AC Machinery Fundamentals

1. A simple loop in a uniform magnetic field

 The voltage induced in a simple rotating loop
 The Torque induced in a current-carrying loop
2. The Rotating Magnetic Field
 The rotating magnetic field concept (without proof)
 The relationship between Electrical Frequency and the Speed of
Magnetic field rotation
 Reversing the direction of magnetic field rotation
3. Magnetomotive Force and Flux Distribution on AC Machines
4. Induced Voltage in AC Machines
 The induced voltage in a coil on a two-pole stator
 The induced voltage in a three-phase set of coils
 The RMS voltage in a Three-Phase Stator
5. Induced Torque in an AC Machines

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 AC Machines

Synchronous Induction Machines

Machines

Magnetic field current is Field current is supplied

supplied by a separate dc by magnetic induction
power source (transformer action) into
their field windings.

The field circuits are located

on their rotors.

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 Simple rotating loop in a uniform magnetic field
 The figure below shows a simple rotating loop in a uniform magnetic
field. (a) is the front view and (b) is the view of the coil. The rotating
part is called the rotor, and the stationary part is called the stator.

 This case in not representative of real ac machines (flux in real ac

machines is not constant in either magnitude or direction). However,
the factors that control the voltage and torque on the loop are the
same as the factors that control the voltage and torque in real ac
machines.

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 Voltage induced in the rotating loop
 Rotor rotation will induce a voltage in the wire
loop.
 To determine total voltage induced in loop etot 
examine each segment separately using:
  
eind  v  B  l

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 1. Segment ab
 The velocity of the wire is tangential to the path of
rotation, while the magnetic field B points to the right.
The quantity v x B points into the page, which is the
same direction as segment ab. Thus, the induced voltage
on this segment is:
 eba = (v x B) . l = vBl sin θab into the page

vxB

v
vxB
v
B
B

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 2. Segment cd
 The velocity of the wire is tangential to the path of
rotation, while B points to the right.
 The quantity v x B points into the page, which is the
same direction as segment cd. Thus,
 ecd = (v x B) . l = vBl sin θcd out of the page

B
vcdxB

vcd

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 c b

Vcd
Into the
page d a VabxB
B
Top View

B
VcdxB
Vab
Out of
page

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 3. Segment bc
In the first half of this segment, the quantity v x B points
into the page, and in the second half of this segment, the
quantity v x B points out of the page. Since the length l is
in the plane of the page, v x B is perpendicular to l for both
portions of the segment. Thus,
ecb = 0
 4. Segment da
Same as segment bc, v x B is perpendicular to l. Thus,
eda = 0

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 Total induced voltage on the loop
eind= eba + ecb + edc + ead
= vBl sin θab + vBl sin θcd
= 2 vBl sinθ

since θab = 180º - θcd and sinθ = sin(180º - θ )

Alternative way to express eind:

If the loop is rotating at a constant angular velocity ω, then the
angle θ of the loop will increase linearly with time.
θ = ωt
 also, the tangential velocity v of the edges of the loop is:
v= r ω
 where r is the radius from axis of rotation out to the edge of the
loop and ω is the angular velocity of the loop.
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 Hence,
eind = 2r ωBl sin ωt
= ABω sin ωt
since area, A = 2rl,
 Finally, since maximum flux through the loop occurs when the loop is
perpendicular to the magnetic flux density lines, so
max  AB
 Thus,

eind  max sin t

 From here we may conclude that the induced voltage is dependent upon:
- Flux level (the B component)
- Speed of Rotation (the v component)
- Machine Constants (the l component and machine materials)

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 The Torque Induced in a Current-Carrying loop
 Assume that the rotor loop is at some arbitrary
angle θ wrt the magnetic field, and that current is
flowing in the loop.

 To determine the magnitude and direction of the

torque, examine the phasors below:

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 The force on each segment of the loop
is given by:
F = i (l x B )
 Torque on that segment,

  rF sin 

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 1. Segment ab
 The direction of the current is into the page, while the
magnetic field B points to the right. (l x B) points down.
Thus,
F = i (l x B )= ilB down
 Resulting torque, clockwise

 ab  ( F )(r sin  ab )
 2. Segment bc
 The direction of the current is in the plane of the page, while
the magnetic field B points to the right. (l x B) points into
the page. Thus,
F = i (l x B ) = ilB into the page
 Resulting torque is zero, since vector r and l are parallel and
the angle θbc is 0.
 bc  ( F )(r sin  bc )  0
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 3. Segment cd
 The direction of the current is out of the page, while the magnetic
field B points to the right. (l x B) points up. Thus,
F = i (l x B )= ilB up
 Resulting torque,
  cd  ( F )(r sin  cd )
  rilB sin θcd clockwise
 4. Segment da
 The direction of the current is in the plane of the page, while the
magnetic field B points to the right. (l x B) points out of the page.
Thus,
 F = i (l x B )= ilB out of the page
 Resulting torque is zero, since vector r and l are parallel and the
angle θda is 0.

 da  ( F )(r sin  da )

0
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 The total induced torque on the loop:
 ind   ab   bc   cd   da
 rilB sin  ab  rilB sin  cd
 2rilB sin 
where  ab   cd  

 Note : the torque is maximum when the plane of the loop

is parallel to the magnetic field, and the torque is zero
when the plane of the loop is perpendicular to the
magnetic field.

