GSM Radio Network Engineering

Fundamentals
Prerequisite: Introduction to the
Alcatel GSM Network

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Contents
 Introduction  P. 3
 RNP Process Overview  P. 39
 Coverage Planning  P. 54
 Traffic Planning and Frequency Planning  P.306
 Radio Interface / Quality of Service  P.382
 Abbreviations  P.416

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Introduction

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Contents
 Standardization
 Documentation
 Radio Network Architecture
 Mobile Phone Systems

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 Introduction

Standardization
Documentation

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www.3GPP.org organizational partners

 Project supported by  The Organizational Partners shall
 ARIB Association of Radio determine the general policy and strategy of
3GPP and perform the following tasks:
Industries and Businesses (Japan)
 Approval and maintenance of the
 CWTS China Wireless 3GPP scope
Telecommunication Standard group  Maintenance the Partnership Project
 ETSI European Telecommunications Description
Standards Institut  Taking decisions on the creation or
 T1 Standards Committee T1 cessation of Technical Specification
Telecommunication (US) Groups, and approving their scope
 TTA Telecommunications and terms of reference
 Approval of Organizational Partner
Technology Association (Korea)
funding requirements
 TTC Telecommunication Technology  Allocation of human and financial
Committee (Japan) resources provided by the
Organizational Partners to the Project
Co-ordination Group

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Technical Specification Group TSG

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Specifications and Releases

 GSM/Edge Releases: http://www.3gpp.org/specs/releases.htm
 TR 41.103 GSM Phase 2+ Release 5
 Freeze date: March - June 2002
 TR 41.102 GSM Phase 2+ Release 4
 Freeze date: March 2001
 TR 01.01 Phase 2+ Release 1999
 Freeze date: March 2000
 For the latest specification status information please go to the 3GPP
Specifications database:
http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Information/Databases/Spec_Status/
 The latest versions of specifications can be found on
ftp://ftp.3gpp.org/specs/latest/

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Specifications out of Release 1999

 TR 01.04 Abbreviations and acronyms
 TS 03.22 Functions related to Mobile Station (MS) in idle mode and group
receive mode
 TR 03.30 Radio Network Planning Aspects
 TS 04.04 Layer 1 - General Requirements
 TS 04.06 Mobile Station - Base Stations System (MS - BSS) Interface Data
Link (DL) Layer Specification
 TS 04.08 Mobile radio interface layer 3 specification
 TS 05.05 Radio Transmission and Reception
 TS 05.08 Radio Subsystem Link Control
 TS 08.06 Signalling Transport Mechanism Specification for the Base Station
System - Mobile Services Switching Centre (BSS-MSC) Interface
 TS 08.08 Mobile-services Switching Centre - Base Station system (MSC-BSS)
Interface Layer 3 Specification

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 Introduction

Radio Network Architecture

Mobile Phone Systems

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GSM Network Architecture

GSM Circuit-switching:
MS

Um MS - BTS LapDm
BTS BTS (Radio) (GSM spe cific)
BSC BSC
Abis BTS - BSC LapD
(ISDN type )

A BSC - MSC (SS7 basic) +

MSC MSC
BSSAP
E (BSSAP = BSSMAP +
B MSC-VLR DTAP)
C (SM-G)MSC-HLR
B C F I D HLR-VLR
E (SM-G)MSC-MSC (SS7 basic) +
G D F MSC-EIR MAP
H
G VLR-VLR
H HLR-AuC
VLR VLR HLR AuC EIR GCR I MSC-GCR

PSTN / PSTN MSC-PSTN (SS7 basic) + TUP or

ISDN AuC ISDN MSC-ISDN ISUP

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GSM Packet-switching (GPRS/EDGE):

MS

BSS
Um (Radio) MS - BTS LAPDm
with BSS (GSM specific)

PCU with
PCU

Gb BSS - SGSN BSSGP

SGSN MSC
SGSN

Gn Gs
Gn SGSN-SGSN IP
SGSN-GGSN IP
Gr Gf Gr SGSN-HLR SS7
GGSN Gn Gc GGSN-HLR IP/SS7
Gf SGSN-EIR SS7
Gc Gs SGSN-MSC/VLR SS7
HLR EIR
Gi GGSN-Data Network IP
Data
Network
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OMC-R
BSS GPRS CN
OMC-G
OMC-R

SGSN GGSN
Gn

Gb
Alcatel
MS 9135 MFS
BTS NSS
BSC SSP
TC A + RCP
BTS

A bis A ter

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GSM Network Elements

 Base Station System BSS  Network Subsystem NSS
 Base Transceiver Station BTS  Mobile Services Switching Center
MSC
 Base Station Controller BSC
 Visitor Location Register VLR
 Terminal Equipment  Home Location Register HLR
 Mobile Station MS  Authentication Center AuC
 Operation and Maintenance Center-  Equipment Identity Register EIR
Radio OMC-R  Operation and Maintenance Center OMC
 Multi-BSS Fast Packet Server (GPRS)
MFS
 Serving GPRS Support Node SGSN
 Gateway GPRS Support Node GGSN

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RF Spectrum
System Total Bandwidth Uplink Downlink Carrier
frequency frequency Spacing
band /MHz band /MHz
GSM 450 2x7.5MHz 450.4-457.6 460.4-467.6 200 kHz

GSM 480 2x7.2MHz 478.8-486 488.8-496 200 kHz

GSM 850 2x25MHz 824-849 869-894 200 kHz

GSM 900 2x25MHz 890-915 935-960 200 kHz

E-GSM 2x35MHz 880-915 925-960 200 kHz

DCS 1800 2x75MHz 1710-1785 1805-1880 200 kHz

(GSM)
PCS 1900 2x60MHz 1850-1910 1930-1990 200 kHz
(GSM)

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Access Methods
 FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

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FDMA
 Used for standard analog cellular mobile systems
(AMPS, TACS, NMT etc.)
 Each user is assigned a discrete slice of the RF spectrum
 Permits only one user per channel since it allows the user to use the channel
100% of the time.

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TDMA
 Multiple users share RF carrier on a time slot basis
 Carriers are sub-divided into timeslots
 Information flow is not continuous for an user, it is sent and received in
"bursts"

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CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

 Multiple access spread spectrum technique
 Each user is assigned a sequence code during a call
 No time division; all users use the entire carrier

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Analogue Cellular Mobile Systems

 Analogue transmission of speech
 One TCH/Channel
 Only FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
 Different Systems
 AMPS (Countries: USA)
 TACS (UK, I, A, E, ...)
 NMT (SF, S, DK, N, ...)
 ...

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AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System)

 Analogue cellular mobile telephone system
 Predominant cellular system operating in the US
 Original system: 666 channels (624 voice and 42 control channels)
 EAMPS - Extended AMPS
Current system: 832 channels (790 voice, 42 control); has replaced AMPS
as the US standard
 NAMPS - Narrowband AMPS
New system that has three times more voice channels than EAMPS with no
loss of signal quality
 Backward compatible: if the infrastructure is designed properly, older
phones work on the newer systems

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AMPS - Technical objectives

Te chno lo g y FDMA
RF fre q ue ncy b a nd 825 - 890 MHz
Cha nne l Sp a cing 30 kHz
Ca rrie rs 666 (832)
Tim e slo ts 1
Mo b ile Po we r 0.6 - 4 W
Tra nsm issio n Voice, (da ta )
HO possible
Ro a m ing possible

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AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone System

Extended AMPS
Uplink AMPS

Channel number 991 1023 1 666 667 799

Frequency of Channel 824.040 825.030 844.980 845.010

(MHz)
845.010 Extended AMPS
Downlink AMPS

Channel number 991 1023 1 666 667 799

Frequency of Channel
869.040 870.030 889.980 893.980
(MHz) Duplex distance
45 MHz 890.010

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TACS Total Access Communications System

 Analogue cellular mobile telephone system
 The UK TACS system was based on the US AMPS system
 TACS - Original UK system that has either 600 or 1000 channels (558 or
958 voice channels, 42 control channels)
 RF frequency band: 890 - 960
Uplink: 890-915 Downlink: 935-960
 Channel spacing: 25 KHz

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TACS - Technical objectives

Te chno lo g y FDMA
RF fre q ue ncy b a nd 890 - 960 MHz
Cha nne l Sp a cing 25 kHz
Ca rrie rs 1000
Tim e slo ts 1
Mo b ile Po we r 0.6 - 10 W
Tra nsm issio n Voice , (da ta )
HO possible
Ro a m ing possible

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Different TACS-Systems
 ETACS - Extended TACS
 Current UK system that has 1320 channels (1278 voice, 42 control)
and has replaced TACS as the UK standard
 ITACS and IETACS - International (E)TACS
 Minor variation of TACS to allow operation outside of the UK by allowing
flexibility in assigning the control channels
 JTACS - Japanese TACS
 A version of TACS designed for operation in Japan
 NTACS - Narrowband TACS
 New system that has three times as many voice channels as ETACS with no loss of
signal quality

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TACS (Total Access Communications System)

Original concept (1000 channels)

Mobile Station 1st Assignment in the UK

TX E-TACS - 1320 Channels
(600 channels)
(Base Station TX)

Number of 1000
1329 2047 0 11 23 44 323 344 600
Channel
Organisation Organisation
A B
Frequency 872.0125 889.9625 890.0125
of channel (917.0125) (934.9625) (935.0125)
[Mhz]

889.9875
(934.9875)

Borders of 872 890 905 915

channels 917 935 (950) (960)
[Mhz]

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Why digital mobile communication ?

 Easy adaptation to digital networks
 Digital signaling serves for flexible adaptation to operational needs
 Possibility to realize a wide spectrum of non-voice services
 Digital transmission allows for high cellular implementation flexibility
 Digital signal processing gain results in high interference immunity
 Privacy of radio transmission ensured by digital voice coding and encryption
 Cost and performance trends of modern microelectronics are
in favour of a digital solution

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GSM - Technical objectives

Te chno lo g y TDMA/ FDMA
RF fre q ue ncy b a nd 890 - 960 MHz
Cha nne l Sp a cing 200 kHz
Ca rrie rs 124
Tim e slo ts 8
Mo bile Po we r (a ve ra g e / m a x) 2 W/ 8 W
BTS Po we r cla ss 10 ... 40 W
MS se nsitivity - 102 dBm
BTS se nsitivity - 104 dBm
Tra nsm issio n Voice, da ta
HO possible
Ro a m ing possible

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DECT (Digital European Cordless Telephone)

 European Standard for Cordless Communication
 Using TDMA-System
 Traditional Applications
 Domestic use ("Cordless telephone")
 Cordless office applications
 Combination possible with
 ISDN
 GSM
 High flexibility for different applications

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DECT - Technical objectives

Te chno lo g y TDMA/ FDMA
RF fre q ue ncy b a nd 1880 - 1900 MHz
Cha nne l Sp a cing 1.728 MHz
Ca rrie rs 10
Tim e slo ts 12 (duplex)
Mo b ile Po we r (a ve ra g e / m a x) 10 mW/ 250 mW
BTS Po we r cla ss 250 mW
MS se nsitivity -83 dBm
BTS se nsitivity -83 dBm
Tra nsm is sio n Voice, da ta
HO possible

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CDMA - Technical objectives

 Spread spectrum technology
(Code Division Multiple Access)
 Several users occupy continuously one CDMA channel
(bandwidth: 1.25 MHz)
The CDMA channel can be re-used in every cell
 Each user is addressed by
 A specific code and
 Selected by correlation processing
 Orthogonal codes provides optimum
isolation between users

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CDMA - Special Features

 Vocoder allows variable data rates
 Soft handover
 Open and closed loop power control
 Multiple forms of diversity
 Data, fax and short message services possible

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CDMA - Technical objectives

Te chno lo g y CDMA
RF fre q ue ncy b a nd 869-894 / 824-849
or 1900 MHz
Cha nne l Sp a cing 1250 kHz
Cha nne ls p e r 1 2 5 0 kHz 64
Mo b ile Po we r (a ve ra g e / m a x) 1-6.3 W / 6.3 W
Tra nsm issio n Voice, da ta
HO ("So ft ha nd o ff") possible
Ro a m ing possible

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TETRA - Features
 Standard for a frequency efficient european digital trunked radio communication system
(defined in 1990)
 Possibility of connections with simultaneous transmission of voice and data
 Encryption at two levels:
 Basic level which uses the air interface encryption
 End-to-end encryption (specifically intended for public safety users)
 Open channel operation
 "Direct Mode" possible
 Communication between two MS without connecting via a BTS
 MS can be used as a repeater

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TETRA - Typical Users

 Public safety
 Police (State, Custom, Military, Traffic)
 Fire brigades
 Ambulance service
 ...
 Railway, transport and distribution companies

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TETRA - Technical objectives

Te chno lo g y TDMA/ FDMA
RF fre q ue ncy b a nd 380 - 400 MHz
Cha nne l Sp a cing 25 or 12.5 KHz
Ca rrie rs not yet specified
Tim e slo ts 4
Mo b ile Po we r (3 Cla sse s) 1, 3, 10 W
BTS Po we r cla ss 0.6 - 25 W
MS se nsitivity -103 dBm
BTS se nsitivity -106 dBm
Tra nsm issio n Voice, da ta , ima ges,
short messa ge
HO possible
Ro a m ing possible

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UMTS
(Universal Mobile Telecommunication System)
 Third generation mobile communication system
 Combining existing mobile services (GSM, CDMA etc.) and fixed
telecommunications services
 More capacity and bandwidth
 More services (Speech, Video, Audio, Multimedia etc.)
 Worldwide roaming
 "High" subscriber capacity

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RNP Process Overview

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Definition of RN Requirements
 The Request for Quotation (RfQ) from the customer prescribes the requirements
mainly
 Coverage
 Definition of coverage probability
 Percentage of measurements above level threshold
 Definition of covered area
 Traffic
 Definition of Erlang per square kilometer
 Definition of number of TRX in a cell
 Mixture of circuit switched and packed switched traffic
 QoS
 Call success rate
 RxQual, voice quality, throughput rates, ping time

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Preliminary Network Design

 The preliminary design lays the  Coverage Plots
foundation to create the Bill of  Expected receiving level
Quantity (BoQ)
 List of needed network elements  Definition of roll out phases
 Geo data procurement  Areas to be covered
 Digital Elevation Model  Number of sites to be installed
DEM/Topographic map  Date, when the roll out takes
 Clutter map place.
 Definition of standard equipment  Network architecture design
configurations dependent on  Planning of BSC and MSC
 clutter type
locations and their links
 traffic density
 Frequency spectrum from license
conditions

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Project Setup and Management

 This phase includes all tasks to be performed before the on site part of the
RNP process takes place.
 This ramp up phase includes:
 Geo data procurement if required
 Setting up ‘general rules’ of the project
 Define and agree on reporting scheme to be used
 Coordination of information exchange between the different teams which are
involved in the project
 Each department/team has to prepare its part of the project
 Definition of required manpower and budget
 Selection of project database (MatrixX)

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Initial Radio Network Design

 Area surveys
 As well check of correctness of geo data
 Frequency spectrum partitioning design
 RNP tool calibration
 For the different morpho classes:
 Performing of drive measurements
 Calibration of correction factor and standard deviation by comparison of measurements to
predicted received power values of the tool
 Definition of search areas (SAM – Search Area Map)
 A team searches for site locations in the defined areas
 The search team should be able to speak the national language
 Selection of number of sectors/TRX per site together with project management and
customer
 Get ‘real’ design acceptance from customer based on coverage prediction and
predefined design level thresholds

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Site Acquisition Procedure

 Delivery of site candidates  Site candidate acceptance and ranking
 Several site candidates shall be the  If the reported site is accepted as
result out of the site location search candidate, then it is ranked according
 Find alternative sites to its quality in terms of
 Radio transmission
 If no site candidate or no satisfactory
High visibility on covered area
candidate can be found in the search No obstacles in the near field of the
area antennas
 Definition of new SAM No interference from other
systems/antennas
 Possibly adaptation of radio network  Installation costs
design Installation possibilities
 Check and correct SAR (Site Acquisition Power supply
Report) Wind and heat
 Maintenance costs
 Location information
Accessibility
 Land usage Rental rates for object
 Object (roof top, pylon, grassland) Durability of object
information
 Site plan

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Technical Site Survey

 Agree on an equipment installation solution  BTS/Node B location
satisfying the needs of  Power and feeder cable mount
 RNE Radio Network Engineer
 Transmission equipment installation
 Transmission planner
 Site engineer
 Final Line Of Site (LOS)
confirmation for microwave link
 Site owner
planning
 The Technical Site Survey Report (TSSR)  E.g. red balloon of around half a meter
defines diameter marks target location
 Antenna type, position,  If the site is not acceptable or the owner
bearing/orientation and tilt disagrees with all suggested solutions
 Mast/pole or wall mounting position  The site will be rejected
of antennas
 Site acquisition team has to organize
 EMC rules are taken into account
 Radio network engineer and transmission a new date with the next site from the
planner check electro magnetic ranking list
compatibility (EMC) with other installed
devices

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Basic Parameter Definition

 After installation of equipment the  Cell design CAE data to be defined
basic parameter settings are used for for all cells are for example:
 Commissioning  CI/LAC/BSIC
 Functional test of BTS and VSWR  Frequencies
check
 Neighborhood/cell handover
 Call tests
relationship
 RNEs define cell design data
 Transmit power
 Operations field service generates the
 Cell type (macro, micro,
basic software using the cell design
umbrella, …)
CAE data

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Cell Design CAE Data Exchange over COF

ACIE

A9156 RNO

OMC 1
A955 V5 /A9155 V6
COF
RNP

A9155 ACIE
PRC Generator
Module

Conversion
OMC 2

POLO
ACIE = PRC file
3rd Party RNP
or Database BSS Software offline production
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Turn On Cycle
 The network is launched step by step during the TOC
 A single step takes typically two or three weeks
 Not to mix up with rollout phases, which take months or even years
 For each step the RNE has to define ‘TOC Parameter’
 Cells to go on air
 Determination of frequency plan
 Cell design CAE parameter
 Each step is finished with the ‘Turn On Cycle Activation’
 Upload PRC/ACIE files into OMC-R
 Unlock sites

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Site Verification and Drive Test

 RNE performs drive measurement to compare the real coverage with the
predicted coverage of the cells.
 If coverage holes or areas of high interference are detected
 Adjust the antenna tilt and orientation
 Verification of cell design CAE data
 To fulfill heavy acceptance test requirements, it is absolutely essential to
perform such a drive measurement.
 Basic site and area optimization reduces the probability to have unforeseen
mysterious network behavior afterwards.

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HW / SW Problem Detection
 Problems can be detected due to drive tests or equipment monitoring
 Defective equipment
 will trigger replacement by operation field service
 Software bugs
 Incorrect parameter settings
 are corrected by using the OMC or in the next TOC
 Faulty antenna installation
 Wrong coverage footprints of the site will trigger antenna re-alignments
 If the problem is serious
 Lock BTS
 Detailed error detection
 Get rid of the fault
 Eventually adjusting antenna tilt and orientation

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Basic Network Optimization

 Network wide drive measurements
 It is highly recommended to perform network wide drive tests before doing the
commercial opening of the network
 Key performance indicators (KPI) are determined
 The results out of the drive tests are used for basic optimization of the network
 Basic optimization
 All optimization tasks are still site related
 Alignment of antenna system
 Adding new sites in case of too large coverage holes
 Parameter optimization
 No traffic yet -> not all parameters can be optimized
 Basic optimization during commercial service
 If only a small number of new sites are going on air the basic optimization will
be included in the site verification procedure

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Network Acceptance
 Acceptance drive test
 Calculation of KPI according to acceptance requirements in contract
 Presentation of KPI to the customer
 Comparison of key performance indicators with the acceptance targets in
the contract
 The customer accepts
 the whole network
 only parts of it step by step
 Now the network is ready for commercial launch

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Further Optimization
 Network is in commercial operation
 Network optimization can be performed
 Significant traffic allows to use OMC based statistics by using A9156 RNO
and A9185 NPA
 End of optimization depends on contract and mutual agreement between
Alcatel and customer
 Usually, Alcatel is only involved during the first optimization activities
directly after opening the network commercially

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Coverage Planning

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Contents
 Introduction
 Geo databases
 Antennas and Cables
 Radio Propagation
 Path Loss Prediction
 Link Budget Calculation
 Coverage Probability
 Cell Range Calculation
 Antenna Engineering
 Alcatel BSS
 Coverage Improvement
 Antenna Diversity
 Repeater Systems
 High Power TRX

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Geo Databases

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Why are geographical data needed for Radio

Network Planning ?
 Propagation models depend
on geographical data

 Geographical information for site acquisition

 Latitude (East/West) / Longitude (North/South)
 Rectangular coordinates
(e.g. UTM coordinates)

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Contents
 Map Projection
 Different Map Projections: conical, cylindrical, planar/ azimuthal
 Geodetic Datum: e.g. WGS 84
 Transverse Mercator Projection: e.g. UTM
 Types of Geospatial Data
 Creation of geospatial databases
 Raster data: DEM /Topography, Morphostructure/ Clutter, Buildings
 Vector data: airport, coastline, border line, buildings, etc.
 Geocoordinate Transformation
 Practical Applications
 Converting one single point
 Compare to different geodetic datums
 Converting a list of points

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Map Projection

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Maps are flat

Latitude

x, y

Longitude

Problem: Earth is 3D, the maps are 2D

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Mapping the earth

 The Earth is a very complex shape

 To map the geography of the earth,
a reference model (-> Geodetic Datum) is needed
 The model needs to be simple so that it is easy to use
 It needs to include a Coordinate system which allows the positions of
objects to be uniquely identified
 It needs to be readily associated with the physical world so that its use
is intuitive

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Map Projection

Ellipsoid Geodetic Datum

e.g. WGS84,
e.g. WGS84, ED50
International 1924

Map Projection Geocoordinate

e.g. Transverse Mercator (UTM),
Lambert Conformal Conic
System
e.g. UTM

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Geodetic Ellipsoid
Definition:
A mathematical surface (an ellipse rotated
around the earth's polar axis) which provides
a convenient model of the size and shape of
the earth. The ellipsoid is chosen to best
meet the needs of a particular map datum
system design.

