INTRODUCTION

Surface tension is a property of the surface of a liquid that allows

it to resist an external force. It causes liquid surfaces to behave as stretched

elastic membranes. This property is caused by cohesion of like molecules,

and is responsible for many of the behaviors of liquids. Its strength depends

on the forces of attraction among the particles of the liquid itself and with

the particles of the gas, solid, or liquid with which it comes in contact. The

surface tension is very much visible to us in our everyday life, for instance in

floating of some objects on the surface of water, even though they are

denser than water, and in the ability of some insects (e.g. water striders) and

even reptiles (basilisk) to run on the water surface. The spherical shape of

the liquid drops is also due to surface tension. Quantitatively, surface tension

is defined as the force acting normally per unit length of a line drawn on the

surface of the liquid. Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length

or of energy per unit area. The two are equivalent—but when referring to

energy per unit of area the term surface energy is used which is a more general

term in the sense that it applies also to solids and not just liquids. In materials

science, surface tension is used for either surface stress or surface free

energy

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 CAUSE OF SURFACE TENSION

The cohesive forces among the liquid molecules are responsible

for this phenomenon of surface tension. In the bulk of the liquid, each

molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighbouring liquid

molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. The molecules at the surface do

not have other molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled

inwards. This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to

contract to the minimal area.

Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets.

Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical

shape by the cohesive forces of the surface layer. In the absence of other

forces, including gravity, drops of virtually all liquids would be perfectly

spherical. The spherical shape minimizes the necessary "wall tension" of the

surface layer according to Laplace's law.

Another way to view it is in terms of energy. A molecule in

contact with a neighbour is in a lower state of energy than if it were alone

(not in contact with a neighbour). The interior molecules have as many

neighbours as they can possibly have, but the boundary molecules are

missing neighbours (compared to interior molecules) and therefore have a

higher energy. For the liquid to minimize its energy state, the number of

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higher energy boundary molecules must be minimized. The minimized

quantity of boundary molecules results in a minimized surface area.

The principle behind the phenomenon can be explained using the

basic molecular theory as follows.

Liquids, according to the Molecular theory, are made up of molecules. Let KLMN

represent a surface film of thickness LM, which is same as the molecular range. Consider three

molecules A, B, C at different positions. The molecule A experiences force of attraction equally

in all directions, due to its neighbouring molecules. The solid circle represents its sphere of

influence (whose radius is equal to the molecular range). Therefore, the net force acting on A is

zero. Consider the molecule at B (till below the surface). Like A, even B experiences a force of

attraction due to its neighbouring molecules. But unlike A, B is not pulled equally on all sides

and experiences a net pull downward. This is because it experiences more attraction due to

number of molecules inside the liquid. Coming to molecule 'C', we find that it experiences a

greater downward pull because it is attracted by even lesser numbers of molecules. The

downward force or pull experienced by molecules B and C is called the force of cohesion. In

other words, the force of cohesion represents the attractive force of two similar molecules.

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 If one has to bring a molecule like A to the surface KL, then work has to be done

against this force of cohesion. Therefore, this work done is stored as potential energy of the

molecule. This means that the surface film has potential energy. Greater the number of molecules

on the surface, greater is the potential energy of the film. We know that every system in the

universe tends to acquire a minimum potential energy. In order to attain stable equilibrium, the

surface film also tends to have minimum P.E. and so, the number of molecules in the surface

film is minimum. Since the thickness of the film (LM or KN) is fixed, the surface area has to

minimum in order to acquire minimum volume. In an attempt to minimize the surface area, the

film contracts and acts like a stretched membrane.

