Robust Control of Active Suspension System For A Quarter Car Model

ROBUST CONTROL OF ACTIVE SUSPENSION SYSTEM FOR
A QUARTER CAR MODEL
Project leader
Associate Prof. Dr. Yahaya Md. Sam
Department of Control and Instrumentation Engineering

Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
81310 UTM Skudai
December 2006
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am greatly indebted to ALLAH SWT on His blessing for making this

research successful.
I would like to express my thanks and gratitude to the Ministry of Science,

Technology and Innovation (MOSTI) Malaysia for a financial support through the IRPA
Grant (Vot 74283). I am also grateful to Professor Dr. Johari Halim Shah Osman,
Associate Professor Dr. Mohamad Noh Ahmad and Dr. Zaharuddin Mohamed for
their contributions. Also, I wish to thank Dr. Khisbullah Huda and Cik Norhazimi
Hamzah for their excellent works as a Research Assistant of this research.
Finally, thank you to my colleagues at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering,

UTM for providing an enjoyable research environment.
ii
ABSTRACT
The aims of this research are to establish the nonlinear mathematical model
and the robust control technique of the hydraulically actuated active suspension
system for a quarter car model. The purpose of a car suspension system is to improve
riding quality while maintaining good handling characteristics subject to different
road profile. A new nonlinear quarter car model, which incorporates the rotational
motion of the wheel and the dynamics of the control arm, is used in this research .
The proposed controller consist of two controller loops namely inner loop controller
for force tracking control of the hydraulic actuator and outer loop controller to reject
the effects of road induced disturbances. The outer loop controller utilized a
proportional integral sliding mode control (PISMC) scheme. Whereas, proportional
integral (PI) control is used in the inner loop controller to track the hydraulic actuator
in such a way that it able to provide the actual force as close as possible with the
optimum target force produced by the PISMC controller. A simulation study is
performed to proof the effectiveness and robustness of the control approach. The
performance of the controller is compared with the LQR controller and the passive
suspension system. Force tracking performance of the hydraulic actuator is also
investigated. The simulation is enhanced with 3-D animation of the car going on a
road bump.
iii
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini bertujuan mengenengahkan model matematik taklinar dan teknik kawalan
yang baru dalam pemodelan dan kawalan ke atas sistem gantungan aktif dengan
dinamik hidraulik untuk model kereta suku. Sistem gantungan kereta berfungsi untuk
memperbaikan kualiti sistem pemanduan disamping mengekalkan ciri-ciri
pemanduan yang baik dalam apa jua bentuk permukaan jalan. Model kereta suku
taklinar yang baru, mengambil kira gerakan pusingan roda kereta dan dinamik lengan
kawalan telah digunakan dalam kajian ini. Teknik kawalan yang dicadangkan terdiri
daripada kawalan dua gelung iaitu gelung dalam untuk kawalan jejak daya bagi
aktuator hidraulik dan gelung kawalan luar untuk memperbaiki gangguan daripada
permukaan jalan. Gelung kawalan luar menggunakan kaedah kawalan ragam gelincir
berkadaran-kamiran. Manakala kaedah kawalan berkadaran-kamiran digunakan bagi
gelung kawalan untuk menjejak aktuator hidraulik supaya memberikan daya
menghampiri daya optimum yang diperlukan. Penyelakuan komputer telah dilakukan
untuk menentukan keberkesanan dan kebolehupayaan teknik kawalan yang
dihasilkan. Prestasi teknik kawalan ini telah dibandingkan dengan teknik kawalan
LQR dan sistem gantungan pasif. Disamping itu, prestasi jejak daya oleh aktuator
hidraulik turut dinilai. Animasi 3-dimensi bagi model kereta melalui bonggol jalan
turut dilakukan.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF SYMBOLS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Research Objectives
1.4 Structure and Layout of Report
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Suspension System
2.1.1 Passive Suspension System
2.1.2 Semi Active Suspension System
2.1.3 Active Suspension System
2.1.3.1 Macpherson Type Suspension System vs
Conventional Model
v
2.2 Vehicle Suspension System Control Strategies

2.2.1 Summary of Existing Control Methods
and Active Suspension System
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Modeling of a Non-linear Quarter Car Suspension System
3.2.1 Dynamic Model of A Non-Linear Quarter Car
Suspension System
3.2.2 Dynamic Model of Hydraulic Actuator
3.3 Controller Design
3.3.1 Inner Loop Controller Design
3.3.2 Outer Loop Controller Design
3.4 Virtual Reality Animation
3.4.1 Introduction
3.4.2 Methodology
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Simulation
4.1.1 Performance of Force Tracking Controller
4.1.2 Performance of Disturbance Rejection Control
4.2 Virtual reality animation
5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Suggestions for Future Research
REFERENCES
APPENDIX: PUBLICATIONS
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 The passive suspension system 8

2.2 The semi-active suspension system 9
2.3 A skyhook damper 10
2.4 A low bandwidth or soft active suspension system 12
2.5 A high bandwidth or stiff active suspension system 12
3.1 Non-Linear quarter car model 24
3.2 Diagram of a complete set of hydraulic actuator 31
3.3 Physical schematic and variables for the hydraulic 31
actuator
3.4 Controller structure of the active suspension system 32
3.5 Force tracking control of hydraulic actuator 33
3.6 The scene constructed using V-Realm Builder 39
3.7 The VR Sink block parameters 40
3.8 The link between Simulink model and virtual world 40
4.1 Force tracking performance for sinusoidal function of 42
target force
4.2 Force tracking performance for square function of target 42
force
4.3 Force tracking performance for saw-tooth function of 43
target force
4.4 Force tracking performance for random function of target 43
force
4.5 Pole-zero map of LQR controller 45
4.6 Sliding surface of PISMC 46
4.7 Body acceleration 47
4.8 Body displacement 47
4.9 Suspension deflection 48
4.10 Wheel displacement 49
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4.11 The angular dynamics of control arm 50

4.12 Force tracking performance of PISMC 50
4.13 Force tracking performance of LQR controller 51
4.14 Robustness evaluation of proposed controller to sprung 52
mass variation.
4.15 The virtual world during simulation 53
4.16 The output plotted from graph 53
viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
GA Genetic Algorithm
LPV Linear Parameter Varying
LQG Linear Quadratic Gaussian
LQR Linear Quadratic Regulator
LTR Loop Transfer Discovery
MIMO Multi-Input Multi-Output
PI Proportional Integral
PID Proportional Integral Derivative
PISMC Proportional Integral Sliding Mode Control
SMC Sliding Mode Control
VSC Variable Structure Control
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LIST OF SYMBOLS
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION
A 4 x 4 system matrix in state space equation of quarter car with

linear actuator input
Ap piston area
C di discharge coefficient = 0.7
Cs damping of damper (Ns/m)

