TOPIC

IMPORTANCE OF CPM/PERT IN HANDLING

COMPLEX PROJECTS

Submitted To:
Submitted By:
Miss Neha Tikoo Anshul
Jain
Roll No. RT1903A11
Reg. No.
10905775
M.B.A.
IInd SEM
Sectio
n T1903
 Abstract

Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) and the Critical Path Method
(CPM) are used primarily in industrial settings to manage the efficiency and cost
effectiveness of projects
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Since the development of CPM and PERT in the 1950s, the techniques have been the
subject of hundreds of research papers, but little work has been done in the area of the
time-cost trade-off problem. Research has generally been focused on PERT, since the
deterministic CPM presents few problems of interest.
Van Slyke (1963) demonstrated several advantages of applying simulation techniques
to PERT, including more accurate estimates of the true project length, flexibility in
selecting any distribution for activity times, and the ability to calculate "criticality
indexes," which are the probability of various activities being on the critical path.
Ameen (1987) developed Computer Assisted PERT Simulation (CAPERTSlM), an
instructional tool to teach project management techniques. Students used the program
to evaluate decision-making under uncertainty and cost-time relationships and trade-
offs.
Badiru (1991) reported development of another simulation program for project
management called STARC. STARC allows the user to calculate the probability of
completing the project by a specified deadline. It also allows the user to enter a
"duration risk coverage factor." This is a percentage over which the time ranges of
activities are extended. This allows some probability of generating activity times above
the pessimistic time and below the optimistic time.
CCLP is a method of attempting to convert a probabilistic mathematical programming
formulation into an equivalent deterministic formulation. Coskun's formulation ignored
the assumed beta distribution of activity times. Instead, activity times were assumed to
be normally distributed, with the mean and standard deviation of each known. This
formulation allows a desired probability of completion within a target date to be
entered.
Ramini (1986) proposed an algorithm for crashing PERT networks with the use of
criticality indices. Bottlenecks traditionally have multiple feeds into a very narrow path
that is critical to the project's completion. Bottlenecks are the favored locations for
project managers to build time buffers into their estimates, yet late projects still abound
because of deviation from timetables and
Johnson and Schon (1990) used simulation to compare three rules for crashing
stochastic networks-also involving the use of criticality indices. Feng, Liu, & Burns,
(2000) presented a hybrid approach that combines simulation techniques with a genetic
algorithm to solve the time-cost trade-off problem under uncertainty.
 INTRODUCTION

CPM (Critical Path Method) and PERT (Programme Evaluation Review Technique)
are project management techniques, which have been created out of the need of
Western industrial and military establishments to plan, schedule and control complex
projects. CPM/PERT or Network Analysis as the technique is sometimes called,
developed along two parallel streams, one industrial and the other military.

Network analysis, such as CPM and PERT, can help the project manager in planning,
scheduling and controlling scare project resources. The project network provides an
overall plan for reaching organizational objectives. With such a potential, it would
seem that network in some form would be quickly introduced and utilized in most
project organizations.

History

CPM/PERT or Network Analysis as the technique is sometimes called, developed

along two parallel streams, one industrial and the other military.
CPM was the discovery of M.R.Walker of E.I.Du Pont de Nemours & Co. and
J.E.Kelly of Remington Rand, circa 1957. The computation was designed for the
UNIVAC-I computer. The first test was made in 1958, when CPM was applied to the
construction of a new chemical plant. In March 1959, the method was applied to
maintenance shut-down at the Du Pont works in Louisville, Kentucky. Unproductive
time was reduced from 125 to 93 hours.
PERT was devised in 1958 for the POLARIS missile program by the Program
Evaluation Branch of the Special Projects office of the U.S.Navy, helped by the
Lockheed Missile Systems division and the Consultant firm of Booz-Allen &
Hamilton. The calculations were so arranged so that they could be carried out on the
IBM Naval Ordinance Research Computer (NORC) at Dahlgren, Virginia.

Planning, Scheduling & Control

Planning, Scheduling (or organizing) and Control are considered to be basic
Managerial functions, and CPM/PERT has been rightfully accorded due importance in
the literature on Operations Research and Quantitative Analysis.

Far more than the technical benefits, it was found that PERT/CPM provided a focus
around which managers could brain-storm and put their ideas together. It proved to be
a great communication medium by which thinkers and planners at one level could
communicate their ideas, their doubts and fears to another level. Most important, it
became a useful tool for evaluating the performance of individuals and teams.

There are many variations of CPM/PERT which have been useful in planning costs,
scheduling manpower and machine time. CPM/PERT can answer the following
important questions:

How long will the entire project take to be completed? What are the risks involved?