Reference ellipsoids are usually defined by

semi-major (equatorial radius) and flattening
(the relationship between equatorial and
polar radii).

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Global & Regional Ellipsoids

 Global ellipsoids
e.g. WGS84, GRS80
 Center of ellipsoid is
“Center of gravity”
 Worldwide consistence of
all maps around the world
 Regional ellipsoids
e.g. Bessel, Clarke, Hayford, Krassovsky
 Best fitting ellipsoid for a part of the world
(“local optimized”)
 Less local deviation

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Geodetic Datum
 A Geodetic Datum is a Reference System
which includes:
 A local or global Ellipsoid
 One “Fixpoint”

Attention: Referencing geodetic

coordinates to the wrong map
datum can result in position Info:
errors of In most cases the shift, rotation
hundreds of meters and scale factor of a Map Datum
is relative to the “satellite map
Mobile Radio Network Planning
datum” WGS84.
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Map Projection
 Cylindrical
 e.g. UTM,
Gauss-Krueger
 Conical
 e.g.Lambert Conformal
Conic
 Planar/Azimuthal

Info: In 90% of the cases we

will have a cylindrical
projection in 10% of the cases
a conical projection
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Geo-Coordinate System
 To simplify the use of maps a
Cartesian Coordinates is used
 To avoid negative values a
 False Easting value and a
 False Northing value
is added
 Also a scaling factor is used to X = Easting
minimize the “projection error” over
Y = Northing
the whole area

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WGS 84 (World Geodetic System 1984)

 Most needed Geodetic Datum
in the world today (“Satellite Datum”)
 It is the reference frame used
by the U.S. Department of Defense
is defined by the National Imagery
and Mapping Agency (NIMA)
 The Global Positioning System (GPS)
system is based on the World Geodetic
System 1984 (WGS-84).
 Optimal adaption to the surface of the earth

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Transverse Mercator Projection

 Projection cylinder is rotated
90 degrees from the polar axis
(“transverse”)
 Geometric basis
for the UTM
and the
Gauss-Krueger
Map Projection
 Conformal
Map projection

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Transverse Mercator Projection (e.g. UTM )

Middle-Meridian
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UTM-System
(Universal Transverse Mercator System)
 60 zones, each 6o (60 · 6o = 360o )
 ±3o around each center meridian
 Beginning at 180o longitude
(measured eastward from
Greenwich)

Zone number = (center meridian + 183o ) / 6o

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UTM - Definitions

False Easting: 500 000 m

(Middle-meridian x = 500 000 m)

False Northing:
Northern Hemisphere: 0 m
Southern Hemisphere: 10 000 000 m

Scaling Factor: 0,9996

(used to minimize the
“projection error” over the whole area)

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UTM Zones (e.g. Europe)

UTM-Zones

-6° -3° 3° 9° 15° 21° 27° 33° 39° Middle-Meridian

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UTM-System (2)
 False origin on the central meridian of
the zone has an easting of 500,000
meters.
 All eastings have a positive values for
the zone
 Eastings range from 100,000 to 900,000
meters
 The 6 Degree zone ranges from 166,667
to 833,333 m, leaving about a 0.5°
overlap at each end of the zone
(valid only at the equator)
 This allows for overlaps and matching
between zones

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UTM-System: Example "Stuttgart"

Transformation: latitude / longitude  UTM system

North 48o 45' 13.5'' y = 5 400 099 m

x = 513 629 m
East 9o 11' 7.5''

UTM-Zone: 32
Middle meridian: 9o
(9o = 500 000 m
“False Easting”)
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Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

 Maps an ellipsoid onto a cone whose central axis coincides with the polar
axis

Cone touches the ellipsoid Cutting edges of cone and ellipsoid

=> One standard parallel (1SP) => Two standard parallels (2SP)
(e.g. NTF-System in France) (e.g. Lambert-Projection in Austria)
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 Geo Databases

Types of Geospatial Data

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Geospatial data for Network Planning

 DEM (Digital Elevation Model)/ Topography
 Morphostructure / Land usage / Clutter
 Satellite Photos /
Orthoimages
 Scanned Maps
 Background data
(streets, borders,
coastlines, etc. )
 Buildings
 Traffic data

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Creation of geospatial databases

Satellite imagery Digitizing maps Aerial photography

Geospatial data
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Parameters of a Map
 Coordinate system
 Map Projection
(incl. Geodetic Datum)
 Location of the map (Area …)
 Scale:
 macrocell planning
1:50000 - 1:100000
 microcell planning
1:500 -1:5000
 Thematic
 Source
 Date of Production

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Raster- and Vectordata

y
 Raster data
 DEM /Topography
 Morphostructure /
Land usage / Clutter
 Traffic density x

 Vector data
 Background data (x1,y1)
(streets, borders, coastlines, etc. )
 Buildings
(xn,yn)

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Rasterdata / Grid data

 Pixel-oriented data
 Stored as row and column
 Each Pixel stored in one or two
byte
 Each Pixel contents information
(e.g. morphoclass,
colour of a scanned map,
elevation of a DEM)

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Vectordata
 Vector mainly used are: airport, coastline, highway, main
roads, secondary roads, railway, rivers/lakes
 Each vector contents
 Info about kind of vector
(e.g. street, coastline) (x1,y1)
 A series of several points
Each point has a corresponded x / y -value (xn,yn)
(e.g. in UTM System or as Long/Lat)
 Info about Map projection and used
Geodetic Datum

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Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

 Raster dataset that shows
terrain features such as hills
and valleys
 Each element (or pixel) in
the DEM image represents the terrain
elevation at that location
 Resolution in most cases:
20 m for urban areas
50-100 m for other areas
 DEM are typically generated
from topographic maps,
stereo satellite images,
or stereo aerial photographs

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Morphostructure / Land usage / Clutter (1)

 Land usage classification
according to the impact on
wave propagation
 In most cases:
7...14 morpho classes
 Resolution in most cases:
20 m for cities
50…100m other areas
for radio network
planning

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Morphostructure (2)
 Besides the topo database the basic input
for radio network planning
 Each propagation area has different
obstacles like buildings, forest etc.
Obstacles which have similar effects on
propagation conditions are classified in
morphoclasses
 Each morphoclass has a corresponding
value for the correction gain
 The resolution of the morpho
databases should be adapted
to the propagation model
 Morpho correction factor for predictions:
0 dB (”skyscapers") … 30 dB (”water")

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Morphoclasses
Co d e Mo rpho - De sc rip tio n
struc ture
0 n o t c la ssifie d e .g . e d g e o f a d a ta b a se

1 skysc ra p e rs / ve ry h ig h b u ild in g s ( >40m ), ve ry h ig h d e n sity o f b u ild in g s,

b u ild in g s n o ve g e ta tio n o n g ro u n d le ve l
e .g . c itie s like Ne wYo rk, To kio e tc .
2 d e n se u rb a n 4 o r m o re sto re ys, a re a s within u rb a n p e rim e te rs, inn e r c ity,
ve ry little ve g e ta tio n , h ig h d e n sity o f b u ild in g s, m o st
b u ild in g s a re sta nd ing c lo se to g e th e r, sm a ll p e d e stria n
zo n e s a nd stre e ts in c l.
3 m e d iu m 3 o r 4 sto re ys, a re a s with in u rb a n p e rim e te rs, m o st b u ild in g s
u rb a n / m e a n a re sta n d in g c lo se to g e th e r, le ss ve g e ta tio n , m id d le d e n sity
u rb a n o f b uild in g s, sm a ll p e d e stria n zo n e s a n d stre e ts in c lu d e d
4 lo we r u rb a n / 2 o r 3 sto re ys, m id d le d e nsity o f b u ild in g s,
su b urb a n so m e ve g e ta tio n , te rra c e d h o u se s with g a rd e n s

5 re sid e n tia l 1-2 sto re ys, lo w d e n sity o f b u ild in g s with g a rd e n s

e .g . fa rm h o u se s, d e ta c h e d ho use s

6 ind u stria l zo n e fa c to ry, wa re h o use , g a ra g e , sh ip ya rd s

/ in d u stria l

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Morphoclasses
Co d e Mo rp ho - De sc rip tio n
struc ture
7 fo re st a ll kin d s o f fo re st, p a rks, with h ig h tre e d e n sity

8 a g ric u ltu re / h ig h ve g e ta tio n , p la n ts: 1... 3 m ,

ru ra l h ig h d e n sity o f p la n ts, e .g . c ro p fie ld s, fru it p la n ta tio n

9 lo w tre e lo w ve g e ta tio n , lo w h e ig h t o f p la n ts,

d e n sity / p a rks lo w d e n sity o f p la n ts, so m e kin d s o f p a rks, b o ta n ic a l
g a rd e n

10 wa te r se a , rive rs, a ll kin d o f fre sh - a n d sa ltwa te r

11 o p e n a re a n o b u ild in g s, n o ve g e ta tio n
e .g . d e se rt, b e a c h , p a rt o f a n a irp o rt, b ig stre e ts e tc .
h u g e p a rkin g a re a s, la rg e
12 (o p tio n a l) d e fin e d b y n e two rkp la n n e r if n e c e ssa ry

13 (o p tio n a l) d e fin e d b y n e two rkp la n n e r if n e c e ssa ry

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Background data (streets, borders etc.)

 All kinds of information data like
streets,
borders, coastlines etc.
 Necessary for orientation
in plots of calculation results
 The background data are
not needed for the calculation
of the fieldstrength, power etc.

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Orthophoto
 Georeferenced Satellite Image
 Resolution:
most 10 or 20 m
 Satellite: e.g. SPOT, Landsat

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Scanned Maps
 Mainly used as
background data
 Not used for calculation
but for localisation
 Has to be geocoded
to put it into a GIS (Geographic
Information System) e.g. a Radio
Network Planning Tool

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Buildings
 Vectordata
 Outlines of
 single buildings
 building blocks
 Building heights
 Material code
 not: roof shape

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Buildings (2)
 Microcell radio network planning
is mainly used in urban environment
 The prediction of mircowave
propagation is calculated with
a ray-tracing/launching model
 A lot of calculation
steps are needed
 Optimum building database
required (data reduction) to
minimize the pre-calculation time

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Traffic density
 Advantageous in the
interference calculation,
thus for frequency
assignment and
in the calculation
of average figures in
network analysis
 Raster database of
traffic density
values (in Erlangs) of the
whole planning area
 Resolution: 20...100 m

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 Geo Databases

Geocoordinate transformation

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Converting one single point (1a)

Example “Stuttgart” (Example 1)
Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (WGS84)
Exercise: Convert following example with the program “Geotrans”:
Input:
Longitude: 9 deg 11 min 7.5 sec
Latitude: 48 deg 45 min 13.5 sec
Datum “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984”; Projection: “Geodetic”

Output:
Easting: 513629 m Values, which will
Northing: 5400099 m calculated by program
Datum “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984”
Projection: “Universersal Transverse Mercator (UTM)” Preset of this
Zone: 32 ; Hemisphere: N (North) values necessary
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Converting one single point (1b)

Example “Stuttgart” (Example 1)
Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (WGS84)

GEOTRANS
(Geographic Translator)
is an application program which
allows you to convert geographic
coordinates easily among a wide
variety of coordinate systems,
map projections, and datums.

Source: http://164.214.2.59/GandG/geotrans/geotrans.html
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Converting one single point (2a)

Example “Stuttgart” (Example 2)
Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (ED50)
(ED50 = EUR-A = European Datum 1950)
Exercise: Convert following example with the program “Geotrans”:
Input:
Longitude: 9 deg 11 min 7.5 sec
Latitude: 48 deg 45 min 13.5 sec
Datum “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984”; Projection: “Geodetic”

Output:
Easting: 513549 m Values, which will
Northing: 5403685 m calculated by program
Datum “EUR-A: EUROPEAN 1950, Western Europe”
Projection: “Universersal Transverse Mercator (UTM)” Preset of this
Zone: 32 ; Hemisphere: N (North) values necessary
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Converting one single point (2b)

Example “Stuttgart” (Example 2)
Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (ED50)
(ED50 = EUR-A = European Datum 1950)

Diff. X (Ex.2 - Ex.1): 69 m

Diff. Y (Ex.2 - Ex.1): 200 m
Difference because of different Geodetic Datums

Attention:
For flat coordinates (e.g. UTM)
as well as for geographic coordinates
(Long/Lat) a reference called
“Geodetic Datum” is necessary.
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Converting a list of points (3a)

Example “Stuttgart” (Example 3 )
Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (WGS84)

Input:
text-file with the values (list) of the longitude
and latitude of different points
(How to create the inputfile see on page 3c)

Output:
Datum: “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984”
Preset of this
Projection: “Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)” values necessary
Zone: 32
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Converting a list of points (3b)

Example “Stuttgart” (Example 3 )
Long/Lat (WGS84)
=> UTM (WGS84)

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Converting a list of points (3c)

 Example “Stuttgart” (Example 3)
Long/Lat (WGS84)=> UTM (WGS84)
Geotrans V2.2.3 Geotrans V2.2.3

Latitude Longitude UTM He East Nor Optional: different error-infos,

deg min sec deg min sec -Zo misph ing (x thing depending on the input-data
ne ere ) (y) default: “Unk”=“unknown”

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Provider for Geospatial data

Ge o da ta sup p lie r Inte rne t

BKS www.bks.co.uk
Computa Ma ps www.computa ma ps.com
Geoima ge www.geoima ge.fr
Infoterra www.infoterra -globa l.com
Ista r www.ista r.fr
RMSI www.rmsi.com

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Links for more detailed infos

 Maps Projection Overview
http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/mapproj/mapproj.html
http://www.ecu.edu/geog/faculty/mulcahy/mp/
http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_projection

 Coordinate Transformation (online)

http://jeeep.com/details/coord/
http://www.cellspark.com/UTM.html

 Map Collection
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/index.html

 Finding out Latitude/Longitude of cities etc.

http://www.maporama.com

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Antennas and Cables

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Lightning
rod Tx Antenna s
Antenna Systems
Rx
Rxdiv
 Antennas Mecha nica l
Mounting a ntenna
 Power divider cla mp support
structure
 Cables (jumper) Jumper
ca ble Jumper
 Feeder cables ca ble
Feeder Ea rthing kit
 Connectors insta lla tion
cla mps
 Clamps
 Lightning protection
 Wall glands Ea rthing
kit
 Planning
Feeder
Plugs ca ble
7/ 16“ Wa ll
gla nd
Sockets
7/ 16“ Grounding
Jumper ca bles
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Antenna Theory
 50 is the impedance of the cable
 377 is the impedance of the air
 Antennas adapt the different impedances
 They convert guided waves, into free-space waves (Hertzian waves) and/or
vice versa

Z =50 Z =377

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Antenna Data
 Polarization
 Specification due to certain wave polarization (linear/elliptic,
cross-polarization)
 Half power beam width (HPBW)
 Related to polarization of electrical field
 Vertical and Horizontal HPBW
 Antenna pattern
 Yields the spatial radiation characteristics of the antenna
 Front-to-back ratio
 Important for interference considerations

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Antenna Pattern and HPBW

horizontal 0 dB
vertical 0 dB

-3 dB -3 dB

-10 dB -10 dB

HPBW

sidelobe
main beam

null direction

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EIRP Effective isotropic

radiated power:
EIRP = Pt+Gain
Isotropic radiated Power Pt = 56 dBm

V1
Gain = 11dBi
V2 = V1

radiated
Pt = 45 dBm power

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Linear Antennas: Monopole and Dipole

 For the link between base station and mobile station, mostly linear antennas
are used:

 Monopole antennas
 MS antennas, car roof antennas

 Dipole antennas
 Used for array antennas at base stations for increasing the directivity of RX and TX
antennas

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Monopole Antenna Pattern

 Influence of antenna length on the antenna pattern

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Panel Antenna with Dipole Array

 Many dipoles are arranged in a grid layout
 Nearly arbitrary antenna patterns may be designed
 Feeding of the dipoles with weighted and phase-shifted signals
 Coupling of all dipole elements

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Dipole Arrangement
Dipole
arrangement
Weighted
and
phase Typical flat panel
shifted antenna
signals

Dipole element

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Omni Antenna
 Antenna with vertical HPBW for omni sites
 Large area coverage
 Advantages
 Continuous coverage around the site
 Simple antenna mounting
 Ideal for homogeneous terrain

 Drawbacks
 No mechanical tilt possible
 Clearance of antenna required

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X 65° T6 900MHz 2.5m

 Rural road coverage with mechanical uptilt
 Antenna
 RFS Panel Dual Polarized Antenna
872-960 MHz
 APX906516-T6 Series
 Electrical specification
 Gain in dBi: 17.1
 Polarization: +/-45°
 HBW: 65°
 VBW: 6.5°
 Electrical downtilt: 6°
 Mechanical specification
 Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 2475 x
306 x 120
 Weight in kg: 16.6

Horizontal Pattern
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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

X 65° T6 900MHz 1.9m

 Dense urban area
 Antenna
 RFS Panel Dual Polarized Antenna
872-960 MHz
 APX906515-T6 Series
 Electrical specification
 Gain in dBi: 16.5
 Polarization: +/-45°
 HBW: 65°
 VBW: 9°
 Electrical downtilt: 6°
 Mechanical specification
 Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1890 x
306 x 120
 Weight in kg: 16.6

Vertical Pattern
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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

X 90° T2 900MHz 2.5m

 Rural area with mechanical uptilt
 Antenna
 RFS Panel Dual Polarized Antenna
872-960 MHz
 APX909014-T6 Series
 Electrical specification
 Gain in dBi: 15.9
 Polarization: +/-45°
 HPBW: 90°
 VBW: 7°
 Electrical downtilt: 6°
 Mechanical specification
 Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 2475 x
306 x 120
 Weight in kg: 15.5

Vertical Pattern
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V 65° T0 900MHz 2.0m

 Highway
 Antenna
 RFS CELLite® Panel Vertical
Polarized Antenna 872-960 MHz
 AP906516-T0 Series
 Electrical specification
 Gain in dBi: 17.5
 Polarization: Vertical
 HBW: 65°
 VBW: 8.5°
 Electrical downtilt: 0°
 Mechanical specification
 Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1977 x
265 x 130
 Weight in kg: 10.9

Vertical Pattern
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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

V 90° T0 900MHz 2.0m

 Rural Area
 Antenna
 RFS CELLite® Panel Vertical
Polarized Antenna 872-960 MHz
 AP909014-T0 Series
 Electrical specification
 Gain in dBi: 16.0
 Polarization: Vertical
 HBW: 65°
 VBW: 8.5°
 Electrical downtilt: 0°
 Mechanical specification
 Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1977 x
265 x 130
 Weight in kg: 9.5

Vertical Pattern
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X 65° T6 1800MHz 1.3m