Ctm leakage coefficient = 15e-12
D damping energy
F matrix related to system input in motion equation of the quarter

car model
PL pressure induced by load
Ps supply pressure = 20684 kN/m2
T kinetic energy
V potential energy
fa control input (N)
k Voltage to position conversion factor = 1481V/m
ks stiffness of car body spring (N/m)
kt stiffness of car tyre (N/m)
lA distance from A to O (m)
lB distance from B to O (m)
lC length of the control arm (m)
mu wheel mass (kg)

ms car body mass (kg)
u1 spool valve position
u2 bypass valve area
x
w spool valve width = 0.008 m

zr irregular excitation from the road surface
zs vertical displacement of the body
z& u vertical velocity of the wheel
z& s vertical velocity of the body
θ rotational angle of the control arm
θ0 angular displacement of the control arm at a static equilibrium
point (-2 deg)
σ (t ) Proportional-Integral (PI) sliding surface for quarter car model
λ (*) eigenvalue of (*)
α angle between y-axis and OA
αα hydraulic coefficient = 2.273e9N/m5
ρ specific gravity of hydraulic fluid
τ time constant
δ boundary layer thickness
β upper bound of function f (*)
ℜ(*) range space of matrix (*)
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
A car suspension system is the mechanism that physically separates the car body
from the wheels of the car. The performance of the suspension system has been greatly
increased due to increasing vehicle capabilities. Appleyard and Wellstead (1995) have
proposed several performance characteristics to be considered in order to achieve a good
suspension system. These characteristics deal with the regulation of body movement,
the regulation of suspension movement and the force distribution. Ideally the
suspension should isolate the body from road disturbances and inertial disturbances
associated with cornering and braking or acceleration. The suspension must also be able
to minimize the vertical force transmitted to the passengers for their comfort. This
objective can be achieved by minimizing the vertical car body acceleration. An
excessive wheel travel will result in non-optimum attitude of tire relative to the road that
will cause poor handling and adhesion. Furthermore, to maintain good handling
characteristic, the optimum tire-to-road contact must be maintained on four wheels.
In conventional suspension system, these characteristics are conflicting and do not meet
all conditions. Automotive researchers have studied the suspension on the system
extensively through both analysis and experiments. The main goal of the study is to
improve the traditional design trade-off between ride and road handling by directly
controlling the suspension forces to suit with the performance characteristics.
2
The suspension system can be categorized into passive, semi-active and active
suspension system according to external power input to the system. A passive
suspension system is a conventional suspension system consists of a non-controlled
spring and shock-absorbing damper. The commercial vehicles today use passive
suspension system as means to control the dynamics of a vehicle’s vertical motion as
well as pitch and roll. Passive indicates that the suspension elements cannot supply
energy to the suspension system. The suspension spring and damper do not provide
energy to the suspension system and control only the motion of the car body and wheel
by limiting the suspension velocity according to the rate determined by the designer.
Hence, the performance of a passive suspension system is variable subject to the road
profiles.
The semi-active suspension has the same elements but the damper has two or
more selectable damping rate. In early semi-active suspension system, the regulating of
the damping force can be achieved by utilizing the controlled dampers under closed loop
control, and such is only capable of dissipating energy (Williams, 1994). Two types of
dampers are used in the semi- active suspension namely the two state dampers and the
continuous variable dampers. The disadvantage of these dampers is difficulties to find
devices that are capable in generating a high force at low velocities and a low force at
high velocities, and be able to move rapidly between the two.
An active suspension is one in which the passive components are augmented by

hydraulic actuators that supply additional force. Active suspensions differ from the
conventional passive suspensions in their ability to inject energy into the system, as well
as store and dissipate it. The active suspension is characterized by the hydraulic actuator
that placed in parallel with the damper and the spring. Since the hydraulic actuator
connects the unsprung mass to the body, it can control both the wheel hop motion as
well as the body motion. Thus, the active suspension now can improve both the ride
comfort and ride handling simultaneously.
3
Although various control laws such as adaptive control (Hac, 1987), optimal
state-feedback (Hrovat, 1997), fuzzy control (Ting, 1995) and robust sliding mode
control (Sam, 2004) have been proposed to control the active suspension system, the
methods were successful applied in computer simulations based only but not in real
applications.
Therefore, a real active suspension system is needed to implement and test the
developed control strategy. A quarter car model is chosen as an initial model of
controlling the active suspension system due to the simplicity of the model. Modeling of
the quarter car suspension as well as the non-linear hydraulic actuator including its force
tracking controller for an active suspension system is investigated in this study.
However due to budget constraint, a real active suspension system cannot be

realized. Instead the dynamics of the hydraulically actuated active suspension system
will be visualized in 3-D format for the initial stage. The dynamic characteristics of the
half and full car active suspension models can be observed by using the quarter car
model approach.
1.2 Problem Statement

The statement of the problem of this research is expressed as follow:
“to develop a robust controller that can improve the performances of the
nonlinear active suspension system and its verifications using graphical and
animation output”.
4
1.3 Research Objectives
The objectives of this research are as follows:

i) To develop a nonlinear mathematical model of the hydraulically actuated
active suspension system for a quarter car model.
ii) To develop the control algorithm that based on a robust control scheme for
the active suspension system.
iii) To visualise in 3-D format the dynamics of the hydraulically actuated active
suspension system.
1.4 Structure and Layout of Report
This report is organized into five chapters. Chapter 1 gives the background of
the suspension system and the objectives of the project. Chapter 2 discusses the
literature review of the suspension system. Various model and controlling techniques
related to the suspension system are outline.
In Chapter 3, the methodology of the research is presented. The research starts

with the modeling of a quarter car nonlinear hydraulic actuator active suspension
system. Firstly, the state space representation of the dynamic model of the nonlinear
suspension system is outlined. Secondly, the dynamic of the hydraulic actuator is
presented. Next the control strategy for hydraulically actuated active suspension for
quarter car model is proposed. The controller structure utilizes two controller loops
namely the outer loop and inner loop controllers which corresponds to vehicle controller
and actuator controller. Subsequently, the procedure of creating the animation scene is
outline.
Chapter 4 discusses the performance evaluation of the proposed Proportional-

