J2 Q1 J1 Q0 J0

Q3 K3 Q2 K2 Q1 K1 Q0 K0

CLR

Fig. 2-16 Synchronous counter

The above waveforms shows the action of counter. Let’s assume that all
the flip – flops are reset to produce 0 outputs. If we consider A output as least
– significant Bit (L.S.B) and C the most – significant Bit ( MSB) then the contents
of the counter is CBA = 000

For every clock transition flip flop A will change state. This is indicated
by arrows ( ) on the time line. Thus at point a on the time line A goes high, at
42 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

point B it goes back low, at C it goes back high and so on.

Since A acts as clock for B, for each negative transition in A , flip – flop
B will toggle. Thus at point b on the time line B goes high; it then goes low at d
and toggles back high again at pint F.

Similarly B acts as clock for C , for each negative transition in B, flip –

flop C, will toggle. Thus C goes high at point d and goes back at point h.

If we observe the output condition of all flip flop it is the binary number
equivalent to the number of negative clock transitions that are occurring. Prior
to point A, the output is CBA = 000 at point a it changes to CBA = 001, at
point b it changes to 010, and so on. That is counter content advances on count
with each negative clock transition. It is summarized in the truth table.

It is observed that a counter having n flip – flop will have 2n output

conditions. For example. The three flip – flop counter just discussed has 23 =
8 output conditions ( 000 through 111). The largest number that can be
represented by n flip – flop has decimal equivalent of ( 2n- 1). In this example,
it is ( 23 – 1) 7.

A three flip – flop counter is also called a modulus – 8 counter ( mod – 8)

since it has eight states. Similarly mod = 16. mod – 32and mod – 64 counters
are also available.

Synchronous counters: The ripple counter is the simplest of all kinds of

counters. But the problem with it is its delay time. In a ripple counter each flip
– flop has a delay time and these delay times are additive. Therefore the total
“settling” time for the counter is equal to the delay time multiplied by total number
of flip – flops. This problem can be overcome by the use of a synchronous or
parallel counter. Here every flip – flop is triggered in synchronism with the
clock.

The following fig. 2.15 shows how to build a synchronous counter with
positive – edge triggered flip – flop. Here the clock pulses drive all the flip –
flop in parallel.

The J and K inputs of Q0 flip – flop are tied to a high voltage. Therefore,
Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters 43

it responds to each positive clock edge. But he remaining flip flops can responds
to the tve clock edge with certain conditions. The Q1 flip flop toggles on the tve
clock edge only when Q0 is 1. the Q2 flip flop toggles only when Q1 , Q0 and
are 1 s. the Q3 a flip flop toggles only when Q2 ,Q1 and Q0 are 1. That is , a
flip - flop toggles on the next tve clock edge if all lower bits are1s.

Here is the counting action. A low CLR reset the counter. Q = 0000.

When the CLR goes high, the counter is ready to go. The first + ve clock edge
sets Q, therefore Q = 0001.

Since Q is now 1 , the Q flip – flop toggles on the next positive clock
edge. When the second + ve clock edge arrives, Q and Q simultaneously toggle
and the o/p word becomes , Q = 0010. the third + ve clock edge advances the
count by 1; and the o/p world becomes , Q = 0011. Because Q and Q are
now is, the Q, Q and Q flip – flops are toggled on the next + ve clock edge(
fourth clock pulse) and the output word becomes Q = 0100.

For successive + ve clock edges Q words are 0101, 0110, 0111 and so
up to 1111. the next + ve clock edge reset the counter and cycle repeats.

Ring Counter: A ring counter is a shift – left register because the bits are
shifted left one position per positive clock edge. But the final output is feedback
to the Do input. This kind of action is known as “rotate left” the bits are shifted
left and fed back to the input.

The following figure is a ring counter built with D flip flops. The Q0
output sets the D1 input the Q1 output sets the D2 input, and so on.

Q3 J3 Q2 J2 Q1 J1 Q0 PR J0

Q3 K3 Q2 K2 Q1 K1 Q0 K0

CLR

Fig. 2-16 Ring counter

When CLR goes low, the initial o /p word is Q = 0001. the first positive
clock edge shifts MSB into LSB. The other bits shift left one position. Therefore
the output word becomes Q = 0010.
44 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

The second positive clock edge causes another rotate left and o/p word
becomes Q = 0100.

After third positive clock edge, the output word is Q = 1000.

The fourth positive clock edge starts the cycle and rotate left produces
Q = 0001.

The stored 1 bit follows a circular path. This is why the circuit is called a
ring counter. By adding more flip – flops we can build a ring counter of any
length.

2.8. Decode counter ( Mode – 10 counter) : A counter with 10 distinct

states is known as a decade counter. This counter counts 10 sequences and
reset on
10 th clock pulse. That is , the circuit count and from 0000 to 1001 and on the
tenth clock pulse, it generates its own clear signal and count jump back to
0000. The following is the mod – 10 counter design.

The counter can be reset, if the AND gate output is low. This can be
happened with a low CLR or low Y. Initially low CLR produce Q = 0000.
when CLR is high, the counter is ready and count sequence progress.

The output of the NAND gate is, Y = Q3 Q1. This output is high for the
first nine states ( 0000 to 1001). Nothing happens when the circuit is counting
from 0 to 9. on the tenth clock pulse, the Q word becomes; Q = 1010, which
means that Q3 and Q1 are high. Then immediately Y goes low, forcing the
counter to reset to Q = 0000.
High

Q3 J3 Q2 J2 Q1 J1 Q0 PR J0

CLK

Q3 K3 Q2 K2 Q1 K1 Q0 K0

CLR

Fig. 2-17 Decade counter

Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters 45

2.9. Applications of counters: Some of the common uses of digital counters

are as follows.

1. To count the number of events that are happening in an operation.

2. An instrument for measuring time and therefore frequency.
3. To construct for measuring time and therefore frequency.
4. In a digital voltmeters and frequency counters.
5. To count and control a sequence of operations in a microprocessors
and computers.

Asynchronous counter( ripple counter) : When the output of a flip – flop is

used as the clock input for the next flip – flop we call the counter as a ripple
counter or asynchronous counter. The triggers move through the flip – flops
like ripple in water – because of this, the over all settling time is the sum of the
individual delays. The ripple counter is simple in operation and construction
and need a minimum of Hardware.
+vCC
J A J B J C Negative State
Clock C B A or
transitions count
K A K B K C 0 0 0 0 0
a 0 0 1 1
b 0 1 0 2
A B C c 0 1 1 3

d 1 0 0 4
K K K K K K K K K K
Time e 1 0 1 5
f 1 1 0 6
g 1 1 1 7
Cock
h 0 0 0 0
A

B
C

Fig. No. 2.15

Multiplexer : The term multiplex means “many to one”. A Multiplexer is a
circuit with many inputs but only one output. By applying control signals, we
can steer ( allow ) any input to the output. Fig. Illustrates the idea.

There are n input lines. There is a single output line which is connected to
the computer. By applying control signals on the C bus , the switch will connect
to one of the input lines. Then the data from that input line is entered into the
computer. Change in the control signals will connect a different input. Thus,
46 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

data from multiple sources can be connected to a single port.

C C

n
n One
One output
input output
output lines
lines line
line

Fig. 2.19 a) A multiplexer. (b) A demultiplexer ( DEMUX)

Demultiplexer: The opposite of multiples is Demultiplex, which means “

One to many”. A demultiplex is a logic circuit signal, we can steer the input
signal to one of the output lines. Fig. 2. 19 (b) illustrate the general idea. This
digital circuit simply connects the single data input line to one of the output lines,
according to the control signals on the C bus. Thus serial data from the computer
can be directed to different destinations.

Encoder: Any information entered into a digital system must be in the form of
digital number. A circuit that changes data into an required digital form is called
an encoder. The following is the encoder which will change a decimal number
into its binary equivalent. It may be used with keyboard. For example, when
you press the number 4 on a key board, it will produce a high on s /p line 4 of
the encoder. The all other input lines are to be low., this will results in encoder
output as binary number 0100 which is binary equivalent of decimal number 4.

0 0
1 1
2 2
3 A A 3
B Decimal Decimal
inputs
Decimal 4 B 4
C outputs inputs
Decimal
inputs 5 C 5
6 D D 6
7 7
8 8
9 9

Fig. 2.20 a) An encoder b) A decoder

Decoder : Taking digital information from the output of a computer and changing
it into decimal form is done with a circuit called decoder. The decoder as
shown in fig. 2. 19 (b) will accept a 4 – bit binary number and indicate its
Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters 47

decimal equivalent between 0 and 9. as shown the binary input 0110 will cause
output line 6 to be high, while all other output lines remain low.

Short answer questions:

1. What is a latch ?
2. What is a flip – flop?
3. Name the types of flip – flops ?
4. Give the applications of flip – flops ?
5. What is a register ?
6. What are the types of Register ?
7. What are the applications of Registers?
8. What is a counter?
9. What is a ring counter?
10. What is a decade – counter?
11. What are the applications of counters?
12. What is Multiplexer?
13. What is Demultiplexer?
14. What is a decoder?
15. What is a encoder?

Long answers Questions:

1. Explain the operation of NOR and NAND latcher?

2. Explain the operation of CLK R – S flip flop ?
3. Explain the operation of J – K flip – flop ?
4. Explain the operation of J – K master – slave flip – flop ?
5. Explain the operation of D flip – flop?
6. Explain the operation of Shift – left register?
7. Explain the operation of shift – right register ?
8. Explain the operation of ripple counter?
9. Explain the operation of synchronous counter?
10. Explain the operation of Decade counter?
 48 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

3- SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORIES
3.0.Introduction:

The ability to store information in an important requirement in a digital

system circuits or systems designed for this purpose are called as memory. It is
a part of computer where the program and data area stored. A flip flop and
Register are two kinds of simple memory elements which can store a one bit and
a one word of binary information.

In a large system, such as a microcomputer, a huge amount of registers

each storing a binary with thousands of registers each storing a binary word.
The latest generation of computer uses semiconductor memories because they
are less expensive and easy to work. A typical microcomputer has a
semiconductor memory of 655360 memory locations, each capable of storing 1
byte ( 8 – bit size) of information

3.1. Semiconductor memories:

Recent developments in semiconductor technology have provided a

number or reliable and economical MSI and LSI memory circuits. The typical
semiconductor memory consists of a rectangular array of memory cells. The
basic memory cell is typically a transistor flip flop or a circuit capable of storing
charge and used to store 1 bit of information. The two general categories of
semiconductor memories are RAM and ROM. They can be further divided
into various types as illustrated in fig. 1

RAM
Random Access Memory

SRAM SRAM
Static RAM Dynamic RAM
Bipolar MOS DOS
ROM
Read Only Memory

SRAM EEPROM
EPROM
Programmable Electrically
Erasable
ROM erasable PROM
Fig. No. 3.1 Bipolar MOS
PROM
MOS
MOS
Semiconductor Memories 49

3.2 Memory as a shift registor

All these memories are classified as either bipolar , metal oxide

semiconductor (MOS) or complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS),
according to the type of transistor used to construct the basic memory cell.

Moving storing the data into memory is called write operation. Copying /
detecting data from memory, without destroying the contents, is called read
operation. The read/ write memory is most often called a RAM( Random Access
Memory) Generally RAM is volatile, which means it will be lost its data if the
power to the IC is turned off for even an instant.

RAM s are further subdivided into two groups namely static RAM and
Dynamic RAM. The static RAM retains stored information indefinitely as long
as the IC is powered. A dynamic RAM, on the other hand, does not retain
stored data indefinitely. The stored data must be stored again ( refreshed)
periodically. SRAMS are used in high – speed operations such as cache memory.
DRAMS are used as the bulk of the memory.

3.3. Memory Terminology:

Read only memories come in four versions. The standard ROM is

programmed by the manufacturer. The PROM can be programmed permanently
by the user or manufacturer using special equipment. It can be programmed
only once. The EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) can
be programmed and erased by the user. Stored data in EPROM can be erased
by passing high – intensity ultraviolet light through a special transparent window
in the top of the IC. Another erasable PROM is the EEPROM ( electrically
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) . The EEPROM can be erased
and programmed by the user with special equipment. It is erased electrically
rather than with ultraviolet light. All the types of ROM s are non volatile light.
All the types of ROM s area non volatile, which means they will not lose their
data when power to the IC is turned off:
 50 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Diode ROM: Figure shows how to build a ROM

Tagle 9.1. Diode ROM

Register Address Word

R0 0 0111
R1 1 1000
R2 2 1011
R3 3 1100
R4 4 0110
R5 5 1001
R6 6 0011
R7 7 1100

R0

R0

R0

R0

R0

R0

R0

R0
D3 D2 D1 D0

Fig. 3.2 ROM with on-chip decoding

Each horizontal row is a register or memory location. The R0 Register
contains three diodes, the R1 register has one diode, and son on. The output of
ROM is the word, D = D3 D2 D1 D0.
Semiconductor Memories 51

As shown in the table, the address of a memory location is the same as

the subscript of the register storing the word. The address of memory locations
can be known with three input pins A2 A1 and A0. the 1 – of – 8 decoder
produce a high output to one of the registers depending on logic bits present on
input pins (A2 – A0). For examples if ADDRESS = A2 A1 A0 = 100.

The 1 of – 8 decoder applies a high voltage to the R4 register, and ROM

output is D= = 0110.

If you change the address word to ADDRESS = 110.

You will read the contents of memory location 6, which is D = 0011.

The above circuit is a 32 – bit ROM organized a s8 words of 4 bits each.

It has three address ( input) lines and four data ( output) lines. This is a vary
small ROM compared with other rooms.

PROMS AND EPROMS: The term ROM is generally reserved for memory
chips that are programmed by the manufacturer. You have to send a list of data
to be stored in the different memory locations to the manufacturer, who then
produce a mask. Now the user can be able to read the stored. Data from the
ROM.