Fig.3 Direction of Surface Tension

FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE TENSION

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 Surface tension varies from liquid to liquid and also with the

change in the conditions available. Primarily surface tension of a liquid is

governed by the strength of intermolecular attractive forces. Therefore, the

magnitude of surface tension is a measure of intermolecular attractive

forces. The conditions affecting surface tension are as follows:

• Temperature

• Solute concentration

• Presence of Contaminants

Effect of Temperature:

Surface tension is dependent on temperature. For that reason, when a value is

given for the surface tension of an interface, temperature must be explicitly stated. Surface

tension decreases with rise in temperature, almost linearly. The decrease of

surface tension with increase in temperature results because the kinetic

energy (or speeds) of the molecules increases. Thus, the strength of

intermolecular forces decreases resulting in the decrease of surface tension

also. For example, clothes are washed more efficiently in hot water than in

cold water due to decreased surface tension in hot water.

The surface tension of all substances reduces to zero at a particular

temperature known as the critical temperature which is intrinsic to each of

the substance.

There are only empirical relations connecting surface tension and

temperature. The most accurate among them is the Eotvas equation.

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According to Eotvas the effect of temperature on surface tension is given by

the equation.

Where, γ = surface tension, k = constant, V=Molar volume of the substance, Tc =

critical temperature and T= temperature

As 'T' approaches critical temperature, the surface tension

becomes zero. At this stage the meniscus between the liquid and vapour

disappears.

Variation of surface tension with

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Effects of Solute Concentration:

Solutes can have different effects on surface tension depending

on their structure:

• Little or no effect, for example sugar

• Increase surface tension, inorganic salts

• Decrease surface tension progressively. Alcohols, phenol etc.

• Decrease surface tension and, once a minimum is reached, no more

effect: surfactants like detergents

What complicates the effect is that a solute can exist in a different

concentration at the surface of a solvent than in its bulk. This difference varies from

one solute/solvent combination to another.

Effect of Contamination:

The presence of dust, oil or grease on the surface of water,

reduces the surface tension of water. Impurities affect surface tension

appreciably. It is observed that impurities, which tend to concentrate on the

surface of liquids, compared to its bulk lower the surface tension.

EFFECTS OF SURFACE TENSION

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Capillary Rise in a Vertical Tube
Capillary action is the result of adhesion and surface tension.

Adhesion of water to the walls of a vessel will cause an upward force on the

liquid at the edges and result in a meniscus which turns upward. The surface

tension acts to hold the surface intact, so instead of just the edges moving

upward, the whole liquid surface is dragged upward. The height to which

water rises decreases with increase in the radius of the capillary tube.

Capillary action occurs when the adhesion to the walls is stronger

than the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules. The height to which

capillary action will take water in a uniform circular tube is limited by surface

tension. Acting around the circumference, the upward force is:

Fupward = T2πr
Where, T=Surface Tension;
r = the radius of capillary tube.
The height h to which capillary action will lift water depends

upon the weight of water which the surface tension will lift:

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 T2πr = ρg(hπr2)

The height to which the liquid can be lifted is given by

Pressure inside a Bubble

The surface tension of water provides the necessary wall tension

for the formation of bubbles with water and for the shape of liquid droplets.

Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical

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shape by the cohesive forces of the surface layer. The spherical shape

minimizes then necessary "wall tension" of the surface layer according to

Laplace’s law.

The pressure difference between the inside and outside of a

bubble depends upon the surface tension and the radius of the bubble. The

relationship can be obtained by visualizing the bubble as two hemispheres

and noting that the internal pressure which tends to push the hemispheres

apart is counteracted by the surface tension acting around the

circumference of the circle. For a bubble with two surfaces providing tension,

the pressure relationship is:

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 The net upward force on the top hemisphere of the bubble is just

the pressure difference times the area of the equatorial circle:

The surface tension force downward around circle is twice the

surface tension times the circumference, since two surfaces contribute to the

force:

This gives

This latter case also applies to the case of a bubble surrounded

by a liquid, such as the case of the alveoli of the lungs.

SURFACE TENSION OF WATER

Water is one of the liquids exhibiting great surface tension. The

surface tension of water is 71.97 dynes/cm at 25°C. It would take a force of

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72 dynes to break a surface film of water 1 cm long. The surface tension of

water decreases significantly with temperature as shown in the graph. The

surface tension arises from the polar nature of the water molecule. Soaps

and detergents further lower the surface tension. Critical temperature of

water is 374 °C or 647K.