Integral Sliding Mode Controller by means of computer simulation in MATLAB-
5
SIMULINK. The passive and LQR are used as a mean of comparison. The force
tracking performance of the hydraulic actuator is also investigated. Next, the virtual
reality animation of the hydraulic actuated active suspension system is presented.
Conclusion on the effectiveness of the approach are made and discussed based on the
results obtained in this chapter.
The summary of the results and future research based on this study will be
presented in Chapter 5.
6
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Suspension System
The suspension system can be categorized into passive, semi-active and active
suspension system according to external power input to the system and/or a control
bandwidth (Appleyard and Wellstead, 1995). A passive suspension system is a
conventional suspension system consists of a non-controlled spring and shock-absorbing
damper as shown in figure 2.1. The semi-active suspension as shown in figure 2.2 has
the same elements but the damper has two or more selectable damping rate. An active
suspension is one in which the passive components are augmented by actuators that
supply additional force. Besides these three types of suspension systems, a skyhook
type damper has been considered in the early design of the active suspension system. In
the skyhook damper suspension system, an imaginary damper is placed between the
sprung mass and the sky as shown in figure 2.3. The imaginary damper provides a force
on the vehicle body proportional to the sprung mass absolute velocity. As a result, the
sprung mass movements can be reduced without improving the tire deflections.
However, this design concept is not feasible to be realized (Hrovat, 1988). Therefore,
the actuator has to be placed between the sprung mass and the unsprung mass instead of
the sky.
7
2.1.1 Passive Suspension System
The commercial vehicles today use passive suspension system to control the
dynamics of a vehicle’s vertical motion as well as pitch and roll. Passive indicates that
the suspension elements cannot supply energy to the suspension system. The passive
suspension system controls the motion of the body and wheel by limiting their relative
velocities to a rate that gives the desired ride characteristics. This is achieved by using
some type of damping element placed between the body and the wheels of the vehicle,
such as hydraulic shock absorber. Properties of the conventional shock absorber
establish the tradeoff between minimizing the body vertical acceleration and maintaining
good tire-road contact force. These parameters are coupled. That is, for a comfortable
ride, it is desirable to limit the body acceleration by using a soft absorber, but this allows
more variation in the tire-road contact force that in turn reduces the handling
performance. Also, the suspension travel, commonly called the suspension
displacement, limits allowable deflection, which in turn limits the amount of relative
velocity of the absorber that can be permitted. By comparison, it is desirable to reduce
the relative velocity to improve handling by designing a stiffer or higher rate shock
absorber. This stiffness decreases the ride quality performance at the same time
increases the body acceleration, detract what is considered being good ride
characteristics.
An early design for automobile suspension systems focused on unconstrained

optimizations for passive suspension system which indicate the desirability of low
suspension stiffness, reduced unsprung mass, and an optimum damping ratio for the best
controllability (Thompson, 1971). Thus the passive suspension systems, which
approach optimal characteristics, had offered an attractive choice for a vehicle
suspension systems and had been widely used for car. However, the suspension spring
and damper do not provide energy to the suspension system and control only the motion
of the car body and wheel by limiting the suspension velocity according to the rate
determined by the designer. Hence, the performance of a passive suspension system is
variable subject to the road profiles.
8
2.1.2 Semi-Active Suspension System
In early semi-active suspension system, the regulating of the damping force can
be achieved by utilizing the controlled dampers under closed loop control, and such is
only capable of dissipating energy (Williams, 1994). Two types of dampers are used in
the semi- active suspension namely the two state dampers and the continuous variable
dampers.
sprung mass
spring damper
unsprung mass
spring
Figure 2.1 The passive suspension system
The two state dampers switched rapidly between states under closed-loop
control. In order to damp the body motion, it is necessary to apply a force that is
proportional to the body velocity. Therefore, when the body velocity is in the same
direction as the damper velocity, the damper is switched to the high state. When the
body velocity is in the opposite direction to the damper velocity, it is switched to the low
state as the damper is transmitting the input force rather than dissipating energy. The
9
disadvantage of this system is that while it controls the body frequencies effectively, the
rapid switching, particularly when there are high velocities across the dampers,
generates high-frequency harmonics which makes the suspension feel harsh, and leads to
the generation of unacceptable noise.
sprung mass
spring damper
unsprung mass
spring
Figure 2.2 The semi-active suspension system
The continuous variable dampers have a characteristic that can be rapidly varied
over a wide range. When the body velocity and damper velocity are in the same
direction, the damper force is controlled to emulate the skyhook damper. When they are
in the opposite directions, the damper is switched to its lower rate, this being the closest
it can get to the ideal skyhook force. The disadvantage of the continuous variable
damper is that it is difficult to find devices that are capable in generating a high force at
low velocities and a low force at high velocities, and be able to move rapidly between
the two. Karnopp (1990) has introduced the control strategy to control the skyhook
damper. The control strategy utilized a fictitious damper that is inserted between the
10
sprung mass and the stationary sky as a way to suppress the vibration motion of the
spring mass and as a tool to compute the desired skyhook force. The skyhook damper
can reduce the resonant peak of the spring mass quite significantly and thus achieves a
good ride quality. But, in order to improve both the ride quality and handling
performance of a vehicle, both resonant peaks of the spring mass and the unsprung mass
need to be reduced. It is known, however, that the skyhook damper alone cannot reduce
both resonant peaks at the same time (Hong et al., 2002).
sky
imaginary
damper
sprung mass
spring damper
unsprung mass
spring
Figure 2.3 A skyhook damper
More recently, the possible applications of electrorheological (ER) and

magnetorheological (MR) fluids in the controllable dampers were investigated by Yao et
al. (2002) and Choi and Kim (2000). However, since MR damper cannot be treated as a
11
viscous damper under high electric current, a suitable mathematical model is needed to
be developed to describe the MR damper.
2.1.3 Active Suspension System
Active suspensions differ from the conventional passive suspensions in their

ability to inject energy into the system, as well as store and dissipate it. Crolla (1988)
has divided the active suspensions into two categories; the low-bandwidth or soft active
suspension and the high-bandwidth or stiff active suspension. Low bandwidth or soft
active suspensions are characterized by an actuator that is in series with a damper and
the spring as shown in figure 2.4. Wheel hop motion is controlled passively by the
damper, so that the active function of the suspension can be restricted to body motion.
Therefore, such type of suspension can only improve the ride comfort. A high-
bandwidth or stiff active suspension is characterized by an actuator placed in parallel
with the damper and the spring as illustrated in figure 2.5. Since the actuator connects
the unsprung mass to the body, it can control both the wheel hop motion as well as the
body motion. The high-bandwidth active suspension now can improve both the ride
comfort and ride handling simultaneously. Therefore, almost all studies on the active
suspension system utilized the high-bandwidth type.
12
sprung mass
spring damper
actuator
unsprung mass
spring
Figure 2.4 A low bandwidth or soft active suspension system
sprung mass
spring actuator
damper
unsprung mass
spring
Figure 2.5 A high bandwidth or stiff active suspension system

13
Various types of active suspension model are reported in the literature either
modeled linearly (used most) or non-linear; examples are Macpherson strut suspension
system (Al-Holou et al., 1999, Hong et al., 2002).
2.1.3.1 Macpherson Type Suspension System vs Conventional Model
In the conventional model, only the up-down movements of the sprung and the
unsprung masses are incorporated. In Macpherson type (Figure 3.1) however, the sprung
mass, which includes the axle and the wheel, is also linked to the car body by a control
arm. Therefore, the unsprung mass can rotate besides moving up and down. Considering
that better control performance is being demanded by the automotive industry,
investigation of a new model that includes the rotational motion of the unsprung mass
and allows for the variance of suspension types is justified (Hong et al., 1999).
The Macpherson type suspension system has many merits, such as an