Programmable: A programmable ROM(PROM) is different. It allows the

user to store the data. An instrument called a PROM programmer is used in
storing the data( also called “burning in”). once this has been done, the
programming is permanent, that is the stored bits cannot be erased.

Erasable: The erasable PROM(EPROM) used MOSFETs. Data is stored

with a PROM programmer. Later , data can be erased with ultraviolet light
passing through a window present on the top of memory chip. This releases
stored charges and the effect is to wipe out the stored contents. The user can
erase and store until the program and data are perfected.

EEPROM: Another type of reprogrammable ROM device is the EEPROM

(Electrically Erasable Read Only Memory). It is a non volatile like EPROM but
does not require ultraviolet light to erase the data. It can be erased by using
electrical pulses. It can be used for slower application.
52 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Semi conductor RAM’s: Semiconductor RAMs may be static or dynamic.

The static RAM uses bipolar or MOS flip – flops . A dynamic RAM uses
MOSFET s and capacitors to store the data. The stored data must be refreshed
( Recharged) for every few milliseconds. Because the capacitor charge leaks
off.

Static RAM: The figure shows one of the flip flops used in a static MOSRAM.
Q1 and Q2 acts like switches. Q3 and Q4 are active leads which means they
behave like resistors. The Circuit action is similar to the transistor latch discussed
in chapter2. Either Q1 is cut off or vice versa. A static RAM will contain
thousands of flip – flop like this. As long as power is applied, the flip flop
remains latched and can store the bit indefinitely. Sense
line

Storage
Q3 Q4 Capacitor

X X
Q2
Q1 Control
line

Fig. 9-4(a) Static Cell Fig. 9-4(b)

Dynamic RAM: Figure shown one of the memory elements( called calls) in a
dynamic RAM. When the sense and control lines go high, the MOSFET conducts
and charges the capacitor. When the sense and control – lines go low, the
MOSFET opens and the capacitor retains its charge. In this way, it can store 1
bit. A dynamic RAM may contain thousand of memory cells like this.

Since only a single MOSFET and capacitor are needed, the dynamic RAM
contains more memory cells than a static RAM of the same physical size. The
disadvantage of dynamic RAM is the need to refresh the capacitor charge every
few milliseconds.

BASIC MEMORY TERMINOLOGY:

Word Length: The number of bits stored in a memory location is called its
word length. It will depend upon the number of flip – flops in a row of the
register. Generally 4, 8 and 16 size of memory locations are available in
Semiconductor Memories 53

semiconductor memories.

CAPACITY: The capacity or size of a memory is defined as the number of

memory locations available in the memory multiplied by the number of bits in
each location. Mathematically it is given by.

C= MxN
Where, C is the no. of memory locations and
N is the no of bits in each memory location.

The commonly used values of the number of memory location are 64, 256, 512,
1024, 2048, 4096 and the number of bits in each memory location( i.e. word
length) are 1,4 and 8.

Address: The different memory locations in a memory chip are identified by its
unique address. This unique address is identified by placing appropriate 0 s and
1s on the address pins. For accessing any one of M memory locations,
P address lines are required , where 2p = m. This set of P lines is called address
bus. For example , a ROM with 256 memory locations can be accessed with 8
address lines. ( 28 = 256)

Write operation: Moving 1 storing the data into the selected memory location
is called write operation. For writing a word into a particular memory location,
the following sequence of operations is to be performed.
1) The chip select signal is applied to the CS terminal.
2) Place the DATA to be stored on the data – input terminals.
3) Place the ADDRESS of the desired memory location on
the address – input terminal.
4) Finally apply a write command signal to the write control
input terminal.
In response to the above operations, the information memory location is
cleared off and the information present on the DATA input terminal is stored.

Read Operation: Copying/ detecting data from memory, without destroying

the contents, is called read operation. For reading a data from a particular
memory location, the following sequence of operation is to be performed.
 54 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

1) The chip select signal is to be applied to the CS terminal.

2) Place the ADDRESS of desired memory location on the address –
input terminal.
3) Apply a READ command signal to the read control input terminal.

In response to the above operations, the data from the addressed memory
location appears on the DATA – OUTPUT terminal.

Write cycle Time ( TWC) This is the minimum amount of time for which the
valid address must be present for writing a word in the memory. That is, it is the
minimum time required between two successive write operations.

Read cycle time ( TRC) : This is the maximum time amount of time for which
the valid address must be present for reading a word from the memory. That is,
it is the minimum time required between two successive read operations.

Sequential access memory: It is a memory in which the words ( data’s) are

stored – in and read out in sequence. For example if the 10th location is being
th
accessed at a particular time, then 15 location is not accessable, unless all
th
other intermediate locations ( i.e. 11,12,13 and 14 ) have been accessed one
– by – one. This means that the access time is not same for all the locations.

Advantages of semiconductor memories: The following are the major

advantage of semiconductor memories.
1) They are available in small size (min the form of Ics)
2) Low cost and high speed of operations
3) High Reliability
4) Easy to expand memory size( capacity)

Applications: The following are some of basic applications of semiconductor

memories.

1) RAMS are used for temporary storage of user programs and data.
2) SRAMS are used for cache memory.
3) ROMs are most often used of storing permanent instruction
necessary for stratup and operation of a computer.
4) In micro controllers for specialized applications.
Semiconductor Memories 55

Short answer questions:

1) What is a memory
2) What is semiconductor memory?
3) What are the types of memories?
4) What is a ROM and RAM?
5) What is EPROM?
6) What is the difference between SRAM and DRAM?
7) What is a cache memory?
8) What is a word length.
9) What is a write operation?
10) What is a read operation?
11) What is a access time.
12) What are the advantages of semi conductor memories?
13) Give the applications of memories?
Long answer questions:

1) Classify the semi conductor memories?

2) Explain the operation of diode ROM memory?
3) Explain the operation of SRAM and DRAM?
4) Explain the READ operation?
5) Explain the write operation?
6) Explain the address of memory?
7) What is the capacity of memory? Explain?
 56 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

4 – A/ D AND D/ A CONVERTERS

4.0. Introduction: Digital systems are widely used in many applications such as
communication , control , computers, instrumentations…… etc. In many of
these applications , the signals are available only in analog form , but not in digital
form. Hence by using digital hardware. These analog signals have to be converted
into digital form. The process of converting analog signals into digital form is
known as analog to digital conversion ( A/D). the system which is used for this
process is known as ‘A/D converter ( ADC)

Conversely, it is often necessary to convert the digital output of the system

into analog voltage or current. This process is known as ‘Digital to analog
conversion’ ( D/A) and the system used for this purpose is known as digital to
analog D/A converter (DAC).

4.1 Need for A/D and D/A conversion: In many of the applications digital
systems must be interfaced with analog equipment. In such cases, the digital
system is needed for A/D and D/A converters ; for the communication or the
data transfer with analog equipment.

1) In the Fig. 2.1 shows a typical situation in which the digital system has
analog inputs and outputs.

The input section is a variable voltage source, giving a continous voltage

ranging from 0 to 10 V. then the A/D converter translates the analog input digital
data. After the computer of processing the data in the digital system, the system
gives the digital 1 data output. This output will be translated into an analog
voltage by the D/A converter. This output analog voltage is indicated by the
voltmeter.
Analog
output
Variable No Digital D/A
Voltage Converter System converter V
Source

Fig. 4.1 Digital System with A/D and D/A converters

A/D, D/A Converters 57

Thus the above situation necessitate A/D and D/A converters along with
the digital system.

2) Similarly , a digital communication system is used to transmit the signals,

which are in the form of electric signals. This necessitate or requires an D/A
converter at the transmitting end and a A/D converter at the receiving end.

4.2 Methods of A/D and D/A conversions:

Digital to Analog (D/A ) Conversion: The process of converting a
digital signal into analog is known as ‘Digital – to – analog ‘ (D/A) conversion.
There is two types of D/A converters 1) Weighted – Register D/A converter
2) R – 2 R D/A converter.

Basic Principle of D/A conversion :

The basic principle of operation of D/A conversion is shown in the block diagram
of a D/A converter in the below figure.

Voltage 1s Resistive
switches 2s summing
with 4s network Amplifiers Analog
output
Reference 8s
Voltage
source

Fig. No. 4.2

Block Diagrame of D/ A converters
Let the input digital data is applied to the voltage switches. The switches are
with reference voltage source (Vref ); in which each source feeds a precisely
regulated voltage to the switches. When the binary signals of digital data are
applied on voltage switches, then the switches provide one of two possible
outputs; i.e.OV or the precision source voltage. The switches feed resistive
summing network which converts each bit into its weighted current value and
sums them for a total current. This total value is then fed to the amplifier and
gives the proper analog voltage value for the equivalent digital data. In most of
the converters, operational amplifier ( OP-AMP) is mostly used. Note that this
amplifier performs two functions. These are current to voltage conversion and
scaling. So that the output voltage of the D/A converter will be the proper
value.
58 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

4.3 Counter type A/D converter: The block diagram of a counter type 4 –
bit A/D converter is shown in the fig below. It employs a voltage comparator, an
and gate a BCD counter and a D/A converter. Digital input

8s 4s 2s 1s
D 3 D2 D1 D0
AND
CLK BCD
Counter

Ananlog input
Voltage
Compar
atore
D/A
Coun
ter

Fee back Voltage

Fig. No. 4.3

Black diagram of A counter type 4 - bit aid converter

Operation : Let the counter begin RESET and the output of the D/A converter
is zero. Apply the analog voltage at the input. If the analog input voltage at A is
grater than the voltage at the input B of the comparator, then the output of the
comparator switches to a high state and enables the AND gate. The clock pulse
is allowed to increase or advance the count of the BCD counter through its
binary states. The counter continues to advance from one binary state to the
next producing successively higher steps and the count will be displayed at the
digital or binary output as D D D D. the count on the counter increases until the
feed back voltage from the D/A converter increases becomes greater than the
analog input voltage. Whenever the voltage at B is greater than at A, the
comparator output will go low and disables the AND gate. It results the cutting
off the clock pulses to stop the counter. The state of the counter at this point
equals the number of steps in the reference voltage or feed back voltage at
which the comparison occurs voltage. Note that for each of sample of analog
voltage, the counter must count from zero up to point at which the feed
back voltage reaches the analog input voltage.

Thus A/D converter produces the digital output of an analog input voltage.

Disadvantages : 1) Slow speed of operation is the main drawback of this

method. In the worst case of maximum input, the counter must sequence through
its maximum number of states before the conversion occurs. For a 4 –0 bit, 8 –
A/D, D/A Converters 59

bit and 16 – bit conversions, this means a maximum of 16, 256 and 4096 counter
states are required respectively.

2) For each sample of analog voltage, the counter must count from zero up to
the point at which the feed back voltage reaches the analog input voltage.

3) The conversion time varies , depending upon the analog voltage.

4.4 D/A Conversion using ladder network :

To overcome the difficulties in the weighted resistors method, R – 2R

ladder type resistive network is commonly used in integrated D/A converters.
This method eliminates the range problem, because only two resistance values
are needed the tolerance problem is minimized. An integrated ladder can divide
the current more accurately than a binary weighted circuit even when the number
of bits increases.

A 4 –bit D/A converter that uses R – 2 R ladder type resistance network

is shown in the below fig. The function of this R – 2 R ladder resistor network is
the same as the at of the binary weighted resistor network. The advantage of
the ladder type network is that only two values of resistors are needed; i.e one
2 time ( 2 R) the other resistor. Hence the network has the name R – 2 R
resistor network.
Voltage switches with Vref

(MSB)

(LSB)

R1

2R 2R 2R 2R

2 R1 R2 R3 R4

2R
R-2 Resistive Summing

Amplifier

Fig. (1) R-2 R Ladder Types 4 - bit D/A Converter

Fig. No. 4.4

 60 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

A B C D

Vp
(LSB)

2R 2R 2R 2R (MSB)

2R R R R
A1 B1 C1 D1

B C D C D
A 2R B
R R R R R R R R

2R 2R 2R 2R 2R

B1
A
1
D 1
B1 C1 C1 D1

D
2R
D D 2R
R R VR
VR
24
23

C1 D1 D1
Fig. No. 4.5
Analog – To – Digital (A/.D) Conversion : Much of the information provided
in a digital system exists first in analog form requiring conversion to digital. The
process of converting analog signal into digital is known as ‘Analog – to –
digital[ A/D ]conversion’ there are many methods for A/D conversion with
varying conversion rate with varying conversion rates, cost and susceptibility to
noise. In this section we shall examine the major methods which are used in
various applications these are counter method and successive approximation
method.
A/D, D/A Converters 61

Operation : The operation of the circuit can be simplified by using Thevenins

theorem. Let us assume that the digital input is 0001, i.e SO = 1, S1 = 0 S2 =
0 and S3 = 3. by the application of thevenins theorem to the resistive network
of the figure at A A of the circuit in Fig.1 ( A) we can simplify the circuit as
shown in the fig. 1(b), In the AA- section , the two 2 R resistors are in Parallel
and its equivalent resistance is R. Similarly, by using this theorem at BB1, CC1
and DD1 we have the circuit as shown in figure 1(c) (d) (e) respectively. Thus,
the LSB has been assumed as 1 and the equivalent voltage is VR / 24
Similarly for the digital input 0010, 0100 and 1000 the equivalent voltages
the V / 23 and V /22 respectively. Note that the value of equivalent resistance
in 3 R in each case.

The equivalent circuit of the fig 1 is given in the fig 2 (a)

From the circuit of the above figure, the output analog voltage can be
determined. As per with binary progression of the switches Vo is given by

 Rf V Rf VR Rf VR Rf VR 
V0 = −  . R4 So + S1 + S2 + . S3
 3R 2 3R 2 3
3R 2 2
3R 21 

V0 =−
Rf VLR 3
3R 2 4
[
2 S 3 + 2 2 S 2 + 21 S1 + 2 0 S 0]
( where minus sign indicates the phase inversion )
Thus , by using the above expression; the analog output voltage is determined
for various switch positions of the digital input.

Short answer questions:

1) What is A/D converter?