Temperature Surface

Tension

0 75.64

25 71.97

50 67.91

100 58.85

Graph Showing variation of Surface Tension with

COMMON EXAMPLES OF SURFACE

TENSION

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Cleansing Action of Detergents

Detergents and soaps are used for cleaning because pure water

can't remove oily, organic soiling. Soap cleans by acting as an emulsifier.

Basically, soap allows oil and water to mix so that oily grime can be removed

during rinsing. Detergents are primarily surfactants, which could be

produced easily from petrochemicals. Surfactants lower the surface tension

of water, essentially making it 'wetter' so that it is less likely to stick to itself

and more likely to interact with oil and grease.

Washing with cold water

The major reason for using hot water for washing is that its

surface tension is lower and it is a better wetting agent. But if the detergent

lowers the surface tension, the heating may be unnecessary.

Surface tension disinfectants

Disinfectants are usually solutions of low surface tension. This

allows them to spread out on the cell walls of bacteria and disrupt them. One

such disinfectant, S.T.37, has a name which points to its low surface tension

compared to the 72.8 dynes/cm for water.

Clinical test for jaundice

Normal urine has a surface tension of about 66 dynes/cm but if

bile is present (a test for jaundice), it drops to about 55. In the Hay test,

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powdered sulfur is sprinkled on the urine surface. It will float on normal

urine, but sink if the S.T. is lowered by the bile.

Shape of Liquid Droplets

Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets.

Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical

shape by the cohesive forces of the surface layer. A water droplet can act as

lens and form an image as a simple magnifier. The relatively high surface

tension of water accounts for the ease with which it can be nebulized, or

placed into aerosol form.

Floating of needle on water

If carefully placed on the surface, a small needle can be made to

float on the surface of water even though it is several times as dense as

water. If the surface is agitated to break up the surface tension, then needle

will quickly sink.

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 METHODS OF MEASURING SURFACE

TENSION

Because surface tension manifests itself in various effects, it

offers a number of paths to its measurement. Which method is optimal

depends upon the nature of the liquid being measured, the conditions under

which its tension is to be measured, and the stability of its surface when it is

deformed

• Capillary rise method: The end of a capillary is immersed into the

solution. The height at which the solution reaches inside the capillary is

related to the surface tension by the equation discussed below.

• Stalagmometric method: A method of weighting and reading a drop of

liquid.

• Wilhelmy plate method: A universal method especially suited to check

surface tension over long time intervals. A vertical plate of known

perimeter is attached to a balance, and the force due to wetting is

measured.

• Spinning drop method: This technique is ideal for measuring low

interfacial tensions. The diameter of a drop within a heavy phase is

measured while both are rotated.

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 • Pendant drop method: Surface and interfacial tension can be measured

by this technique, even at elevated temperatures and pressures.

Geometry of a drop is analyzed optically. For details, see Drop.

• Sessile drop method: A method for determining surface tension and

density by placing a drop on a substrate and measuring the contact

angle (see Sessile drop technique).

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE

SURFACE TENSION OF WATER BY
CAPILLARY RISE METHOD
Aim: To determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise

method

Apparatus: Capillary tube, needle, a beaker of clean water, travelling

microscope.

Theory:

A capillary tube, open at both ends when dipped vertically in a

liquid the liquid level rises in the tube due to surface tension. Let h be the

capillary ascent of liquid in the tube and ρ the density of the liquid. The

surface tension is given by the formula:

T=r(h+r3)ρ g2cosθ

Where, r is the radius of capillary tube,

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 h the capillary ascent

ρ the density of water,

g the acceleration due to gravity and

θ is the angle of contact

Procedure:

Place the adjustable height stand on the table and make its base

horizontal by leveling screws. Place a beaker containing clean water on the

stand. Find the least count of the travelling microscope for the horizontal and

vertical scale. Raise the microscope to a suitable height, keeping its axis

horizontal and pointed towards the capillary tube. Make the horizontal cross

wire just touch the central part of the central part of the concave meniscus

(seen convex through the microscope as in Fig. 1). Note the reading of the

microscope on the vertical scale. Now lower the travelling microscope so that

the horizontal cross-wire coincides with the tip of the pointer. Note down the

reading. The difference in their readings gives the capillary rise in the tube.