independent usage as a shock absorber and the capability of maintaining the wheel in the
camber direction. The control arm plays several important roles: it supports the
suspension system as an additional link to the body, completes the suspension structure,
and allows the rotational motion of the unsprung mass. However, the function of the
control arm is completely ignored in the conventional model.
2. 2 Vehicle Suspension System Control Strategies
In the past years, various control strategies have been proposed by numerous
researchers to improve the trade-off between ride comfort and road handling. These
control strategies may be grouped into techniques based on linear, nonlinear and
intelligent control approaches. In the following, some of these control approaches that
have been reported in the literature will be briefly presented.
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The most popular linear control strategy that has been used by researchers in the
design of the active suspension system is based on the optimal control concept (Hrovat,
1997). Amongst the optimal control concepts used are the Linear Quadratic Regulator
(LQR) approach, the Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) approach and the Loop Transfer
Recovery (LTR) approach. These methods are based on the minimization of a linear
quadratic cost function where the performance measure is a function of the states and
inputs to the system.
Application of the LQR method to the active suspension system has been
proposed by Hrovat (1988), Tseng and Hrovat (1990) and Esmailzadeh and Taghirad
(1996). Hrovat (1988) has studied the effects of the unsprung mass on the active
suspension system. The carpet plots were introduced to give a clear global view of the
effect of various parameters on the system performances. The carpet plots are the plots
of the root mean square (r.m.s) values of the sprung mass acceleration and unsprung
mass acceleration versus the suspension travel. The r.m.s. values of all parameters are
obtained from a series of simulations on different weights of the performance index.
Esmailzadeh and Taghirad (1996) included the passenger’s dynamics in the suspension
system and the input to the system is considered as a linear force. The study utilized two
approaches in selecting the performances index.
Since it is desirable to measure all the system states in the actual

implementations, observers are usually used. Ulsoy et al. (1994) used Kalman filter to
reconstruct the states and to address the problem of the sensors noise and road
disturbances. In the study, the robustness margin of the LQG controllers with respect to
the parameter uncertainties and actuator dynamics were investigated. The results
showed that the LQG controllers, using some measurements, such as the suspension
stroke, should be avoided since the controllers did not produce the satisfactory
robustness. LQG with loop transfer recovery (LQG/LTR) was studied by Ray (1993) as
a solution to increase the robustness of the LQG controllers. However, when applying
LTR, uncertain system parameters must be identified, and the magnitude of uncertainty
15
expected should be known or estimated, otherwise, LQR/LTR system may exhibit

robustness qualities that are not better than the original LQG system.
Most researchers that utilized the linear control approach did not consider the
dynamics of the actuators in their study. Thus, the control strategies that have been
developed did not represent the actual system which is highly nonlinear due to the
hydraulic actuator properties and the presence of uncertainties in the system.
Furthermore, when applying the linear control theory to the system, it may not give an
acceptable performance due to the presence of uncertainties and nonlinearities in the
system.
Suspension systems are intrinsically nonlinear and uncertain and are subjected to
a variety of road profiles and suspension dynamics. The nonlinearities of a road profile
are due to the roughness and smoothness of the road surfaces while the suspension
dynamics are affected by the actuator nonlinearities. Yamashita et al. (1994) presented a
control law for a full car model using the actual characteristics of hydraulic actuators
based on the H-infinity control theory. The proposed controller has been implemented
in an experimental vehicle, and evaluated for robust performance in a four-wheel shaker
and during actual driving. The results showed that the system is robust even when the
closed-loop system is perturbed by limited uncertainty. Instead of using the state
feedback, Hayakawa et al. (1999) utilized the robust H-infinity output feedback control
to a full car active suspension model. In the study, the linear dynamical model of a full
car model is intrinsically decoupled into two parts to make the implementation of the
output feedback control simpler and realizable.
The combination of the H-infinity and adaptive nonlinear control technique on

active suspension system has been reported by Fukao et al. (1999). The study divided
the active suspension structure into two parts. The car’s body part utilized the H-infinity
control design and the actuator part used the adaptive nonlinear control design
technique. On the ride quality, there exists a range of frequency where passengers
strongly feel the body acceleration caused by the disturbance from road surface.
16
Therefore, the H-infinity controller through frequency shaping performs improvement of

the frequency property. The nonlinearities and the uncertainties of the actuator are
overcome by the adaptive nonlinear controller based on the backstepping technique.
Lin and Kanellapoulos (1997a) presented a nonlinear backstepping design for the
control of quarter car active suspension model. The intentional introduction of
nonlinearity into the control objective allows the controller to react differently in
different operating regimes. They improved further their works on nonlinear control
design for active suspension system by augmenting such controller with the road
adaptive algorithm as reported in Lin and Kanellakopoulos (1997b).
Alleyne and Hedrick (1995) presented a nonlinear adaptive control to active

suspension system. The study introduced a standard parameter adaptation scheme based
on Lyapunov analysis to reduce the error in the model. Then a modified adaptation
scheme that enables the identification of parameters whose values change with regions
of the state space is developed. The adaptation algorithms are coupled with the
nonlinear control law that produce a nonlinear adaptive controller. The performance of
the proposed controller is evaluated by observing the ability of the electro-hydraulic
actuator to track a desired force. The results showed that the controller improved the
performance of the active suspension system as compared to the nonlinear control law
alone.
The road adaptive approach is also reported in Fialho and Balas (2002). In the
study, combination of the linear parameter varying (LPV) control with a nonlinear
backstepping technique that forms the road adaptive active suspension system is
proposed. Two level of adaptation is considered with the lower level control to shape
the nonlinear characteristic of the vehicle suspension and the higher level design
involves adaptive switching between the different nonlinear characteristic based on the
road condition.
17
On the other hand, Chantranuwathana and Peng (1999), D’Amato and Viassolo
(2000) decomposed the active suspension control design into two loops. The main loop
calculated the desired actuation force. The inner loop controls the nonlinear hydraulic
actuators to achieve tracking of the desired actuation force. The results showed that the
proposed controller performed better.
In the active suspension systems, the SMC technique was first utilized by
Alleyne et al. (1993). In his work, the SMC strategy is used to control the electro-
hydraulic actuator in the active suspension system. The performance of the SMC is
compared to the proportional integral derivative (PID) control. The objective of the
control strategy is to improve the ride quality of the vehicle using the quarter car
suspension model. The ride quality is determined by observing the car body
acceleration. The results showed that the proposed sliding mode controller has
performed better than the PID controller in improving the ride quality but not the trade-
off between ride quality and road handling.
Kim and Ro (1998) used a sliding mode controller in active suspension systems
with the presence of the nonlinearities factor such as the hardening spring, a quadratic
damping force and the ‘tire lift-off’ phenomenon in a real suspension system. The study
utilized the model following technique by choosing the sky-hook damping system as a
reference model. Therefore, the sliding mode controller is derived from this reference
model. Due to the difficulties to apply the road disturbance to the reference model, such
model has been simplified by ignoring the road disturbance. The results showed that the
SMC scheme is more robust as compared to the self-tuning control approach under the
extreme changes of the suspension parameters due to parameter uncertainties.
Yoshimura et al. (2001) used a pneumatic actuator to generate the force input
signal in the design of active suspension system. The switching control part in the
sliding mode control is determined by using the linear quadratic control approach. The
road profile is estimated by using the minimum order observer based on a linear system
transformed from the exact nonlinear system. The result indicated that the proposed
18
active suspension system is more effective in the vibration isolation of the car body than
the linear active suspension based on the LQ control theory.
The SMC scheme with multi-input multi-output (MIMO) has been reported by
Park and Kim (1998) to control the active suspension system of a full car model. The
study used decentralized VSC to control each of the four suspensions. In order to apply
the SMC on the suspension system, the original plant model is transformed into the
regular form as presented in DeCarlo et al. (1988) by using a transformation matrix.
They reported that the performance of the SMC is better as compared to the linear
quadratic regulator (LQR) technique.
Recently, intelligent based techniques such as fuzzy logic, neural network and
genetic algorithm have been applied to the active suspension system. Ting et al. (1995)
presented a sliding mode fuzzy control technique for a quarter car model active
suspension system. In this study, the controller is organized into two levels. At the
basic level, the conventional fuzzy control rule sets and inference mechanism are
constructed to generate a fuzzy control scheme. At the supervising level, the control
performance is evaluated to modify system parameters. The controller input consists of
the input from the sliding mode controller and fuzzy controller. The results showed that
the fuzzy SMC attained superior performance in body acceleration and road handling
ability but worst in the suspension travel as compared to the conventional sliding mode
scheme.
Yoshimura et al. (1999) presented an active suspension system for passenger