2) What is D/A converter?
3) What are the types of D/A converters?
4) What are the types of A/D converters?

Long answer questions:

1) Explain the operation of R – 2R ladder D/A converters?

2) Explain the operation of Counter type A/D converters?
 Table 5.1 Intel’s family Processors and Their features

Microprocessors

Number Systems and Digital Circuits

features 8085 8086 80186 80286 80386 80486 Pentium Pentiium II Pentium - III

Year 1976 1978 1980 1983 1984 1995 1997 1999

Data
Bus 8 bits 16 bits 16 bits 16 bits 32bits 32bits 64 bits 64 bits 64bits
With

Address
Bus 16bits 20 bits 20bits 24bits 32bits 32bits 32bits 36 bits 36 bits
Width

Memory
Size 64 KB 1 MB 1 MB 16 MB 32 MB 4GB 4 GB 4 GB 4 GB

Clock
Frequency 3 mHz 5mHz 6mHz 12mHz 33mHz 66mHz 200mHz 266mHz 266mHz

75
 62 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

5 – FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS
Introduction: The computers is making an impact on every aspect of our lives.
They have been in general use since 1950s. formerly, they were large, expensive
and used only by government agencies, big universities and large corporations.

The size and shape of the computer has changed in the past few years because
of a device called “ Microprocessor”. A computer designed using
microprocessor is called a “Microcomputer”. This chapter introduces the basic
structure of a computer, that is its basic components and interaction between
them.

Definition of the computer: A computer may be defined as “an electronic

machine which accepts data and instructions in coded forms as inputs, stores
them as long as required, processes the data as per the instructions and
communicates the results in some human language as the outputs”.

A set of instructions written for the computer to perform a task is called a program
and a group of programs is called software.

Computer organization (block Diagram of computer): Fig. 5.1 shows a

simplified structure of a microcomputer. It includes five basic components: the
input unit, the control and arithmetic ,output and unit. The physical units shown
in boxes are called as hardware. The arrows between them gives an indication
of signal flow.

input CPU output

control + arithmetic

program data
memory memory
Memory
Fig. No. 5.1
How the computer works can be explained briefly in the following manner.
Both program and data are fed into the CPU and transferred to their respective
memory
locations. The CPU reads instructions from the memory and performs the task
specified by the instruction on the data. This action of CPU on the data is called
Fundamentals of Computer 63

execution. After the completion of execution, the results are transferred to the
output of the computer.

The input and output devices are known as Peripherals. The control unit is a
part of CPU and has a function to control various operations in the microcomputer.

INTERACTION BETWEEN CPU, MEMORY AND I/O DEVICES

The computer is programmable ; that is, it can be instructed to perform tasks
within its capability. The person( here called as programmer) using a computer
can select appropriate instructions and ask the computer to perform various
tasks on a given set of data. Now, the equation is: where does he write those
instructions and enter data?. The answer is memory.

Memory: Memory is like the page of note book with space for a fixed number
of binary numbers on each line. Generally each line has space for eight binary
bits. The user writes the necessary instructions and data in memory. He asks
the computer to perform the given task and find an answer. But, here also a
quation araises. How does he can enter those instructions and data into the
computer’s memory? The answers are input and output( I./O) devices.

Input/ Output: The user can enter instructions and data into memory through
input devices such as a keyboard, A/D converters and so on. The ASCII
keyboard is similar to a typewriter keyboard and it is used to enter programs in
an English – like language.

After performing the given task, the result from CPU can be taken through
output devices such as printer, Cathode Ray Tube and Magnetic Tape.

Now the Quation is; where the computer processes data. This is done with the
group of logic circuits called Central Processing Unit( CPU)

CPU: The Central Processing Unit of a computer consists of various registers

to store data, the Arithmetic Logic Unit ( ALU) to perform arithmetic and
logical operations. The CPU reads instructions from the memory and Performs
the tasks specified. The CPU ineracts(Communicates) with input / output devices
to accept or to send data.

In addition to working Registers and ALU, The CPU consists instruction decoder,
counters and control lines. The control Unit provides the necessary in the
microcomputer. It controls the flow of data between the Micro processor and
 64 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

peripheral including memory.

Functions of memory / CPU: The functions of various components of a

microcomputer can be summarized as follows.

Memory: The memory block shown in fig. 5.1 has two sections: Read Only
Memory ( ROM) and Read write Memory(R/WM), popularly known as Random
Access Memory ( RAM). The Monitor programs of a microcomputer are
generally stored in the ROM. The Read/ write memory is also known as user
memory. It is used to store user programs and data. The memory functions are,

1) It stores binary instructions and data called as programs.

2) It provides the instructions and data to the CPU on request
3) It stores intermediate results and data for the CPU.
4) The uses system bus to transfer programs and data.

C.P.U. :The Central Processing Unit(CPU) is the brain of a digital computer. It

is constructed using an ALU along with a number of registers and counters. The
CPU is therefore the primary centre for computation and decision making. The
primary functions of CPU are,

1) It will fetch, decode and execute program instructions in the proper

order.
2) It transfer data to and from memory; and to and from the input /
output sections.
3) It provide overall timing control signals for the entire system.
4) It respond to external interrupts.

5.4 Functions of I/O Devices: Input / Output devices are the two basic
components that can provide a link between a computer and outside world.
They are normally abbreviated as I/O devices. An input device allows data and
information to enter into a micro computer in a machine readable form ( binary
word). An output device receives information from the micro computer and
present into a form which can easily be read by people.

The functions of input device are,

1) It accepts ( reads) the data from outside world
2) It converts the data in binary form that can be acceptable by the
Fundamentals of Computer 65

computer.
3) It sends data in binary form to the computer for further processing.
The generally used input devices are keyboard, mouse, floppy disk, OMR Sheets,
Scanner, microphone and web camera.
The functions of output devices are,

1) It accepts data in binary form from computer.

2) It converts the coded data into human acceptable form
3) Sends the converted result to the outside world.
The generally used output devices are Monitor, printer, speakers, floppy drives
and Plotters.

5.5STATE RELAVANCE OF SPEED AND WORLD LENGTH FOR

CPU PERFORMANCE.
Computers (or processors) recognize and operate in binary numbers. These
binary numbers are combined to form a word. A word or word length is defined
as the number of bits the computer can recognize and process at a time. The
word length ranges from 4 bits for small computers to 32 bit for large computers.
The another name to word length is byte. A byte is defined as a group of 8 bits.
For example, a 16 – bit microprocessor has a word length of 2 bytes.

The number of bits in a word or word length for a given computer( or) processor
) is fixed and words are formed through various combinations of these bits.

If width of the registers in a processor is increased, the number of data and

address pins may also be made larger so that the data transfer rate ( i.e. speed
of the processor) and memory capacity are increased. That means, increase in
world length will improve the CPU performance in the following manner.

1) Increase the computational capability of the processor(or) the

execution speed.
2) Increase memory addressing capacity.
3) Provide a powerful instruction set
4) Facilitate programming in high – level languages.

5.6 Functional Blocks of CPU: The main functioning unit of any computer
system is called the Central Processing Unit. The primary functions of CPU are
already discussed in section 5.3. The major functional blocks includes the various
registers, the arithmetic and logic unit, the instruction decoder, the important
control and timing section, along with inputs and outputs as shown in fig. 5.2
 66 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Temporary
Arithmetic and register
logi unit
Internal bus

Internal bus
Accemulator
Buffer / lach

Buffer
Program Counter

Instruction Instruction
decoder register

Timing and control

CPU
Fig. No. 5.2

a) Instruction Register and decoder: The instruction register holds the

instruction read from ROM. The decoder sends the control signals appropriate
to the decoder instruction to the decoded instruction to the ALU.

b) Arithmetic logic Unit: This unit is used to Perform all the arithmetic and
logic operations, such as additions, multiplication , comparison etc.

c) Control Unit: This unit coordinates the activities of the all other units in the
system. Its main functions are,

1) To control the transfer of data and information between various units.

2) To initiate appropriate functions by the arithmetic unit.

5.7 CURRENT FAMILY OF CPU’S USED IN COMPUTERS

Today’s CPU market is dominated by two Vendors; Intel corporation of
America(Intel’s) and American Micro Devices (AMD). Intel’s CPU offers form
8085 to Pentium line, the celron, the hig end Xeron and Ultra – high – end
Itanium Processors. AMD gives us the Athlon, Duron and Athlon Xp product
families.

Intel’s 80186,8.0286,80386,80486 and Pentium are the first processors to have

a 32 – bit and 64 – bits data bus. The Intel family processors with their features
are given in table 5.1.
Fundamentals of Computer 67

5.8. TYPES OF MEMORY USED IN COMPUTERS

The following are some important RAM and ROM memories recently used in
computers.

RAM’s Memory:

SIMM: Signal Inline Memory Module (SIMM) is one of the most commonly
used form of memory. SIMM RAM sticks came in either 30 pin SIMM has 8-
bits data bus where 72 – pin SIMM has 32- bit data bus.

DIMM; Dual Inline Memory Module is other type of memory used in these
days. It is available in 168 or 184 pin configuration. The data bus width is 64
bits wide.

RIMM: Rambus Inline memory module. These are used for high – end version
processors and available in 184 pin package.

RD RAM: RD RAM developed by Rambus uses special Channels that have

data rate transfer of 800M Hz. . You can also double the channel width for
faster speeds.

ROM Memories: The different types of ROM’s are 1) EPROM 2) EEPROM

which are discussed in the chapter 4 semiconductor memories.

5.9 . IMPORTANCE OF CACHE MEMORY

It is observed that semiconductor memories using high speed transistor flip –
flop are the fastest memories. But they are most expensive at the other end we
have magnetic memories that can operate with low speed. Generally a CPU
does its operations at very high speed. The main memory present in the
computer( i.e. magnetic memory) is a low speed memory. Thus there is a
speed mismatch between the processor and main memory. The processor is
forced to wait or kept idle for getting data or instruction from memory. This
speed mismatch is eliminated by using a small fast memory as an intermediate
buffer between the memory and the processor as shown in fig. 5. 4. this memory
 68 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

is known as a cache memory. It is fabricated using high speed semiconductor

devices.
Main Memory

data address

Cache Memory

Address data

Processor

Fig. No. 5.3

Generally a series of instructions are copied into cache memory from the
main memory. Then the processor fetches instructions from the cache. Thus
fetch time( getting the instruction ) is considerably reduced. When instructions
in the cache are exhausted, the next series of instructions is copied into it from
the main memory.

The devices used to fabricate a cache memory are expensive. Therefore

the size of the cache memory is kept small. For example, the latest memory is
kept small. For example, the latest Pentium processors has a cache memory of
8 to 32 killo bytes of size.

5.10. STORAGE DEVICES USED IN COMPUTERS:

The purpose of external storage is to retain data and programs for future use.
The information stored on these devices is permanent and not erased when the
equipment is turned off. The popular external storage media used with computers
are:
1. Floppy disk.
2. Hard Disk
3. Magnetic tapes
Fundamentals of Computer 69

Floppy Disks: The most common storage medium used on small computers in
s floppy disk. It is a flexible plastic disk coated with magnetic material and
looks like a phonograph record. Information can be recorded or read by inserting
it into a disk drive connected to the computer. The disks are permanently
erased in stiff paper jackets for protection and easy handling. An opening is
provided in the jacket to facilitate reading and writing of information.

Spindle hole label

information Write protect
notch

Read & Index Hole

Write

Fig. No. 5.4

Floppy disks are available in three standard sizes. 8 – inches, 5 ½ -
Inches, 3 ½ Inches.

Hard Disk: Another magnetic media suitable for storing large volumes of
information is the hard disk. A hard disk pack consist of two or more magnetic
plates fixed to a spindle, one below the other with a set read/ write heads as
shown in fig. 5. the disk pack is permanently sealed inside a casing to protect it
from dust and other contaminations.
Hard disks possess a number of advantages compared to floppy disks.
1. They can hold much larger volume of information.
2. They are very fast in reading and writing.
3. The not susceptible to dust and static electricity.
4. Storage capacity ranges 10 MB to 80 MB.
 70 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Fig. No. 5.5

Magnetic Tapes: Relatively inexpensive storage media known as magnetic
tapes and are used as back up media. A standard 2,400 feet tape can store
about 40 million characters and can be read at a speed of 1, 60,000 characters
per second. It is like a music cassette, that is a sequential device and therefore
one has to read all the previous records to reach a particular one.

5.10. Generations of computer: History of computers: Computer History

starts with the development of a device called the abacus by the Chinese around
3000 BC. This was used for the systematic calculation of the arithmetic
operations. Although there were a number of improvements in calculating
devices, no conceptual changes were made until the end of the 18th Century.,
during the first decade of the 19th century, Charles Babbage developed his
differential and analytical engines. This device has provisions for inputting data,
Storing information, performing arithmetic operations and print out results.
This provides base for the modern computer. Later in the 1940s the first
electronic machine known as ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator) was introduced. Computers developed after ENIAC have been
classified into the following four generations.

Computer Generations:
First Generation 1946 – 1955
Second Generation 1956 – 1965
Third Generation 1966 – 1975
Fourth Generation 1976 – present.

First Generation: The first generation computers are those in which vaccum
tubes are used. All the first generation computers possessed the following
Fundamentals of Computer 71

characteristics as compared to the later models.

1) Large in size
2) Slow operating speeds.
3) Restricted computing capacity.
4) Limited programming capabilities
5) Short life span
6) Complex maintenance schedules

Second Generation : The second generation computers were marked by the

use of a solid state device called the transistor in the place of vaccum tubes. All
these devices were much faster and more reliable than their earlier counterparts.
Further , they occupied less space, required less power and produced much
less heat.

Third Generation: The research in the field of electronics led to the innovation
of the integrated circuits known as IC chips. The use of IC chips in the place of
transistors gave birth to the third generation computers. They were still more
compact, faster and less expensive, than the previous generation.

