D.

C Machines
1-Introduction:
The steam age signalled the beginning of an industrial revolution. The advantages
of machines and gadgets in helping mass production and in improving the services
spurred the industrial research. Thus a search for new sources of energy and novel
gadgets received great attention. By the end of the 18th century the research on
electric charges received a great boost with the invention of storage batteries. This
enabled the research work on moving charges or currents. It was soon discovered (
in 1820 ) that, these electric currents are also associated with magnetic eld like a
load stone. This led to the invention of an electromagnet. Hardly a year later the
force exerted on a current carrying conductor placed in the magnetic eld was
invented. This can be termed as the birth of a motor. A better understanding of the
inter relationship between electric and magnetic circuits was obtained with the
enumeration of laws of induction by Faraday in 1831. Parallel research was
contem-porarily being done to invent a source of energy to recharge the batteries in
the form of a d.c. source of constant amplitude (or d.c. generator). For about three
decades the research on d.c. motors and d.c. generators proceeded on independent
paths. During the second half of the 19th century these two paths merged. The
invention of a commutator paved the way for the birth of d.c. generators and
motors. These inventions generated great interest in the generation and use of
electrical energy. Other useful machines like alternators, transformers and
induction motors came into existence almost contemporarily. The evolution of
these machines was very quick. They rapidly attained the physical con gurations
that are being used even today. The d.c. power system was poised for a
predominant place as a preferredsystem for use, with the availability of batteries
for storage, d.c. generators for conversion of mechanical energy into electrical
form and d.c. motors for getting mechanical outputs from electrical energy.The
limitations of the d.c. system however became more and more apparent as the
power demand increased. In the case of d.c. systems the generating stations and the
load centers have to be near to each other for e cient transmission of energy. The
invention of induction machines in the 1880s tilted the scale in favor of a.c.
systems mainly due to the advantage o ered by transformers, which could step up
or step down the a.c.voltage levels at constant power at extremely high e ciency.
Thus a.c. system took over as the preferred system for the generation transmission
and utilization of electrical energy. The d.c. system, however could not be
obliterated due to the able support of batteries. Further, d.c. motors have excellent
control characteristics. Even today the d.c. motor remains an industry standard as
far as the control aspects are concerned. In the lower power levels and also in
regenerative systems the d.c. machines still have a major say.

In spite of the apparent diversity in the characteristics, the underlying principles of

both a.c. and d.c. machines are the same. They use the electromagnetic principles
which can be further simpli ed at the low frequency levels at which these machines
are used. These basic principles are discussed at first.

2- Basic principles:

Electric machines can be broadly classi ed into electrostatic machines and

electromagnetic machines. The electrostatic principles do not yield practical
machines for commercial electric power generation. The present day machines are
based on the electro-magnetic principles. Though one sees a variety of electrical
machines in the market, the basic underlying principles of all these are the same.
To understand, design and use these machines the following laws must be studied.

1- Electric circuit laws - Kirchoff

2- Magnetic circuit law - Ampere
3- Law of electromagnetic induction - Faraday
4- Law of electromagnetic interaction –BiotSavart
Most of the present day machines have one or two electric circuits linking a
common magnetic circuit. In subsequent discussions the knowledge of electric and
magnetic circuit laws is assumed. The attention is focused on the Faraday's law and
Biot Savart's law in the present study of the electrical machines.

e∝

where v is the linkages given by the product of ux lines in weber that are linked
and N the number of turns of the coil. This can be expressed as,

e∝N
 DC Motor
DC Motor theory:

The DC motor has two basic parts: the rotating part that is called the armature and
the stationary part that includes coils of wire called the field coils. The stationary
part is also called the stator. The armature is made of coils of wire wrapped around
the core, and the core has an extended shaft that rotates on bearings. You should
also notice that the ends of each coil of wire on the armature are terminated at one
end of the armature. The termination points are called the commutator, and this is
where the brushes make electrical contact to bring electrical current from the
stationary part to the rotating part of the machine.
The coils that are mounted inside the stator are called field coils and they may be
connected in series or parallel with each other to create changes of torque in the
motor. You will find the size of wire in these coils and the number of turns of wire
in the coil will depend on the effect that is trying to be achieved.

DC Motor Overview:

The armature and field in a DC motor can be wired three different ways to provide
varying amounts of torque or different types of speed control. The armature and
field windings are designed slightly differently for different
types of DC motors. The three basic types of DC motors are the series motor, the
shunt motor, and the compound

motor. The series motor is designed to move large loads with high starting torque
in applications such as a crane motor or lift hoist. The shunt motor is designed
slightly differently, since it is made for applications such as pumping fluids, where
constant-speed characteristics are important. The compound motor is designed
with some of the series motor's characteristics and some of the shunt motor's
characteristics. This allows the compound motor to be used in applications where
high starting torque and controlled operating speed are both required.
It is important that you understand the function and operation of the basic
components of the DC motor, since motor controls will take advantage of these
design characteristics to provide speed, torque, and direction of rotation control.
The basic components of a DC motor include the armature assembly, which
includes all rotating parts; the frame assembly, which houses the stationary field
coils; and the end plates, which provide bearings for the motor shaft and a
mounting point for the brush rigging. Each of these assemblies is explained in
depth so that you will understand the design concepts used for motor control.

DC-motor

Armature:

The armature is the part of a DC motor that rotates and provides energy at the end
of the shaft. It is basically an electromagnet, since it is a coil of wire that has to be
specially designed to fit around core material on the shaft.
The core of the armature is made of laminated steel and provides slots for the coils
of wire to be pressed onto.
Figure 1a shows a sketch of a typical DC motor armature. Figure 1b shows the
laminated steel core of the armature without any coils of wire on it. This gives you
a better look at the core.