cars, using linear and fuzzy logic control technique. The studied utilize vertical
acceleration of the vehicle body as the principle source of control, and the fuzzy logic
control scheme as the complementary control of the active suspension system for
passenger cars. The fuzzy control rules are determined by minimizing the mean squares
of the time responses of the vehicle body under certain constraints on the acceptable
relative displacements between vehicle body and suspension parts and tire deflections.
19
The simulation results showed that both the skyhook damper-fuzzy logic and the linear-
fuzzy logic controls are effective in the vibration isolation of the vehicle body.
The combinations of fuzzy-proportional integral/proportional derivative (PI/PD)

control and genetic algorithm (GA) was introduced by Kuo and Li (1999) to improve the
performance of the active suspension system. The fuzzy PI controller was employed to
reduce the sprung mass acceleration due to the nature of road surface. The rule table of
the fuzzy logic control was tuned using the GA. It means that, the GA was used to
construct the optimal decision-making logic (DML) of the fuzzy logic control for the
active suspension system to obtain the best performance.
In the above review, various active suspension system models with either quarter
or half car models have been used in the design of the controllers. The quarter car
model with linear force input has been used by Hac (1987), Hrovat (1997 and 1998),
Tseng and Hrovat (1990), Sunwoo et al. (1991), Ray (1993), Ting et al. (1995), Kim and
Ro (1998), Huang and Chao (2000) and Yoshimura et al. (2001) in their study.
Modeling of the active suspension system as a linear force input is the most simple but it
does not give an accurate model of the system because the actuator’s dynamics have
been ignored in the design. Thus the controller developed and the result presented may
have problem when applying to the active suspension system in the real world.
In order to overcome the problem, Rajamani and Hedrick (1995), Alleyne and
Hedrick (1995), Lin and Kanellakopoulos (1997a and 1997b), Fukao et al. (1999),
Chantranuwathana and Peng (1999) and Fialho and Balas (2002) have considered the
hydraulic actuator dynamics in the design of active suspension system for the quarter car
model. All these researchers have utilized the hydraulic actuator dynamics formulated
by Merritt (1967). On the other hand, Yoshimura et al. (1997 and 1999) has proposed a
hydraulic actuator of the actuating ram type in the development of active suspension
systems for half car model. The mathematical derivation of this approach is much more
simpler compared to the previous approach. However, in the mathematical derivation,
20
Yoshimura et al. (1997 and 1999) have assumed that the derivative term in the rate of
change of the pressure difference in the cylinder which is nonlinear is insignificant
compared to the large value of the effective bulk modulus of the oil, thus can be replaced
by a linear term. Therefore, the rate of change of the pressure difference in the cylinder
has been assumed to be a linear parameter in their modeling. However, the actual rate of
change of the pressure difference in the cylinder is nonlinear, and this nonlinearity
cannot be ignored if a complete mathematical modeling of the hydraulic actuator
dynamics is required.
2.2.1 Summary of Existing Control Methods and Active Suspension System
The control strategies been proposed to control the active suspension system may
be loosely group into linear, nonlinear and intelligent control approaches.
The linear control strategies is mainly based on the optimal control theory such
as the LQR, LQG, LTR and H-infinity and is capable of minimizing a defined
performance index, however, they do not have the capability to adapt to significant
system parameter changes and variations in the road profiles.
The intelligent techniques have shown satisfactory performances on the ride

comfort and road handling characteristics of the active suspension systems. However,
these techniques have a potential problem on stability. Usually, discussions on the
stability factor were ignored in the designs.
The nonlinear techniques such as adaptive control and sliding mode control as
described in previous section have been used to control the active suspension systems.
Usually, in their applications, the adaptive control technique was combined with the
optimal control method to deliver an acceptable performance. The sliding mode control
21
technique was shown to be capable of improving the trade off between ride comfort and
road handling characteristics. Furthermore, it is shown to be highly robust to the
uncertainties. However, in the previous application of the sliding mode control
technique on active suspension the conventional sliding surface has been used and none
of the researchers have used the proportional-integral sliding surface method.
The active suspension systems for the quarter car models may be modeled as the
linear force input or the hydraulically actuated input. The active suspensions systems of
the hydraulically actuated input may represent a much more detail of the system
dynamics compared to the linear force input. Therefore, the analysis and design of the
active suspension systems by using this approach is much closer to the actual systems.
However, most of the published works are focused on the outer-loop controller in
computation of the desired control force as a function of vehicle states and the road
disturbance (Shen and Peng, 2003). It is commonly assumed that the hydraulic actuator
is an ideal force generator and able to carry out the commanded force accurately. Thus,
simulations of these outer-loop controllers were frequently done without considering
actuator dynamics, or with highly simplified hydraulic actuator dynamics.
In the real implementation, actuator dynamics can be quite complicated, and the
interaction between the actuator and the vehicle suspension cannot be ignored. It is also
difficult to produce the actuator force close to the target force without implementing
inner-loop or force tracking controller. This is due to the fact that the hydraulic actuator
exhibits non-linear behavior resulting from servo-valve dynamics, residual structural
damping, and the unwanted effects of back-pressure due to the interaction between the
hydraulic actuator and vehicle suspension system.
22
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The development of an active suspension system for the vehicle is of great

interest for both academic and industrial fields. The studies of active suspension system
have been performed using various suspension models. In the quarter car model, the
model takes into account the interaction between the quarter car body and the single
wheel. Motion of the car is only in the vertical direction. Modeling of active suspension
system in the early days considered that input to the active suspension system is a linear
force. However due the development of new control theory as discussed in chapter 2, the
force input to the active suspension system has been replaced by an input to control the
actuator. Therefore, the dynamic of the active suspension now consist of the dynamic of
the suspension and the dynamic of the hydraulic actuator.
In addition, researchers have recognized that actuator dynamics can be quite