Fourth generation: Continued effort towards miniaturization led to the

development of large scale integration (LSI) technology. Intel corporation
introduced LSI chips called microprocessors for building computers. The
computer that uses LSI chips has been named the fourth generation computers.
The fourth generation computers are marked with an increased user – computer
interaction and speed.

Fifth generation : Japan and many other countries are working on systems
what are known as expert systems which will considerably improve the man
machine interaction. Such systems would integrate the advancements in both
hardware and software technologies and would facilitate computer aided problem
solving with the help of orgnised information in many specialized areas.

This generation of computers is termed as fifth generation computers.

Although expert systems are expensive and time – consuming to build, they are
likely to become more popular in the next few years.
 72 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Types of computers:

Based on the operating principles, computers can be classified into one of the
following types.
1. Digital computer
2. Analog computer
3. Hybrid Computer

Digital Computer: Digital computers operate essentially by counting. All

quantities are expressed as discrete digits or number. Digits. Digital computers
are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and manipulations of data such
as preparation of bills, ledgers, solution of simultaneous equations . etc.

Analog Computer: Analog computer operate by measuring rather than by

counting. The analog computer functions by establishing similarities between
two quantities that are usually expressed as voltages or currents. Analog
computers are powerful tools so solve differential equations.

Hybrid Computer: Computers which combine features of both analog and

digital types, are called hybrid computers.

Classification of computers:

Computers are also available in different sizes and different capabilities. Broadly
they may be categorized as micro computers, mini computers, mainframes and
super computers.

Micro computers: A micro computer is the smallest general – purpose

processing system. Microcomputers are self – contained units and usually
designed for use by one person at a time. Since microcomputers can be easily
linked to large computer, they form a very important segment of the integrated
information systems.

Minicomputers:
A minicomputer is a medium sized computer that is more costly and powerful
than a micro computer. Mini computer is usually designed to serve multiple
users simultaneously. A system that supports multiple users is called
Multiterminal, time sharing system. Minicomputers are the popular data
processing systems.
Fundamentals of Computer 73

Mainframe computers: Computers with large storage capacities and very

high speed of processing ( compared to micro or minicomputers) are known
as mainframe computers. They support a large number of terminals for use by
a variety of users simultaneously. They are also used as the central host
computer in distributed data processing systems.

Super computer: These have extremely large storage capacities and computing
speeds which are atleast 10 times faster than other computers. The super
computer is used for large scale numerical problems in scientific and engineering
disciplines. These included applications in electronics, production engineering,
weather forecasting, structural analysis, chemistry, medicine and physics.

Short answer questions

1. What is a computer?
2. What are the types of computers?
3. What is a microprocessor?
4. What are the functions of the following units?
a) Arithmetic Logic Unit
b) Control Unit
c) Processing Unit
d) I/O Unit
5. What is a memory unit?
6. Explain the term Hardware and software?

7. Give the examples of I/O devices?

8. Define word length.
9. Give the example of 32 – bit and 64 bit micro
processors.
10. Give the examples of currently used memories?
11. What is a cache memory?
12. Give the example of storage devices?
74 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Long answer questions

1. Explain briefly how a computer works?

2. Give the functions of memory Unit?
3. Give the functions of CPU?
4. Give the functions of I/O devices?
5. Draw the CPU functional block and explain?
6. Draw the functional block of a computer and explain?
7. Explain a) floppy b) Hard disk.
8. Distinguish between magnetic memory and semi conductor
memory.
 62 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

5 – FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS
Introduction: The computers is making an impact on every aspect of our lives.
They have been in general use since 1950s. formerly, they were large, expensive
and used only by government agencies, big universities and large corporations.

The size and shape of the computer has changed in the past few years because
of a device called “ Microprocessor”. A computer designed using
microprocessor is called a “Microcomputer”. This chapter introduces the basic
structure of a computer, that is its basic components and interaction between
them.

Definition of the computer: A computer may be defined as “an electronic

machine which accepts data and instructions in coded forms as inputs, stores
them as long as required, processes the data as per the instructions and
communicates the results in some human language as the outputs”.

A set of instructions written for the computer to perform a task is called a program
and a group of programs is called software.

Computer organization (block Diagram of computer): Fig. 5.1 shows a

simplified structure of a microcomputer. It includes five basic components: the
input unit, the control and arithmetic ,output and unit. The physical units shown
in boxes are called as hardware. The arrows between them gives an indication
of signal flow.

input CPU output

control + arithmetic

program data
memory memory
Memory
Fig. No. 5.1
How the computer works can be explained briefly in the following manner.
Both program and data are fed into the CPU and transferred to their respective
memory
locations. The CPU reads instructions from the memory and performs the task
specified by the instruction on the data. This action of CPU on the data is called
Fundamentals of Computer 63

execution. After the completion of execution, the results are transferred to the
output of the computer.

The input and output devices are known as Peripherals. The control unit is a
part of CPU and has a function to control various operations in the microcomputer.

INTERACTION BETWEEN CPU, MEMORY AND I/O DEVICES

The computer is programmable ; that is, it can be instructed to perform tasks
within its capability. The person( here called as programmer) using a computer
can select appropriate instructions and ask the computer to perform various
tasks on a given set of data. Now, the equation is: where does he write those
instructions and enter data?. The answer is memory.

Memory: Memory is like the page of note book with space for a fixed number
of binary numbers on each line. Generally each line has space for eight binary
bits. The user writes the necessary instructions and data in memory. He asks
the computer to perform the given task and find an answer. But, here also a
quation araises. How does he can enter those instructions and data into the
computer’s memory? The answers are input and output( I./O) devices.

Input/ Output: The user can enter instructions and data into memory through
input devices such as a keyboard, A/D converters and so on. The ASCII
keyboard is similar to a typewriter keyboard and it is used to enter programs in
an English – like language.

After performing the given task, the result from CPU can be taken through
output devices such as printer, Cathode Ray Tube and Magnetic Tape.

Now the Quation is; where the computer processes data. This is done with the
group of logic circuits called Central Processing Unit( CPU)

CPU: The Central Processing Unit of a computer consists of various registers

to store data, the Arithmetic Logic Unit ( ALU) to perform arithmetic and
logical operations. The CPU reads instructions from the memory and Performs
the tasks specified. The CPU ineracts(Communicates) with input / output devices
to accept or to send data.

In addition to working Registers and ALU, The CPU consists instruction decoder,
counters and control lines. The control Unit provides the necessary in the
microcomputer. It controls the flow of data between the Micro processor and
 64 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

peripheral including memory.

Functions of memory / CPU: The functions of various components of a

microcomputer can be summarized as follows.

Memory: The memory block shown in fig. 5.1 has two sections: Read Only
Memory ( ROM) and Read write Memory(R/WM), popularly known as Random
Access Memory ( RAM). The Monitor programs of a microcomputer are
generally stored in the ROM. The Read/ write memory is also known as user
memory. It is used to store user programs and data. The memory functions are,

1) It stores binary instructions and data called as programs.

2) It provides the instructions and data to the CPU on request
3) It stores intermediate results and data for the CPU.
4) The uses system bus to transfer programs and data.

C.P.U. :The Central Processing Unit(CPU) is the brain of a digital computer. It

is constructed using an ALU along with a number of registers and counters. The
CPU is therefore the primary centre for computation and decision making. The
primary functions of CPU are,

1) It will fetch, decode and execute program instructions in the proper

order.
2) It transfer data to and from memory; and to and from the input /
output sections.
3) It provide overall timing control signals for the entire system.
4) It respond to external interrupts.

5.4 Functions of I/O Devices: Input / Output devices are the two basic
components that can provide a link between a computer and outside world.
They are normally abbreviated as I/O devices. An input device allows data and
information to enter into a micro computer in a machine readable form ( binary
word). An output device receives information from the micro computer and
present into a form which can easily be read by people.

The functions of input device are,

1) It accepts ( reads) the data from outside world
2) It converts the data in binary form that can be acceptable by the
Fundamentals of Computer 65

computer.
3) It sends data in binary form to the computer for further processing.
The generally used input devices are keyboard, mouse, floppy disk, OMR Sheets,
Scanner, microphone and web camera.
The functions of output devices are,

1) It accepts data in binary form from computer.

2) It converts the coded data into human acceptable form
3) Sends the converted result to the outside world.
The generally used output devices are Monitor, printer, speakers, floppy drives
and Plotters.

5.5STATE RELAVANCE OF SPEED AND WORLD LENGTH FOR

CPU PERFORMANCE.
Computers (or processors) recognize and operate in binary numbers. These
binary numbers are combined to form a word. A word or word length is defined
as the number of bits the computer can recognize and process at a time. The
word length ranges from 4 bits for small computers to 32 bit for large computers.
The another name to word length is byte. A byte is defined as a group of 8 bits.
For example, a 16 – bit microprocessor has a word length of 2 bytes.

The number of bits in a word or word length for a given computer( or) processor
) is fixed and words are formed through various combinations of these bits.

If width of the registers in a processor is increased, the number of data and

address pins may also be made larger so that the data transfer rate ( i.e. speed
of the processor) and memory capacity are increased. That means, increase in
world length will improve the CPU performance in the following manner.

1) Increase the computational capability of the processor(or) the

execution speed.
2) Increase memory addressing capacity.
3) Provide a powerful instruction set
4) Facilitate programming in high – level languages.

5.6 Functional Blocks of CPU: The main functioning unit of any computer
system is called the Central Processing Unit. The primary functions of CPU are
already discussed in section 5.3. The major functional blocks includes the various
registers, the arithmetic and logic unit, the instruction decoder, the important
control and timing section, along with inputs and outputs as shown in fig. 5.2
 66 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Temporary
Arithmetic and register
logi unit
Internal bus

Internal bus
Accemulator
Buffer / lach

Buffer
Program Counter

Instruction Instruction
decoder register

Timing and control

CPU
Fig. No. 5.2

a) Instruction Register and decoder: The instruction register holds the

instruction read from ROM. The decoder sends the control signals appropriate
to the decoder instruction to the decoded instruction to the ALU.

b) Arithmetic logic Unit: This unit is used to Perform all the arithmetic and
logic operations, such as additions, multiplication , comparison etc.

c) Control Unit: This unit coordinates the activities of the all other units in the
system. Its main functions are,

1) To control the transfer of data and information between various units.

2) To initiate appropriate functions by the arithmetic unit.

5.7 CURRENT FAMILY OF CPU’S USED IN COMPUTERS

Today’s CPU market is dominated by two Vendors; Intel corporation of
America(Intel’s) and American Micro Devices (AMD). Intel’s CPU offers form
8085 to Pentium line, the celron, the hig end Xeron and Ultra – high – end
Itanium Processors. AMD gives us the Athlon, Duron and Athlon Xp product
families.

Intel’s 80186,8.0286,80386,80486 and Pentium are the first processors to have

a 32 – bit and 64 – bits data bus. The Intel family processors with their features
are given in table 5.1.
Fundamentals of Computer 67

5.8. TYPES OF MEMORY USED IN COMPUTERS

The following are some important RAM and ROM memories recently used in
computers.

RAM’s Memory:

SIMM: Signal Inline Memory Module (SIMM) is one of the most commonly
used form of memory. SIMM RAM sticks came in either 30 pin SIMM has 8-
bits data bus where 72 – pin SIMM has 32- bit data bus.

DIMM; Dual Inline Memory Module is other type of memory used in these
days. It is available in 168 or 184 pin configuration. The data bus width is 64
bits wide.

RIMM: Rambus Inline memory module. These are used for high – end version
processors and available in 184 pin package.

RD RAM: RD RAM developed by Rambus uses special Channels that have

data rate transfer of 800M Hz. . You can also double the channel width for
faster speeds.

ROM Memories: The different types of ROM’s are 1) EPROM 2) EEPROM

which are discussed in the chapter 4 semiconductor memories.

5.9 . IMPORTANCE OF CACHE MEMORY

It is observed that semiconductor memories using high speed transistor flip –
flop are the fastest memories. But they are most expensive at the other end we
have magnetic memories that can operate with low speed. Generally a CPU
does its operations at very high speed. The main memory present in the
computer( i.e. magnetic memory) is a low speed memory. Thus there is a
speed mismatch between the processor and main memory. The processor is
forced to wait or kept idle for getting data or instruction from memory. This
speed mismatch is eliminated by using a small fast memory as an intermediate
buffer between the memory and the processor as shown in fig. 5. 4. this memory
 68 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

is known as a cache memory. It is fabricated using high speed semiconductor

devices.
Main Memory

data address

Cache Memory

Address data

Processor

Fig. No. 5.3

Generally a series of instructions are copied into cache memory from the
main memory. Then the processor fetches instructions from the cache. Thus
fetch time( getting the instruction ) is considerably reduced. When instructions
in the cache are exhausted, the next series of instructions is copied into it from
the main memory.

The devices used to fabricate a cache memory are expensive. Therefore

the size of the cache memory is kept small. For example, the latest memory is
kept small. For example, the latest Pentium processors has a cache memory of
8 to 32 killo bytes of size.

5.10. STORAGE DEVICES USED IN COMPUTERS:

The purpose of external storage is to retain data and programs for future use.
The information stored on these devices is permanent and not erased when the
equipment is turned off. The popular external storage media used with computers
are:
1. Floppy disk.
2. Hard Disk
3. Magnetic tapes
Fundamentals of Computer 69

Floppy Disks: The most common storage medium used on small computers in
s floppy disk. It is a flexible plastic disk coated with magnetic material and
looks like a phonograph record. Information can be recorded or read by inserting
it into a disk drive connected to the computer. The disks are permanently
erased in stiff paper jackets for protection and easy handling. An opening is
provided in the jacket to facilitate reading and writing of information.

Spindle hole label

information Write protect
notch

Read & Index Hole

Write

Fig. No. 5.4

Floppy disks are available in three standard sizes. 8 – inches, 5 ½ -
Inches, 3 ½ Inches.