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 Alternative Torque Expression:
 The current flowing in the wire loop will generate a magnetic flux
density :
 i
Bloop 
G
where G = factor depending on loop geometry.
 Hence, since loop area A=2rl, by substituting :
 ind  2rliB sin 
 A G   Bloop Bs sin 
 ind  kBloop Bs sin 
 Or
 k  Bloop  Bs 
 
 ind
where k = AG/.

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 Factors affecting torque in real machines
 strength of the rotor magnetic field
 strength of external (stator) magnetic field
 angle between the two fields
 Machine constants

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 The rotating magnetic field
 Torque is produced to align rotor (loop)
magnetic field with stator magnetic field.
 If stator magnetic field is rotated, torque will
cause rotor to ‘chase’ the rotating stator
magnetic field.
 How to create a rotating stator magnetic
field?
Use a set of three-phase windings displaced by
120 electrical around the machine
circumference.
Fundamental principle – a 3-phase set of
currents, each of equal magnitude and differing
in phase by 120º, flows in a 3-phase winding,
then it will produce a rotating magnetic field of
constant magnitude
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 (a) A simple three phase stator. Currents in this (b) The magnetizing intensity vector Haa’ (t)
stator are assumed positive if they flow into the produced by a current flowing in coil aa’.
unprimed end and out the primed end of the
coils. The H produced by each coil are also

Let’s apply a set of currents to the stator above

shown.


and see what happens at specific instants of time.

Assume currents in the 3 coils are:
iaa ' (t )  I M sin t A
ibb ' (t )  I M sin(t  120) A
icc ' (t )  I M sin(t  240) A
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 The current in coil aa’ flows into the “a” end of the
coil and out the ”a’” end of the coil. It produces
the magnetic field intensity:
H aa ' (t )  H M sin t0 A  turns / m
H bb ' (t )  H M sin(t  120)120 A  turns / m
H cc ' (t )  H M sin(t  240)240 A  turns / m
 The flux densities equations are:
Baa ' (t )  BM sin t0 T
Bbb ' (t )  BM sin(t  120)120 T
Bcc ' (t )  BM sin(t  240)240 T

Where BM = µ HM
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  At
 t  0 t  90
Baa '  0 Baa '  BM 0

Bbb '  BM sin( 120)120 T Bbb '  0.5 BM 120 T

Bcc '  0.5 BM 240 T
Bcc '  BM sin( 240)240 T

The total magnetic field from all The total magnetic field from all
three coils added together will be three coils added together will be
’

B net  Baa’  Bbb’  Bcc’

Bnet  Baa’  B bb’  Bcc’
 3   3   0    0.5BM  120    0.5 BM  240
 0    BM 120   BM 240
 2   2   1.5 BM 0
 1.5 BM   90

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 Rotating Magnetic Field (no proof)
 The resulting magnetic flux

 At any time t, the magnetic field will have the same

magnitude 1.5 BM and it will continue to rotate at
angular velocity . [without proof]
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 The Relationship between Electrical Frequency (fe) and the
Speed of Magnetic Field Rotation (fm)

 The figure above shows that

the rotating magnetic field in
this stator can be represented
as a north pole (the flux leaves
the stator) and a south pole
( flux enters the stator).
 These magnetic poles complete one
mechanical rotation around the stator
surface for each electrical cycle of the
applied current. The mechanical speed of rotation of the magnetic field
in revolutions per second is equal to electric frequency in hertz:
 fe (hertz) = fm (revolutions per second) two poles
 ωe (radians per second) = ωm (radians per second) two poles
 The windings on the 2-pole stator above occur in the order a – c’ – b
– a’ – c – b’