complicated, and the interaction between the actuator and the vehicle suspension cannot
be ignored. Thus, the controller design must include force tracking control to produce
the actuator force close to the target force.
In this chapter, detail derivation on the modeling of a new type (Macpherson

strut) active suspension system for a quarter car and the modeling of the hydraulic
23
actuator are presented. This is followed by the controller design and the 3D animation
design procedure.
3.2 Modeling of a Non-Linear Quarter Car Suspension System
The active suspension system can be divided into 2 parts: the quarter car
suspension and the hydraulic actuators. In the following subsections, detail derivation on
the modeling of the active suspension system for quarter car model and modeling of the
hydraulic actuator are presented.
3.2.1 Dynamic Model of a Non-Linear Quarter Car Suspension System
A schematic diagram of the suspension system is shown in Figure 3.1 (a). This
model includes the rotational motion of the wheel and the dynamics of the control arm.
The quarter car model for the active suspension system is shown in Figure 3.1 (b). The
assumptions for the quarter car modeling are as follows: the tire is modeled as a linear
spring without damping, there is no rotational motion in the body, the behavior of spring
and damper are linear, the tire is always in contact with the road surface and the effect of
friction is neglected so that the residual structural damping is not considered into the
vehicle modeling.
The vertical displacement z s of the sprung mass (body) and the rotational angle
θ of the control arm are chosen as the generalized coordinate. Following the method
outline in Hong et al. (1999; 2002):
24
zu
Figure 3.1 : Non-Linear quarter car model
Let T, V, and D denote the kinetic energy, the potential energy and the damping
energy of the system.
1
T= (m s + mu )z& s2 + 1 mu lC2θ& 2 + mu lC cos(θ − θ 0 )θ& ⋅ z& s (3.1)
2 2
⎧ 1
⎫
1 ⎪ ⎡ al − al bl (cos α ') + cos(α '−θ ) 2 ⎪
2
⎤
V = k s ⎨2al − bl [cos α '+ cos(α '−θ )] − 2 ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎬
2 ⎪ ⎣⎢+ bl cos α ' cos(α '−θ ) ⎦⎥ ⎪ (3.2)
⎩ ⎭
1
+ k t {z s + lC [sin (θ − θ 0 ) − sin (− θ 0 ) − z r ]}
2
C b 2 sin 2 (α '−θ )θ& 2

C s (Δ& l ) = s l
1 2
D= (3.3)
2 8[al − bl cos(α '−θ )]
where
ms = car body mass (kg)
mu = wheel mass (kg)
zs = vertical displacement of car body (m)
ks = stiffness of car body spring (N/m)

25
kt = stiffness of car tyre (N/m)
Cs = damping of damper (Ns/m)
zr = irregular excitation from the road surface
lA = distance from A to O (m)
lB = distance from B to O (m)
lC = length of the control arm (m)
α = angle between y-axis and OA

θ0 = angular displacement of the control arm at a static
equilibrium point (-2 deg)

fa = control input (N)
and
a l = l A2 + l B2
bl = 2l A l B
α '= α + θ0
cl = a l2 − a l bl cos(α ')
d l = a l bl − bl2 cos (α ')
For the two generalized coordinates z s and θ , the equations of motion are
(ms + mu )&z&s + mu lC cos(θ − θ 0 )θ&& − mu lC sin(θ − θ 0 )θ& 2

(3.4)
+ k t {z s + lC (sin (θ − θ 0 ) − sin (θ 0 )) − z r } = 0
mu lC2θ&& + mu l C cos(θ − θ 0 ) &z&s + k t lC cos(θ − θ 0 ){z s + lC (sin (θ − θ 0 ) − sin (− θ 0 )) − z r }

⎧ ⎫
1 ⎪
⎪ dl ⎪⎪ (3.5)
− k s sin (α '−θ ) × ⎨bl + 1 ⎬
= −l B f a
2 ⎛ ⎞
⎪ ⎜ cl − d l cos(α '−θ ) 2 ⎟ ⎪
⎪⎩ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭
26
Define the state variables as
x(t ) = [x1 (t ) x 2 (t ) x 3 (t )
T
[
x 4 (t ) ] = z s z& s θ θ&]
T
(3.6)
Hence, the equations (3.4) and (3.5) can be rewritten as
x&1 = x 2 , x& 2 = f 1 ( x1 , x 2 , x3 , x 4 , f a , z r )
(3.7)
x& 3 = x 4 , x& 4 = f 2 ( x1 , x 2 , x3 , x 4 , f a , z r )
where
⎧ 1 ⎫
1 ⎪mu lC sin ( x3 − θ 0 )x 4 − k s × sin (α '− x3 ) cos( x3 − θ 0 )g 3 ( x3 )⎪
2 2
f1 = ⎨ 2 ⎬ (3.8)
g 1 ( x3 ) ⎪
⎩− k t lC sin ( x3 − θ 0 )z (⋅) + l B f s cos( x3 − θ 0 )
2 ⎪
⎭
⎧ 2 1 ⎫
1 ⎪mu lC sin ( x3 − θ 0 ) cos( x3 − θ 0 )x 4 − (m s + mu )k s sin (α '− x3 )g 3 ( x3 )⎪
2
f2 = − ⎨ 2 ⎬
g 2 ( x3 ) ⎪
⎩+ m s k t lC cos( x3 − θ 0 )z (⋅) + (m s + mu )l B f a ⎪⎭
(3.9)
g 1 ( x3 ) = m s l C + mu l C sin 2 ( x3 − θ 0 ) (3.10)
g 2 ( x3 ) = m s mu l C2 + mu2 l C2 sin 2 ( x3 − θ 0 ) (3.11)
dl
g 3 (x3 ) = bl + 1
(3.12)
(cl − d l cos(α '− x3 )) 2
z (⋅) = z ( x1 , x 2 , z r ) = x1 + l C (sin ( x3 − θ 0 ) − sin (− θ 0 )) − z r (3.13)
In the state space form, the suspension system is represented by
x& (t ) = Ax(t ) + B1 f a + B2 z r (t ) x ( 0) = x 0 (3.14)