Hard Disk: Another magnetic media suitable for storing large volumes of
information is the hard disk. A hard disk pack consist of two or more magnetic
plates fixed to a spindle, one below the other with a set read/ write heads as
shown in fig. 5. the disk pack is permanently sealed inside a casing to protect it
from dust and other contaminations.
Hard disks possess a number of advantages compared to floppy disks.
1. They can hold much larger volume of information.
2. They are very fast in reading and writing.
3. The not susceptible to dust and static electricity.
4. Storage capacity ranges 10 MB to 80 MB.
 70 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Fig. No. 5.5

Magnetic Tapes: Relatively inexpensive storage media known as magnetic
tapes and are used as back up media. A standard 2,400 feet tape can store
about 40 million characters and can be read at a speed of 1, 60,000 characters
per second. It is like a music cassette, that is a sequential device and therefore
one has to read all the previous records to reach a particular one.

5.10. Generations of computer: History of computers: Computer History

starts with the development of a device called the abacus by the Chinese around
3000 BC. This was used for the systematic calculation of the arithmetic
operations. Although there were a number of improvements in calculating
devices, no conceptual changes were made until the end of the 18th Century.,
during the first decade of the 19th century, Charles Babbage developed his
differential and analytical engines. This device has provisions for inputting data,
Storing information, performing arithmetic operations and print out results.
This provides base for the modern computer. Later in the 1940s the first
electronic machine known as ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator) was introduced. Computers developed after ENIAC have been
classified into the following four generations.

Computer Generations:
First Generation 1946 – 1955
Second Generation 1956 – 1965
Third Generation 1966 – 1975
Fourth Generation 1976 – present.

First Generation: The first generation computers are those in which vaccum
tubes are used. All the first generation computers possessed the following
Fundamentals of Computer 71

characteristics as compared to the later models.

1) Large in size
2) Slow operating speeds.
3) Restricted computing capacity.
4) Limited programming capabilities
5) Short life span
6) Complex maintenance schedules

Second Generation : The second generation computers were marked by the

use of a solid state device called the transistor in the place of vaccum tubes. All
these devices were much faster and more reliable than their earlier counterparts.
Further , they occupied less space, required less power and produced much
less heat.

Third Generation: The research in the field of electronics led to the innovation
of the integrated circuits known as IC chips. The use of IC chips in the place of
transistors gave birth to the third generation computers. They were still more
compact, faster and less expensive, than the previous generation.

Fourth generation: Continued effort towards miniaturization led to the

development of large scale integration (LSI) technology. Intel corporation
introduced LSI chips called microprocessors for building computers. The
computer that uses LSI chips has been named the fourth generation computers.
The fourth generation computers are marked with an increased user – computer
interaction and speed.

Fifth generation : Japan and many other countries are working on systems
what are known as expert systems which will considerably improve the man
machine interaction. Such systems would integrate the advancements in both
hardware and software technologies and would facilitate computer aided problem
solving with the help of orgnised information in many specialized areas.

This generation of computers is termed as fifth generation computers.

Although expert systems are expensive and time – consuming to build, they are
likely to become more popular in the next few years.
 72 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Types of computers:

Based on the operating principles, computers can be classified into one of the
following types.
1. Digital computer
2. Analog computer
3. Hybrid Computer

Digital Computer: Digital computers operate essentially by counting. All

quantities are expressed as discrete digits or number. Digits. Digital computers
are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and manipulations of data such
as preparation of bills, ledgers, solution of simultaneous equations . etc.

Analog Computer: Analog computer operate by measuring rather than by

counting. The analog computer functions by establishing similarities between
two quantities that are usually expressed as voltages or currents. Analog
computers are powerful tools so solve differential equations.

Hybrid Computer: Computers which combine features of both analog and

digital types, are called hybrid computers.

Classification of computers:

Computers are also available in different sizes and different capabilities. Broadly
they may be categorized as micro computers, mini computers, mainframes and
super computers.

Micro computers: A micro computer is the smallest general – purpose

processing system. Microcomputers are self – contained units and usually
designed for use by one person at a time. Since microcomputers can be easily
linked to large computer, they form a very important segment of the integrated
information systems.

Minicomputers:
A minicomputer is a medium sized computer that is more costly and powerful
than a micro computer. Mini computer is usually designed to serve multiple
users simultaneously. A system that supports multiple users is called
Multiterminal, time sharing system. Minicomputers are the popular data
processing systems.
Fundamentals of Computer 73

Mainframe computers: Computers with large storage capacities and very

high speed of processing ( compared to micro or minicomputers) are known
as mainframe computers. They support a large number of terminals for use by
a variety of users simultaneously. They are also used as the central host
computer in distributed data processing systems.

Super computer: These have extremely large storage capacities and computing
speeds which are atleast 10 times faster than other computers. The super
computer is used for large scale numerical problems in scientific and engineering
disciplines. These included applications in electronics, production engineering,
weather forecasting, structural analysis, chemistry, medicine and physics.

Short answer questions

1. What is a computer?
2. What are the types of computers?
3. What is a microprocessor?
4. What are the functions of the following units?
a) Arithmetic Logic Unit
b) Control Unit
c) Processing Unit
d) I/O Unit
5. What is a memory unit?
6. Explain the term Hardware and software?

7. Give the examples of I/O devices?

8. Define word length.
9. Give the example of 32 – bit and 64 bit micro
processors.
10. Give the examples of currently used memories?
11. What is a cache memory?
12. Give the example of storage devices?
74 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Long answer questions

1. Explain briefly how a computer works?

2. Give the functions of memory Unit?
3. Give the functions of CPU?
4. Give the functions of I/O devices?
5. Draw the CPU functional block and explain?
6. Draw the functional block of a computer and explain?
7. Explain a) floppy b) Hard disk.
8. Distinguish between magnetic memory and semi conductor
memory.
76 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

6. WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

6.0. Introduction: computers need clear – cut instructions to tell them what to
do, how to do and when to do. A set of instructions to carry out these functions
is called a program. A group of such programs that are put into a computer to
operate and control its activity is called the software. These programs must be
in the internal storage ( memory) to execute their instructions.

Software is an essential requirement of computer system. Without software

a computer cannot work. There are four such major kinds of software. Operating
system is one among them.

Operating System:

Definition:

An operating System is a program that acts as an interface between the user and
the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

user 1 user2 user 3

Text editor compiler assembler

application programs

Operating System

Hardware

Fig. No. 6.1

6.1.1 abstract view of components of A computer system.

GOAL OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM.

Primary Goal: To create an efficient environment and make computer system
convenient to use.

Secondary Goal: To use computer system in an efficient way ( i.e. efficient

utilization of resources of computer.
Windows Operating System 77

Need: The hardware consists of central processing unit, input and output devices
and memory. These parts of computer hardware cannot produce any results if
there is no interaction between them. Like any other machine, the computer
system also requires a force or an intermediate operating that can interact
between hardware and user. The force behind it is an operating system.

The user The Control Unit / The ALU

M
E
The input device M
The Operating System The output device
keyboard O printer / Monitor
R
Y

The floppy The hard disk

disk disk Fig. No. 6.2
The storage device

6.1.2. Operating System working.

6.1.Function of an Operating system: The Operating System performs

following functions.

Resources management ( shares hardware among users) Data

management ( allows to share data also) Job management

Input – Output management

Maintaining security ( Preventing the uses from others) conflict

resolution.

Implementing the user interface.

Recovery from errors ( to identify and correct errors)

Organising data for secure and rapid access handling network

communications

It loads the user program in memory

78 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Interprets the program instructions one at a time.

Give the instructions to display result on screen.

6.2. Types of Operating Systems.

An operating System may be classified into following types.

1) Single user operating System

2) Multi user operating System
3) Multi tasking operating system

Single user operating System: A single user OS allows a single user and all
the resources are available to this user at all times.

Multi user operating System: A multi user OS is one that support several
users at a time. Most OS’s for mini computers and mainframe computers are
multi user OS.

Most tasking operating system: A multi tasking OS is the one that supports
several tasks at a time, but only a single user.

Eg: windows and OS/2 are of multitasking OS’s

From an operating system point of View, computer systems have improved in

various phases. They are as follows.

a) Multi – programming: Multiprogramming is the name given to the interleaved

execution of two or more different and independent programs by same computer.
This concept is carried by placing two or more user’s programs in main memory
and executing them concurrently. CPU switches from one program to another
almost instantaneously.
The main advantage with this is CPU would not be idle.

b) Multi – processing : Multi processing is the simultaneous execution of two

or more processes by a computer system having more than one CPU.
It improves the performance of computer system by allowing parallel processing.
It needs a very sophisticated operating system.
Windows Operating System 79

c) Time sharing : In time sharing the CPU time is divided among all the
users on a scheduled basis. The basic ideal behind time sharing system is to
allow all user programs to have a brief share of the CPU time in turn. Each user
program, beginning from first program and proceding through the last, is allocated
a very short period of CPU time one by one. This short period of time during
which a user gets the attention of the cpu is known as time slice, time slot or time
quantum and id typically of the order of 10 to 20 milliseconds.

Time sharing reduces CPU idle time and provider advantages of quick response.

MICROSOFT DISK OPERARTING SYSTEM

( MS- DOS)

MS –DOS is one of the most common personal computer operating system

MS- DOS is a single user operating system. MS- DOS works mostly on micro
computers. The DOS software is divided and stored in three different files on
a disk the disk that contain all the three files is called a bootable disk or startup
or system disk. These three files are IO.SYS, MSDOS. SYS and
command.com.

File: A file is a collection of related information all files in computer

identified by its filename. A file name is divided into two parts.

1. Primary Name
2. Extension or secondary name

Rules for assigning a filename in DOS:

1) All filenames must start with an alphabet.

2) Primary name Can contain up to 8 characters long.
3) Extension can contain up to 3 characters long.
4) Special characters or blanks spaces are not allowed in
filename except underscore characters.

Example: Valid filename Invalid Filename

Student. dat 2004 data
Inter_st one4 two
 80 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

DOS Commands:

Command is an instruction written in a computer acceptable language that user

types an the DOS Prompt. It will execute and do appropriate action. If user
types any other instructions which is not a DOS command, then it will display
the error message “Bad command or Filename”

There are mainly two types of DOS commands as:

1. Internal Commands
2. External Commands

6.3 Internal Commands: The Internal commands are those commands that
are automatically loaded in memory when the operating system DOS is loaded
into the memory.. they are loaded during the booting process. These commands
can be used without the need of nay DOS file or diskette. These commands
are used for common tasks like creating of a file and erasing a file etc.

The various internal commands are as follows.

1) Copy con:

This command is used to create a new file the general syntax of a copy
con command is.

C:\> copy con < filename>

Eg: c:\> Copy con MPC

The above example will creates a file named Mpc. Then type the contents
of the file using keyboard and then press F6 button or ctrl + Z (^Z) (for saving)

1 file (s) is created.

If you want to exit from command without saving press ctrl + c

Windows Operating System 81

2) Type :
This command is used to display the content or information of a given
file if file exist.

Syntax : C:\> type <filename>

C:\> type mpc

It will display contents or information present in the file mpc.

3) Copy: This command is used to copy information from an existing file to

new file.

Syntax : c:\> copy < source file> < destination file>

Eg: c:\> copy mpc mec

Now both files will contain same information mec is a duplicate file of mpc file

4) Rename or Ren: This command is used to change name of an existing file.

Syntax : c:\> Ren <old filename > < New filename >
C:\> Ren ravni raju

5) Del: This command is used to delete ( remove) a file from the memory.

Syntax : c:\> del <filename>

C:\> del mpc

The same can be done by using “eraise” also

Syntax C:\> ERAISE < filename>
To ask configuration message add “/p” parameter with combination of delete
command.

Eg: C:\> Del mpc/p

Mpc delete (y/n) ?

6) DIR: This command is used to display all files list the resides in the disk.
Syntax : C:/> DIR
 82 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

The DIR command displays complete information about files, filenames,

extensions, size ( no. of bytes) and created or modified date and time. It also
displays summary information i.e total number of files in the disk, number of
directories and total memory used and disk free space.

This command is having a number of parameters.

C:\> DIR [/P] [/W] [/ON] [/OS] [/OE] ………

a) DIR / P : It is used to display the files list and directories page wise.

Syntax : C:\ > Dir / p

b) DIR / W : - It is used to display files list in widelist format. This command

displays only filename with extension,.

Syntax : C:/ > DIR / W

C) DIR / On : This command displays all the files in the alphabetical order.

Syntax : C:\ > DIR / ON

d) DIR / OS: This command displays all files, size wise in ascending order.

Syntax : C:\ > DIR / OS

e) DIR / OE: This command displays files list extension wise in ascending
order.

Syntax : C:\ > DIR / OE

f) DIR / OD This command display the files list date wise in ascending order.

Syntax: C:\> DIR / OD

g) DIR / S: This command displays all files list in specified directory and all its
sub directories
Syntax: C:\> DIR / S
Windows Operating System 83

h) DIR / B : It displays files list in bare format it means it is not displays any
headings and summary information.
Syntax: C:\> DIR / B

i) DIR / L: It displays the first files and directories list in lowercase letters.

Syntax: C:\> DIR / L

j) DIR / 4 It displays the files list year in the created date) with 4 digit format.

Syntax: C:\> DIR / 4

k) DIR / AD : This command is used to display only directories list.

Syntax: C:\> DIR / AD

Directory: A group of related files and sub directories is called a directory. All
directories in disk are identified by directory names. Directories are used to
organize the files in the disk.

MD: Making a new directory.

The MD or MKDIR command is used to create a new directory in DOS.

Syntax: C :\ > MD < Directory Name>

Eg C :\ > MD MECS

CD: Change Directory

This CD or CHDIR command is used to change directory.

Syntax: C : \ > CD < Directory Name>

Eg: D : \ > CD MECS

The result of above command is as follows

C :\ MECS >
84 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

CD .. :

This command is used to change to the parent directory.

Eg : C : \ MECS > CD ..
The result of above command is C : \ >

RD : Removing Directory.

The RD or RMDIR command is used to remove a directory in DOS.

The specified directory is removed only if that directory is empty.