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 If we were to double the
amount of windings, hence
the sequence of windings will
be as follows:
 a1 – c2’ – b1 – a1’ – c1 – b1’
– a2 – c1’ – b2 – a2’ – c2 –
b2’
 For a three-phase set of
currents, this stator will have
2 north poles and 2 south
poles produced in the stator (a) A simple four-pole stator winding. (b) The
winding, (refer figure (b)): resulting stator magnetic poles. Notice that there are
moving poles of alternating polarity every 90° around
the stator surface. (c) a winding diagram of the
stator as seen from its inner surface, showing how
the stator currents produce north and south magnetic
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 In this winding, a pole moves only halfway around
the stator surface in one electrical cycle. Since one
electrical cycle is 360 electrical degrees, and
mechanical motion is 180 mechanical degrees, the
relationship between the electrical angle θe and the
mechanical θm in this stator is
 θe = 2θm
 Thus, for a four pole winding, the electrical
frequency of the current is twice the mechanical
frequency of rotation:
 fe = 2fm
 ωe = 2ωm
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 Therefore the general format will be as follows:
P
e  m
2
P
fe  fm
2
P
e  m
2
 Also,
 nm
since fm  where n is the number of rotation
60
nm
 fe  P
120

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 Reversing the direction of Magnetic Field
Rotation
 If the current in any two of the 3 coils is swapped,
the direction of the magnetic field’s rotation will be
reversed.

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 Magnetomotive Force and Flux Distribution
on AC Machines
 Assumptions in previous sections:
- Flux produced inside an ac machine is in free space
- Direction of flux density produced by a coil of wire is perpendicular to
the plane of the coil
- Direction of flux given by the right hand rule.
 However, the flux in a real machine does not follow these
assumptions, since there is a ferromagnetic rotor in the centre of the
machine with a small air gap between the rotor and the stator. The
rotor can be cylindrical (a) (nonsalient-pole), or it can have pole faces
projecting out from its surface (b) (salient pole).

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 In this course, the discussion will be restricted to machines with
cylindrical rotors.
 The reluctance of the air gap in this machine is much higher
than the reluctances of either the rotor or the stator, so the flux
density vector B takes the shortest possible path across the air
gap and jumps perpendicularly between the rotor and the stator.

 To produce a sinusoidal voltage in a machine like this, the

magnitude of the flux density vector B must vary in a sinusoidal
manner along the surface of the air gap. The flux density will
vary sinusoidally only if the magnetizing intensity H (and mmf)
varies in a sinusoidal manner along the surface of the air gap.

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 To achieve a sinusoidal variation of mmf along the surface of the air
gap is to distribute the turns of the winding that produces the mmf in
closely spaced slots around the surface of the machine and to vary the
number of conductors in each slot in a sinusoidal manner.

A cylindrical rotor with The mmf or H or B

sinusoidally varying as a function of angle
air-gap flux density in the air gap
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 The number of conductors in
each slot is nC = NC cos α
where NC is the number of
conductors at an angle of 0
degree.
 The distribution of conductors An ac machine with a distributed
stator winding designed to
produces a close produce a sinusoidally varying
approximation to a sinusoidal air gap flux density. The number
of conductors in each slot is
distribution of mmf. indicated in the diagram.
 The more slots there are and
the more closely spaced the
slots are, the better this
approximation becomes.
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 In practice, it is not possible
to distribute windings exactly
as in the nC equation above,
since there are only a finite
number of slots in a real
machine and since only
integral numbers of
conductors can be included The mmf distribution
resulting from the winding,
in each slot. compared to an ideal
transformer.

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 Induced Voltage in AC Machines
 The induced voltage in a Coil on a Two-Pole Stator
 Previously, discussions were made related to induced
3 phase currents producing a rotating magnetic field.
Now, lets look into the fact that a rotating magnetic
field may produce voltages in the stator. The Figures
below show a rotating rotor with a sinusoidally
distributed magnetic field in the centre of a stationary
coil.

A rotating rotor magnetic

field inside a stationary
stator coil

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The vector magnetic flux The flux density
densities and velocities on the distribution in the air
sides of the coil. gap.

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 Assume that the magnetic of the flux density vector B in
the air gap between the rotor and the stator varies
sinusoidally with mechanical angle, while the direction of B
is always radially outward. The magnitude of the flux
density vector B at a point around the rotor is given by:
 B = BM cos α
 Note that  is the angle between the maximum flux density
(BM) and the current magnetic flux density phasor B. Since
the rotor is itself rotating within the stator at an angular
velocity ωm the magnitude of the flux density vector B at
any angle a around the stator is given by:
B = BM cos (ωt - )
 Induced voltage in a wire is e = (v x B) l

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 However, the previous equation was derived for the case
of a moving wire in a stationary magnetic field.
 In this case, the wire is stationary and the magnetic field is
moving, so the equation for induced voltage does not
directly apply.
 Hence, we need to assume that we are “sitting on the
magnetic field” so that the magnetic field appears to be
stationary, and the sides of the coil will appear to go by at
an apparent velocity vrel and the equation can be applied.
 The total voltage induced in the coil will be the sum of the
voltages induced in each of its four sides.