 Dense urban area
 Antenna
 RFS Panel Dual Polarized Antenna
1710-1880 MHz
 APX186515-T6 Series
 Electrical specification
 Gain in dBi: 17.5
 Polarization: +/-45°
 HBW: 65°
 VBW: 7°
 Electrical downtilt: 6°
 Mechanical specification
 Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1310 x
198 x 50
 Weight in kg: 5.6

Vertical Pattern
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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

X 65° T2 1800MHz 1.3m

 Dense urban area
 Antenna
 RFS Panel Dual Polarized Antenna
1710-1880 MHz
 APX186515-T2 Series
 Electrical specification
 Gain in dBi: 17.5
 Polarization: +/-45°
 HBW: 65°
 VBW: 7°
 Electrical downtilt: 2°
 Mechanical specification
 Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1310 x
198 x 50
 Weight in kg: 5.6

Vertical Pattern
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X 65° T2 1800MHz 1.9m

 Highway
 Antenna
 RFS Panel Dual Polarized Antenna
1710-1880 MHz
 APX186516-T2 Series
 Electrical specification
 Gain in dBi: 18.3
 Polarization: +/-45°
 HBW: 65°
 VBW: 4.5°
 Electrical downtilt: 2°
 Mechanical specification
 Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1855 x
198 x 50
 Weight in kg: 8.6

Vertical Pattern
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V 65° T2 1800MHz 1.3m

 Highway
 Antenna
 RFS CELLite® Panel Vertical
Polarized Antenna 1710-1880 MHz
 AP186516-T2 Series
 Electrical specification
 Gain in dBi: 17.0
 Polarization: Vertical
 HBW: 65°
 VBW: 7.5°
 Electrical downtilt: 2°
 Mechanical specification
 Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1310 x
198 x 50
 Weight in kg: 4.7

Horizontal Pattern
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V 90° T2 1800MHz 1.9m

 Highway
 Antenna
 RFS CELLite® Panel Vertical
Polarized Antenna 1710-1880 MHz
 AP189016-T2 Series
 Electrical specification
 Gain in dBi: 17.0
 Polarization: Vertical
 HBW: 90°
 VBW: 5.5°
 Electrical downtilt: 2°
 Mechanical specification
 Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1855 x
198 x 50
 Weight in kg: 6.0

Vertical Pattern
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7/8" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss Coaxial Cable

 Feeder Cable  Mechanical specification
 7/8" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss  Cable weight kg\m: 0.53
Foam-Dielectric Coaxial Cable  Minimum bending radius
 LCF78-50J Standard  Single bend in mm: 120
 LCF78-50JFN Flame Retardant  Repeated bends in mm: 250

 Installation temperature >-25°C  Bending moment in Nm: 13.0

 Electrical specification 900MHz  Recommended clamp spacing:
 Attenuation: 3.87dB/100m 0.8m
 Average power in kW: 2.65
 Electrical specification 1800MHz
 Attenuation: 5.73dB/100m
 Average power in kW: 1.79

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1-1/4" CELLFLEX® Coaxial Cable

 Feeder Cable  Mechanical specification
 1-1/4" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss  Cable weight kg\m: 0.86
Foam-Dielectric Coaxial Cable  Minimum bending radius
 LCF114-50J Standard  Single bend in mm: 200
 LCF114-50JFN Flame Retardant  Repeated bends in mm: 380

 Installation temperature >-25°C  Bending moment in Nm: 38.0

 Electrical specification 900MHz  Recommended clamp spacing:
 Attenuation: 3.06dB/100m 1.0m
 Average power in kW: 3.56
 Electrical specification 1800MHz
 Attenuation: 4.61dB/100m
 Average power in kW: 2.36

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1-5/8" CELLFLEX® Coaxial Cable

 Feeder Cable  Mechanical specification
 1-5/8" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss  Cable weight kg\m: 1.26
Foam-Dielectric Coaxial Cable  Minimum bending radius
 LCF158-50J Standard  Single bend in mm: 200
 LCF158-50JFN Flame Retardant  Repeated bends in mm: 508

 Installation temperature >-25°C  Bending moment in Nm: 46.0

 Electrical specification 900MHz  Recommended clamp spacing:
 Attenuation: 2.34dB/100m 1.2m
 Average power in kW: 4.97
 Electrical specification 1800MHz
 Attenuation: 3.57dB/100m
 Average power in kW: 3.26

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1/2" CELLFLEX® Jumper Cable

 CELLFLEX® LCF12-50J Jumpers  Electrical specification 900MHz
 Feeder Cable  Attenuation: 0.068db/m
 LCF12-50J CELLFLEX® Low-Loss  Total losses with connectors are
Foam-Dielectric Coaxial Cable
0.108dB, 0.176dB and 0.244dB
 Connectors
 7/16” DIN male/female
 Electrical specification 1800MHz
 N male/female  Attenuation: 0.099dB/m
 Right angle  Total losses with connectors are
 Molded version available in 1m, 0.139dB, 0.238dB and 0.337dB
2m, 3m
 Mechanical specification
 Minimum bending radius
 Repeated bends in mm: 125

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Radio Propagation and Path Loss Prediction

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Propagation effects
 Free space loss
 Fresnel ellipsoid
 Reflection, Refraction, Scattering
 in the atmosphere
 at a boundary to another material
 Diffraction
 at small obstacles
 over round earth
 Attenuation
 Rain attenuation
 Gas absorption
 Fading

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Reflection
Rh horizontal reflection
 Pr = Rh/v  P0
 Rh/v = f(, , , h) Rv factor
vertical reflection factor

angle of incidence

permittivity

conductivity

h surface roughness
Pr


h
P0
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Refraction
 Considered via an effective earth
radius factor k
k = 4/3

r a d io p a th
k= 
k=1 k = 2/3

k = 2/3
k = 1
true earth k = 4/3
k = 
Ra y pa ths with diffe re nt k ove r true Ra d io p a th p lo tte d a s a stra ig h t lin e b y
e a rth ch a n g in g th e e a rth 's ra d iu s

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Diffraction
 Occurs at objects which sizes are in the order of the wavelength 
 Radio waves are ‘bent’ or ‘curved’ around objects
 Bending angle increases if object thickness is smaller compared to 
 Influence of the object causes an attenuation: diffraction loss

ra dio
bea m
diffra cted
obsta cle sha dow ra dio
zone bea ms

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Fading
 Caused by delay spread of original signal
 Multi path propagation
 Time-dependent variations in heterogeneity of environment
 Movement of receiver
 Short-term fading, fast fading
 This fading is characterised by phase summation and cancellation of
signal components, which travel on multiple paths. The variation is in
the order of the considered wavelength.
 Their statistical behaviour is described by the Rayleigh distribution
(for non-LOS signals) and the Rice distribution (for LOS signals),
respectively.
 In GSM, it is already considered by the sensitivity values, which take
the error correction capability into account.

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Fading types
 Mid-term fading, lognormal fading
 Mid-term field strength variations caused by objects in the size of
10...100m (cars, trees, buildings). These variations are lognormal
distributed.
 Long-term fading, slow fading
 Long-term variations caused by large objects like large buildings,
forests, hills, earth curvature (> 100m). Like the mid-term field
strength variations, these variations are lognormal distributed.

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Signal Variation due to Fading

0

Lognormal fading
Raleygh fading
-10

-20
Received Power [dBm]

-30

-40

-50

Fading hole
-60

-70
2.8

8.0
0.1

5.4

13.2

18.5

31.6

36.8

42.1

44.7
10.6

15.9

21.1

23.7

26.3

29.0

34.2

39.4

47.3

49.9
Distance [m]

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Lognormal Fading

Lognormal fading (typical 20 dB

loss by entering a village)

Fading hole
Lognormal fading (entering
a tunnel)

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Free Space Loss

 The simplest form of wave propagation is the free-space propagation
 The according path loss can be calculated with the following formula
 Path Loss in Free Space Propagation
 L free space loss
 d distance between transmitter and receiver antenna
 f operating frequency

d f
L freespace  32.4  20  log  20  log
km MHz

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Fresnel Ellipsoid
 The free space loss formula can only be applied if the direct line-of-sight (LOS)
between transmitter and receiver is not obstructed
 This is the case, if a specific region around the LOS is cleared from any obstacles
 The region is called Fresnel ellipsoid

Transmitter

LOS
Receiver

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Fresnel Ellipsoid
 The Fresnel ellipsoid is the set of all
d1  d 2   points around the LOS where the total

r
length of the connecting lines to the
transmitter and the receiver is longer

d1  d 2 than the LOS length by exactly half a

wavelength
 It can be shown that this region is
carrying the main power flow from
transmitter to receiver

Fresnel zone
Transmitter Receiver
LOS

LOS + /2

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Knife Edge Diffraction

path of diffracted
wave
h0
BTS line of sight
MS
1st Fresnel zone
h0 = height of obstacle over line of
d1 d2 sight
d1, d2 = distance of obstacle from BTS
replaced obstacle (knife and MS
edge)
h0

d1 d2
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Knife Edge Diffraction Function

Knife-edge diffraction function

35
Additional diffraction loss F(v)
30 v: clearance parameter, v=-h0/r
25 Note: h0 = 0  v =0  L = 6 dB
20
F(v) [dB]

15

10

-5
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Clearance of Fresnel ellipsoid (v)

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Computers: the "Final Solution" for Wave Propagation

Calculations?
 Exact field solution requires too much computer resources!
 Too much details required for input
 Exact calculation too time-consuming
 Field strength prediction rather than calculation
 Requirements for field strength prediction models
 Reasonable amount of input data
 Fast (it is very important to see the impact of changes in the network layout
immediately)
 Accurate (results influence the hardware cost directly)
 Tradeoff required (accurate results within a suitable time)
 Parameter tuning according to real measurements should be possible

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CCIR Recommendation
 The CCIR Recommendations provide various
propagation curves
 Based on Okumura (1968)
 Example (CCIR Report 567-3):
Median field strength in urban area
Frequency = 900 MHz
hMS = 1.5 m
Dashed line: free space
 How to use this experience in field strength
prediction models?
 Model which fits the curves in certain
ranges  Hata's model
was modified later by the European
Cooperation in Science and Technology
(COST): COST 231 Hata/Okumura

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Mobile Radio Propagation

Free-space propagation (Fresnel zone not obstructed)  L ~ d2

Fresnel zone heavily obstructed near the mobile station  L ~ d3.7
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Terrain Modeling
 Topography
 Effective antenna height
 Knife edge diffraction
 single obstacles
 multiple obstacles
 Surface shape/Morpho-structure
 Correction factors for Hata-
Okumura formula

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Effect of Morphostructure on Propagation Loss

Open area Urban area Open area

Fieldstrength

open area

urban area
Distance

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Hata-Okumura for GSM 900

 Path loss (Lu) is calculated (in dB) as follows:

Lu= A1 + A2 log(f) + A3 log(hBTS) + (B1 + B2log(hBTS)) log d

 The parameters A1, A2, A3, B1 and B2 can be user-defined. Default

values are proposed in the table below:
Parameters Okumura-Hata Cost-Hata
f< 1500 MHz F>1500 MHz
A1 69.55 46.30
A2 26.16 33.90
A3 -13.82 -13.82
B1 44.90 44.90
B2 -6.55 -6.55

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CORRECTIONS TO THE HATA FORMULA

 As described above, the Hata formula is valid for urban environment and a receiver antenna height
of 1.5m. For other environments and mobile antenna heights, corrective formulas must be applied.

Lmodel1=Lu-a(hMS) for large city and urban environments

Lmodel1=Lu-a(hMS) -2log² (f/28) -5.4 for suburban area

Lmodel1=Lu -a(hMS) - 4.78log² (f)+ 18.33 log(f) – 40.94 for rural area

a(hMS) is a correction factor to take into account a receiver antenna height different from 1.5m.
Environments A(hMS)
Rural/Small city (1.1log(f) – 0.7)hMS – (1.56log(f) -0.8)
Large city 3.2log² (11.75hMS) – 4.97

Note: When receiver antenna height equals 1.5m, a(h MS) is close to 0 dB regardless of frequency.

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COST 231 Hata-Okumura for GSM 900

LossHata = 69.55 + 26.16 log (f) - 13.82 log (hBTS)
- a(hMS) +(44.9 - 6.55 log (hBTS)) log (d) - Lmorpho
a (hMS) = (1.1 log (f) - 0.7) hMS - (1.56 log (f) - 0.8)

 Formula valid for frequency range: 150…1000 MHz

Lmorpho [dB]Morpho/surface shape-Correction factor

0 dB: ‘Skyscrapers’->27 dB: ‘open area’
f [MHz] Frequency (150 - 1000 MHz)
hBTS [m] Height of BTS (30 - 200 m)
hMS [m] Height of Mobile (1 - 10m)
d [km] Distance between BTS and MS (1 - 20 km)
Power law exponent shown colored
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COST 231 Hata-Okumura GSM 1800

LossHata = 46.3 + 33.9 log (f) - 13.82 log (hBTS)
- a(hMS) +(44.9 - 6.55 log (hBTS)) log (d) - Lmorpho
a (hMS) = (1.1 log (f) - 0.7) hMS - (1.56 log (f) -0.8)

 Formula is valid for frequency range: 1500...2000 MHz

 Hata’s model is extended for GSM 1800
 Modification of original formula to the new frequency range
 For cells with small ranges the COST 231 Walfish-Ikegami model is more precisely

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Alcatel Propagation Model

 Using of effective antenna height in the Hata-Okumura formula:

heff = f(,d, hBTS, hMS) 

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Exercise ‘Path Loss’

 Scenario
 Height BTS = 40m
 Height MS = 1.5m
 D (BTS to MS) = 2000m
 1. Calculate free space loss for
 A.) f=900MHz
 B.) f=1800MHz
 2. Calculate the path loss for f = 900MHz
 A.) Morpho class ‘skyscraper’
 B.) Morpho class ‘open area’
 3. Calculate the path loss for f = 1800MHz
 A.) Morpho class ‘skyscraper’
 B.) Morpho class ‘open area’

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Link Budget Calculation

Coverage Probability
Cell Range

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Maximum Propagation Loss (Downlink)

Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
EIRPBTS = 59.5 dBm
BTS Antenna Gain
GantBS = 16.5 dBi Propagation Loss
Lprop Minimum Received Power
PRX,min,MS = -102 dBm

Feeder Cable Loss MS Antenna Gain

Lcable = 3 dB GantMS = 2 dBi

Output Power at Internal Losses

antenna Lint = 2 dB
connector 46.0 MS RX
dBm Sensitivity
-102 dBm
ALCATEL EvoliumTM

Maximum allowed downlink propagation loss: Lprop,max = EIRPBTS - PRX,min,MS = 161.5 dB

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Maximum Propagation Loss (Uplink)

Minimum Received Power
PRX,min,BTS = -124.5 dBm

BTS Antenna Gain

GantBS = 16.5 dBi Propagation Loss
Lprop
EIRPMS = 33 dBm

Feeder Cable Loss MS Antenna Gain

Lcable = 3 dB GantMS = 2 dBi

Receiving Internal Losses

sensitivity at ant. Lint = 2 dB
conn. MS TX Power
-111 dBm 33 dBm

ALCATEL EvoliumTM
Max. allowed uplink propagation loss: Lprop,max = EIRPMS - PRX,min,BTS = 157.5 dB
With antenna diversity gain of 3dB: Lprop,max,AD = EIRPMS - PRX,min,BTS + GAD = 160.5 dB
With TMA compensating cable loss: Lprop,max,AD,TMA = EIRPMS - PRX,min,BTS + GAD + GTMA = 163.5 dB

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Link Budget (1)
GSM900 Macro TX
MS to BS
Uplink  
BS to MS
Downlink

Evolium Evolution Internal Power

Comb+Filter Loss, Tol.
33,0
0,0
dBm
dB
41,0
3,0
dBm
dB

A9100 BTS Output Power

Cable,Connectors Loss
33,0
2,0
dBm
dB
38,0
3,0
dBm
dB
Body/Indoor Loss 4,0 dB    
Antenna Gain 2,0 dBi 11,0 dBi
EIRP 29,0 dBm 46,0 dBm

RX Uplink   Downlink
Rec. Sensitivity -104,0 dBm -102,0 dBm
Body/Indoor Loss     4,0 dB
Cables, Connectors Loss 3,0 dB 2,0 dB
Antenna Gain 11,0 dBi 2,0 dBi
Diversity Gain 3,0 dB    
Interferer Margin 3,0 dB 3,0 dB
Lognormal Margin 50% 8,0 dB 8,0 dB
90,9%        
Degradation (no FH) 0,0 dB 0,0 dB
Antenna Pre-Ampl. 0,0 dB    
Isotr. Rec. Power: -104,0 dBm -87,0 dBm

Max. Pathloss 133,0 dB 133,0 dB

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GSM1800 Link Budget

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Additional Losses Overview

Lo ss type Re a so n Va lue
Indoor loss Electrica l properties of wa ll ma teria l 20dB (3...30dB)
Inca r loss Bra ss influencing ra dio wa ves 7dB (4...10dB)
Body loss Absorption of ra dio wa ves by the 3dB (0...8dB)
huma n body
Interferer ma rgin Both signa l-to-noise ra tio a nd C/ I low 3 dB
Lognorma l ma rgin Receiving the minimum field strength According to
with a higher proba bility proba bility

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Indoor propagation aspects

 Penetration Loss
 Multiple Refraction
 Multiple Reflection
 Exact modeling of
indoor environment
not possible
 Practical solution:
empirical model!

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Indoor propagation: empirical model

Additional Loss in [dB] relative to loss at Power relative to power at d=0

vertical incidence
35

30

25
Additional attenuation in dB

20

15

10

0
d
0

36

42
12

18

24

30

48

54

60

66

72

78

84

90

An g le o f in cide nce in de g re e

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Indoor Penetration
 Depending on environment
-0.3 dB / floor
 Line-of-sight to antenna? (11th ... 100th floor)

 Interior unknown
 general assumptions Incident wave

-2.7 dB / floor
Lindoor = 3 ... 15 dB (1st ... 10th floor)

Incident wave Lindoor = 7 ... 18 dB

(ground floor)

Lindoor = 13 ... 25 dB Lindoor = 17 ... 28 dB

Lindoor =  dB (deep basement)
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Body Loss (1)

Measured attenuation
versus time for a test
person walking
around in an
anechoic chamber

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Body Loss (2) Near field of MS antenna

•without head
•with head

Calculation model

Head modeled as sphere

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Body Loss (3)

Test equipment for indirect

field strength measurements

Indirect measured field strength

penetrated into the head
(horizontal cut)

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Interference Margin
 In GSM, the defined minimum carrier-to-interferer ration (C/I) threshold of
9 dB is only valid if the received server signal is not too weak.
 In the case that e.g. the defined system threshold for the BTS of -111dBm is
approached, a higher value of C/I is required in order to maintain the speech
quality.
 According to GSM, this is done by taking into account a correction of 3 dB.

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Degradation (no FH)

 GSM uses a frame correction system, which works with checksum coding
and convolutional codes.
 Under defined conditions, this frame correction works successfully and
copes even with fast fading types as Rayleigh or Rician fading.
 For lower mobile speed or stationary use, the fading has a bigger influence
on the bit error rate and hence the speech quality is reduced.
 In such a case, a degradation margin must be applied. The margin depends
on the mobile speed and the usage of slow frequency hopping, which can
improve the situation for slow mobiles again.

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Diversity Gain
 This designates the optional usage of a second receiver antenna.
 The second antenna is placed in a way, which provides some decorrelation
of the received signals.
 In a suitable combiner, the signals are processed in order to achieve a sum
signal with a smaller fading variation range.
 Depending on the receiver type, the signal correlation, and the antenna
orientation, a diversity gain from 2…6 dB is possible.

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Lognormal margin
 Lognormal margin is also called fading margin
 Due to fading effects, the minimum isotropic power is only received with a certain probability
 Signal statistics, lognormal distribution with median power value F med and standard deviation (sigma)
 Without any margin, the probability is 50%, which is not a sufficient value in order to provide a good call
success rate.
 A typical design goal should be a coverage probability of 90...95%. The following normalised table can be
applied to find fading margins for different values of . The fading margin is calculated by multiplying the
value of k (in the table) with the standard deviation:
 Lognormal/Fading Margin = k.

k - -0.5 0 1 1.3 1.65 2 2.33 +

Coverage 0% 30% 50% 84% 90% 95% 97.7 99% 100

Probability % %

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Consideration of Signal Statistics (1)

Field strength at location x

lognormally distributed
arround Fmedian

m
0
x
10

100 m
BS

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Consideration of Signal Statistics (2)

PDF
0,3
0,25
0,2 Area representing the
0,15  coverage probability
0,1
0,05
0
Fthreshold Fmedian received signal level F [dBm]

Local coverage probability: Pcov = P [ F > Fthreshold ]

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Calculation of Coverage Radius R

For what Radius R is the average coverage probability in the cell area 95% ?