Syntax : C :\ > RD < Directory Name >

Eg: C : \ > RD MECS

PATH: It gives information about the drive and where the data is stored in the
that drive.

Syntax: C : \ > C – Drive/ Filename

DATE: This command is used to display the current date of system it also
allows to modify the current date. It displays the date in American format
( MM: DD: YYYY )

Syntax : C: \> DATE

Current date is sut, 09 – 10 –2005

Enter New date :

TIME: it is used to display the present time and also provides facility to
change or modify the present time.

Syntax : C :\ > TIME

Present time is 10 : 30 : 50
Enter New time :
Windows Operating System 85

6.4. EXTERNAL COMMANDS

These command are not permanent part of the memory. To execute or

run these commands files used for the execution of external commands are
.exe, .com. .bat . External commands are used for relatively complex Jobs
such as copying an entire diskette into another diskette to sort the disk , etc.

FORMAT: This command is used to format a disk for use with DOS.
It means it is used to make a disk usable for operating system by dividing the
disk into magnetic tracks and sectors. The number of sectors and tracks depends
on capacity of disk and the version of the DOS. Format command erases all
the data exam the disk. Checks bad area on disk and can delete all data on
disc.

Syntax : C : \ > FORMAT < Drive >

Eg. C : \ > FORMAT A :

CHKDSK: This command is used to check a disk and displays a status report.
It returns information about the volume serial number, total disk space, space
in hidden files, space in directories and space in user files, space available on
disk total memory and free memory.

Syntax : C : \ > CHKDSK < Drive name>

Eg. C : \ > CHKDSK A

XCOPY : It copies all files and directory trees.

Syntax: C : \ > XCOPY < Source > < Destination > [/S] [/E] [/P]

Parameters

/S : It copies directories and sub directories except empty ones.

/E : It copies all directories even in empty.
/P : It prompts you before creating each destination file.
86 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Eg:

1. C: \ > XCOPY C: \ MPCS \ *.* C: \ MECS

2. C : \ > XCOPY C : \ MPCS \ * .* C: MECS \ S
3. C: \ > XCOPY C : \ MPCS \ *. *C : MSCS \ E
4. C: \ > XCOPY C : \ MPCS \ *.* C : MSCS \ P

PRINT: This command is used to print files. The files that are to be printed
must be standard text file and containing data compatible to the printer is printing
the files user can do other tasks. User can also give multiple filenames with the
print command.

Syntax : C: \ > PRINT < File name >

Eg: C : \ > PRINT file1

To print multiple files C : \ > PRINT FILE1 FILE2

DISK COPY : This command is used to more duplicate copy of the disk. It
first formats the large disk. It first formats the target disk and then copies the file
by collecting files from source disk and copies to target disk. It makes the
perfect coy of source disk.

C : \> DISKCOPY A: A:

Insert source disk in drive A:

Press any key to continue.

————————————————————

————————————————————
Insert target disk in drive A :
Press any key to continue.

Copy to another disk ( Y / N )

Windows Operating System 87

SCANDISK : It checks current drive for disk errors.

Syntax : C: \ > SCANDISK < Drive name >

C : \ > SCANDISK C

ATTRIB : This command displays or change file attributes. This command

displays sets or removes the read only, arctive, system and hidden attributes
assigned to files.

Syntax : C: \> attrib [ +R( i ) – R ] [ + H (i) – H ] [ + S i –S ] file name

+R Æ It sets read only file attrib

-R Æ It clears the read only file attrib
+H Æ It sets file as hidden files
-H Æ It clears the hidden files attrib.
+S Æ It sets file as system file.
-S Æ It clears system file attribute

C: \ > attrib + R < Filename>

C: \ > attrib - R < filename>

Tree: This command graphically display structure of a directory.

C:\ user \ empc \ > tree

C : - parent directory

User 1 – subdirectory
Mpc – subdirectory

Delete: This command is used to delete a specified directory including

subdirectories and files.

Syntax : C : \ > Deltree < directory name >

 88 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

6.5 METHOD OF STARTING A PROGRAM USING START

BUTTON

The following is procedure to start a window program using start button through
windows 2000 operating system. It is a new operating system, which provides
the features of graphical user interface. The steps involved in invoking a program
are as follows.

1. Point the mouse pointer on start button shown in the fig. 6.2.1

2. Click once on the start button.

A popup menu will appear as shown in fig. 6.2.2.
Windows Operating System 89

3. Point the mouse pointer on the required option ( say programs) of

the start menu. The screen will appear as follows.

4. Point the mouse pointer on the option ( group icon ) accessories

5. Another popup menu will appear in that click on the icon notepad.

The screen will appear as shown in the fig. 6.2.4

click start button - Program - Accessories - Notepad

Fig. 6.23 Notepad screen

This is how you start the application called notepad through the start button.

This program called notepad allows you to type text. We will close it now.
Later in the session we will use it again to create a file
 90 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

6. To close the notepad click on exit [X ] button as shown in fig. 6. 2.4

This will close notepad application

Likewise you can open any application through the start button and the
programs group icon.

6.6 STATE MEANIG OF A FILE, FOLDER. FILE.

File: If the data is small then we can use terminals i.e. keyboard and screen for
managing input and output. But if data is large then it becomes difficult in handling
large volumes of data through terminals, also data is lost when either program is
terminated or computer is switched off. This problem can be solved by storing
data on disks and reading data whenever necessary without destroying data.
This can be achieved by concept of file to store data.

A file is a place on a disk where a group of related data is stored.

A group of related data stored at a particular memory location is called as a file.

In any software a file will not be ready available. The user whenever want to
store any data he has to create a new file and save it.

The space on world where data or text can be stored is called a document.
Hence any file in the MS- WORD is called as a document.

In PowerPoint same is termed as a presentation where as in excel it is called as

a worksheet.

Various operations can be performed on these files. The basic operations are
as follows.

1. Naming a file.
2. Opening a file.
3. reading data from file
4. writing data into file
5. Closing a file.
Windows Operating System 91

For any file inorder to save it a name is needed it is called naming a file.

Inorder to read or write or modify any data in a file the file should be opened

A file should be closed as soon as all operations on it have completed which

prevents accidental misuse of a file.

Folder: Folder is a rectangular box, containing all the information about one
object. Folders will be available on the desktop or while clicking on the start
button they will be appeared in subprograms

A folder can be created as a collection of files.

The folders will be follows in colour and will reside on desktop. These folders
are stored on c – drive or d – drive.

This is a folder Which contains information about

windows 95 or 98

Creating a folder: from the tree pane, select the directory under which you
want to create a sub – directory.

Choose file Æ new Æ folder. On the right pan of the screen a new folder is
created.

Type in the name of the new directory and press enter. You can notice the
change in the tree structure immediately.

6.7 METHOD OF FINDING A FILE USING FIND OPTION

Windows explorer is used for viewing all the files on disk and suitable for
locating a particular file.

You can use the find tool to search the entire hard disk for a specified file.

For Eg: find for the file “ leave letter”

Following steps are to be followed

92 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

1. Click on the start button.

The screen will appear as shown below.

2. Click on find option. A submenu will appears

3. Point on the files or folders and then click on it. The following dialog
box will appear.

4. Type in the name of the file to be searched for use * and ? if desired.

5. In ‘Looking’ dialog box, type the name of the directory you want the
file to be searched in.

6. If you want to search down all the subordinate branches from the current
directory to the end of branch, click the ‘Include subfolder’ check
box’
Windows Operating System 93

7. Click on ‘Find now’ window will conduct the search on the current
disk and displays the list of files.

8. To display required file on the screen, click on the scroll down in fig.

This will close the find dialog box.

6.8. CARRY OUT MAXIMISE, RESIZE AND CLOSE

OPERATIONS ON A WINDOW

The upper band of every window is known termed as a title bar where window
name is displayed. You can move the window around yours desktop, incase it
is not maximized.Title bar is highlighted, when window is active.Window is a
rectangular box that contain application or program. Every group under a
GUI operating has a number of icons. These are enclosed in a frame called
window. Every group has its own window.

Since windows has a multitasking feature, you can have a number of applications
( window) open at a time but can work with just on application at a time i.e.
there can be only one active window at a given time. You can make the window
active by clicking any where within its border.

Minimize : If you click on minimize button the program window is minimized

as an icon and that is placed on the button of screen.

To Minimize :

Activate the window, by clicking any where in it. Position the mouse
pointer on minimize button click once.

Maximize: Clicking on the maximize button, enlarges the window to fill the
entire screen. When application window is maximized, it covers the entire
desktop.

To Maximize : Activate the window, by clicking anywhere in it position the

mouse pointer on the maximize button.
94 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Click once.

After the window has been maximized, the maximize button changes to restore
button.
Title Bar

Control Box
Menu Bar
Close

Maximise

Minimise

Window
Vertical scroll
bar

Restore: Opening a window takes up a portion of the Desktop, the size in

determined by how you manually size the window

To Resize :

Activate the window, by clicking any where on it. Position the mouse
pointer on the restore button. Click once.

Close Once you click on exit button your program is closed.

Windows Operating System 95

Short answer questions

1. What is an operating system?

2. What are the goals of an OS ?
3. What are the functions of an OS ?
4. Give the types of OS?
5. What is multiprogramming and multi – tasking OS ?
6. What are the types of DOS command ?
7. What is a file, folder ?
8. How will you create a folder?
9. What is a directory ?
10. What is ‘DIR’ command?

Long Answer Sheets:

1. Explain the need of an OS ?

2. List out various internal DOS commands and explain ?
3. List out various external DOS commands and explain ?
4. Explain maximize, minimizing of a window ?|
96 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

7.0 :Introduction

MS-OFFICE

Microsoft Office is a collection of software applications. All applications share

some common programs and looks such as menu bars, Tool bars, Spell-checking,
Auto Correct, Help, and Office Assistant etc. Once you have to learn how to
use one of the office applications then it is easy to learn all other applications.

Microsoft Office contain the following applications

§ MS – Word
§ MS – Excel
§ MS – PowerPoint
§ MS – Access
§ MS – Outlook
§ MS – FrontPage
§ MS – Photo Draw
§ MS – Publisher

MS Word

Word is a word processing program. It is used generating any type of printed

document including letters, reports, memos, tables, web pages, newsletters,
thesis, manuals and electronic mails.

MS Excel

Excel is a spreadsheet application that enables you to do mathematical

calculations. It is used to prepare budgets and price costs, compare costs,
Features of Word Processing Package 97

format figures and create graphs and charts.

MS PowerPoint

PowerPoint is a presentation application that produces colorful professional

presentation slides. It is used to create presentation slides, overhead
transparencies, handouts and speaker notes. It enables us to include charts and
graph, produce organization chart, present tables and display a presentation as
a fully animated screen show.

MS Access

Access is a relational database application that stores, retrieves and organizes

data.

MS Outlook

Outlook is a desktop information management application. It is used to schedule,

organize, and communicate out plans.

MS FrontPage

Front Page is a web application that is used to create, view, publish, maintain
and interact web sites and web pages.

MS Photo Draw

Photo Draw is a powerful application for manipulating graphics images.

MS Publisher
98 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Publisher is a complete desktop publishing application that is used to create

beautiful professional – looking layouts that you can publish anywhere from
your desktop printer to on the World Wide Web. It gives an excellent appearance
for print or online.

Microsoft Word

Every piece of writing is written to be read. A text that is attractive, neat and
organized will attract the attention of a reader. Typewriters were widely used
for typing in order to have a neat and organized text. All of you must have seen
a text being typed on a typewriter. The text is directly typed on the paper. For
correcting any typing errors, the entire text has to be retyped. Hence a lot of
paper is wasted in the process.

However, with the advent of computers, the scene has changed. Now we have
computer software called word processor, which allows you to type text, make
corrections without retyping the entire matter and make the text look attractive
with lots of pictures in-between. You must be wondering how this is possible.

Word Processor

The word process means a method consisting of a set of instructions that

transforms raw facts into organized information. Thus process essentially means
“Changing”. Word processing involves the transformation of written text into a
form that gives it a formal, systematic look which facilitates easy reading. The
application program that enables the processing of words is called as the “Word
processing program”.

Word processing can be defined as changing the “appearance” or “look”

of words or to be more precise changing the appearance of the characters that
form the word.
Features of Word Processing Package 99

The word “appearance” or “look” refers to,

1. The size of the character

2. The style of the character
3. The way it is highlighted

Examples of different Word Processors-

1. MS – Word
2. Word Star
3. Perfect Writer
4. Word Perfect
5. Professional Write
6. MultiMate

Microsoft Word

Word is a word processing program that is used to compose, edit, save and
print out text documents. It replaces the job of typewriters in smooth and
fast manner in addition to having more features. Basically, Word makes
possible what a typewriter does, but in an efficient and economical way.
The main advantage is, the matter can be changed as many times as we like
and in any format without retyping the text or wasting the stationary.

Word came out with word 6.0 version when it was released for
Windows 3.1. Subsequent versions of Word are word 7.0 (Word’95), Word
8.0 (word’97) and Word 9.0 (word 2000).

Microsoft Word 2000

Microsoft word 2000 is a software program (package) designed by

100 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Microsoft Corporation, USA for Word processing application. It is one of

most popular word processors in the world for the WINDOWS platform
on IBM and compatible PC. It helps you to type, edit store, check spellings
and print documents. Word 2000 is used to prepare letters, mailing lists,
memos, producing reports etc.

The features of Word processing applications are

1) You can change whatever you want in the text without retyping the
entire text again.
2) Formatting and printing selected text in boldface, italics or underlined.
3) Changing the font and the size of letters of the selected text.
4) Moving or copying selected text to another location within the document
or to another document.
5) Printing selected text in subscript or superscript style.
6) Adding animations to selected text.
7) Searching for a particular word or phrase and replacing it with something
else.
8) Aligning (left, centered, right and justify) selected text.
9) Adjustable line and character spacing.
10) Adjustable page size and margins.
11) Facility to create multiple column text.
12) Spelling and Grammar Checking facility.
13) Facility to define headers and footers.
14) Facility to create footnotes and end notes.
15) Facility to insert images in your document.
16) Tables can be created and included in documents.
17) Multiple documents/files can be merged.
18) Toolbars contains buttons that makes easier to perform some common
tasks by clicking buttons like Saving, Printing or formatting text
19) Text boxes are used to keep text and graphics together.
Features of Word Processing Package 101

20) Mail-merge facility allows you to print the same letter with different
names and addresses that are saved in another file.