The armature core is made of laminated steel to prevent the circulation of eddy
currents. If the core were solid, magnetic currents would be produced that would
circulate in the core material near the surface and cause the core metal to heat up.
These magnetic currents are called eddy currents. When laminated steel sections
are
pressed together to make the core, the eddy currents cannot flow from one
laminated segment to another, so they are effectively canceled out. The laminated
core also prevents other magnetic losses called flux losses. These losses tend to
make the magnetic field weaker so that more core material is required to obtain
the same magnetic field strengths. The flux losses and eddy current losses are
grouped together by designers and called core losses. The laminated core is
designed to allow the armature's magnetic field to be as strong as possible since the
laminations prevent core losses.

Notice that one end of the core has commutator segments. There is one
commutator segment for each end of each coil. This means that an armature with
four coils will have eight commutator segments. The commutator segments are
used as a contact point between the stationary brushes and the rotating armature.
When each coil of wire is pressed onto the armature, the end of the coil is soldered
to a specific commutator segment. This
makes an electrical terminal point for the current that will flow from the brushes
onto the commutator segment and finally through the coil of wire. Figure 1c
shows the coil of wire before it is mounted in the armature slot, and Fig.
1d shows the coil mounted in the armature slot and soldered to the commutator .

Armature 1
Armature 2
Fleming's Left-Hand Rule:

You can figure out the direction in which the wire will jump using a handy
mnemonic (memory aid) called Fleming's Left-Hand Rule (sometimes called the
Motor Rule).

Hold out the thumb, first finger, and second finger of your left hand so all three are
at right angles. If you point the seCond finger in the direction of the Current
(which flows from the positive to the negative terminal of the battery), and the
First finger in the direction of the Field (which flows from the North to the South
pole of the magnet), your thuMb will show the direction in which the wire Moves.
That's...
 First finger = Field
 SeCond finger = Current
 ThuMb = Motion
1-Two pole dc motor:
2-Three pole dc motor:
3-Four pole dc motor:
Generator Basic Principles:

Energy Conversion :
To produce voltage, it is necessary to move a conductor through a magnetic
field as stated above. Mechanical energy is required to provide motion to this
conductor. With the field energy remaining constant, the conductor is changing
mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Voltage Generation:
There is a definite relationship between the direction of the magnetic flux, the
direction of motion of the conductor and the direction of the induced EMF.
Figure 1 shows the motion of the conductor perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The voltage and current output are perpendicular to both the motion of the
conductor and the magnetic field.
Generator:

In a generator, moving a conductor through a stationary magnetic field

generates voltage. If a coil is rotated through a magnetic field as shown in
Figure 4, an alternating voltage will be produced. To make this voltage
available to a stationary external circuit, two slip rings and brushes must be
provided. For the external circuit to produce DC voltage, it is necessary to
reverse the polarity of the external leads at the same time the voltage in the coil
is reversed. This is accomplished by segmenting a slip ring to form what is
called a commutator. An elementary two segment commutator is illustrated in
Figure 5. This single coil, two piece commutator will yield an unidirectional but
pulsating voltage as shown in Figure 6. However, when a large number of
commutator segments or bars is used, the resulting voltage will be more
uniform as shown in Figure 7.
Commutator:

A commutator is a rotary electrical switch in certain types of electric motors or

electrical generators that periodically reverses the current direction between the
rotor and the external circuit. In a motor, it applies power to the best location on
the rotor, and in a generator, picks off power similarly. As a switch, it has
exceptionally long life, considering the number of circuit makes and breaks that
occur in normal operation.

A commutator is a common feature of direct current rotating machines. By

reversing the current direction in the moving coil of a motor's armature, a
steady rotating force (torque) is produced. Similarly, in a generator, reversing of
the coil's connection to the external circuit provides unidirectional — direct —
current to the external circuit. The first commutator-type direct current machine
was built by Hippolyte Pixii in 1832, based on a suggestion by André-Marie
Ampère.
Commutator Principle of Operation:

As the rotor turns, the current in the winding reverses every time the commutator
makes half a turn. This reversal of the winding current compensates for the fact
that the winding has also rotated half a turn relative to the fixed magnetic field (not
shown). The current in the winding causes the fixed magnetic field to exert a
rotational force (a torque) on the winding, making it turn. As the rotor's field
comes close to aligning itself with that of the stator, the commutator switches the
rotor's polarity, so the motor is perpetually trying to settle, so to speak.

Note that no practical, real-world motor or generator uses the commutators shown
in these two examples. However, this two-segment simplification does explain the
basic principles. All practical commutators have at least three segments, and in
some instances (such as the N.Y. City transit system's old rotary AC-to-DC
converters), up to several hundred. In these elementary diagrams, there is a dead
position where the motor will not start.

For the image to the right, when the brushes make contact across both commutator
segments, the commutator is short-circuited and current passes directly from one
brush to the other across the commutator, doing no work in the rotor windings, and
drawing a destructive fault current from the power source. As well, practical rotors
have more turns in their windings. For the image to the left, there is a dead spot
when the brushes cross the insulation between the two segments and no current
flows. In either case, in a motor, the rotor cannot begin to spin if it is stopped in
this position.
Some DC motor application:
University Of Duhok
College Of Engineering
ECE Department

Machine Second Year

Barhav S. Lazgeen