Frec,med (r) = EIRP - LossHata (r) F rec

Frec,med (r)
Loss Hata = f(hBS, hMS, f, r) + Kmor

Pcov(r)= P(Frec (r) > Frec,thr) 

R
2  Pcov (r) dr ! F rec, thr
<Pcov(R)> = 0 = 0.95
R²

0 R r

r = distance between BTS and MS

R = f (hBS, hMS, f, Kmor, EIRP, Frec,thr) Frec = received power
 = Standard deviation
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Coverage Probability

Pcov (r)
Pcov = P ( Frec > Frec, thr )
1
0,95

0,5

0
R r

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Coverage Ranges and Hata Correction Factors

Clutter type Cor [dB] [dB]
Area Coverage Probability Skyscrapers 0 6
100%
Dense urban 2 6
Medium urban 4 7
Lower urban 6 7
95%
Residential 8 6
Reference
Pathlo ss [d B]
Industrial zone 10 10
90% Forest 8 8
155 Agricultural 20 6
150
Low tree density 15 8
Pcov

85% 145
140
135
Water 27 5
130 Open area 27 6
125
80%
120
115
110

75%

Calculation conditions:
70%
0,0 1,5 3,0 4,5 6,0 7,5 9,0 10,5 Correction = 3; Sigma = 7
d [km] hBS = 30 m; hMS = 1.7m; f = 900 Mhz

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Conventional BTS Configuration

TX and RX
 1 BTS
TX

 Omnidirectional antenna for both TX and RX

 Coverage Range R0
 Coverage Area A0

ALCATEL EvoliumTM

TX  45.4 dBm R0
RX  -109dBm

A0

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Coverage Improvement by Antenna Diversity

RX and TX
 1 BTS
 Omnidirectional antennas
one for both RX and TX

RXDIV

TX

 one for RXDIV

 Antenna diversity gain (2...6 dB)
 Example: 3 dB
 Coverage range
RDiv = 1.23 · R0
 Coverage area
ADiv = 1.5 · A0

ALCATEL EvoliumTM R0
RDiv
TX  45.4 dBm
RX  -109dBm
A0

ADiv
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Radiation Patterns and Range

sector
omni

3 antennas at sector site, Resulting antenna footprint ("cloverleaf")

Gain: 18 dBi, HPBW: 65° compared to an 11 dBi omni antenna
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Improvement by Antenna Diversity and Sectorization

 3 BTS
 Directional antennas (18 dBi)
 Antenna diversity (3 dB)

RXDIV
 Max. coverage range
Rsec,div = 1.95 · R0
 Coverage area
Asec,div = 3 · A0
TX

ALCATEL
R0
EvoliumTM
ALCATEL Rsec,div
EvoliumTM
ALCATEL
EvoliumTM

Asec,div

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Improvement by Antenna Preamplifier

 3 BTS
 Directional antennas (18 dBi)
 Antenna diversity (3 dB)

RXDIV
 Antenna preamplifier (3dB)
 Max. coverage range
Rsec,div,pre = 2.22 · R0
 Coverage area
Asec,div,pre = 3.9 · A0

 General:
TX

Asec = g · A0
R0
g: Area gain factor
ALCATEL
EvoliumTM
Rsec,div,pre
ALCATEL
EvoliumTM
ALCATEL
EvoliumTM
Asec,div,pre

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Antenna Engineering

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Omni Antennas
 Application
 Large area coverage
 Umbrella cell for micro cell layer

 Advantages
 Continuous coverage around the site
 Simple antenna mounting
 Ideal for homogeneous terrain

 Drawbacks
 No mechanical tilt possible
 Clearance of antenna required
 Densification of network difficult

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Sector Antenna
 Antenna with horizontal HPBW of e.g. 90° or 65°
 Advantages
Coverage can be focussed on special areas

Low coverage of areas of no interest (e.g. forest)

Allows high traffic load

Additional mechanical downtilt possible

Wall mounting possible

 Drawbacks
 More frequencies needed per site compared to omni sites
 More hardware needed
 Lower coverage area per sector

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Typical Applications

 Wide horizontal beam width (e.g. 90°)

 For areas with few reflecting and scattering objects (rural area)
 Area coverage for 3-sector sites
 Sufficient cell overlap to allow successful handovers

 Small horizontal beam width (e.g. 65°)

 For areas with high scattering (city areas)
 Coverage between sectors by scattering and by adjacent sites (mostly
site densification in urban areas)

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Antenna Tilt
 Downtilting of the Antenna main beam related to the horizontal line
 Goals:
Reduction of overshoot

Removal of insular coverage

Lowering the interference

Coverage improvement of the near area (indoor coverage)

Adjustment of cell borders (handover zones)

 Mechanical / Electrical or Combined downtilt

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Mechanical Downtilt
 Advantages
 Later adjustment of vertical tilt possible
 Antenna diagram is not changed, i.e. nulls and side lobes remain
in their position relative to the main beam
 Cost effective (single antenna type may be used)
 Fast adjustments possible

 Drawbacks
 Side lobes are less tilted
 Accurate adjustment is difficult
 Problems for sites with difficult access

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Electrical Downtilt = 0

 Advantages
= t
 Same tilt for both
main and side lobes downtilt angle = 2 t
 Antenna mounting is more simple  no
= 3 t
adjustment errors
 = delay time
 Drawbacks
 Introduction of additional antenna types necessary
 New antenna installation at the site if downtilting is introduced
 Long antenna optimization phase
 Adjustment of electrical tilt mostly not possible

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Combined Downtilt
 Combination of both mechanical and electrical downtilt
 High electrical downtilt: Distinct range reduction in sidelobe direction
(interference reduction)
 Less mechanical uptilt in main beam direction

 Choose sector antennas with high electrical downtilt (6°...8°) and apply
mechanical uptilt installation for optimum coverage range in main beam
direction

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Assessment of Required Tilts

 Required tilt is estimated using Geometrical Optics

 Consideration of
 Vertical HPBW of the antenna
 Antenna height above ground
 Height difference antenna/location to be covered
 Morpho-structure in the vicinity of the antenna
 Topography between transmitter and receiver location

 Tilt must be applied for both TX and RX antennas!

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Inter Site Distance in Urban Area

 Using sectorized sites with antennas
of 65° horizontal half power beam
width
X X
 The sidelobe is approximately
A B
reduced by 10dB.
 This is a reduction of cell range
to 50%.
 The inter site distance calculation
factor depends on
 Type of antenna
R2 0.5* R2  Type of morpho class
 Multi path propagation
 Scattering
 Sigma (fading variations)

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Downtilt in Urban Area

Tilt 2 Tilt 2
Site A Site B

M e
ain
e lo b
be
am Sid

Cell range R2 0.5* R2

Inter Site Distance A-B = 1.5* R2

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Downtilt in Urban Area

 The upper limit of the vertical half power beam width
is directed towards the ground at maximum cell range
 Upper –3dB point of the vertical antenna pattern
 To be used in areas with
 Multi path propagation condition
 Good scattering of the beam
 Aim
 Reduction of interference
 Optimization
 Coverage Optimization in isolated cases using less downtilt
 Interference Reduction in isolated cases using more downtilt

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Downtilt in Suburban and Rural Area

 Downtilt planning for
 Suburban
 Rural
 Highway Coverage
 The main beam is directed towards the ground at maximum cell range
Tilt 1 Tilt 1

Site C Ma Site D
in bea m
m
in b ea
Ma

Cell range R1 Cell range R1

Inter Site Distance C-D = 2* R1

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Antenna configurations Rx/ Tx

 Application of Duplexer
 Consists of a TX/RX Filter and a combiner
 one antenna can be saved
 Tower Mounted Amplifier (TMA)
 Increase Uplink Sensitivity
 TMA needs to have TX bypass => in case
of duplexer usage Duplex
Filter
 Diversity
 Space diversity
 Polarization diversity
Tx Rx
To BTS
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 Antenna Configurations for Omni and Sector Sites

Pole mounting for

roof-top mounting

Rxdiv Rx

Tx

Pole mounting for wall

or parapet mounting

Tower mounting for omni antennas Tower mounting for

directional antennas

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Three Sector Antenna Configuration with AD

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Antenna Engineering Rules

 Distortion of antenna pattern: No obstacles within

 Antenna near field range
 HPBW Rule plus security margin of 20°
 First fresnel ellipsoid range (additional losses!)
 TX-RX Decoupling to avoid blocking and intermodulation
 Required minimum separation of TX - RX antennas dependent on
antenna configuration (e.g. duplexer or not)
 Diversity gain
 Required antenna separation for space diversity

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Distortion of antenna pattern

 Antenna Near Field Range: Rmin = 2D²/
 D = Aperture of antenna (e.g. 3m)
 => Rmin = 60 / 120m for GSM / DCS

 HPBW Rule with securtiy margin of 20° and tilt 

HPBW/2 + 20° + 
 H
D[m] 1 5 10
Roof Top = Obstacle H[m] 0.5 2.5 5
D HPBW = 8°, = 2°
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Tx-Rx Decoupling (1)

 Out of Band Blocking Requirement (GSM Rec. 11.21)
 GSM 900 = +8 dBm
 GSM 1800 = 0 dBm
 Required Decoupling (n = number of transmitters)
 TX-TX = 20 dB
 TX-RX GSM = 30 + 10 log (n) dB
 TX-RX DCS = 40 + 10 log (n) dB

Receiver
P [dBm] Pout Cha ra cteristic
-13 fuse
TX P1dB

fint
-101 n*200kHz RX

fuse fint f[MHz]

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TX-RX Decoupling (2)

 Horizontal separation (Approximation)

Isolation for Horizontal Separation - omni 11dBi

45
dH
40
GSM1800
Isolation [dB] 35

30
GSM900
25
I =22+20log(d / )-(G +G ) [dB]
H H T R
20

15

.4

.2
.6

.4

.8
.2

.6

.4

.8
.2
.8
7

12

14
7
7

7
7

7
1.

2.

5.

7.
3.

4.

6.

8.

9.
10

11

12
12
13

14

15
10

11

13

14
Separation [m ]

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TX-RX Decoupling (3)

 Vertical separation (Approximation)
Isolation for Vertical Separation

70
dv
60
Mast
GSM1800
50
Isolation [dB]

40
dm
30
GSM900
IV =28+40log(d V
/ ) [dB]
20

10

0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Separation [m]

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Space Diversity
 Required separation for max. diversity gain = F()

RXA
dH
RXA RXB dV

For a sufficient low correlation coefficient < 0.7: RXB


dH = 20=> GSM 900: 6m / GSM1800: 3m

dV = 15=> GSM 900: 4.5m / GSM1800: 2.25m

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Quasi-Omni
Power Divider Configuration
 Power dividers connect several
antennas to one feeder cable

 For combination of individual 4-to-1 Power splitter

antenna patterns for a (6 dB loss)
requested configuration
 Quasi-omni configuration
 Bidirectional configuration
(road coverage)

To BTS: Duplexer output

(TX plus RX diversity) To BTS:
Receiver input
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 Power divider
 Also called "power splitter" or "junction box"
 Passive device (works in both (transmit and receive)
direction)

Pin Pin Pin Pin Pin Pin Pin Pin Pin

2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4

3 dB 4.5 dB 6 dB

Pin Pin Pin

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Example: Power Splitter

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Panel Configurations (1)

 Radial Arrangement
of 6 Panel Antennas with horizontal beamwidth = 105 °
gain = 16.5 dBi, mast radius = 0.425 m, mounting radius = 0.575 m

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Panel Configurations (2)

 Example 2: Quasi Omni Arrangement
of 3 antennas with horizontal beamwidth = 105 °, gain =13.5 dBi,
mounting radius = 4 m

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Panel Configurations (3)

 Example 3: Skrew Arrangement
of 4 Panel Antennas with horizontal beamwidth = 65 °,
gain = 12.5 dBi, mast radius = 1 m,
mounting radius = 1.615 m

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Feeders
 Technical summary

 Inner conductor: Copper wire

 Dielectric: Low density Inner conductor Outer conductor

foam PE

 Outer conductor: Corrugated

copper tube

 Jacket: Polyethylene (PE)

black
Dielectric Jacket

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Feeder Installation Set and Connectors

1 Cable Clamps
2 Antenna Cable 7/16 Connector:
3 Double Bearing Coaxial Connector
4 Counterpart
5 Anchor tape Robust
Good RF-Performance
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Feeder Parameters
Type Minimum bending radius Jacket Weight (m) Recommended
(outer diameter) clamp spacing

Single bending Repeated bending

LCF 1/2’’ 70 mm 210 mm 16 mm 0.35 kg 0.6 m

LCF 7/8’’ 120 mm 360 mm 28 mm 0.62 kg 0.8 m

LCF 1 5/8’’ 300 mm 900 mm 49.7 mm 1.5 kg 1.2 m

GSM 9 0 0 GSM 1 8 0 0 GSM 1 9 0 0

Type Attenua tion Recommended Attenua tion Recommended Attenua tion Recommended
/ 100 m [dB] ma x length [m] / 100 m [dB] ma x length [m] / 100 m [dB] ma x length [m]
LCF 1/ 2“ 6.6 45 10.3 30 10.6 28
LCF 7/ 8“ 4.0 75 6.0 50 6.3 47
LCF 1_5/ 8“ 2.6 115 4.0 75 4.2 71

These values are based on feeder types with an impedance of 50 ohms

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Feeder attenuation (1)

 Main contribution is given by feeder loss
Feeder Cable 4dB/100m => length 50m Loss =2.0dB

Jumper Cable 0.066dB/1m => 5m Loss =0.33dB

Insertion Loss of connector and power splitter < 0.1dB

Total Loss 2.0dB+2x0.33dB+5x0.1dB+0.1dB=3.26dB

 Cable type is trade off between
 Handling flexibility
 Cost
 Attenuation

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Radiating Cables
 Provide coverage in Tunnels, buildings, along side tracks or lines
 Principle: Radiate a weak but constant electromagnetic wave
 Suitable for coverage over longer distances (Repeater)
 Fieldstrength distribution more constant as with antennas

Repeater Terminat-
ing Load
F F

F Thr F Thr

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Components of a radiating cable system

 Components are shown with black lines

N-connections

Tx Radiating cable Termination load

BTS
Rx

Mounting clips with Earthing kit

Jumper cabel 50 mm wall standoff

1-leg radiating cable system

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Comparison of field strength: Radiating cable and standard antenna

-40
[dBm]
-50

-60
Cable attenuation
-70 between the antennas

-80
Radiating cable field
-90 strength
-100
Antenna field strength
-110
Distance
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 Example of a
radiating cable
in a tunnel

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Microwave antennas, feeders and accessories

 Microwave point to point systems use highly directional antennas
 Gain 4 A e
G  10 lg
2

with G = gain over isotropic, in dBi

A = area of antenna aperture
e = antenna efficiency

 Used antenna types

 parabolic antenna
 high performance antenna
 horn lens antenna
 horn antenna
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Parabolic antenna
 Parabolic dish, illuminated by a feed horn at its
focus
 Available sizes: 1’ (0.3 m) up to 16’ (4.8 m)
 Sizes over 4’ seldom used due to installation
restrictions
 Single plane polarized feed vertical (V) or
horizontal (H)
 Also: dual polarized feeder (DP), with separate V
and H connections (lower gain)
 Front-to-back ratios of 45 dB not high enough for
back-to-back configuration on the same frequency
 Antenna patterns are absolutely necessary for
interference calculations

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High performance antenna

 Similar to common parabolic antenna, except for
attached cylindrical shield
 Improvement of front-to-back ratio and wide
angle radiation discrimination
 Available in same sizes as parabolic, single or
dual polarized
 Substantially bigger, heavier, and more expensive
than parabolic antennas
 Allow back-to-back transmission at the same
frequency in both directions (refer to interference
calculation)

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Horn antennas
 Horn lens antenna
 For very high frequencies > 25 GHz
 Replacement for small parabolic antennas
(1’)
 Same electrical data, but easier to install
due to size and weight
 Horn reflector antenna
 Large parabola, energy from the feed
horn is reflected at right angle (90°)
 Gain like 10’ parabolic antenna (60 dBi),
but higher front-to-back ratios > 70 dB

Big and heavy, requires a complex installation procedure

Only used on high capacity microwave backbones (e.g. MSC-MSC interconnections)
Mobile Radio Network Planning 3FL 11820 ABAA WAZZA ed01 221
 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Specific Microwave Antenna Parameters (1)

 Cross polarization discrimination (XPD)
 highest level of cross polarisation radiation relative to the main
beam; should be > 30 dB for parabolic antennas
 Inter-port isolation
 isolation between the two ports of dual polarised antennas;
typical value: better than 35 dB
 Return loss (VSWR)
 Quality value for the adaption of antenna impedance to the
impedance of the connection cable
 Return loss is the ratio of the reflected power to the power fed at
the antenna input (typical> 20 dB)

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Specific Microwave Antenna Parameters (2)

 Radiation pattern envelope (RPE)
 Tolerance specification for antenna pattern (specification of antenna
pattern itself not suitable due to manufacturing problems)
 Usually available from manufacturer in vertical and horizontal
polarisation (worst values of several measurements)

 Weight

 Wind load

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Data sheet 15 GHz

Bandwidth (GHz) 14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35 Bandwidth (GHz) 14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35
Model number PA 2 - 144 PA 4 - 144 PA 6 - 144 Model number DA 2 - 144 DA 4 - 144 DA 6 - 144
Nominal diameter (m) 0.6 1.2 1.8 Nominal diameter (m) 0.6 1.2 1.8
(ft) 2 4 6 (ft) 2 4 6

Half-power beamwidth (deg) 2.3 1.2 0.8 Half-power beamwidth (deg) 2.3 1.2 0.8
Gain low band (dBi) 36.2 42.3 45.8 Gain low band (dBi) 36.2 42.3 45.8
Gain mid band (dBi) 36.5 42.5 46.0 Gain mid band (dBi) 36.5 42.5 46.0
Gain high band (dBi) 36.7 42.8 46.3 Gain high band (dBi) 36.7 42.8 46.3
Front-to-back ratio (dB) 42 48 52 Front-to-back ratio (dB) 65 68 68
Cross polar discrimination (dB) 28 30 30 Cross polar discrimination (dB) 28 30 30
Return loss (dB) 26 26 28 Return loss (dB) 26 26 26

Weight (kg) 19 43 73 Weight (kg) 28 55 130

Windload Windload
Elevation adjustment (deg) +/- 5 +/- 5 +/- 5 Elevation adjustment (deg) +/- 12 +/- 12 +/- 12

Parabolic antenna 15 GHz High performance antenna 15 GHz

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Radiation pattern envelope

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Feeders (1)
 Coaxial cables or waveguides (according to frequency)
 Most important characteristic: loss and return loss
 Coaxial cables
 Used between 10 MHz and 3 GHz
 Dielectric material: foam or air
 Parameters of common coaxial cables:

type dielectric dia meter loss power bending

(mm) (dB/ 100m) ra ting (kW) ra dius (mm)
LCF 1/ 2’ CU2Y foa m 16.0 10,9 / 2 GHz 0.47 200
13.8 / 3 GHz
LCF 7/ 8’ CU2Y foa m 28.0 6.5 / 2 GHz 0.95 360
8.5 / 3 GHz
LCF 1 5/ 8’ CU2Y foa m 49.7 4.4 / 2 GHz 1.7 380
5.6 / 3 GHz
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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Feeders (2)
 Waveguides
 Used for frequency bands above 2.7 GHz
 Three basic types available: circular, elliptical and rectangular
 Rigid circular waveguide
 Very low loss
 Supports two orthogonal polarisations
 Capable to carry more than one frequency band
 Usually, short components of this type are used
 Disadvantages: cost, handling and moding problems

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Feeders (3)
 Elliptical semiflexible waveguides
 Acceptable loss, good VSWR performance
 Low cost and easy to install
 Various types optimised for many frequency bands up to 23 GHz
 Used for longer distances (easy and flexible installation)
 Can be installed as a "single run" (no intermediate flanges)

type loss / 100 m Frequency

EW 34 2.0 4 GHz
EW 52 4.0 6GHz
EW 77 5.8 8GHz
EW 90 10.0 11 GHz
EW 220 28.0 23 GHz