27
where
⎡ 0 1 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f1 ∂f1 ⎥
⎢ ∂x ∂x 2 ∂x3 ∂x 4 ⎥
A=⎢ 1 ⎥ (3.15)
⎢ 0 0 0 1 ⎥
⎢ ∂f 2 ∂f 2 ∂f 2 ∂f 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ ∂x1 ∂x 2 ∂x3 ∂x 4 ⎥⎦
and
⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ∂f ⎥
⎢ 1⎥
⎢ ∂f a ⎥
B1 = ⎢ ⎥ (3.16)
⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ∂f 2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ∂f a ⎦
⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ∂f 1 ⎥
⎢ ∂z ⎥
B2 = ⎢ r ⎥ (3.17)
⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ∂f 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ ∂z r ⎥⎦
The elements of matrix A are represented by,
∂f1 − K t lC sin 2 ( x3 − θ 0 )
=
∂x1 ms lC + mu lC sin 2 ( x3 − θ 0 )
∂f1
=0
∂x2
28
⎛⎧ ⎫ ⎞
⎜ ⎪ 1 ⎛⎜ dl
⎞
⎟ ⎪ ⎟
⎜ ⎪ K s ⎜ b1 + 1 ⎟
cos ( α '+θ ) +
⎪ ⎟
( ( ))
0
⎜⎪ 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎝ cl − d l cos α − x3 ⎠
' 2
⎪
⎜⎪ ⎪ ⎟
⎜⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪ ⎟
d l2 sin(α '− x3 )
⎜ ⎨ 1 K s sin(α '− x3 ) cos(x3 − θ 0 )⎜
⎜ ⎪2 ⎜⎜ (
⎟ − × m l + m l sin 2 ( x − θ )
3 ⎟ ⎬ s C u C 3 0 ) −⎟
⎟
2 (c − d cos (α '− x )) ⎟ ⎪
∂f1 1 ⎜⎪ ⎝ l l 3
2
⎠ ⎟
= ⎪
∂x3 ( 2
)
ms lC + mu lC sin 2 (x3 − θ 0 ) ⎜⎜ ⎪ K t lC sin ( x3 − θ 0 ) cos(x3 − θ 0 )
2 2
⎪ ⎟
⎟
⎪ ⎪
⎜⎪ ⎪ ⎟
⎜⎩ ⎭ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎛ ⎞ ⎟
⎜ ms K s lC sin(α '− x3 ) sin ( x3 − θ 0 ) cos 2 (x3 − θ 0 )× ⎜ b1 + dl ⎟ ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎟⎟
⎝
⎜
⎝ ( ( ))
cl − d l cos α ' − x3 2 ⎟⎠ ⎠
∂f1 − 2mu lC2 sin( x3 − θ 0 ) x4

=
∂x4 ms lC + mu lC sin 2 ( x3 − θ 0 )
∂f 2 − ms K t lC cos( x3 − θ 0 )
=
∂x1 ms mu lC2 + mu2lC2 sin 2 ( x3 − θ 0 )
∂f 2
=0
∂x2
⎛⎧ ⎛ ⎞ ⎫ ⎞
⎜ ⎪1 ⎜ dl ⎟ ⎪ ⎟
⎜⎪ (m + m ) K b
s⎜ 1 + 1 ⎟
cos (α '− x ) +
⎪ ⎟
( ( ))
s u 3
2 ⎜
⎜⎪ ⎝ cl − d l cos α − x3 2 ⎟⎠
'
⎪ ⎟
⎜⎪ ⎪ ⎟
⎜⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪ ⎟
α −
( )
2
1
⎜ ⎨− (ms + mu )K s sin(α '− x3 ) ⎜ d sin( ' x ) ⎟
⎜⎜
l 3
3 ⎟
− ⎬ × ms lC + mu lC sin 2 ( x3 − θ 0 ) −⎟
⎜⎪ 2 ⎟ ⎟
∂f 2 1 ⎜⎪ ⎝ 2(cl − d l cos(α '− x3 ))2 ⎠ ⎪ ⎟
= ⎪
∂x3 ( )
ms mu lC2 + mu2lC2 sin 2 ( x3 − θ 0 ) ⎜⎜ ⎪ms K t lC sin ( x3 − θ 0 ) cos(x3 − θ 0 )
2 2 2
⎪ ⎟
⎟
⎪ ⎪
⎜⎪ ⎪ ⎟
⎜⎩ ⎭ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎛ ⎞ ⎟
⎜ 1 (ms + mu )mu2 K s lC2 sin(α '− x3 ) sin ( x3 − θ 0 )× ⎜ b1 + dl ⎟ ⎟
⎜⎜ 2 ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎟⎟
⎝
⎜
⎝ ( ( ))
cl − d l cos α ' − x3 2 ⎟⎠ ⎠
∂f 2 − 2mu2lC2 sin ( x3 − θ 0 ) cos( x3 − θ 0 ) x4

=
∂x4 ms mu lC2 + mu2lC2 sin 2 ( x3 − θ 0 )
29
And the elements of B1 and B2 are
∂f1 l B cos( x3 − θ 0 )
=
∂f s ms lC + mu lC sin 2 ( x3 − θ 0 )
∂f 2 − (ms + mu )l B
=
∂f s ms mu lC + mu2lC2 sin 2 ( x3 − θ 0 )
2
∂f1 K t lC sin 2 ( x3 − θ 0 )
=
∂zr ms lC + mu lC sin 2 ( x3 − θ 0 )
∂f 2 ms K t lC cos( x3 − θ 0 )
=
∂zr ms mu lC2 + mu2lC2 sin 2 ( x3 − θ 0 )
In the case of passive suspension system, f a in the equation (3.14) is represented

by the force that produce by the conventional hydraulic damper. It is set to be equal to
the multiplication between the damping constant of passive damper, C s and the relative
velocity between the car body and wheel. As the relative velocity between the car body
and the wheel is represented by
2l a lb sin (α '−θ )θ&

Δ& l = (3.18)
( )
1
2 l + l − 2l a lb cos(α '−θ )
2
a
2
b
2
Therefore,
2l a l b sin (α '−θ )θ&

f a = C s × Δ& l = C s ×
( )
1
2 l a2 + l b2 − 2l a l b cos(α '−θ ) 2 (3.19)
30
3.2.2 Dynamic Model of Hydraulic Actuator
The hydraulic actuator consists of five main components namely the electro
hydraulic powered spool valve, piston-cylinder, hydraulic pump, reservoir and piping
system as shown in Figure 3.2. The power supply is needed to drive the hydraulic pump
through the AC motor and to control the spool valve position. The hydraulic pump will
keep the supply pressure at the optimum level of pressure. The spool valve position will
control the flow of the fluid to the piston-cylinder that determines the amount of force
produced by the hydraulic actuator.
The hydraulic actuator is governed by electro hydraulic servo valve which