Which are the critical activities or tasks in the project which could delay the entire
project if they were not completed on time?

Is the project on schedule, behind schedule or ahead of schedule?

If the project has to be finished earlier than planned, what is the best way to do this at
the least cost?

Framework for PERT and CPM

There are six steps which are common to both the techniques. The procedure is listed
below:

1. Define the Project and all of its significant activities or tasks. The Project (made
up of several tasks) should have only a single start activity and a single finish
activity.
2. Develop the relationships among the activities. Decide which activities must
precede and which must follow others.
3. Draw the "Network" connecting all the activities. Each Activity should have
unique event numbers. Dummy arrows are used where required to avoid giving
the same numbering to two activities.
4. Assign time and/or cost estimates to each activity
5. Compute the longest time path through the network. This is called the critical
path.
6. Use the Network to help plan, schedule, and monitor and control the project.

The Key Concept used by CPM/PERT is that a small set of activities, which make up
the longest path through the activity network control the entire project. If these
"critical" activities could be identified and assigned to responsible persons,
management resources could be optimally used by concentrating on the few activities
which determine the fate of the entire project.

Non-critical activities can be replanned, rescheduled and resources for them can be
reallocated flexibly, without affecting the whole project.

Five useful questions to ask when preparing an activity network are:

  Is this a Start Activity?
 Is this a Finish Activity?
 What Activity Precedes this?
 What Activity Follows this?
 What Activity is Concurrent with this?

Some activities are serially linked. The second activity can begin only after the first
activity is completed. In certain cases, the activities are concurrent, because they are
independent of each other and can start simultaneously. This is especially the case in
organizations which have supervisory resources so that work can be delegated to
various departments which will be responsible for the activities and their completion as
planned.

When work is delegated like this, the need for constant feedback and co-ordination
becomes an important senior management pre-occupation.

Drawing the CPM/PERT Network

Each activity (or sub-project) in a PERT/CPM Network is represented by an arrow
symbol. Each activity is preceded and succeeded by an event, represented as a circle
and numbered.

At Event 3, we have to evaluate two predecessor activities - Activity 1-3 and Activity
2-3, both of which are predecessor activities. Activity 1-3 gives us an Earliest Start of 3
weeks at Event 3. However, Activity 2-3 also has to be completed before Event 3 can
begin. Along this route, the Earliest Start would be 4+0=4. The rule is to take the
longer (bigger) of the two Earliest Starts. So the Earliest Start at event 3 is 4.

Similarly, at Event 4, we find we have to evaluate two predecessor activities - Activity

2-4 and Activity 3-4. Along Activity 2-4, the Earliest Start at Event 4 would be 10
wks., but along Activity 3-4, the Earliest Start at Event 4 would be 11 wks. Since 11
wks. Is larger than 10 wks., we select it as the Earliest Start at Event 4
 The Backward Pass - Latest Finish Time Rule
To make the Backward Pass, we begin at the sink or the final event and work
backwards to the first event.

At Event 3 there is only one activity, Activity 3-4 in the backward pass, and we find
that the value is 11-7 = 4 weeks. However at Event 2 we have to evaluate 2 activities,
2-3 and 2-4. We find that the backward pass through 2-4 gives us a value of 11-6 = 5
while 2-3 gives us 4-0 = 4. We take the smaller value of 4 on the backward pass.

CPM - Critical Path Method

DuPont developed a Critical Path Method (CPM) designed to address the challenge
of shutting down chemical plants for maintenance and then restarting the plants once
the maintenance had been completed.
CPM models the activities and events of a project as a network.

CPM Diagram
Steps in CPM Project Planning
1. Specify the individual activities: All the activities in the project are listed. This
list can be used as the basis for adding sequence and duration information
2. Determine the sequence of the activities: Some activities are dependent on the
completion of other activities. A list of the immediate predecessors of each
activity is useful for constructing the CPM network diagram.
3. Draw the Network Diagram: Once the activities and their sequences have been
defined, the CPM diagram can be drawn. CPM originally was developed as an
activity on node network.
4. Estimate activity completion time: The time required to complete each activity
can be estimated using past experience. CPM does not take into account
variation in the completion time.
5. Identify the Critical Path: The critical path is the longest-duration path through
the network. The significance of the critical path is that the activities that lie on
it cannot be delayed without delaying the project. Because of its impact on the
entire project, critical path analysis is an important aspect of project planning.