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Feeders (4)
 Solid and flexible rectangular waveguides
 Solid rectangular waveguides
 Combination of low VSWR and low loss
 High cost and difficult to install
 Used for realising couplers, combiners, filters

type loss / 100 m Frequency

WR 229 2.8 4 GHz
WR159 4.5 6GHz
WR112 8.5 8GHz
WR 90 11.7 11 GHz
WR 75 15.0 13 GHz

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Feeders (5)
 Flexible rectangular waveguides
 Worse VSWR and losses than for solid waveguides
 Often used in short lengths (<1 m), where position between
connection points depends on actual installation place
 Common applications: connection of microwave system to
antenna (close together on rooftops or towers) for frequencies
>13 Ghz

type loss / m Frequency

PDR140 0.5 15GHz
PDR180 1 18 GHz
PDR220 2 23 GHz
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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Antenna feeder systems (1)

 Direct radiating system
 Most commonly used for
frequencies up to 13 Ghz
 Depending on accepted feeder
loss/length, higher frequencies may
be possible
 Excessive attenuation and costs in
long runs of wave guide
 Occurence of echo distortion due to
mismatch in long runs of
waveguide possible

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Antenna feeder systems (2)

 Periscope antenna system

 Used for
 considerable antenna heights
 waveguide installation problems
 Negligible wave guide cost and easy
installation
 System gain is a function of antenna and
reflector size, distance and frequency
 Used above 4 GHz , because reflector size is
prohibitive for lower frequencies

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Antenna feeder systems (3)

 Combined antenna with transceiver
 Antenna and transceiver are combined as a single
unit to cut out wave guide loss (higher frequencies)
 Units are mounted on top of a mast and connected
to multiplex equipment via cable

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 Alcatel BSS (Examples)

BSS BSS
B
BSS
B
T
S
T
S

BSC B B BSC
T T
B S S
T
S

BSC B
T
S

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Architecture of BTS - Evolium Evolution A9100

Air interface

 3 levels
Antenna network stage Antenna network stage
ANc ANc

Antenna
coupling level
Combiner stage (ANy) Combiner stage (ANy)

TRX level TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX

BCF level Station unit module

Abis interface

Abbreviations
BCF Base station Control Function
TRX Transceiver

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EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (1)

 The Antenna network Combiner (ANc)- combining mode
Antenna A Antenna B
TXA, RXA, RXBdiv TXB, RXB, RXAdiv

Duplexer Duplexer
Filter Filter Filter Filter

LNA LNA
Splitter Splitter

WBC Splitter Splitter Splitter Splitter WBC

TX RX RXdiv TX RX RXdiv Rxdiv RX TX Rxdiv RX TX

TRX 1 TRX 2 TRX 3 TRX 4

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EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (2)

 The Antenna network Combiner (ANc)- bypass mode
Antenna A Antenna B
TXA, RXA, RXBdiv TXB, RXB, RXAdiv

Duplexer Duplexer
Filter Filter Filter Filter

LNA LNA
By-pass Splitter Splitter By-pass
function function

WBC Splitter Splitter Splitter Splitter WBC

TX RX RXdiv Rxdiv RX TX

TRX 1 TRX 2

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (3)

ANy: Twin Wide Band Combiner Stage
TXA RXA RXAdiv RXBdiv RXB TXB

WBC Splitter Splitter Splitter Splitter WBC

TX RX RXdiv TX RX RXdiv Rxdiv RX TX Rxdiv RX TX

TRX 1 TRX 2 TRX 3 TRX 4

2 types of Any
For GSM 900 and GSM 1800, two versions each are available:
Ba n d Va ria nt Fun ctio n

GSM 900 3BK 0723 7 AAxx Up to four sta nda rd TRX, up to two high-power TRX

3BK 0723 7 ABxx Up to four sta nda rd TRX, up to four high-power TRX

GSM 1800 3BK 0724 5 AAxx Up to four sta nda rd TRX, up to two high-power TRX

3BK 0724 5 ABxx Up to four sta nda rd TRX, up to four high-power TRX

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

EVOLIUMTM BTS Features (1)

 Standard Features according to GSM
 DR (Dual Rate), EFR (Enhanced Full Rate coder), AMR (Adaptive Multi Rate) requires that the
BSS software release and the other network elements also support these codecs
 HW supports GSM 850, E-GSM, GSM 900, GSM 1800 and GSM 1900 bands
 Multi Band Capabilities (supporting of 850/1800 TRX, 850/1900TRX, and, 900 /1800 can be
located in the same cabinet)
 All known A5 algorithms to be supported; HW provisions done
 Standard Features due to new Architecture and new SW Releases
 SUS (Station Unit Sharing)
Only one central control unit (SUM) for all BTS per cabinet
 Multiband BTS (GSM 900/1800) in one cabinet
 Static (Release 4) and statistical (Release 6) submultiplexing on Abis
 Better use of Abis-interface capacity: More BTS/TRX to be supported in a multidrop loop
 Introduction of GPRS and HSCSD without HW changes
 EDGE compatible TRX

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EVOLIUMTM BTS Features (2)

 Features specific to Radio Performance
 TX Output Power

 RX Sensitivity: -111 dBm certified

(GSM request: -104 dBm)
 Synthesized Frequency Hopping as general solution
 Standard RF hopping mode
 Pseudo baseband RF hopping mode
 Antenna Diversity in general
 Two antennas per sector
 One cross-polarized antenna
 Duplexer (TX and RX on one antenna)
as general solution

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Generic Configurations for A9100 G4 BTS

 The configurations for indoor (MBI) and outdoor (MBO) cabinet are
presented in the next slides
 larger configurations with more than one cabinet can be derived from the
tables
 configurations are valid for EDGE capable TRX (Evolution step 2)
 availability of multiband configurations other than GSM 900 / GSM 1800
must be checked with product management (authorization required)
 Notation:
 BBU - Battery Backup Unit
 BATS - Small Battery Backup
 LBBU - Large Battery Backup Unit

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Generic configurations for cabinets MBI (1)

RAC CONFIGURATION TYPE DC AC w/o AC with AC with GSM GSM GSM GSM
K BBU BATS LBBU 850 900 1800 1900
Standard configurations
MBI3 1x1...4 X X (2) X X X
MBI3 1x1...8 X (2) X X (1)
MBI3 2x1...2 X X (2) X X X
MBI3 2x1...4 X (2) X X (1)
MBI3 3x1 X X (2) X X X
MBI3 3x1...2 X (2) X X X
MBI5 1x1...8 X X X X X X X X
MBI5 1x9...12 X X X (2) X X (1)
MBI5 2x1...4 X (2) X X X
MBI5 2x1...6 X X X X X X (1)
MBI5 1x1...8+1x1...4 X X X (2) X X
MBI5 3x1...2 X (2) X X X
MBI5 3x1...4 X X X X X X (1)
MBI5 4x1…3 X X X X (1)
MBI5 2x4 + 2x2 X X X X (1)
(1) Restrictions for GSM 1900:
(1) Up to +45ºC ambient temperature possible if maximum 6 TREs in MBI3, 10 TREs in
MBI5
(2) Limitation to +40ºC otherwise (+45ºC possible if power is reduced to 28W ( Pmax –2
dB))
(2) Not in generic list, but possible (check with SD or product management before use)

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Generic configurations for cabinets MBI (2)

RAC CONFIGURATION TYPE DC AC w/o AC with AC with GSM GSM GSM GSM
K BBU BATS LBBU 850 900 1800 1900
Low Losses configurations
MBI3 1x3...4 X X X (2) X X X
MBI5 1x3...8 X X X X (2) X X X
MBI5 1x9...12 X X X (2) X X (1)
MBI5 2x3...6 X (2) X X (1)
High Power configurations
MBI3 2x1 X X X X X
MBI5 1x1...4 X X X X X
MBI5 2x1...4 X X X X X
MBI5 3x1...3 X X X X X
Extended Cells configurations
MBI5 1x1...4LL/1x1...4 X X X X X
MBI5 1x1...4/1x1...4 with TMA X X X X X

(1) Restrictions for GSM 1900:

(1) Up to +45ºC ambient temperature possible if maximum 6 TREs in MBI3, 10 TREs in
MBI5
(2) Limitation to +40ºC otherwise (+45ºC possible if power is reduced to 28W (Pmax –2
dB))
(2) Not in generic list, but possible (check with SD or product management before use)

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Generic configurations for cabinets MBO (1)

RAC CONFIGURATION TYPE DC AC w/o AC with GSM GSM GSM GSM
K BBU BBU 850 900 1800 1900
Standard configurations
CBO 1x1…2 X (1) X (2) (1)
CBO 2x1 X (1) X (2) (1)
MBO1 1x1...6 X X
MBO1 1x1...8 X X X X
MBO1 2x1...3 X X
MBO1 2x1...4 X X X X
MBO1 3x1...2 X X X X X
MBO2 1x9...12 X X X X X
MBO2 2x1...6 X X X X X
MBO2 1x1...8+1x1...4 X X X X X
MBO2 3x1...4 X X X X X
MBO2 4x1…3 X X X X X
MBO2 2x4 + 2x2 X X X X X
(1) CBO for GSM 850 and GSM 1900 are planned for 2004. For availability, check with SD or the
product management (authorization required).
(2) CBO for GSM 1800 planned for Q4 2003 (check with SD)

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Generic configurations for cabinets MBO (2)

RAC CONFIGURATION TYPE DC AC w/o AC with GSM GSM GSM GSM
K BBU BBU 850 900 1800 1900
Low Losses configurations
MBO1 1x5...6 X X
MBO1 1x5...8 X X X X
MBO2 2x3...6 X X X X X
MBO2 3x3...4 X X X X X
High Power configurations
CBO 1x1…2 X X (2)
CBO 2x1 X X (2)
MBO1 1x1...4 X X X
MBO1 2x1...2 X X X
MBO1 3x1...2 X X X
MBO2 2x1…4 X X X
MBO2 3x1…4 X X X
(1) CBO for GSM 850 and GSM 1900 are planned for 2004. For availability, check with SD or the
product management (authorization required).
(2) CBO for GSM 1800 planned for Q4 2003 (check with SD)

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

TRX Types
 This slide is referring only to Evolium macro BTS A9100
 Overview on TRX types of A9100 Evolium Evolution BTS (G4)
Mo d ule Outp ut p o we r
na m e GMSK 8 PSK
Evo lutio n Ste p 1
TRG M G SM 9 0 0 3 5 Wa tts 4 5 .4 4 dBm
TRDM G SM 1 80 0 3 5 Wa tts 4 5 .4 4 dBm
TRDH G SM 1 80 0 6 0 Wa tts 4 7 .7 8 dBm
Evo lutio n Ste p 2
TRAL G SM 8 5 0 45 Wa tts 4 6 .5 3 dBm 15 Wa tts 4 1 .76 dBm
TRAG G SM 9 0 0 45 Wa tts 4 6 .5 3 dBm 15 Wa tts 4 1 .76 dBm
TAG H G SM 9 0 0 60 Wa tts 4 7 .7 8 dBm 25 Wa tts 4 3 .98 dBm
TRAD G SM 1 80 0 35 Wa tts 4 5 .4 4 dBm 12 Wa tts 4 0 .79 dBm
TADH G SM 1 80 0 60 Wa tts 4 7 .7 8 dBm 25 Wa tts 4 3 .98 dBm
TRAP G SM 1 90 0 45 Wa tts 4 6 .5 3 dBm 25 Wa tts 4 3 .98 dBm

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

BTS Output Power

 What is monitored during validation is the BTS output power at antenna
connector
 The individual losses for duplexer, combiner and internal cabling are not
systematically measured
 for detailed info consult the BTS product description

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Feature Power Balancing

 G4 BTS it is allowed to use TRXs of different power within the same
sector, or to use of different combining path for TRX belonging to the same
sector.
 Reason: the G4 BTS is able to detect unbalanced losses/powers within a
sector and automatically compensate it for GMSK modulation.
 Consequence: All TRX connected to one ANc are automatically adjusted to
the GMSK output power of the weakest TRX (required for BCCH
recovery)

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Cell Split Feature

 Principle
 Cell Split allows to provide one logical cell with one common BCCH over
several BTS cabinets. The cabinets must be synchronized
 Benefits
 Same number of TRX in fewer racks
 No need to touch/modify the configuration of existing BTS (cabling)
 Take full benefit of 12 TRX per cabinet
 Drawback: more complex antenna system
 Applications
 Multi-band cells
 Configuration extension of sites by adding TRX
 Large configurations
 Condition: BTS must be synchronized

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Influence of Cell Split feature on BTS

configurations
 One slave cabinet can only have one master
 One master can control three slave cabinets

C
abinet1 C
abinet2 C
abinet3
C
abinet1 C
abinet2 C
abinet4
4TRX 4TRX 4TRX
GSM900 GSM1800 GSM1800
M
aster Slave Slave 6TR X 6TR X 2T RX
4TRX 4TRX 4TRX GSM1800 GSM1800 GSM 1800
GSM900 GSM1800 GSM1800 Master Master Slave
M
aster Slave Slave
6TR X 6TR X 2T RX
4TRX 4TRX 4TRX
GSM 900 GSM 900 GSM 1800
GSM900 GSM1800 GSM1800
M aster M aster Slave
M
aster Slave Slave

P
ossiblecellsplitconfiguration Notallow
edcellsplitconfiguration

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Cell Split Example: Deployment of multi-band

cells With
Withcell
cellsplit:
split:
BTS 1 BTS 1 BTS 2 - -No
Noantenna
antennare-
re-
cabling
cabling
cell1 cell1 - -No
4TRX 4TRX 2TRX NoTRX
TRXmoving
moving
- -Connection
Connectiontotothe
the
cell2 first BTS while the
first BTS while the
cell2 BTS
4TRX 4TRX 2TRX BTSisisworking
working
- -Short service
Short service
cell3 interruption
4TRX 4TRX 2TRX cell3 interruptionduring
during
radio conf. change
radio conf. change
GSM 900 GSM 900 GSM1800

BTS 1 BTS1 BTS 2

cell1
Without
Withoutcell
cellsplit:
split:
cell1 4 TRX 900 - -Complete re-
4TRX Complete re-
2TRX 1800 configuration
4 TRX 900 configuration
cell2 2TRX 1800 cell3
4TRX
4 TRX 900
cell3 2TRX 1800
4TRX
Mobile Radio Network Planning 3FL 11820 ABAA WAZZA ed01 251
GSM 900 cell2
 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Cell Split Example: Migration to multiband

cells
 Example: Migration from multiband BSS (single BCCH) to multiband cells
(dual BCCH)
 No more limitation to have the 900 and the 1800 TRX‘s installed inside the same
cabinet
BTS 1 BTS 2 BTS 1 BTS 2

Cell 1 Cell 4 Cell 1

4TRX 4TRX 4TRX 4TRX
Cell 2 Cell 5
Cell 2
4TRX 4TRX 4TRX 4TRX
Cell 3 Cell 6
4TRX 4TRX 4TRX 4TRX Cell 3

GSM 900 GSM 1800 GSM 900 GSM1800

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Cell Split Example: High Power Configuration

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Cell Split Example: Configuration extension

 3x4 sector cells extended to cell 1(6 TRX), cell 2 (4 TRX), cell 3 (8 TRX)

BTS 1 (with 12 TRX

BTS 1 (with 900 or 1800)
900 or 1800 BTS 2 (with 6 TRX
TRX) 900 or 1800)
cell1 cell1
4TRX 4TRX 2 TRX
cell2 cell2
4TRX 4TRX
cell3 4TRX cell3
4TRX 4TRX
Linked
BTS
Two shared sectors
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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Cell Split Example: Large configurations

Without
Withoutcell
cellsplit:
 3x8 TRX with 2 racks: -3-3racks with
split:
8
racks with 8
TRX/sector,
TRX/sector,empty
emptyspace
space
BTS 1 BTS 2
With
Withcell
cellsplit:
split:
4TRX 4TRX -2-2racks
TRX
racks with12
with 12TRX,
TRX,88
TRXperpersector
sector

4TRX 4TRX
BCCH
4TRX 4TRX

 16 TRX’s per cell

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Indoor BTS Rack Layout

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Outdoor BTS Rack Layout

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

3 Level Architecture

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Micro BTS types

 EVOLIUM A910 Micro Base Station (internal reference M4M)
 still operational in a large number
 is being out phased
 up to 6 TRX-es
 M5M EVOLIUM A9110 Micro-BTS (M5M)
 Introduced in Q3 2003
 up to 12 TRX-es
 site configurations can mix older A910 with newer A9110-E
 support for GPRS and EDGE (release dependent)

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Technical Data
A9 10 A9 1 1 0
(2 TRX) (2 TRX)
Fre que ncy ba nd GSM 850, E-GSM, GSM 850, E-GSM,
GSM900, GSM 1800, GSM GSM900, GSM 1800, GSM
1900 1900
Tx output powe r Up to 4.5 W 7W
(a t a nte nna conne ctor)
Rx se nsitivity -107 dBm -110 dBm
Ra dio FH Ye s ye s
Te mpe ra ture ra nge (ma x.) 55 °C 55 °C
Ma x. powe r consumption 130 W 145 W
Size (volume ) 54 litre s 54 litre s
We ight 39.6 kg (incl. conne ction 32.5
box)

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Evolium™ BSC Characteristics

 Capacity
 Maximum physical capacity: 352 FR TRX or 176 DR TRX in 255 BTS
 Traffic and signalling capacity: up to 1500 erlang->13,5 erl/BTS traffic capacity
 Flexibility
 6 Abis interfaces per SM module with integrated cross connect function
 Integrated in BSC subracks (no cabling), 100% Alcatel
 No BSC internal recabling for network extensions/modifications
 Compactness
 Maximum BSC configuration in three standard Alcatel 1000 S12 cabinets (90 cm width,
52 cm depth)
 Technology
 Two stage Alcatel 1000 S12 switching technology
 Distributed processing in trunk control units and processing resources
 Same application SW running on both BSC generations

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

BSC Architecture
Group Switch
8 Planes
Abis TSU 2 Stages Ater TSU
TCUC self-routing, non-blocking DTCC

TCUC DTCC

6x TCUC DTCC 2x
G.703 TCUC DTCC
ASMB G.703
Abis
TCUC DTCC Ater
I/F
TCUC DTCC muxed
BIUA
TCUC DTCC
I/F
TCUC AS AS DTCC
ASMB

TSL Q1 bus

AS

TSCA CPRC CPRC CPRC CPRC CPRC CPRC CPRC CPRC

Broadcast bus
Common Functions TSU

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

BSC Rack Layouts

 6 Configurations possible
Group Switch GS GS Group Switch GS GS
Stage 2 Stage 2 Stage 2 Stage 2 Stage 2 Stage 2

A-TER TSU A-BIS TSU A-TER TSU A-BIS TSU A-TER TSU A-BIS TSU

A-BIS TSU A-BIS TSU A-BIS TSU A-BIS TSU A-BIS TSU A-BIS TSU

AIRBAFFLE AIRBAFFLE AIRBAFFLE

A-TER TSU A-TER TSU A-TER TSU A-TER TSU A-TER TSU A-TER TSU

GS GS GS
A-BIS TSU Clock A-BIS TSU Clock A-BIS TSU Clock
Stage 1 Stage 1 Stage 1

GS GS
TSCA COMMON TSU Stage 2 TSCA A-BIS TSU Stage 2 TSCA A-BIS TSU

Cabinet #1 Cabinet #2 Cabinet #3

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Coverage Improvement

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 Coverage Improvement

Antenna Diversity

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Diversity
 Purpose  Demands
 Improvement in fading  correlation between different
probability statistics signal branches should be low
  leads to a better total signal  Combining methods
level or better total S/N ratio  Selection Diversity
 Principle  Maximum Ratio Combining
 Combining signals with same  Equal Gain Combining
information from different signal
branches

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Selection Diversity (1)

 Principle
-80
Fieldstrength [dBm]

 selection of the highest baseband

-90
signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) or of
the strongest signal (S+N)
-100
 Correlation of signal levels
 a lower correlation between
Antenna 1 Antenna 2
signal levels of different
branches improves the total
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
signal level
Time [sec]   Correlation of signal levels should
be low

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Selection Diversity (2)

 Difference in signal level
-80
 a high difference in signal levels
Fieldstrength [dBm]

of two branches doesn’t improve

-90
the total signal level
  Difference in signal levels should
-100
Antenna 2
be low

Antenna 1

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Time [sec]

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Selection Diversity (3)

 Theoretical diversity gain
 10dB for two-branch diversity at
the 99% reliability level
 16dB for four branches at the
99% reliability level
  The theoretical diversity gain
doesn’t improve linear with the
number of branches

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Equal Gain Combining (1)

 Principle
 cophase signal branches
 sum up signals
  Coherent addition of signals and
incoherent addition of noises
 Theoretical diversity gain
 11dB for two-branch diversity at
the 99% reliability level

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Equal Gain Combining (2)

 Correlation of signal levels  Difference in signal level
 a lower correlation between  Assuming equal noise in the
signal levels of different branches, the higher the
branches improves the total S/N difference in signal levels is, the
ratio higher is the loss of S/N ratio of
  Correlation of signal levels should the better signal branch after
be low summation
  Difference in signal levels should
be low

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Maximum Ratio Combining (1)

 Principle
 weight signals proportionally to
their S/N ratios
 cophase signal branches
 sum up the weighted signals
  Coherent addition of signals and
incoherent addition of noises
  Improved S/N

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Maximum Ratio Combining (2)

 Correlation of signal levels  Difference in signal level
 a lower correlation between  Assuming equal noise in the
signal levels of different branches, the higher the
branches improves the total S/N difference in signal levels is, the
ratio higher is the loss of S/N ratio of
  Correlation of signal levels should the better signal branch after
be low summation
 comparing to equal ratio
combining, this combining
reduces influence of worse signal
branches
  Difference in signal levels should
be low

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Comparison of combining methods

 Improvement of average SNR from a
diversity combiner compared to one
branch
 (a) Maximum Ratio Combining
 (b) Equal Gain Combining
 (c) Selection Diversity
  The maximum ratio combining,
which is used in the ALCATEL BTS,
gives the best statistical reduction of
any known linear diversity combiner.