Word Components

Word 2000 window contains a menu bar and several toolbars. Most of the
buttons on these toolbars act as shortcuts to the commands in the menus. The
standard window has the following components.

Title Bar: This is the bar at the top of the window containing minimize, restore
or maximize and close buttons. This shows the name of the document and type
of the program.

Menu Bar: This is usually below the title bar that provides access to the word
menus.

Toolbars: Toolbars give quick access to some common commands. Word has
several different toolbars, By default, Word displays the standard and formatting
toolbars.

Ruler: The ruler shows tab, margin and indent settings. There are two rulers
horizontal and vertical ruler. These are located above and then to the left of the
working area.

Working area or Document area: This is space on word where data or text
can be entered or typed.

Insertion Point or Cursor: Insertion Point is the blinking vertical line on the
working area. This is the point where you can start typing text.

Scrollbars: The horizontal and vertical scrollbars let you bring different parts of
102 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

a document into view. Scrolling is a technique to see top, bottom, left and right
unseen text of the document.

Status bar: Status bar located at the bottom of the window. The status bar tells
you about the current status of the insertion point (cursor) or other items.

View Buttons: View buttons provide quick access to see documents in different
views. These buttons from left are: Normal View, Web Layout View, Print
Layout View and Outline View.

Starting Word 2000

1. Click the Start button at left end of the taskbar

2. Point to Programs in the Start menu
3. In the Programs menu, click Microsoft Word.

Creating a Document

When you start Word, a new document window opens. If Word already opened
follow the steps below to open a new blank document.

1. Click on File menu on the menu bar

2. Click on New… option, select Blank document and click on OK button
Or
3. Click on the Blank document button on the standard toolbar

This is blank screen and is similar to a blank page in your note book. This
screen is the first page of your document. This is where you start typing. After
the first page gets over, Word automatically goes to the next page. Your document
can run into as many pages as required.
Features of Word Processing Package 103

Basics of Entering Text

The characters you type are inserted in front of a blinking vertical bar called
insertion point. To move the insertion point, you move the mouse pointer and
click at the desired place where you want to insert the text. While typing when
a word doesn’t fit it automatically flows to the beginning of next line. This feature
is called word-wrap. To start a new Paragraph position the insertion point at the
last line of the first paragraph and then press Enter key.

7.4. Saving a Document

The document you type exists only in computer memory, a temporary storage
area i.e. in the RAM. It is essential that our document should be stored in a
permanent storage device such as hard disk or floppy disk for future retrieval.
This is referred to as “Saving a Document”.

The text typed using word is kept in files called documents. Word provides two
commands in the File menu to save a document namely Save and Save As.

Save As: We can use this option to

Ø Save a document for the first time
Ø Save a previously saved document with a new name
Ø Save it in a different location
Save: This option allows saving a document with its existing name. The location
and file format not changed.

Procedure for first time saving

1. Click File menu on the menu bar

2. Select Save or Save As… or click Save button on standard toolbar
or press Ctrl + S, then Save As dialog box appears.
104 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

3. Select the folder under which it is saved if required.

4. Type file name in the filename text box.
5. Click Save button.

Subsequent saving

1. Click File menu on the menu bar

2. Select Save or click on Save button on the standard toolbar or
press Ctrl + S

Opening an existing Document: To open an existing document

1. Choose Open… from the File menu. The Open dialog box will be
displayed
2. Select the desired Drive and Directory in the list box.
3. Choose the desired file.
4. Click on OK or simply double click the desired file.

Editing a Text

The process of changing the appearance of the text, deleting a portion of the
text, duplicating or moving a part of the text, is called Editing. To make these
changes you must first select the portion of text, which needs the change.

7.2. Selecting Text

In Word, it is very important to know how to select (highlight) text because you
can do so many operations on the selected text.

Mouse selection Shortcuts

Features of Word Processing Package 105

To select this Do this

A single word Double click the word

A sentence Press Ctrl key and click anywhere in the sentence

A line of text Click in the selection bar area before the line

Multiple lines Click and drag in the selection bar

A paragraph Double click in the selection bar to the left of the

paragraph.
Any amount of text Click at the beginning of the text you want to
select, and then shift click at the end of the text.

Whole document Triple-click or Ctrl + click any where in the

selection bar or Edit à Select All command.

Moving Text

1. Select the text to be moved

2. Select Edit à Cut option or Click on Cut button on toolbar or press
Ctrl + X
3. Click in a new place, where the selected text should appear
4. Select Edit à Paste or Click on Paste button on the toolbar or press
Ctrl + V

7.1. Copying Text

5. Select the text to be copied

6. Select Edit Copy option or Click on Copy button on toolbar or press
Ctrl + C
7. Click in a new place, where the selected text should copied
8. Select Edit à Paste or Click on Paste button on the toolbar or press
106 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Ctrl + V

Undo Redo and Repeat

Word 2000 remembers all your actions. At any stage, you can undo not only
the latest action but also the number of earlier actions related to editing and
formatting document. Undo cancel (undoes) the last action that you have just
performed. Redo redoes the last action that you have just undone it. Repeat
repeats the last action that you have just done it.

1. To undo the previous work select, Edit à Undo or press Ctrl +Z

2. To redo the previous action select, Edit à Redo or press Ctrl + Y or
press F4.

VIEWS: Documents in word window can be seen in different ways to make

things easier to visualize and faster to work with. There are several ways to
visualize documents. These are called Views. Microsoft word has seven ways.
1) Normal View 2) Web Layout View 3) Print Layout View 4) Outline View
5) Full Screen View 6) Zoom 7) Print Preview View
There is a View option on the menu bar that has all above options except
Print Preview. Print Preview in on File menu. There are four view buttons in the
lower left corner of Word’s status area that are useful to switch views quickly.

1) Normal View: This view responds faster to typing, editing, and scrolling.
In this view page headers, footers and margins are hidden so that you
can concentrate on text. Automatic page breaks are shown as horizontal
dotted lines. Normal view displays only the horizontal ruler not the vertical
ruler.
To see document in Normal view
a) Select Normal view option from the View menu
b) Clicking Normal View button above left-corner of the status
Features of Word Processing Package 107

bar.
c) Press Alt + V and N from keyboard.
2) Web Layout View: This view displays documents, as it will look on
the web. When a document is open in Web Layout View, Word enlarges
the size of text and wraps lines of text so everything is on the screen
without having to scroll horizontally.
To see document in Web Layout view
a) Select Web Layout view option from the View menu
b) Clicking Web Layout View button above left-corner of the
status bar.
c) Press Alt + V and W from keyboard.

3) Print Layout View: This view shows how text, graphics, and other
elements are positioned on the printed page. This is helpful in editing
headers and footers, adjusting margins, and with columns and drawings
objects.
To see document in Print Layout view
a) Select Print Layout view option from the View menu
b) Clicking Print Layout View button above left-corner of the
status bar.
c) Press Alt + V and P from keyboard.

4) Outline View: This view shows the document in hierarchical form,

headings, subheadings and text under the headings. This view is more
helpful than any other in rearranging the documents in specified levels.
To see document in Outline view
a) Select Outline view option from the View menu
b) Clicking Outline View button above left-corner of the status
bar.
c) Press Alt + V and O from keyboard.
108 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

5) Full Screen View: This view removes all the menus and toolbars as
well as takes up all available space in the Word window. To see a
document in Full Screen, click View menu and select Full Screen option.
When you are in full screen, click Close full screen option or press
Esc. Key on the keyboard to return to the previous view. Keyboard
shortcut: Alt + V + U

6) Zoom: This view enlarges or reduces the view of your document as a

percentage of its normal size. To return your document to normal size,
click 100%. To zoom a document click View on the menu bar, select
Zoom, in the zoom dialog box select zoom settings that you want and
then click OK button. Keyboard shortcut: Alt + V + Z.

7) Print Preview View: This view shows exactly how it will look when it
is printed on. When this view is selected Word resizes the document so
it fits inside the document window. To see a document in this mode
select Print Preview from file menu bar or click Print Preview button
on Standard Toolbar. Keyboard shortcut is: Alt + F + V.

7.10. CARRY OUT SPELL CHECK

Word offers tools that easier to examine and automate your writing tasks. Spelling
and Grammar is a tool used to check the active document for possible spelling,
grammar, and writing style errors, and displays suggestions for correcting them.
v Automatically check spelling and grammar as you type: As soon as
you type misspelled words or ungrammatical sentences, word recognizes
them to be misspelled and ungrammatical and then underlines them
immediately in red and green wavy lines. The red underlines indicate possible
spelling errors and the green underlines indicate possible grammatical errors.
To fix one of these marked errors, right click on it, you get a shortcut menu
that has a set of replacement words, along with a few other options. If you
think any one of them is suitable click on it to replace otherwise click Ignore
Features of Word Processing Package 109

All to tell it is not suitable word and need not be replaced.

v Check spelling and grammar all at once: This method is useful if you
want to postpone spell check of a document till the edit is finish. If you want
to check a portion of the document, select it. To open spelling and grammar
check dialog box.
1. Click Tools menu and select Spelling and Grammar option.
2. Click the Spelling and Grammar button on the standard toolbar
3. Press F7 on keyboard.

Spelling and Grammar dialog box options

7.3.Symbols and Special characters

Symbols and special characters that are not available on the keyboard can be
inserted using Symbol feature or Keyboard shortcuts. To display the symbol
dialog box select Symbol from Insert menu or press Alt + I and then S.

Insert a Symbol

1. Click where you want to insert a symbol

2. On the Insert menu click Symbol.
3. In the Symbol dialog box select the symbol and click Insert button or
double click on the symbol.

Insert a Special Character

1. Click where you want to insert a special character

2. On the Insert menu click Symbol and then click the special characters
tab.
3. Select the character and click Insert button or double click on the
character.
110 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

7.6. Formatting Paragraph

Formatting is a process to change the appearance of the text documents to be
attractive, easier to read. Formatting is a separate stage often takes place after
the document has been entered. We cam broadly classify the text formatting
into three categories.
1. Font formatting or Character Formatting
2. Paragraph Formatting
3. Page formatting

Character Formatting: Character formatting changes the appearance of

individual characters. Character formatting includes changing the character type,
style and size, adding color to text and making text Bold, Italic and Underline
etc.

Font: Font is a set of characters that make up one member or style of a particular
typeface. A font consists of three elements Type Face, Type Size and Type
Style

Type Face: Type face refers to design of the letters. Times New Roman is the
default type face.
Type Size: Letters can be made larger or smaller as you prefer. Type size
measured in “points”.
Type Style: A type style is a way to enhance text (Eg. Bold, Italic, Underline
etc. )

Changing Font Type or Font Face

1. Select the text and select the required font type from font type drop
down list box in the Formatting tool bar. Or
2. Click on the Format menu and select the option Font. In the Font
dialog box choose the required Font type and then click on OK.
Features of Word Processing Package 111

Applying Font Style (Bold, Italic and Underline)

1. Select the text.
2. Click on the option Bold, Italic or Underline on the standard tool bar.
Or
3. Click on the Format menu and select the option Font. In the Font
dialog box choose the required Font Style and then click on OK

Applying Font Color

1. Select the Text
2. Click down arrow of the font color button on the formatting toolbar
and then select the color from available colors.
3. Click on the Format menu and select the option Font. In the Font
dialog box choose the required Color from the Font Color list box
and then click on OK button.

Applying Animations: Text animation is a technique used to add visual

movements such as blinking, marching, moving, shimmering, sparkling etc.
1. Select the text you want to animate.
2. On the Format menu click Font, and then click the Text effects
tab.
3. In the Animations box, select the effects you want and click on
OK button.

Special Effects: You can decorate your text, as you want using Font dialog
box. There are different formatting options in the form of check boxes named
under effects. These are
1. Strikethrough: Draws a line through the selected text.
2. Double Strikethrough: Draws a double line through the selected text.
3. Superscript: Raises the selected text above the baseline and changes
it to a smaller size.
112 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

4. Subscript: Lowers the selected text below the baseline and changes it
to a smaller size.
5. Shadow: Adds a shadow behind the selected text, beneath and to the
right of the text.
6. Outline: Displays the inner and outer borders of each character.
7. Emboss: Makes selected text appear as if it is raised off the page in
relief.
8. Engrave: Makes selected text appear to be imprinted or pressed into
the page.
9. Small caps: Formats selected text as capital letters and reduces their
size.
10. All Caps: Formats selected text as capital letters.
11. Hidden: Prevents selected text from being displayed or printed.

Change Case
Change Case Changes the capitalization of selected text. It is used to change
text from uppercase to lowercase and vice versa.
Procedure:
1. Selected text to be changed.
2. Choose Change Case… option from format menu to displays the
Change Case dialog box. There are five options.
a. Sentence Case: Capitalizes the first letter of the first word in
the selected sentences.
b. Lowercase: Changes all selected text to lowercase letters.
c. Uppercase: Changes all selected to capital letters.
d. Title Case: Capitalizes the first letter of each word in the selected
text.
e. Toggle Case: Changes all uppercase letters to lowercase in
the selection and vice versa.

3. Select the option you want and click OK.

Features of Word Processing Package 113

Paragraph Formatting
In general paragraph is a collection sentences. In Word 2000, a paragraph is
nothing more than a collection of words that ends when you press Enter key.
When you press the Enter key, you are marking the end of a paragraph. Paragraph
formatting affects individual paragraphs.