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 Fig.1 Water Meniscus through microscope Fig.2 Measurement of

inner diameter

To measure the inner diameter of the capillary tube, place the

tube horizontally on the stand. Focus the microscope on the end of the tube

which was earlier dipped in water. A white circle (the inner bore) surrounded

by a green strip (glass cross-section) will be seen as shown in Fig.2. Make the

horizontal cross wire touch the inner circle at A. Note the microscopic

reading on the vertical scale. Now lower the microscope so that the

horizontal crosswire touches the inner circle at B. Again note down the

reading. The difference of these values gives the vertical inner diameter of

the capillary tube. Now move the microscope on the horizontal scale and

make the vertical cross wire touch the inner circle at C. Move it to the right

to make the vertical crosswire touch the circle at D. Note the reading. The

difference of the readings gives the horizontal inner diameter of the capillary

tube.

The angle of contact of water in glass is 8⁰. Therefore

cosθ=0.99027 ≈ 1

The following Observations are recorded:

Preliminary Observations for the Travelling Microscope

Value of one division on the main scale = 0.5 mm

No: of divisions on the Vernier Scale = 50

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Least Count = Value of 1 division on the main scaleNo.of divisions on the main

scale =0.550 = 0.01mm

Table for Capillary Rise

Sl Position of the Microscope Reading Capillary Rise

No cross wire MSR VSR Total=MSR+VS
(Difference between
. RXLC
(mm) the readings)

(mm)
(mm)

1 At the Meniscus 43.5 14 43.64

2 At the tip of the 10.0 10 10.1 33.54

Pointer

Table for the inner diameter of the capillary tube

Sl Microscope Reading Capillary

No Rise
Measurem Position of MS VS Total=MSR+VS
.
ent the cross R R RXLC (Difference
wire between
(mm (mm)
the readings)
)
(mm)

1 Vertical (i)Upper 119 39 119.39

Inner edge of the
1.01
Diameter tube

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 (ii)At the 120 40 120.40
tip of the
Pointer

2 Horizontal (i)Left 1 15 1.15

inner Edge of the
0.85
Diameter tube

(ii)Right 0 30 0.30
Edge of the
tube

Mean Diameter = 0.93mm =

0.93x10 m -3

Result:

1. Capillary Rise (h) = 30.4 mm = 30.4x10-3m

2. Radius of Capillary Tube (r)=d/2= 0.47mm=0.47x10-3m

3. Surface Tension of Water = r(h+r3)ρ g2cosθ = 7.18x10-2 N/m

CONCLUSION

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 Physics, the science of matter and its motion, space-time and

energy is relevant in each of our activities. Everything surrounding to us is

made of matter and Physics explains matter as combinations of fundamental

particles which are interacting through fundamental forces. It will not be an

exaggeration if it is said that Nature is almost Physics (in fact the word

Physics itself is derived from the Greek word physis meaning nature). Physics

is all around us. The importance of physics to society today is most easily

represented by our reliance on technology. Surface tension is just one of the

innumerous physical phenomena that influence our day to day life. Even a

concept wise small effect like it influences our life to an unimaginable extent.

The application of it ranges widely from the washing action of detergents to

surface travel of water striders. The phenomenon is also evident in the

spherical shape of liquid droplets, bubbles and the rise of water in a capillary

tube.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

• Concepts of Physics 1 by H.C.Verma

• Mechanics 2 by D.C.Pandey

• NOOTAN ISC Physics for class XI

• ISC Physics Practical for class XI by K.K.Mohindro Pitambar

Websites

• en.wikipedia.org

• www.britannica.com

• www.tutornext.com

• hyperphysics.gsu.edu

• www.tutorvista.com

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