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Enhanced Diversity Combining (1)

 Principle:
 2 algorithms
 Beam forming algorithm (available also for MRC)
 Interference reduction algorithm (new)
 best efficiency when the useful signal and the interfering signals come from
different directions.
 Requirements to benefit from this feature:
 Hardware: G4 TRE (Edge capable TRX) installed in Evolium Evolution
BTS step1 resp. step 2 (internal name: G3 resp. G4)
 Software release: from B6.2 onwards
 For a maximum gain: antenna engineering rules respected
 Correct antenna choice for the considered environment
 Correct antenna spacings and orientations (in case of space diversity)

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Enhanced Diversity Combining (2)

Antenna diversity ga in recomme nda tion for link budge t
Environme nt Evolution Evolution
step 1, step2
Evolution since
step 2 up B6.2
to B5
Urba n, dense urba n 5 dB 6 dB
Reside ntia l, suburba n 3 .5 dB 5 dB
Rura l (horizonta l spa ce diversity) 3 dB 3 .5 dB

 The values in the right column are due to the feature Enhanced Diversity
Combining, Selective Beam-forming Combining

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Diversity systems in Mobile Radio Networks

 Two diversity systems are used in
Mobile Radio Networks :
 Space Diversity
 horizontal
 vertical
dH
 Polarization Diversity
RXA RXB

+45° -45°

RXA RXB

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Space Diversity Systems

 Diversity gain depends on spatial separation of antennas

Horizontal separation Vertical

(e.g. Roof Top) separation
(e.g. Mast)
RXA

dV
dH
RXA RXB RXB

For Optimum Diversity Gain

dH = 20dV = 15
GSM900 = 6m GSM900 = 4.5m
GSM1800 = 3m GSM1800 = 2.25m

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Space Diversity - General Rules

 The larger the separation the higher the diversity gain d
 Prefer horizontal separation (more effective)
 The higher the antenna the higher the required h
separation, rule: d > h/10
 Highest diversity gain from the "broadside”
  Select orientation of diversity setup according to orientation of cell /
traffic

Optimum
diversity
Gain

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Achievable Diversity Gain

 Depends on fading conditions
 Varies in between 2.5 - 6dB
 Higher diversity gain in areas with multipath propagation (urban and
suburban areas)

 General rule: consider diversity gain with 3dB in the link budget

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Polarization Diversity
 Diversity gain in using orthogonal orientated antennas
Horizontal / vertical polarization: Polarization of +/- 45°:
Hor/Ver Antenna cross polarized antenna
or Slant antenna

V H +45° -45°

RXA RXB RXA RXB

Big Advantage: Only one panel antenna is required to profit from

diversity gain using this configuration
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Principle of Polarization Diversity

reception with
EV Diversity
a hor / ver
polarised Gain
antenna EH G = f( )
multipath-
propagation

EX1
reflection,
Ex2 or Eh
diffraction reception with EX2 Ex1 or Ev

a X-polarised
Time [sec]
antenna

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Air Combining
 Features
 only one TX per antenna
 combining signals "on air" and
not in a combiner
 3dB combiner loss can be saved
TX1 TX2 to increase coverage
 Can be realized with
 two vertical polarized antennas
 one cross polarized panel
antenna

TX1 TX2

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Air Combining with Polarization Diversity

1 TRX 2 TRX  One antenna system
or  cross polarized antennas
recommended for
urban/suburban area (less space
V H req.)

DUPL BF DUPL DUPL

TX RXA RXB TX1 RX1 TX2 RX2

RX2D RX1D

No Air combining Air combining

Bandfilter if De- Recommended for
coupling too low Evolium BTS

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Air Combining with Space Diversity

 Two antenna system
or or  Vertical or horizontal spacing
(recommended for rural area)
RXA
RXB

RXA RXB TX

TX

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Decoupling of Signal Branches

 One antenna system: TX / RX decoupling cannot be achieved by spatial
separation
 Decoupling between both polarization branches needs to be sufficiently high
to avoid
 blocking problems
 intermodulation problems
 Required decoupling values
 G2 BTS: 30 dB
 Evolium A9100 BTS: 25dB (Integrated duplexer Anx)

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Cross Polarized or Hor/Ver Antenna? (1)

 Receiving Application
 same diversity gain for cross polarized and hor/ver antennas
 in urban and suburban area polarization diversity gain equal to space
diversity gain (2.5 - 6dB)
 negligible polarization diversity gain in rural areas (not recommended)
 accordingly consider polarization diversity gain with 3dB in the link
budget

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Cross Polarized or Hor/Ver Antenna? (2)

 Transmission Application: Air
combining
 3dB loss when transmitting
horizontal/vertical polarized (use
of combiner)
3dB
 1-2dB losses when transmitting
2dB
at 45° (optimum antenna is
straighten vertically)
 Air combining only
recommended with cross
polarized antenna

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Conclusion on Antenna Diversity

 Rural Areas
 installation space not limited
 apply Space Diversity (higher gain)
 Urban and Suburban Area
 apply space or polarization diversity
 use cross polarized antennas for air combining
 Diversity Gain
 consider diversity gain in link budget with 3dB

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 Coverage Improvement

Repeater Systems

re p e a te r BTS (d o n o r ce ll)

a re a co ve re d b y re p e a te r o rig in a l se rvice a re a

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Repeater Application
re p e a te r BTS (d o n o r ce ll)

a re a co ve re d b y re p e a te r o rig in a l se rvice a re a

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Repeater Block Diagram

Required Isola tion > 70…90 dB

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Repeater Applications
 Coverage Improvement of Cells (‘Cell Enhancer’)
 removal of coverage holes caused by
 topography (hills, ravines, ...)
 man made obstacles
 Provision of tunnel coverage
 street, railway tunnels
 underground stations
 Provision of indoor coverage at places of low additional traffic

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Repeater Types
 Channel selective repeaters  Broad band repeaters
 high selectivity of certain  low cost solution for low traffic
channels areas (rural environment)
 high traffic areas, small cell sizes  medium to high repeater gain
 Band selective repeaters  Personal repeaters
 adjustment to operator’s  low gain
frequency band  broad band
 no (accidental) usage by  indoor coverage improvement
competitors for certain rooms

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Repeater for Tunnel Coverage

 Choice of repeater type due to
Antenna
to  tunnel dimensions
donor cell
 wall materials
 feeding by
 directional antennas
 leaky feeder cables
 long tunnels
Radiating
cable  chains of several repeaters
Repeater
 fiber optic backbone for repeater
feeding
Tunnel

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Repeater for Indoor coverage Personal repeater

 For smaller buildings

 Compensation for wall losses,
window losses (heat insulated
windows)
 Low cost personal repeaters
installed in certain rooms
 For larger buildings (shopping malls,
Antenna

convention centers, sport centers) to

donor cell
Master unit
 multispot transmission using
 co-axial distribution network
Remote
 fiber-optic distribution network units

Fiber optic
distribution

Radiating
cable

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Planning Aspects
 Repeater does not provide additional traffic capacity
 risk of blocking if additional coverage area catches more traffic
  possible carrier upgrading required
 Repeater causes additional signal delay
 delay: 4..8s  max. cell range of 35 km reduced by 1 to 2km
 special care needed for total delay of repeater chain!
 delayed signal and original signal could cause outage in urban
environment if total delay exceeds 16 ... 22s

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Repeater Gain Limitation (1)

 Intermodulation products should be low
 when amplifier reaches saturation point, intermodulation products go
up
 Signal to noise ratio should be high
 when amplifier reaches saturation point, signal to noise ratio is getting
worse
 Antenna isolation between transmission and receiving antenna should be
high
 if signal feedback from transmission antenna to receiving antenna is
too high, amplifier goes into saturation

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Repeater Gain Limitation (2)

 Repeater gain limited by antenna isolation:
GRepeater < IDonor, Repeater - M M (Margin) ~ 12 dB

Pin gain Pout

78 dB

Pback =
Pin - 12 dB
isolation
90 dB

Measure isolation after installation

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Intermodulation Products
 A Non-linear system
 produces higher-order intermodulation products
as soon as output power reaches the saturation
point
 Parameter
 1 dB compression point
 3rd order intercept point (ICP3)
 Intermodulation reduction (IMR)
 Amplifier back-off
 GSM900/GSM1800 requirements
 IM products  -36 dBm or
 IM distance > 70 dBc whichever is higher

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Repeater Link Budget

! !
Uplink Loss = Downlink Loss  Uplink Gain = Downlink Gain

Downlink Path Unit Value

Received power at repeater dBm -65
Link antenna gain dBi +19
Cable loss dB -2
Repeater input power dBm -48
Repeater gain dB +78
Repeater output power dBm 30
Cable loss dB -2
Repeater antenna gain dBi +18
EIRP dBm 46

Different gains may be needed in Up- and Downlink if the

sensitivity of the repeater is worse than the sensitivity of the BTS

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Example: Repeater MR 402

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High Power TRXs

 High Power TRXs: solution for coverage improvement
 HP must be used together with TMA: due to unbalanced Link Budget
 A9100 BTS supports
 High Power TRX
 Medium Power
 TRX type is chosen by:
 environment conditions
 required data throughput (GPRS/EDGE)

TX power of EVOLIUM™ Evolution step 2 TRX :

Frequency band TX output power, GMSK TX output power, 8-PSK (EDGE)
GSM 900 HP 60 W = 47.8 dBm 25 W = 44.0 dBm
GSM 1800 HP 60 W = 47.8 dBm 25 W = 44.0 dBm

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3x6 TRXs High Power Configuration

 Configuration made with EVOLIUM™ A9100 Base Station
 Obs:
 All TRX are HP
 The configuration is using cell split feature

ANc ANc ANc

Combi- No-com- Combi- No-com- Combi- No-com-
Cabinet1 ning bining ning bining ning bining
(High power 3x3TRX)
HPTRX1 HPTRX 2 MPTRX 3 HPTRX1 HPTRX 2 MPTRX 3 HPTRX1 HPTRX 2 MPTRX 3

Cabinet2 ANc ANc ANc

(High power 3x3TRX) Combi- No-com- Combi- No-com- Combi- No-com-
ning bining ning bining ning bining

HPTRX1 HPTRX 2 MPTRX 3 HPTRX1 HPTRX 2 MPTRX 3 HPTRX1 HPTRX 2 MPTRX 3

Sector1: 1x6 TRX Sector2: 1x6 TRX Sector3: 1x6 TRX

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Mixed TRX Configuration

 BTS EVOLIUM™ supports a mix of:
 EVOLIUM™ TRX (TRE) - supports GSM/GPRS and EDGE
 EVOLIUM™ Evolution step 2 TRX (TRA) with Medium Power
 EVOLIUM™ Evolution step 2 TRX (TRA) with High Power

Ha rdwa re configura tion

T T
R R T T
A A R R
E E
HP MP
Logica l ce ll Alloca tion
Pa cke t Voice
TRX1 (BCCH)

TRX2 (1 SDCCH)
TRX3

TRX4

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Traffic Planning & Frequency Planning

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Contents
 Traffic Capacity
 Network evolution
 Cell structures
 Frequency Reuse
 Cell Planning - Frequency Planning
 Interference Probability
 Carrier types
 Multiple Reuse Pattern MRP
 Intermodulation
 Manual Frequency Planning
 BSIC Planning
 Capacity Enhancement Techniques

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 Traffic Planning
Frequency Planning

Traffic Capacity

   

0 1 k n-1 n

 k (k+1) n

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Telephone System
blocked call
attempts
subscriber
1 sub 1

2 sub 2
line to PSTN
3 sub 3

4 automatic sub 4
switch
time
observation period, e.g.
main busy hour (MBH)
Parameters:

: arrival rate [1/h] "offered" traffic = # of calls arriving in MBH  mean holding
: release rate [1/h] time
1/: mean holding time [sec]  1/ [Erlang]

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Offered Traffic and Traffic Capacity

Offered
Traffic () Loss System Handled
(n slots) Traffic (T)

T=-R

Rejected Traffic (R)

 Handled Traffic, Traffic Capacity: T
 Blocking Probability, Grade of Service (GoS): pblock = R / 
 System load:  = T / n, i.e. T < n

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Definition of Erlang

 ERLANG : Unit used to quantify traffic

T = (resource usage duration)/(total observation duration) [ERLANG]

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Call Mix and Erlang Calculation

 CALL MIX EXAMPLE

 350 call/hour
 3 LU/call
 TCH duration : 85 sec
 SDCCH duration : 4,5 sec

 ERLANG COMPUTATION
 TCH = (350 * 85)/3600 = 8,26 ERLANG
 SDCCH = [ (350 + 350*3) * 4,5 ] / 3600 = 1.75 ERLANG

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Definition of Erlang B

 ERLANG B LAW

 Relationship between

 Offered traffic
 Number of resources
 Blocking rate

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 call request arrival rate (and leaving) is not stable

 number of resources = average number of requests mean duration
 is sometime not sufficent => probability of blocking

 => Erlang B law

 Pblock : blocking probability
 N : number of resources
 E : offered traffic [Erlang]

 Calculated with Excel - Makro or Table

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Erlang´s Formula
 How to calculate the traffic capacity T?
 Basics: Markov Chain (queue statistics)
 
p
0 p
1 p
2 p
i p
n

 
2 
3 
n

no call i channels all channels

established occupied occupied

 Calculation of the blocking probability using Erlang´s formula

(Erlang B statistics):
n n i
p block  
n! i  0 i!

 Varation of  until pblock reached:   T

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Blocking Probability (Erlang B)

Nr. of Blocking Probability Erlang B
channels 0.1% 0.2% 0.5% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 10% 15% 20% 50%
1 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.031 0.042 0.053 0.111 0.176 0.250 1.000
2 0.046 0.065 0.105 0.153 0.223 0.282 0.333 0.381 0.595 0.796 1.000 2.732
3 0.194 0.249 0.349 0.455 0.602 0.715 0.812 0.899 1.271 1.602 1.930 4.591
4 0.439 0.535 0.701 0.869 1.092 1.259 1.399 1.525 2.045 2.501 2.945 6.501
5 0.762 0.900 1.132 1.361 1.657 1.875 2.057 2.218 2.881 3.454 4.010 8.437
6 1.146 1.325 1.622 1.909 2.276 2.543 2.765 2.960 3.758 4.445 5.109 10.389
7 1.579 1.798 2.157 2.501 2.935 3.250 3.509 3.738 4.666 5.461 6.230 12.351
8 2.051 2.311 2.730 3.128 3.627 3.987 4.283 4.543 5.597 6.498 7.369 14.320
9 2.557 2.855 3.333 3.783 4.345 4.748 5.080 5.370 6.546 7.551 8.522 16.294
10 3.092 3.427 3.961 4.461 5.084 5.529 5.895 6.216 7.511 8.616 9.685 18.273
11 3.651 4.022 4.610 5.160 5.842 6.328 6.727 7.076 8.487 9.691 10.857 20.254
12 4.231 4.637 5.279 5.876 6.615 7.141 7.573 7.950 9.474 10.776 12.036 22.238
13 4.831 5.270 5.964 6.607 7.402 7.967 8.430 8.835 10.470 11.867 13.222 24.224
14 5.446 5.919 6.663 7.352 8.200 8.803 9.298 9.730 11.473 12.965 14.413 26.212
15 6.077 6.582 7.376 8.108 9.010 9.650 10.174 10.633 12.484 14.068 15.608 28.201
16 6.721 7.258 8.099 8.875 9.828 10.505 11.059 11.544 13.500 15.176 16.807 30.191
17 7.378 7.946 8.834 9.652 10.656 11.368 11.952 12.461 14.522 16.289 18.010 32.182
18 8.046 8.644 9.578 10.437 11.491 12.238 12.850 13.385 15.548 17.405 19.216 34.173
19 8.724 9.351 10.331 11.230 12.333 13.115 13.755 14.315 16.579 18.525 20.424 36.166
20 9.411 10.068 11.092 12.031 13.182 13.997 14.665 15.249 17.613 19.647 21.635 38.159
21 10.108 10.793 11.860 12.838 14.036 14.885 15.581 16.189 18.651 20.773 22.848 40.153
22 10.812 11.525 12.635 13.651 14.896 15.778 16.500 17.132 19.692 21.901 24.064 42.147
23 11.524 12.265 13.416 14.470 15.761 16.675 17.425 18.080 20.737 23.031 25.281 44.142
24 12.243 13.011 14.204 15.295 16.631 17.577 18.353 19.031 21.784 24.164 26.499 46.137
25 12.969 13.763 14.997 16.125 17.505 18.483 19.284 19.985 22.833 25.298 27.720 48.132
30 16.684 17.606 19.034 20.337 21.932 23.062 23.990 24.802 28.113 30.995 33.840 58.113
35 20.517 21.559 23.169 24.638 26.435 27.711 28.758 29.677 33.434 36.723 39.985 68.099
40 24.444 25.599 27.382 29.007 30.997 32.412 33.575 34.596 38.787 42.475 46.147 78.088
45 28.447 29.708 31.656 33.432 35.607 37.155 38.430 39.550 44.165 48.245 52.322 88.079
50 32.512 33.876 35.982 37.901 40.255 41.933 43.316 44.533 49.562 54.029 58.508 98.072

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BTS Traffic Capacity (Full Rate)

N um b e r o f Sp e e ch Tra ffic (Erla n g B) Sig na lling Tra ffic (Erla ng B)

TRX SDCCH TCH 1% 2% 5% 0.1% 0.2% 0.5%
1 4 7 2.501 2 .9 3 5 3.738 0.439 0.535 0.701
2 8 14 7.352 8 .2 9.73 2.051 2.311 2.73
3 8 22 13.651 1 4 .8 9 6 17.132 2.051 2.311 2.73
4 16 29 19.487 2 1 .0 3 9 23.833 6.721 7.258 8.099
5 16 37 26.379 2 8 .2 5 4 31.64 6.721 7.258 8.099
6 24 44 32.543 3 4 .6 8 2 38.557 12.243 13.011 14.204
7 24 52 39.7 4 2 .1 2 4 46.533 12.243 13.011 14.204
8 32 59 46.039 4 8 .7 53.559 18.205 19.176 20.678

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 Traffic Planning
Frequency Planning

Network Evolution

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Network Evolution - Coverage Approach

 The roll out of a network is dedicated to provide coverage

 Network design changes rapidly

 Planning method must be flexible and fast (group method)

 Manual frequency planning possible

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Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (1)

 With the growing amount of subscribers, the need for more installed
capacity is rising
 Possible Solutions:
 Installing more TRXs on the existing BTS

 Implementing additional sites

 Discussion!