Alignment
Alignment means an arrangement of text into suitable order in the paragraph. It
shapes whether your text is lined up on the left, right, in the center, or on both
left and right so that it leads to smartening the paragraph. There are four buttons
on the formatting toolbar namely Align Left, Align Right, Center and Justify.
1. Align Left: Aligns the selected text to the left with uneven right edges.
2. Center: Centers the selected text.
3. Align Right: Aligns the selected text to the right with uneven left edges.
4. Justify: Aligns the selected text to both the left and right margins or
indents.

To change alignment using paragraph

1. Place the insertion point anywhere in the paragraph.
2. Click the alignment (Left, Center, Right, Justify) button on the standard
tool bar.

Keyboard Shortcuts
1. Align Left : Ctrl + L
2. Align Right : Ctrl + R
3. Center : Ctrl + E
4. Justify : Ctrl + J

Indentation
Indentation is a process used to leave certain number of blank spaces before
114 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

the first line, as well as form the right and left margins of paragraph. Indentation
can be classified into four categories Left, Right, First Line and Hanging.
1. Left Indentation: Left Indentation leaves certain number of blank
spaces after the left margin.
2. Right Indentation: Right Indentation leaves certain number of blank
spaces before the right margin.
3. First Line Indentation: First Line Indentation leaves certain number
of blank spaces before the first line of the paragraph.
4. Hanging Indentation: Hanging Indentation leaves certain number of
blank spaces for all lines but the first from the left margin of a paragraph.

Indentation using Indent Markers

1. Select the paragraph(s) you want to indent.
2. Point to the indent marker that you want to use.
3. Drag the desired Indent marker to the right spot on the ruler, and release
the mouse button.
Keyboard Shortcuts
1. Ctrl + M à Left Indent
2. Ctrl + Shift + M à Remove Left Indent
3. Ctrl + T à Hanging Indent
4. Ctrl + Shift + T à Reduce Hanging Indent
5. Ctrl + Q à Remove Paragraph Formatting

Line Spacing
Line spacing determines an amount of vertical spaces among lines in a paragraph.
It allows us to expand or condense the vertical spaces among lines of paragraph.
Line spacing can be set using either the Line spacing box in the paragraph
dialog box or keyboard shortcut or buttons in the formatting toolbar. There are
different line spacing options.
1. Single Line Spacing: This is Word’s default spacing. It accommodates
the largest font in that line, plus a small amount of extra space.
Features of Word Processing Package 115

2. Line-and-a-half Spacing (1.5 lines spacing): This applies one-and-

a-half times that of single line spacing.
3. Double Line Spacing: This allows twice that of single line spacing.
4. At least Spacing: This allows minimum line spacing that Microsoft
Word can adjust to accommodate larger font sizes or graphics.
5. Exactly Spacing: This allows fixed line spacing that word does not
adjust. This option spaces all lines uniformly.
6. Multiple Spacing: This allows increasing or decreasing line spacing
by a percentage that you specify.

Applying lines spacing

Place the insertion point in the paragraph or select multiple paragraphs
Choose the option required line spacing option from the line spacing
drop down list of the paragraph dialog box.
Click on OK button.

Keyboard Shortcuts
1. Single Line Spacing : Ctrl + 1
2. 1.5 Line Spacing : Ctrl + 5
3. Double Line Spacing : Ctrl + 2

Bullets and Numbering

Bullet is an item used to highlight sections of text into an unordered list, in order
to bring attention to them. It is used make lists of information stand out from the
rest of your document text.

Numbering is to organize your information into a series that is easy to

understand. Make sure each item in the list or each point is on a separate line.

To insert a Bullet or Numbering at the start of a line, just click the Bullets
button or Numbering button on the Formatting toolbar.
116 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

If you want to put bullets or numbering for created information do the following.
1. Select the items you want to add bullets or numbering to.
2. Click Bullets button to add bullets, click Numbering button to add
numbering.
To create a bulleted or numbered list automatically as you type, type 1 or *
(asterisk), press SPACEBAR or TAB, and then type any text you want. When
you press ENTER to add the next list item, word automatically inserts the next
number or bullet. To finish the list press ENTER twice.

To change the default bullet symbols or number styles

1. Click Format on the menu bar.
2. Select Bullet and Numbering.
3. Click the Bullet tab and Numbering tab.
4. Select 1 of 7 types of bullets or numberings.
To change the layout and style click the Customize command button to get the
dialog box. In the dialog box you can select a different symbol from any of the
fonts available to you.

TABS
Tab helps you line up columns of information or indent text within a line or
paragraph. You can add, remove or move tabs as you desire. Each tab position
set on the horizontal ruler is called tab or tab stop. When the tab key on the
keyboard is pressed the insertion point jumps from one tab stop to the next.
Microsoft Word has five kinds of tab stops given below.
1. Left ( L ) : Text extends to the right from the tab stops.
2. Center ( ^ ) : Text is centered at the tab stop.
3. Right ( +) : Text extends to the left from the tab stop.
4. Decimal ( ^ ) : Text before the decimal point extends to the Left,
and text after the decimal point
extends to the right.
5. Bar ( I ) : Inserts a vertical line at the tab stop.
Features of Word Processing Package 117

The tab selector button at the left end of the horizontal ruler is used to select
different tab stops. Click it to cycle through left tab, center tab, right tab, decimal
tab and bar tab. The quickest way to set tabs for the current paragraph or
paragraphs is to use the horizontal ruler.

Procedure for settings tabs with the Horizontal ruler

1. Click any where in the paragraph or select multiple paragraphs.
2. Click the tab selector button at the left of the horizontal ruler until the
tab type you want is come up.
3. Click in the horizontal ruler where you want the tab stop to be.

Procedure for setting tabs with the tabs dialog box

1. Click any where in the paragraph or select multiple paragraphs.
2. Click the Format menu and select Tabs… .
3. Click in Tab stop position box and enter a measurement that tells how
far the tab stop positioned from the left margin.
4. Select the alignment option for the tab and click the Set button.
5. You can select as many tabs you want, and then click OK or press
ENTER key.

Borders and Shading

Border means a line drawn in the box shape around the text or page. Borders
can be applied any or all sides of each page in a document. You can also put
borders around graphics. You can add page borders in many lines styles and
colors, as well as a variety of graphical borders.
Shading means filling the background of the text with a color in order to
draw people attention to the text. Shading can be added to paragraphs or with
or without borders.
Borders and Shading can be added using the Table and Borders toolbar,
or the Borders and Shading dialog box.
118 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Procedure for applying Borders

1. Select the text to be applied.
2. Click the Format menu and select Borders and Shading… option.
3. Click the Borders or Page Border tab (for page Border).
4. Select the required Line Style and Line Weight and Line color from the
provided list boxes.
5. Select the borders style (None, Box, Shadow etc.).
6. Click on OK button.

Procedure for applying Shading

7. Select the text to be applied.
8. Click the Format menu and select Borders and Shading… option.
9. Click the Shading tab and select the shading color and style.
10. Click on OK button.

Page Setup
Page setting means setting the size of a page, margins (left, right, top, bottom
etc.), orientation (portrait or landscape) etc. The Page Setup dialog box helps
you to control page layout to a great extent in Word 2000.

7.5. Setting of Margins and Indents:

Page margins are the blank spaces around the edges of the pages. All four
margins namely top, bottom, left, right are adjustable. We can use word’s default
page margins or specify our own margins.

Changing margins using Page Setup dialog box

1. Click on File menu and select the option Page Setup…
2. Click the Margins tab if it is not already in front.
3. Click on the up or down arrows (spinner arrows) to the right of the
margins boxes to increase or decrease the margins. Or click on the box
and type the new value.
Features of Word Processing Package 119

4. Click OK button.

Setting the Page Size: Word 2000 will enable you to change the paper size
to anything you want. When you create a new document, Word picks up a
paper size which is usually the Letter size 8.5 inches wide and 11 inches long or
A4 size.
1. Click on File menu and select Page Setup… option.
2. Click Paper Size tab to bring it to the front.
3. Click the Paper Size drop down arrow and select the required paper
size.
4. Select the page orientation either Portrait or Landscape.
5. Click Ok button.

Inserting Page Breaks: Page break is the point at which one page ends and
another page begins. Page breaks are used to begin a new page of text before
the previous page is filled. Page breaks can be inserted automatically or manually.
When the current page is full, word 2000 automatically starts a new page.
These page breaks are called automatic page breaks. The page breaks inserted
manually are called manual page breaks.

Inserting Page Breaks manually

1. Click the spot where you want to insert the break.
2. Click Insert menu and select the option Break… to display the break
dialog box.
3. If necessary, click the Page break radio button.
4. Click OK button.
Keyboard shortcut: Ctrl + ENTER

Removing Page Breaks

1. Click on the page break line and press the Delete key or if the insertion
point is just after the break, strike the backspace key.
120 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Inserting Page Numbers: Microsoft Word provides facility add page numbers
to the top or bottom of document. Follow these steps to add page numbers
1. Click Insert menu and select the option Page Numbers…
2. Choose the position (bottom or top) from the position list box.
3. Choose the alignment (left, right, center etc.) from the Alignment list
box.
4. Click on OK.

7.11. Including Headers and Footers

Header is an area used to place repetitive information across the top of each
page in a document. Footer is an area used to put repetitive information across
bottom of each page in a document. We can use the same header and footer
throughout a document or change the header and footer for part of the document.

Applying Header or Footer

1. Click the View menu and select Header and Footer option. It
displays the Header and Footer toolbar and shows the header and
footer area of the document.
2. Select the Header and Footer button and enter the text. Use the
tool buttons (Insert Page number, no. of pages, Format page
numbers, Insert date, Insert Time etc.)
3. Click on Close button on the toolbar.

7.7. Multiple Columns

Word allows arranging the text into several columns like newspapers columns.
When one column is full the text flows into the next columns. To prepare a
columnar text:
1. Select the text.
2. On the Standard toolbar, Click Columns button or Select Columns
from the Format menu to display the Columns dialog box.
Features of Word Processing Package 121

3. Drag to select the number of columns on the columns button of the

Standard toolbar. Or select the number of columns from the Columns
dialog box.

7.8. TABLES
A table is a collection of rows and columns. Each row and column inside a
table is made up of units called cells. A cell is the intersection of rows and
columns. A current cell is where you type a table entry. Tables are often used to
organize and arrange information.

Creating a Table: Word provides three ways for create a table.

1. Using the Insert Table tool on the standard toolbar.
2. Using the Insert Table dialog box
3. Using the Tables and Borders toolbar

1. Creating a Table with “Insert Table” tool

a. Place the insertion point where you want to Insert the table
b. Click the Insert Table button on the Standard toolbar.
c. Drag the mouse pointer down and to the right over the grids and release
the mouse pointer.

2. Creating a Table Using the Insert Table dialog box

a. Click where you want to insert a table
b. Click on Table menu, select Insert option and click on Table… option.
c. Type or select the number of rows and columns from the appropriate
boxes.
d. Click OK button.

Adding Cells, Columns and Rows to a Table

1. Place the insertion point where cells, columns or rows are required.
2. Click the Table menu and select Insert you will see a list of options
122 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

select the required option.

3. To quickly add a row at the end of a table, click the last cell of the table
last row and then press the TAB key.
Delete cells, rows, or columns from a Table
1. Select the cells, rows, or columns to be deleted.
2. On the Table menu, point to Delete, and then click Columns, Rows, or
Cells.
3. While deleting cells, click the option to be deleted.
Clear the Contents of a Table
1. Select the content to be cleared.
2. Press Delete key.

Table and its contents

1. Click in the table to be deleted.
2. On the Table menu, point to Delete, and then click Table.

Mail Merge
Mail merge is an ability to create a letter in Word, and then print multiple copies
of that letter, each with a different name and address on it. Mail Merge in Word
may also be used to fill envelopes and labels with data as well. Mail Merge is
the process of taking document and mixing it with another to create an almost
identical bunch of new documents.

7.12 Mail Merges feature of Word

Main Document: This is the actual document that you are producing. It can
be a form letter, label or envelope. The main document contains normal text
that stays the same for each copy of the letter.

Data Source: This is the file that stores information to be brought into the main
document. This file contains a collection of names and addresses from which
Features of Word Processing Package 123

the program gets what you want to include in the document.

Performing a Mail Merge involves three basic steps

1. Creating the main document (such as form-letter)
2. Creating the data source (such as address list)
3. Merging the main document with data source.

Creating a Main Document

1. Click Tools menu and select the option Mail Merge…
2. Click the Create button located below “Main Document” in step 1.
(Word displays a list box that contains the various types of Mail Merge
documents you can create.
3. Click Form Letters in the drop down list.
4. Word displays a message box, asking you whether you want to use the
active document as your main document or start a new Document.
Click Active Document if active document contain form letters.
Creating a Data Source
1. Click the Get Data button. Word displays four options in a list box.
(create Data Source, Open Data Source etc.)
a. If you want to create a fresh list of addresses then you should
click on Create Data Source.
b. If you want to open a list of addresses you have created already
then you should click on Open Data Source option.
2. In the create data source dialog box, choose the field names and add
new fields if required, delete unnecessary fields and click OK button.
3. Then “Save Data Source” dialog box appears. Save the data source
file.
4. Then Word displays a message box with the options “Edit Data Source”
and “Edit Main Document”
5. Click “Edit Data Source” button.
6. In the Edit Data Source dialog box add records (addresses).
124 Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

7. Click OK button.
8. The main document appears with the new mail merge toolbar.

Inserting Merge fields in the Main Document

1. Insert the merge fields in the main document in required places using
the Insert Merge Fields button from the Mail Merge toolbar.
2. To view the data records click on View Data Records button (
<<ABC>>) on the mail merge toolbar.
3. To merge the Data Source and Main Document click on “merge…”
button on the mail merge toolbar.
4. Click on “Merge” button in the Merge dialog box.

7.9. Printing a document:

Printing means getting a hard copy of the information from a printer on the
paper. When a new document is going to be created you must consider the
type of printer, paper size and document design used. When the document is
ready to be printed see the Print Preview. To print active file or selected part,
just click the printer button on the standard toolbar. To print document click
File menu and select the option Print. In the print dialog box specify the page
range and number of copies and click on OK button.