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 These are determined as follows:
 1. Segment ab
  = 180º. Assume that B is directed radially outward from
the rotor, the angle between v and B in segment ab is
90º, while v x B is in the direction of l, so
eab  (vxB)  l
 vBl Directed out of the page
 v BM cos(mt  180)l
 vBM l cos(mt  180)
 Where the minus sign comes from the fact that the
voltage is built up with a polarity opposite to the assumed
polarity.

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 2. Segment bc
 The voltage is zero, since the vector quantity v x B is perpendicular to l.
 3. Segment cd:  = 0º
 Assume that B is directed radially outward from the rotor, the angle
between v and B in segment cd is 90º, while
 v x B is in the direction of l, so

ecd  (vxB)  l
 vBl Directed out of the page
 v BM cos mt  l
 vBM l cos mt
 4. Segment da
The voltage is zero, since the vector quantity v x B is perpendicular to l

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 Therefore total induced voltage:

einduced  eba  edc  2VBM l cos mt
 Since, v  r
m
 Therefore,

einduced  2rlBM m cos mt
 Since,   2rlB
m
 And the angular mechanical velocity should be equal to the
angular electrical velocity,

 einduced   cos t
 or (taking into account number of turns of windings),

 Remember: This derivation einduced N c costhe
goesthrough t induced voltage in the
stator when there is a rotating magnetic field produced by the rotor .

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 The Induced Voltage in a 3-Phase Set of
Coils
 If the stator now has 3 sets of different windings as such
that the stator voltage induced due to the rotating magnetic
field produced by the rotor will have a phase difference of
120o, the induced voltages at each phase will be as
follows:
eaa '  N  sin  t V
ebb '  N sin( t  120o ) V
ecc '  N  sin( t  240o ) V

 Therefore, a 3 phase set of currents flowing into the stator

windings and hence generating a rotating magnetic field
(earlier case), and at the same time, a rotating magnetic
field produced by the rotor will be able to generate 3 phase
voltages in a stator.
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 Referring to the induced voltage
 derived earlier, the maximum
 induced voltage is when sin
 has a value of 1, hence,

Emax  N , since   2 f , The production of three-phase voltages from
three coils spaced 120º apart
 Emax  2 N f

 Therefore, the rms voltage at the 3 phase stator:


E A  2 N f
 Note: These are induced voltages at each phase, as for
the line-line voltage values; it will depend upon how the
stator windings are connected, whether as Y or D.

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 Induced Torque in an AC Machines
 In ac machines under normal operating conditions, there
are 2 magnetic fields present :
 a magnetic field from the rotor circuit and another
magnetic field from the stator circuit. The interaction of
these two magnetic fields produces the torque in the
machine, just as 2 permanent magnets near each other
will experience a torque, which causes them to line up.

A simplified ac machine with a

sinusoidal stator flux
distribution and a single coil of
wire mounted in the rotor.

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 There will also be current flowing through the rotor
windings (this will create another magnetic field originating
from the wire), which will create force that can be found
using the right hand rule. Its resultant direction may be
found in the diagram above.
 The stator flux density distribution in this machine is
BS(α)=BS sin α
 Where BS is the magnitude of the peak flux density; BS (α)
is positive when the flux density vector points radially
outward from the rotor surface to the stator surface.
 How much torque is produced in the rotor of this simplified
ac machine? This is done by analyzing the force and
torque on each of the two conductors separately:
 The induced force on conductor l is F  i  l  B
 ilBs sin 
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 Hence torque at conductor 1:
  ind 1   r  F 
 rilBs sin  ( same direction as force)
 The same may be found for conductor 2, hence the total
torque induced:

 ind  2rilBs sin  ( same direction as force)

 The current i flowing in the rotor coil produces a magnetic
field of its own. The direction of the peak of this magnetic
field is given by the right hand rule, and the magnitude of
its magnetizing intensity HR is directly proportional to the
current flowing in the rotor, and HR = Ci where C is a
constant of proportionality.
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 The angle between the peak of the stator flux density BS and the peak of
the rotor magnetizing intensity HR is γ. Futhermore,

  180o  
 sin   sin  180o     sin 
 Therefore the torque equation may be represented in the following form:

 Note that K is a constant

ind  KH r Bs sin   KH r  Bs
value.
 Since BR= HR,
 The constant k is a value which will be dependent upon the
permeability of the machine’s material. Since the total magnetic field
density will be the summation of the BS and BR, hence:


 If there is an angle
ind  kB 
r  Bnet
between Bnetand 
Br BR, kBr  Bnet
 These 3 equations will be used to help develop a qualitative understanding
of the torque in ac machines.  ind  kBr Bnet sin 

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