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Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (2)

 Installing more TRXs - Advantages
 No site search/acquisition process
 No additional sites to rent (saves cost)
 Trunking efficiency  Higher capacity per cell
 Installing more TRXs - Disadvantages
 More antennas on roof top (Air combining)
 Additional losses if WBC has to be used
 Less (indoor) coverage
 More frequencies per site needed
 Tighter reuse necessary  decreasing quality

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Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (3)

 Implementing additional sites - Advantages
 Reuse can remain the same (smaller cell sizes)
 Needs less frequency spectrum
 higher spectrum efficiency

 Implementing additional sites - Disadvantages

 Additional site cost (rent)
 Re-design of old cells necessary (often not done)

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Frequency Planning

Cell Structures

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Cell Structures and Quality

 Frequency re-use in cellular radio networks
 allow efficient usage of the frequency spectrum
 but causes interference
 Interdependence of
 Cell size
 Cluster size
 Re-use distance
 Interference level
 Network Quality

interferer
region

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7 Cell Re-use Cluster (Omni Sites)

2 3

7 1 4 2 3

6 5 7 1 4
R 6 5
D

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12 Cell Re-use Cluster (Omni Sites)

1 2 3
D
4 5 6

7 8 9

10 11 12

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3x3 Cell Re-use Cluster (Sector Site)

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4x3 Cell Re-use Cluster (Sector Site)

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Irregular (Real) Cell Shapes

5 1
2 3
4

5
6

Coverage
Hole 7 Island
Network Border
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 Traffic Planning
Frequency Planning

Frequency Reuse

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GSM Frequency Spectrum

 GSM 900
 DL: 935-960 MHz UL: 890-915 MHz
 200 kHz channel spacing  124 channels
 ARFCN 1 - 124
 E-GSM
 DL: 925-935 MHz UL: 880-890 MHz
 200 kHz channel spacing  Additional 50 channels
 ARFCN 0, 975 - 1023
 GSM 850
DL: 869-894 MHz
 UL: 824-849 MHz
200 kHz channel spacing 124 channels

ARFCN: 128 - 251

 GSM 1800
 DL: 1805-1880 MHz UL: 1710-1785 MHz
 200 kHz channel spacing  374 channels
 ARFCN 512 - 885
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Impact of limited Frequency Spectrum

 Bandwidth is an expensive resource
 Best usage necessary
 Efficient planning necessary to contain good QoS when the traffic in the
network is increasing
 smaller reuse
 MRP usage
 implementation of concentric cells / microcells/dual band
 implementation of Frequency Hopping
 Baseband
 Synthezised

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What is frequency reuse?

 As the GSM spectrum is limited, frequencies have to be reused to provide
enough capacity

 The more often a frequency is reused within a certain amount of cells, the
smaller the frequency reuse

 Aim:
Minimizing the frequency reuse for providing more capacity

 REUSE CLUSTER:
Area including cells which do not reuse the same frequency (or frequency
group)

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RCS and ARCS (1)

 Reuse Cluster Size - RCS
 If all cells within the reuse cluster have the same amount of TRXs, the
reuse per TRX layer can be calculated:

B
RCS 
# TRX / cell
 Average Reuse Cluster Size - ARCS
 If the cells are different equiped, the average number of TRXs has to
be used for calculating the average reuse cluster size:

B
ARCS 
# TRX / cell
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RCS and ARCS (2)

 The ARCS is giving the average reuse of the network when using the whole
bandwidth and all TRXs per cell
 E.g: if we want to have the reuse of all non hopping TCH TRXs, we have to
use the dedicated bandwidth and the average number of non hopping TCH
TRXs per cell to get the ARCS of this layer type.
 Each cell has only one BCCH. Therefore the BCCH reuse is an RCS and
not an ARCS!

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Reuse Cluster Size (1)

 Sectorized sites
 4 sites per reuse cluster
 3 cells per site

 REUSE Cluster Size:

4X3 =12 1 2 4 5

3 6

1 2 4 5 7 8 10 11

3 6 9 12

7 8 10 11

9 12

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Reuse Cluster Size (2)

 Sectorized sites
 3 sites per reuse cluster
 3 cells per site

 REUSE Cluster Size

1 2 4 5
3X3 = 9
3 6

7 8 1 2 4 5
9 3 6

7 8

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Reuse Distance

D  f  R  3  RCS cell A

 1 omnidirect ional cells

f  2
three - sectorized cells
 3

interferer
region
cell B

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Frequency Reuse Distance

D = distance between cell sites with the same frequencies
R = service radius of a cell
Examples (omni):
B = number of frequencies in total bandwidth RCS = 7: D/R = 4.6
RCS = reuse cluster size, i.e. one cell uses B/RCS frequencies
RCS = 9: D/R = 5.2
In hexagonal cell geometry: D/R = f · 3 RCS RCS =12: D/R = 6.0
omni cells: f=1; sector cells: f=2/3

Frec Received Power

Frec, A
Frec, B
site A site B

C/I 

0 R distance D
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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Frequency Reuse: Example

BCCH RCS
 No sectorization
 7 cells per cluster
 BCCH RCS = 7
 TCH Reuse: Depending on BW and
Number of installed TRXs per cell interferer
 Example: region

 B= 26
 4TRXs per cell
TCH RCS

26  7 BCCH  1Guard
TCH RCS  6
3

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 Traffic Planning
Frequency Planning

Cell Planning - Frequency Planning

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Cell Planning - Frequency Planning (1)

 Can frequency planning be seen independently from cell planning?

Discussion

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Cell Planning - Frequency Planning (2)

 Bad cell planning
 Island coverage  disturbing the reuse pattern
 Big overlap areas  bigger reuse necessary

 Good cell planning

 Sharp cell borders  good containment of frequency
 Small overlap areas  tighter reuse possible

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Influencing Factors on Frequency Reuse Distance

 Topography
 Hilly terrain  Usage of natural obstacles to define sharp cell borders 
tighter frequency reuse possible
 Flat terrain  Achieveable reuse much more dependent on the accurate
cell design
 Morphology
 Water low attenuation  high reuse distance
 City  high attenuation  low reuse distance

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Conclusion
 In cellular mobile networks, the frequency reuse pattern has a direct influence on
the interference and hence the network quality
 Regular hexagonal patterns allow the deduction of engineering formulas
 In real networks, cell sizes and shapes are irregular due to
 Variation in traffic density
 Topography
 Land usage

 Engineering formulas allow the assessment of the network quality and worst-case
considerations, but the real situation must be proved!

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Examples for different frequency reuses

 Big city in the south of Africa:
 BCCH reuse 26
 Irregular cell design
 Mixed morphology
 Lots of water
 Flat terrain plus some high sites

 Big city in eastern Europe

 BCCH reuse 12
 Regular cell design
 Flat area
 Only urban environment

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 Traffic Planning
Frequency Planning

Interference Probability

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Interference Theory (1)

 C/I restrictions
 9dB for co-channel interference
 -9 dB for adjacent channel interference

P rec Received Power

Prec, A
Prec, B

C/ I


0 R dista nce D

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Interference Theory (2) ARCS

6.5..9.0
Pint[%]
10
 Interference probability 7.0..9.5
8.5..11.0
7.5
5.0
 C/Imed is the calculated carrier to 12.0..16.0 2.5

interference ratio at a certain location (pixel)

In te r fe r e r p r o b a b ility [% ]
Probability density function [%]
100%
5,0%

4,0% 80%

3,0% 60%

2,0% 40%

1,0% Margin 20%

0,0%
C/Ithr C/Imed 0%
C/I [dB]  -2 0 -1 5 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15 20

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C / I - C / I t h r [ d B 349
]
 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Interference Probability
Pint = P ( C/I < C/I thr)
P int
CPDF - Cumulative Probability Density Function
1
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
R D Distance from serving cell
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Interference Probability dependent on

Average Reuse Cluster Size (ARCS)
# of frequencies in used bandwidth
ARCS =
average # of carriers per cell
Pint [%]
Examples:
12 Pint[%] ARCS
10 6.5...9
9 7.5 7...9.5
5 8.5...11
6 2.5 12...16

0
5 10 15 20 25 ARCS
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 Traffic Planning
Frequency Planning

Carrier Types
Multiple Reuse Pattern
Intermodulation

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Carrier Types - BCCH carrier

 BCCH frequency is on air all the time

 If there is no traffic/signaling on TS 1 to 7
 dummy bursts are transmitted

 PC (Power Control) and DTX (Discontinuous Transmission) are not

allowed

 Important for measurements of the mobile

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Carrier Types - TCH carrier

 PC allowed and recommended for UL and DL
 Reduction of transmit power according to the actual path loss
 Careful parameter tuning for DL necessary

 DTX allowed and recommended for UL and DL

 Discontinuous Transmission
 If there is no speech, nothing is transmitted
 Generation of comfort noise at receiving mobile
 TCH not in use  no signal is transmitted

 Special case: Concentric cells

 Different re-uses for inner and outer zone are possible

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Multiple reuse pattern (1)

 For different types of carriers, different interference potential is expected
 As the BCCH carrier has the highest interferer potential because of being
on air all the time and the BCCH channel itself is accepting only low
interference, the REUSE on the BCCH layer is higher then on other layers
 TCH layers can be planned with a smaller REUSE
 Inner zones of concentric cells are able to deal with the smallest reuse in
non hopping networks

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Multiple reuse pattern (2)

 REUSE clusters for
 INNER ZONE
layer

 TCH layer

 BCCH layer

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GSM restrictions
 Intra site minimum channel spacing  2
 Intra cell minimum channel spacing  2 (ETSI recommends 3, but with
Alcatel EVOLIUM capabilities this value can be set to 2)
 constrains:
 Uplink power control enabled
 Intra cell interference handover enabled
fA1,fA2,fA3,...

Frequencies fAx,fBx,fCx,… must have at

least 2 channels spacing

Frequencies fx1,fx2,fx3,… must have at

,3 ... least 3 channels spacing
,f C fB
,f C2 1 ,f
fC 1 B2 ,f
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3 , ... 3FL 11820 ABAA WAZZA ed01 357
 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Intermodulation problems (1)

 IM Products GSM900
 In a GSM 900 system intermodulation products of 3rd and 5th order
can cause interference
 2 * f1,t – f2,t = f2,r / 2 * f2,t – f1,t = f1,r
 3 * f1,t – 2 * f2,t = f2,r / 3 * f2,t – 2 * f1,t = f1,r

 Frequency planning must avoid fulfilling these equations

 Both frequencies must be on the same duplexer
 To avoid intra band IM inside GSM900 the following frequency
separations shall be avoided:
 75/112/113 channels

IM5 IM3
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Intermodulation problems (2)

 IM Products GSM1800
 In a GSM 1800 system, only intermodulation products of 3rd order can
cause measurable interference
 2 * f1,t – f2,t = f2,r / 2 * f2,t – f1,t = f1,r
 Frequency separations to be avoided
 237/238 channels

 IM Products Dual Band (GSM900/GSM1800)

 f1800,t – f900,t = f900,r
 Decoupling between the GSM 1800 TX path and the GSM 900 RX
path is less than 30 dB (e.g. same antenna used!)

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Intermodulation problems (3) - Summary

INSIDE Problem: IM3 / IM5 Problem can be solved by hopping over more than 10 frequencies
carrier/antenna restriction
G3 900 1 no
G3 900 2 ore more 112/113 (IM3) and 75 (IM5)
G3 1800 1 no
G3 1800 2 or more 237/238 (IM3) no IM5 quality degradation measurable
carrier/antenna
G2 900 w/o dupl 1 no
2 or more no
G2 900 with dupl 1 no
2 or more 112/113 (IM3) and 75 (IM5)
G2 1800 w/o dupl 1 no
2 or more no
G2 1800 with dupl 1 no
2 dud2(high Power) -> no
2 dupd -> 237/238

OUTSIDE Problem: Dual Band Problem only for non hopping and BCCH carriers
Colocated BTSs
G3 900 G2/G3 1800 f(1800,t) - f(900,t) = f(900,r)

G2 900 w/o dupl G2/G3 1800 no

G2 900 with dupl G2/G3 1800 f(1800,t) - f(900,t) = f(900,r)

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Treating “neighbor” cells

 Cells, which are not declared as neighbor cells but are located in the
neighborhood may use adjacent frequencies if it is not avoidable, but no
co channel frequencies

 Cells which are declared as neighbors, thus have HO relationships, must

not use co or adjacent frequencies

 If an adjacent frequency is used, the HO will be risky and at least

audible by the user

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Where can I find neighbor cells?

 At the OMC-R for each cell a list of neighbor cells is defined

 Maximum number of neighbors: 32

 The list of neighbors and their frequencies is transmitted to the mobile to

be able to perform measurements on these frequencies

 In case of a HO cause, the HO will be performed towards the best neighbor

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 Traffic Planning
Frequency Planning

Manual Frequency Planning

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Manual frequency planning (1)

 No fixed method

 Free frequency assignment possible, but very time consuming for larger
networks

 For easy and fast frequency planning: use group assignment

 Example:
18 channels, 2TRX per cell  ARCS 9

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Manual frequency planning (2)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

A1
B1
A2
B2
A3
B3
A4
B4
A5

 GSM restrictions are automatically fulfilled, if on one site only groups A*

or only B* are used

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Exercise: Manual frequency planning (3)

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Exercise: Manual frequency planning (4)

A1 A2

A2
A3
B2

B1 A4 A5

B1 B4

B2 B3 B2
A3
A5
A2 B4
A1 B1
A1

A4 A2 A3 A2

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Discussion: Subdivide Frequency Band?

 Any subdivision of the frequency band is reducing the spectrum efficiency!
 Separations should be avoided if possible!
 As the BCCH has to be very clean, it is nevertheless recommended to use a
separated band and select a bigger reuse

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Hint for creating a future proofed frequency plan

 If a frequency plan is implemented, using all available frequencies in the most
efficient way, it is very difficult to implement new sites in the future!
 New sites would make a complete re-planning of the surrounding area or the
whole frequency plan necessary
 To avoid replanning every time when introducing new sites, it is recommended
to keep some Joker frequencies free
 These Joker frequencies can be used for new sites (especially BCCH TRXs)
unless it is impossible to implement new sites without changing a big part of
the frequency plan
 New frequency plan necessary!

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Implementing a frequency plan

 If only a few frequencies have to be changed, the changes can be done at the
OMC-R
 Disadvantage: Every cell has to be modified separately
 Downtime of the cell approx. 5 minutes
 If lots of changes have to be done, it is of advantage to use external tools
 Since B6.2 the complete frequency plan can be uploaded from the OMC
 the uploaded file can be modified by the tool (A9155 PRC Generator)
 the the new plan is downloaded into the network and activated at once

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 Traffic Planning
Frequency Planning

BSIC Planning

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BSIC allocation
 Together with the frequencies the Base Transceiver Station Identity Code
(BSIC) has to be planned

 The BSIC is to distinguish between cells using the same BCCH frequency
 BSIC = NCC (3bits) + BCC (3bits)
 NCC Network (PLMN) Colour Code BCC - Base Transceiver Station (BTS) Colour Code

 BSIC planning is supported by the A9155 (Alcatel Radio Network Planning

Tool)

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BSIC Planning Rules

 The same combination BCCH/BSIC must not be used on cell influencing on each
other (having a mutual interference <>0)
 BSIC allocation rules:
 Avoid using same BCCH/BSIC combination of:
 neighbours cells
 second order neighbour cells (the neighbours of neighbour cell (OMC limitation))

B C
Neighbour Cell
BCCH:24
BSIC: must NOT be
Neighbour Cell A 36
BCCH:24
Serving Cell
BSIC:36
BCCH:10
BSIC: any

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Spurious RACH
 Bad BSIC planning can cause SDCCH congestion cause by the spurious
RACH problem, also known as “Ghost RACH”
 This problem occurs, when a mobile sends an HO access burst to a TRX of
cell A using the same frequency as a nearby cell B uses on the BCCH
 Both cells using the same BSIC and Training Sequence Code TSQC, the
HO access burst is understood by the cell B as a RACH for call setup
 Therefore on cell B SDCCHs are allocated everytime a HO access burst is
sent from the mobile to the cell A

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Summary
 For optimal usage of your frequency spectrum a good cell design is
essential
 Use larger reuse for BCCH frequencies
 Use spectrum splitting only when necessary

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 Traffic Planning
Frequency Planning

Capacity Enhancement Techniques

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

Capacity enhancement by planning

 Interference reduction of cells
 Check of antenna type, direction and down tilt
 This is a check of cell size, border and orientation
 Check of proper cabling
 Is TX and RX path on the same sector antenna?
 Check of the frequency plan
 Introduction of a better frequency plan

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Capacity enhancement by adding feature

 Frequency hopping
 Base band hopping
 Synthesized frequency hopping
 Concentric cells
 Half rate

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Capacity enhancement by adding TRX

 Adding TRX to existing cells
 Multi band cells
 Concentric cells

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Capacity enhancement by adding cells

 Adding of cells at existing site locations
 Adding new cell = adding new BCCH
 Dual band
 Adding cells using another frequency band
 Cell splitting
 Reduction of cell size
 Change of one omni cell into several cells/sector cells

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Capacity enhancement by adding sites

 Dual band/multi band network
 Adding of new sites in new frequency band
 Multi layer network
 Adding of new sites in another layer
 E.g. adding micro cells for outdoor coverage
 Indoor coverage
 Adding micro cells indoor coverage
 Adding macro cells indoor coverage

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Radio Interface

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Contents
 GSM Air Interface
 Channel Coding
 Performance Figures

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GSM Air Interface

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Radio Resources

Radio Spectrum Allocation

Frequency Time
(FDMA) (TDMA)

Carrier Frequencies (ARFCN) Timeslot TDMA Frames

0<TN<7 0<FN<FN_MAX

Cell Mobile Allocation FDMA Frequency division multiple access

Allocation (MA) TDMA Time division multiple access
ARFCN Absolute radio frequency channel number
(CA) TN Timeslot number
FN Frame number

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GSM Transmission Principles (1)

 FDMA and TDMA with 8 time slots per carrier
 RF frequency band
 (E)GSM: (880) 890 ... 915 MHz Uplink (MS  BS)
(925) 935 ... 960 MHz Downlink (BS MS)
 GSM1800: 1710 ... 1785 MHz Uplink
1805 ... 1880 MHz Downlink
 200 kHz bandwidth
 Number of carriers: 124 (GSM); 374 (DCS); 49 (E-GSM)

GSM: Flower (n) = 890 + 0.2 · n MHz with 1  n 124

E-GSM: Flower (n) = 890 + 0.2 · n MHz with 0  n  124
Flower (n) = 890 + 0.2 · (n -1024) MHz with 975  n 1023
DCS : Flower (n) = 1710.2 + 0.2 · (n - 512) MHz with 512  n 885

(E)GSM: Fupper (n) = Flower (n) + 45 MHz

DCS: Fupper (n) = Flower (n) + 95 MHz
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GSM Transmission Principles (2)

 Channel types
 Traffic Channels (TCH)
 Full rate
 Half rate
 Control Channels (CCH)
 Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
 Common Control Channel (CCCH)
 Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)

 TDMA frame cycles

 26 cycle for traffic channels
 51 cycle for control channels

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Advantages of Signal Processing

Bad propagation
Spectrum limitations
conditions
Operator

Good spectrum efficiency Good transmission quality

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Signal Processing Chain

stealing bit and FACCH
speech
input speech error
interleaving encryption modulation
coding protection

Loss
Noise radio
Interference channel
Fading

speech
output speech error
de-interleaving decryption demodulation
decoding correction

stealing bit and FACCH

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Speech Coding
Coding algorithm: RPE-LTP 20 ms of coded speech
 Pre-computation
 RPE = Regular Pulse Excitation
 Model of human voice generation
260 bits speech block
 LTP = Long Term Prediction
 Reduction of bit rate
 Bit rate: 13 kBit/s
182 class 1 bits 78 class 2 bits
sensitive to bit errors robust to bit errors
must be protected

Coding at fixed network: PCM A-law

 Bit rate: 64 kBit/s

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Error Protection
Speech (full rate)
Messages (signalling data) 260 bits
Class 1a Class 1b Class 2
184 bits 50 bits 132 bits 78 bits

Cyclic
Fire Code Parity code
check Tail bits

184 40 4 Tail bits 50 3 132 4

Convolutional Code Convolutional Code

r = 1/2, K = 5 r = 1/2, K = 5
= 456
456 = 24 x 19 378 78 = 8 x 57

456 bits in 20 ms = 22.8 kbit/s

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Interleaving and TDMA Frame Mapping

Block n-1 (456 bits) 57 bits Block n (456 bits) Block n+1 (456 bits)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2 x 57 bits Interleaving

..... 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits .....