It can be identified by determining the following four parameters

 ES - earliest start time: the earliest time at which the activity can start given that
its precedent activities must be completed first.
 EF - earliest finish time, equal to the earliest start time for the activity plus the
time required completing the activity.
 LF - latest finish time: the latest time at which the activity can be completed
without delaying the project.
 LS - Latest start time, equal to the latest finish time minus the time required to
complete the activity.

The slack time for an activity is the time between its earliest and latest start time, or
between its earliest and latest finish time. Slack is the amount of time that an activity
can be delayed past its earliest start or earliest finish without delaying the project.
The critical path is the path through the project network in which none of the activities
have slack, that is, the path for which ES=LS and EF=LF for all activities in the path.
A delay in the critical path delays the project. Similarly, to accelerate the project it is
necessary to reduce the total time required for the activities in the critical path.
6. Update CPM diagram: As the project progresses, the actual task completion
times will be known and the network diagram can be updated to include this
information. A new critical path may emerge, and structural changes may be
made in the network if project requirements change.
 CPM Limitations

While CPM is easy to understand and use, it does not consider the time variations that
can have a great impact on the completion time of a complex project. CPM was
developed for complex but fairly routine projects with minimum uncertainty in the
project completion times. For less routine projects there is more uncertainty in the
completion times, and this uncertainty limits its usefulness.

PERT
The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is a network model that
allows for randomness in activity completion times. PERT was developed in the late
1950's for the U.S. Navy's Polaris project having thousands of contractors. It has the
potential to reduce both the time and cost required to complete a project.

Diagram Of PERT

An activity is a task that must be performed and an event is a milestone marking the
completion of one or more activities. Before an activity can begin, all of its
predecessor activities must be completed. Project network models represent activities
and milestones by arcs and nodes.
PERT is typically represented as an activity on arc network, in which the activities are
represented on the lines and milestones on the nodes.

PERT Chart

The milestones generally are numbered so that the ending node of an activity has a
higher number than the beginning node. Incrementing the numbers by 10 allows for
new ones to be inserted without modifying the numbering of the entire diagram. The
activities in the above diagram are labeled with letters along with the expected time
required to complete the activity.
Steps in the PERT Planning Process

1. Identify activities and milestones: The activities are the tasks required to
complete the project. The milestones are the events marking the beginning and
end of one or more activities.

2. Determine activity sequence: This step may be combined with the activity
identification step since the activity sequence is known for some tasks. Other
tasks may require more analysis to determine the exact order in which they must
be performed.

3. Construct the Network Diagram: Using the activity sequence information, a

network diagram can be drawn showing the sequence of the serial and parallel
activities.

4. Estimate activity times: Weeks are a commonly used unit of time for activity
completion, but any consistent unit of time can be used.
A distinguishing feature of PERT is its ability to deal with uncertainty in activity
completion times. For each activity, the model usually includes three time estimates:
 Optimistic time (OT) - generally the shortest time in which the activity can be
completed. (This is what an inexperienced manager believes!)
 Most likely time (MT) - the completion time having the highest probability.
This is different from expected time. Seasoned managers have an amazing
way of estimating very close to actual data from prior estimation errors.
 Pessimistic time (PT) - the longest time that an activity might require.

The expected time for each activity can be approximated using the following weighted
average:
Expected time = (OT + 4 x MT+ PT) / 6

This expected time might be displayed on the network diagram.

Variance for each activity is given by:
[(PT - OT) / 6]2

5. Determine the Critical Path: The critical path is determined by adding the
times for the activities in each sequence and determining the longest path in the
project. The critical path determines the total time required for the project.

If activities outside the critical path speed up or slow down (within limits), the total
project time does not change. The amount of time that a non-critical path activity can
be delayed without delaying the project is referred to as slack time.
If the critical path is not immediately obvious, it may be helpful to determine the
following four quantities for each activity:
 ES - Earliest Start time
 EF - Earliest Finish time
 LS - Latest Start time
 LF - Latest Finish time

These times are calculated using the expected time for the relevant activities. The ES
and EF of each activity are determined by working forward through the network and
determining the earliest time at which an activity can start and finish considering its
predecessor activities.
The latest start and finish times are the latest times that an activity can start and finish
without delaying the project. LS and LF are found by working backward through the
network. The difference in the latest and earliest finish of each activity is that activity's
slack. The critical path then is the path through the network in which none of the
activities have slack.
The variance in the project completion time can be calculated by summing the
variances in the completion times of the activities in the critical path. Given this
variance, one can calculate the probability that the project will be completed by a
certain date.
Since the critical path determines the completion date of the project, the project can be
accelerated by adding the resources required to decrease the time for the activities in
the critical path. Such a shortening of the project sometimes is referred to as project
crashing.