Addition of
stealing
flags
..... 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits .....

Mapping
onto
bursts
..... burst n-3 burst n-2 burst n-1 burst n burst n+1 burst n+2 burst n+3 burst n+4 .....

1 time slot
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Encryption
Network Authenticatio
n
Mobile station
yes/no
Algorithm Algorithm
+
A3 SRES (32 bit) A3
AuC

IMSI Ki Random RAND (128 bit) Ki SIM

number
Ki generator Card
RAND RAND

Algorithm Algorithm
A8 A8
Kc (64 bit) Kc

Algorithm Algorithm
A5 A5
original encrypte encrypted original
data d data data
+ data +

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Burst Structure
 A burst contains one data
"portion" of one timeslot
 TDMA frame: time between two Normal Burst
bursts with same timeslot number
 The burst also consists of: TDMA frame = 4.615 ms
 Guard period (GP): allows for
transition and settling times
 Tail bits: allow for small shifts in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
time delay (synchronisation)
 Stealing flags: to indicate FACCH
(control channel) data
 Training sequence: for equalization Training
purposes
Data Sequence
Data
GP 3 57 bits 1 26 bits 1 57 bits 3 GP

tail bits stealing flags tail bits

156.25 bit periods = 0.577 ms

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Synchronisation
1 0 1 2 3 transmitted from BTS 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1
(downlink)
3 TS
received at BTS delay
4 1 2 (uplink) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1

received at MS
2 0 1 2 (downlink) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1
TT TT TT
transmitted from MS
3 1 2 (uplink) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1
RACH
TT
non-synchronized synchronized MS delay line setting

 Transmitted bursts need a travelling time (TT) to the receiver

 For network access, the MS sends a (non-synchronized) shortened RACH burst
 The BSS measures the TT and generates a timing advance value TA which is transmitted to the MS
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Modulation
 Gaussian minimum shift keying
 Based on phase shift keying
 Reduction of required bandwidth
 Maximum phase change during one bit duration
 Baseband filtering to achieve continuous phase changes

cos x


Data   + to RF modulator
90°

sin x

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Propagation Environment
 Radio propagation is characterised by dispersive multi-
path caused by reflection and scattering
 Moving MS causes Doppler spectrum
 Definition of propagation models in the time domain
to allow channel simulations
 TUxx (Typical Urban)
 RAxx (Rural Area)
 HTxx (Hilly Terrain)
 xx = speed in km/h

see also GSM 05.05, 11.20, 11.21

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Equalizing
0.1
 Purpose: equalize distortions in
transmission spectrum
 Adaptive filtering required
 Filter parameters determined out
of the training sequence
 Filter parameters change from
burst to burst

BER
0.01

 Equalizer takes advantage from

multipath propagation (path
diversity)
Equalizer

none
Alcatel
MLSE
0.001
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Delay of second path [chips]

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Definition of Bit Error Rates

 FER = Frame Erasure Rate
 Ratio of corrupted frames, indicated by a wrong CRC (cyclic
redundancy checksum) and BFI (bad frame indicator)
 RBER = Residual Bit Error Rate
 considering corrupted frames not recognized as bad frames
 BER = total bit error rate
 Consideration of class 1 or 2 bits  e.g. RBER1b, RBER2

see also GSM 05.05, 11.20, 11.21

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Speech Quality

BER Quality Thresholds:

>0.01 no communication C/I: 9 dB

<0.005 “bad” Ec/No: 8 dB
<0.0025 “marginal” BTS (GSM900): -104 dBm
HH (GSM900): -102 dBm
<0.0003 “good” BTS (GSM1800): -104 dBm
<0.0001 “excellent” HH (GSM1800): -100 dBm

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Dependence of BER on Noise and Interference (1)

 Variation of BER1 over C/I
 Parameter: Ec/N0

BER1 
 How to find a quality figure?
 BER1 for marginal speech quality: TU50
0.25%
 required C/I  9 dB for TU50
environment
 but: signal must not be close to
noise floor!

C/I [dB] 

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Frequency Hopping (1)

 Problem: specific fading pattern
for each used frequency 0
 Fast MS cope with the situation Lognormal fading
(due to signal processing) Raleygh fading
 Slow MS suffer from fading holes -10

 Solution: change the fading

pattern by frequency hopping
-20
Received Power [dBm]

-30

-40

-50

-60
Fading holes

-70
0.1

2.8

5.4

8.0

10.6

13.2

15.9

18.5

21.1

23.7

26.3

29.0

31.6

34.2

36.8

39.4

42.1

44.7

47.3

49.9
Distance [m]

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Frequency Hopping (2)

 Variation of BER1 over Ec/N0

BER 
 TU environment, flat fading, v = 0
km/h (worst case)
 Parameter: number of hopping
frequencies

 Compensation with 4 hopping

frequencies possible

Ec/N0 [dB] 

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Channel Coding

0 12 3 4 5 6 70 12 3 4 5 6 7 0 12 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4
... ...

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The OSI Reference Model

Application layer 7

Presentation layer 6

Session layer 5
Transport layer 4
Network layer 3 04.07/08
08.58/4.08
Data link layer 2 04.05/06
08.56
Physical layer 1 04.04
08.54
End system Transportation system End system

 Definition in GSM recommendations: layers 1 to 3

 Notion of "Physical" channels and "Logical" channels
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GSM Burst Types (1)

 Normal Burst
 For regular transmission
 Frequency Correction Burst
 Contains 142 zeros (0)  pure sine wave
 Allows synchronisation of the mobile's local oscillator
 Synchronisation Burst
 Consists of an enlarged unique training sequence code (TSC)
 Contains the actual FN  time synchronisation
 Access Burst
 Shortened burst (unique TSC and enlarged guard period)
 Timeslot overlapping avoided at BTS when MS accesses network
 Dummy Burst
 "Filler" for unused BCCH timeslots  BCCH permanently on air
 Similar to normal burst (defined mixed bits for data, no stealing flag)

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GSM Burst Types (2)

Normal burst
TB 26 bit training TB GP
57 data bits 1 1 57 data bits
3 sequence 3 8.25

Frequency correction burst

TB TB GP
142 fixed bits (pure sine wave)
3 3 8.25

Synchronisation burst
TB 64 bit training TB GP
39 data bits 39 data bits
3 sequence 3 8.25

Access burst
TB 41 bit synchronisation TB enlarged GP
36 data bits
8 sequence 3 68.25 bit
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Logical Channels
Traffic Control
channel channel

Broadcast Associated Dedicated

Speech Data CCCH
channel channel channel
TCH/FS TCH/F9.6 FCCH RACH FACCH SDCCH

TCH/HS TCH/F4.8 SCH PCH SACCH CBCH

TCH/F2.4 BCCH AGCH

TCH/H4.8

TCH/H2.4

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Possible Channel Combinations

1 TCH/F+FACCH/F+SACCH/TF
2 TCH/H(0.1)+FACCH/H(0.1)+SACCH/TH(0.1)
3 TCH/H(0.0)+FACCH/H(0.1)+SACCH/TH(0.1)+TCH/H(1.1)
4 FCCH+SCH+BCCH+CCCH
5 FCCH+SCH+BCCH+CCCH+SDCCH/4(0..3)+SACCH/C4(0..3)
6 BCCH+CCCH
7 SDCCH/8(0..7)+SACCH/C8(0..7)
 CCCH = PCH+RACH+AGCH
 Combination 4 and 5 is only possible on TS0 of the first (BCCH) carrier
 Combination 6 is possible on TS2, TS4, or TS6 of the BCCH carrier

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Channel Mapping (1)

0 12 3 4 5 6 70 12 3 4 5 6 7 0 12 3 4 5 6 7 0 12 3 4
.......
.......

time
one TDMA
frame = 4.616 ms

 Information packages are always related to

the same timeslot number!
 Bursts are transmitted and received every
Presentation of consecutive
.......

TDMA frame duration (4.616 ms)

TDMA frames on the vertical
axis
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not combined BCCH combined BCCH TCH SDCCH

downlink uplink downlink uplink up/ downlink downlink uplink

Channel Mapping (2) 0 FCCH

SCH
RACH
RACH
RACH
FCCH
SCH
FCCH
SCH
SDCCH3 SDCCH3
0 TCH
TCH
TCH
0

SDCCH0 SDCCH0 SACCH5 SACCH1

RACH TCH
BCCH BCCH BCCH
RACH RACH RACH TCH
RACH RACH RACH TCH
SDCCH1 SDCCH1 SACCH6 SACCH2
RACH TCH

 Control channels CCCH

RACH
RACH
CCCH CCCH SACCH0 SACCH2
TCH
TCH
RACH TCH

 Follows a 51-cycle 10 FCCH

SCH
RACH
RACH
FCCH
SCH
FCCH
SCH
TCH
TCH
10
SDCCH2 SDCCH2 SACCH7 SACCH3

SACCH1 SACCH3
RACH 12 SACCH

 Duration: 235.4 msec CCCH

RACH
RACH
CCCH CCCH
RACH RACH
TCH
TCH
SDCCH3 SDCCH3

RACH RACH RACH TCH

 Consists mostly of four RACH

RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
TCH
TCH
SDCCH0 SDCCH0
CCCH CCCH CCCH SDCCH4 SDCCH4

consecutive blocks
RACH RACH RACH TCH
RACH RACH RACH TCH
20 FCCH RACH FCCH FCCH RACH RACH TCH 20
SDCCH1 SDCCH1

 Synchronisation with FCCH SCH RACH

RACH
SCH SCH RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
TCH
TCH
SDCCH5 SDCCH5

RACH RACH RACH TCH

and SCH
CCCH SDCCH0 SDCCH0
RACH RACH RACH TCH
SDCCH2 SDCCH2
RACH RACH RACH 25
SDCCH6 SDCCH6
RACH RACH RACH 0 TCH

 Traffic channels CCCH

RACH
RACH
SDCCH1 SDCCH1
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
TCH
TCH
SDCCH3 SDCCH3
RACH RACH RACH TCH

 Follows a 26-cycle 30 FCCH

SCH
RACH
RACH
FCCH
SCH
FCCH
SCH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
TCH
TCH
30
SDCCH7 SDCCH7

RACH RACH RACH TCH

 Duration: 120 msec CCCH

RACH
RACH
SDCCH2 SDCCH2
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
TCH
TCH
SACCH0 SACCH4
SDCCH4 SDCCH4

RACH RACH RACH TCH

RACH RACH RACH TCH
SDCCH5 SDCCH5
RACH TCH
CCCH SDCCH3 SDCCH3 SACCH1 SACCH5
RACH 12 SACCH
SDCCH0 SDCCH0
RACH TCH
40 FCCH RACH FCCH FCCH TCH 40
SDCCH6 SDCCH6
SCH RACH SCH SCH TCH
SACCH2 SACCH6
RACH TCH
SDCCH1 SDCCH1
RACH TCH
CCCH SACCH0 SACCH2
RACH TCH
SDCCH7 SDCCH7
RACH RACH RACH TCH
SACCH3 SACCH7
RACH RACH RACH TCH
RACH TCH
CCCH SACCH1 SACCH3
RACH TCH
SDCCH2 SDCCH2 SACCH0 SACCH4
RACH TCH
50 RACH TCH 50
25

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TDMA Frame Structure for TCHs

Hyperframe 2048 superframes of 6.12 s duration 3 h 28 m 53 s

Superframe 51 multiframes of 120 ms duration 6.12 s

Multiframe 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 120 ms

Frame 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4.615 ms

TB 26 bit training TB GP
Time slot 3
57 data bits 1
sequence
1 57 data bits
3 8.25 0.577 ms

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Performance Figures

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Performance Figures (1)

 Interference Probability Pint
 measure for co/adjacent channel interference
 Coverage Probability Pcov
 measure for sufficient received power
 Call Success Rate (CSR)
 CSR = "Coverage" AND (NOT "Interference“)
 CSR = Pcov · (1 - Pint)
 Outage Probability Pout
 complementary to CSR
 Pout  1 - CSR

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AMR Advanced Multi Rate (TC) BIE Base Station Interface Equipment
AMSS Aeronautical Mobile Satellite Services BIEC Base Station Interface Equipment (BSC)
AN Antenna Network (BTS) BIUA Base Station Interface Unit A
ARCS Average Reuse Cluster Size BPA Back Panel Assembly
ARFCN Absolute Radio Frequency Channel BSC Base Station Controller
AS Access Switch (BSC) BSIC Base Transceiver Station Identity Code
AS Alarm Surveillance (O&M) BSS Base Station (sub)System
ASMA A-ter Submultiplexer A BSSGP Base Station System GPRS Protocol
ASMB A-ter Submultiplexer B (GPRS)
AuC Authentication Center BTS Base Transceiver Station
BC Broadcast CAE Customer Application Engineering
BCU Broadcast Unit CAL Current Alarm List (O&M)
BCLA BSC Clock A CBC Cell Broadcast Center
BCR Broadcast Register CBCH Cell Broadcast Channel (GSM TS)
BCU Broadcast Unit CBE Cell Broadcast Entity
BCCH Broadcast Common Control Channel CCCH Common Control Channel (GSM TS)
(GSM TS) CCU Channel Coding Unit
BCF Base station Control Function (BTS)
BG Border Gate (GPRS)
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CDMA Code Division Multiple Access DLS Data Load Segment

CE Control Element (BSC) DMA Direct Memory Access
CEK Control Element Kernel DRFU Dual Rate Frame Unit
C/I Carrier to Interferer ratio DRX Discontinuous Reception (GSM TS)
CLK Clock DSE Digital Switching Element
CLSI Custom Large Scale Integrated circuit DSN Digital Switching Network
CMA Configuration Management Application (O&M) DTX Discontinuous Transmission (GSM TS)
CMDA Common Memory Disk A DTC Digital Trunk Controller
CMFA Common Memory Flash A (Type: DTCA, DTCC)
CPR Common Processor (Type: CPRA, CPRC) DTE Data Terminal Equipment
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check EDGE Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution
CS Circuit Switching (Telecom) EI Extension interface
CS Coding Scheme (GPRS): EML Element Management Level
CS-1, CS-2, CS-3, CS-4 EPROM Erasable Programmable Read Only
CU Carrier Unit (BTS) Memory
DCE Data Circuit Terminating Equipment ETSI European Telecom Standard Institute
DCN Data Communication Network FPE Functional and Protective Earth
DL DownLink FR Full Rate (GSM TS)

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FR Frame Relay (Telecom) HLR Home Location Register

FRDN Frame Relay Data Network (Telecom) HMI Human Machine Interface
FU Frame Unit (BTS) HO HandOver
FW Firmware HR Half Rate
GCR Group Call Register HW Hardware
GGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node (GPRS) IDR Internal Directed Retry
GMLC Gateway Mobile Location Center ILCS ISDN Link Controller
GMM GPRS Mobility Management (GPRS) IMT Installation and Maintenance Terminal
GMSC Gateway Mobile Switching Center (MFS)
GPRS General Packet Radio Service IND Indoor (BTS)
GPU GPRS Packet Unit IP Internet Protocol
GS-1 Group Switch of stage 1 (BSC) ISDN Integrated Services Data Network
GS-2 Group Switch of stage 2 (BSC) IT Intelligent Terminal
GSL GPRS Signalling Link LA Location Area (GSM TS)
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications LAC Location Area Code (GSM TS)
GSM TS GSM Technical Specification LAN Local Area Network
HAL Historical Alarm List (O&M) LED Light Emitting Diode
HDSL High rate Digital Subscriber Line LEO Low Earth Orbit (Satellite)
HDLC High Level Datalink Control LCS Location Services
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LLC Logical Link Control (GPRS) OBC On Board Controller

LMU Location measurement unit OBCI On Board Controller Interface
MA Mobile Allocation (GSM TS) OC Originating Call
MAC Medium Access Control (GPRS) ODMC On Demand Measurement Campaign
MAN Metropolitan Area Network (O&M)
MAN MicroBTS Antenna Network (BTS) O&M Operation and Maintenance
MCB Multiplex Channel Block OMC Operation and Maintenance Center
MFS Multi-BSS Fast Packet Server (GPRS) OMC-R Operation and Maintenance Center -
MLU Massive Logical Update Radio
MMI Man Machine Interface OML Operation and Maintenance Link
MO Managed Object (O&M) OMU Operation and Maintenance Unit (BTS)
MRP Multiple Reuse Pattern OS Operating System
MS Mobile Station OUT Outdoor (BTS)
MSC Mobile Switching Center PBA Printed Board Assembly
MSUM MicroBTS Station Unit Module (BTS) PBCCH Packet Broadcast Common Control
CHannel (GPRS)
NMI Non Maskable Interrupt
PC Personal Computer
NPA Network Performance Analyser
PCCCH Packet Common Control Channel
NSS Network SubSystem
(GPRS)
NTL Network Termination Line
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NW Network
 GSM RNE Fundamentals

PCH Paging CHannel (GSM TS) PSTN Public Switching Telephone Network
PCM Pulse Coded Modulation (Telecom)
PCU Packet Control Unit (GPRS) PTP-CNLS Point To Point CoNnectionLeSs data
PDCH Packet Data CHannel transfer (GPRS)
PDN Packet Data Network (Telecom) QoS Quality of Service
PDU Protocol Data Unit (generic terminology) RA Radio Access
PLL Phase Locked Loop RACH Random Access CHannel (GSM TS)
PLMN Public Land Mobile Network RAM Random Access Memory
PMA Prompt Maintenance Alarm (O&M) RCP Radio Control Point
PMC Permanent Measurement Campaign RLC Radio Link Control (GPRS)
(O&M) RLP Radio Link Protocol (GSM TS)
PPCH Packet Paging CHannel (GPRS) RML Radio Management Level
PRACH Packet Random Access CHannel (GPRS) RNO Radio Network Optimisation
Prec Received Power RNP Radio Network Planning
PRC Provisioning Radio Configuration (O&M) RSL Radio Signalling Link
PSDN Packet Switching Data Network
(Telecom)

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RTS Radio Time Slot SM Submultiplexer

RxLev Received Level SMLC Serving Mobile Location Center
RxQualReceived Quality SMP Service Management Point
SACCH Slow Associated Control Channel SMS Short Message Service
(GSM TS) SMS-CB Short Message Service - Cell Broadcast
SAU Subrack assembly unit (BSC) SM-GMSC Short Message Gateway Mobile Switching
SC Supervised Configuration (O&M) Center
SCC Serial Communication Controller SRAM Static RAM
SCP Service Control Point SRS SubRate Switch
SCCP Signalling Connection Control Part SS7 Signalling System ITU-T N°7 (ex CCITT)
SCSI Small Computer Systems Interface SSD Solid State Disk
SDCCH Standalone Dedicated Control Channel SSP Service Switching Point
(GSM TS) SW Software
SDU Service Data Unit (generic terminology) SWEL Switch Element
SGSN Serving GPRS Support Node (GPRS) TBF Temporary Block Flow (GPRS)
SIEA SCSI Interface Extension A TAF Terminal Adaptor Function

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 GSM RNE Fundamentals

TC Transcoder TRX Transceiver

TC Terminating Call TS Time Slot
TCC Trunk Controller Chip TS Technical Specification (GSM TS)
TCH Traffic CHannel (GSM TS) TSS Time Space Switch
TCIL TransCoder Internal Link TSCA Transmission Sub-System Controller A
TCSM TransCoder / SubMultiplexer equipment (BSC)
TCU TRX Control Unit (Type: TCUA, TCUC) TSU Terminal Sub Unit (BSC)
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access TU Terminal Unit (BSC)
TFO Tandem Free Operation (TC) UL UpLink
TFTS Terrestrial Flight Telecom Systems UMTS Universal Mobile Transmission System
TLD Top Level Design USSD Unstructured Supplementary Services Data
TMN Telecommunication Management VBS Voice Broadcast Service
Network VGCS Voice Group Code Service
TRAC Trunk Access Circuit VLR Visitor Location Register
TRAU Transcoder and Rate Adapter Unit VPLMN Visited PLMN
TRCU Transcoder Unit VSWR Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (BTS)
TRE Transceiver Equipment WAN Wide Area Network
TRS Technical Requirement Specification WAP Wireless Application Protocol
TRU Top Rack Unit WBC Wide Band Combiner
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