6. Update as project progresses: Make adjustments in the PERT chart as the project
progresses. As the project unfolds, the estimated times can be replaced with actual
times. In cases where there are delays, additional resources may be needed to stay on
schedule and the PERT chart may be modified to reflect the new situation.

Limitations of PERT

The following are some of PERT's limitations:

The activity time estimates are somewhat subjective and depend on judgment. In cases
where there is little experience in performing an activity, the numbers may be only a
guess. In other cases, if the person or group performing the activity estimates the time
there may be bias in the estimate.
 Performance Monitoring
Once the project is completed, performance review should be done periodically to
compare actual performance with projected performance. Feedback on project is useful
in several ways:
a) It helps us to know how realistic were the assumptions underlying the project
b) It provides a documented log of experience that is highly valuable in decision
making in future projects
c) It suggests corrective action to be taken in the light of actual performance
d) It helps in uncovering judgmental biases
e) It includes a desired caution among project sponsors.
Example
Replacing an Activity Duration in Depends
existing boiler days on
with an energy
efficient boiler.
Activity Code
A Prepare technical 10 -
specifications
B Tender Processing 25 A
C Release of work orders 3 B
D Supply of Boiler 60 C
equipment
E Supply of Auxiliaries 20 C
F Supply of Pipes & Pipe 10 C
fittings
G Civil Work 15 C
H Installation of 5 E, F&G
Auxiliary equipment &
piping
I Installation of Boiler 10 D&H
J Testing and 2 I
Commissioning
PERT / CPM Technique:
A PERT/CPM network for Boiler Replacement

 10/10: In this Numerator denotes the Earliest Event Occurrence Time and
Denominator is the Latest Event Occurrence Time.

 The Critical Path for this network is: A-B-C-D-I-J.

 The events on the critical path have zero slack.
 Dummy activity has no duration
 The total duration for the completion of the project is 110 days based on the
critical path.

CONCLUSION of CPM and PERT

PERT and CPM, acronyms for "program evaluation and review technique" and
"critical path method", respectively, are network techniques used to aid in the
planning, scheduling, monitoring, and control of activities which are related to
each other.
 Comparative discussions of CPM and PERT

CPM PERT

CPM is frequently used in the PERT was first used to help coordinate
construction industry to help organize the activities in the development of the
and schedule those activities which Polaris missile system.
together constitute a given construction
project.
In using CPM, one assumes the activity PERT allows for uncertainty and
times are known with certainty statistical variation in activity times
(deterministic activity times) (stochastic activity times)
Benefits of CPM Benefits of PERT
 Provide a graphical view of the  Expected project completion
project time.
 Predicts the time required to  Probability of completion before
complete the project a specified date.
 Shows which activities are  The critical path activities that
circuital to maintaining the directly impact the completion
schedule time.
 The activities that have slack
time and that can lend resources
to critical path activities.
 Activity starts and end dates.

Use of CPM Use of PERT

 construction projects  scheduling ship construction and
 installing and debugging a repairs
computer system  manufacture and assembly of
  a turnaround in an oil refinery large job-lot operations
(or other maintenance projects)  missile countdown procedures
 planning and launching a new  end-of-the month closing of
product accounting records
 research and development
projects

Common Steps Of (CPM/PERT).

1) Define the Project and all of its significant activities or tasks. The Project (made
up of several tasks) should have only a single start activity and a single finish
activity.
2) Develop the relationships among the activities. Decide which activities must
precede and which must follow others.
3) Draw the "Network" connecting all the activities. Each Activity should have
unique event numbers. Dummy arrows are used where required to avoid giving
the same numbering to two activities.
4) Assign time and/or cost estimates to each activity
5) Compute the longest time path through the network. This is called the critical
path.
6) Use the Network to help plan, schedule, and monitor and control the project.
The Key Concept used by CPM/PERT is that a small set of activities, which make
up the longest path through the activity network control the entire project. If these
"critical" activities could be identified and assigned to responsible persons,
management resources could be optimally used by concentrating on the few
activities which determine the fate of the entire project.
 REFERENCES

 www.netmba.com/operations/project/cpm/

 www.netmba.com/operations/project/pert/

 www.interventions.org/pertcpm.html

 www.allbusiness.com/management/1004372-1.html

 www.umsl.edu/~sauterv/analysis/488_f02_papers/ProjMgmt.html

 http://www.energymanagertraining.com/GuideBooks/1Ch7.pdf

 http://www.iiuedu.eu/press/journals/sds/sds1_july_2008/05_SECC_01.pdf