consists of an actuator, a primary power spool valve and a secondary bypass valve. As
seen in Figure 3.3, the hydraulic actuator cylinder lies in a follower configuration to a
critically centered electro hydraulic power spool valve with matched and symmetric
orifices. Positioning of the spool u1 directs the high pressure fluid to flow in either to one
of the cylinder chambers and connects the other chamber to the pump reservoir. This
flow creates a pressure difference PL across the piston. This pressure difference
multiplied by the piston area Ap is the active force Fa for the suspension system. The
derivative of Fa is given by Eq. (3.20).
⎡ Ps − sgn( u1 ) PL 2 PL ⎤
F&a = A p α α ⎢C d 1 wu 1 − C d 2 u 2 sgn( PL ) − C tm PL − A p ( z& s − z& u ) ⎥
⎣⎢ ρ ρ ⎦⎥
(3.20)
31
Figure 3.2: Diagram of a complete set of hydraulic actuator
Figure 3.3: Physical schematic and variables for the hydraulic actuator
The dynamics for the hydraulic actuator valve are given as the following: the
change in force is proportional to the position of the spool with respect to center, the
relative velocity of the piston, and the leakage through the piston seals. A second input
u2 may be used to bypass the piston component by connecting the piston chambers. The
bypass valve u2 could be used to reduce the energy consumed by the system. If the spool
position u1 is set to zero, the bypass valve and actuator will behave similar to a variable
orifice damper. Spool valve positions u1 and bypass area u2 are controlled by a current-
position feedback loop. The essential dynamics of the spool have been shown to
resemble a first order system (Donahue, 2001):
τu& + u = kv (3.21)
32
The parameters of hydraulic actuator model are taken from Donahue (2001) as the
followings: Ap= 0.0044 m2 , αα = 2.273e9 N/m5 , Cd1 = 0.7 , Cd2 = 0.7 , w = 0.008 m , Ps =
20684 kN/m2 , ρ =3500, Ctm = 15e-12 , τ = 0.001 sec-1 .
3.3 Controller Design
The controller structure adopted in this study is shown in Figure 3.4. Basically,
the controller structure of a suspension system utilizes two controller loops namely the
outer loop and inner loop controllers which corresponds to vehicle controller and
actuator controller. The similar terms, which are often used for outer and inner loop
controllers, are global and local controllers. The controller structure was used for an
active suspension system in (Chantranuwatana, 2001; Chantranuwatana and Peng, 2000;
D’Amato and Viassolo, 2000). The similar controller structure was used for semi-active
suspension control in Sims et al., 1999; Hudha et al., 2005).
Figure 3.4: Controller structure of the active suspension system
Once the inner loop controller of hydraulic actuator is able to track well the
target forces with acceptable error, the hydraulic actuator model and the inner loop
controller are then integrated with the outer loop of active suspension control. In this
33
configuration, the inner loop controller must be able to track the optimum target force of
the hydraulic actuator calculated by the outer loop controller. The actual force of the
hydraulic actuator is inserted to the vehicle model to reject the effects of road
disturbance.
3.3.1 Inner Loop Controller Design
The structure of force tracking control of hydraulic actuator is shown in Figure

3.5. The hydraulic actuator model takes two inputs namely the spool valve position and
the real time piston speed. Proportional Integral control is implemented which takes
force tracking error as the input and delivers control voltage to drive the spool valve.
The forcing functions are selected to represent real world situations which depending on
the type of road disturbance, and may be represented by sinusoidal, saw-tooth, square,
random functions and/or their combinations.
Figure 3.5: Force tracking control of hydraulic actuator
3.3.2 Outer Loop Controller Design
The outer loop controller is used for disturbance rejection control to reduce
unwanted vehicle motion. The inputs of the outer loop controller are the body velocity
and wheel velocity, whereas the output of the outer loop controller is the target force that
34
must be tracked by the hydraulic actuator. On the other hand, the inner loop controller is
used for force tracking control of the hydraulic actuator in such a way that the force
produced by the hydraulic actuator is as close as possible to the target force produced by
the disturbance rejection control. The disturbance rejection control utilized in this study
is the proportional integral sliding mode controller where the PI sliding surface is
defined as follows (Sam, 2004; Sam et al., 2004; Sam et al., 2005):
t
σ (t ) = Cx (t ) − ∫ (CA + CB1 K ) x(τ )dτ (3.22)
0
where C ∈ ℜ mxn and K ∈ ℜ mxn are constant matrices. The matrix K satisfies
λ ( A + B1 K ) < 0 and C is chosen so that CB1 is nonsingular. Suppose there exists a finite
time t s such that the solution to Equation (3.14) represented by x(t ) satisfy σ (t ) = 0 for
all t ≥ t s , then an ideal sliding motion is said to be taking place for all t > t s .Therefore
•
the equivalent control, u eq (t ) can thus be obtained by letting σ (t ) = 0 (Itkis, 1976), i.e,
σ& (t ) = Cx& (t ) − {CA + CB1 K }x(t ) = 0 (3.23)
If the matrix C is chosen such that CB1 is nonsingular, this yields
u eq (t ) = Kx(t ) − (CB1 ) −1 CB2 z r (t ) (3.24)
Substituting Eq. (3.24) into Eq. (3.14) gives the equivalent dynamic equation of the
system in sliding mode as:
x& (t ) = ( A + B1 K ) x(t ) + {I n − B1 (CB1 ) −1 C}B 2 z r (t ) (3.25)

35
Theorem 1. If
~
F (t ) ≤ β 1 = I n − B1 (CB1 ) −1 C β , the uncertain system in Eq. (3.25) is boundedly
stable on the sliding surface σ (t ) = 0.
Proof. For simplicity, let
~
A = ( A + B1 K ) (3.25a)
~
F (t ) = {I n − B1 (CB1 ) −1 C}B2 z r (t ) (3.25b)
Eq. (3.25) can be rewritten as
~ ~
x& (t ) = A x(t ) + F (t ) (3.26)
Let the Lyapunov function candidate for the system chosen as
V (t ) = x T (t ) Px(t ) (3.27)
Taking the derivative of V (t ) and substituting Eq. (3.26), gives
~ ~ ~T ~
V& (t ) = x T (t )[ AT P + P A]x(t ) + F (t ) Px(t ) + x T (t ) P F (t )
(3.28)
~T ~T
T T
= − x (t )Qx(t ) + F (t ) Px(t ) + x (t ) P F (t )
~ ~
where P is the solution of AT P + P A = −Q for a given positive definite symmetric matrix
Q. It can be shown that Eq. (3.28) can be simplified as
36
2
V& (t ) = −λ min (Q) x(t ) + 2 β1 P x(t ) (3.29)
Since λ min (Q) > 0 , V& (t ) < 0 for all t and x ∈ Β c (η ) , where Β c (η ) is the complement of the
2 β1 P
closed ball Β(η ) , centered at x = 0 with radius η = . Hence, the system is
λmin (Q)
boundedly stable.
Remark. For the system with uncertainties that satisfies the matching condition, i.e,
rank[ B1 | B 2 z r (t )] = rank[ B1 ] , then Eq. (3.25) can be reduced to x& (t ) = ( A + B1 K ) x(t ) (Edward
and Spurgeon, 2000). Thus asymptotic stability of the system during sliding mode is
assured.
The proposed control scheme is designed in such a way that drives the state
trajectories of the system in Eq. (3.14) onto the sliding surface σ (t ) = 0 and the system
remains in it thereafter. For the uncertain system in Eq.(3.14), the following control law
is proposed:
σ (t )
u (t ) = −(CB1 ) −1 [CAx (t ) + φσ (t )] − k (CB1 ) −1 (3.30)
σ (t ) + δ
where φ ∈ ℜ mxm is a positive symmetric design matrix, k and δ are the positive constants.
Theorem 2. The hitting condition of the sliding surface in Eq. (3.22) is satisfied if
A + B1 K x(t ) ≥ B2 z r (t ) (3.31)
Proof: In the hitting phase σ T (t )σ (t ) > 0 , by using the Lyapunov function candidate
1 T
V (t ) = σ (t )σ (t ) , the following function is obtained
2
37
V& (t ) = σ T (t )σ& (t )
kσ (t )
= σ T (t )[−(CA + CB1K ) x(t ) − φσ (t ) − + CB2 (t )] (3.32)
σ (t ) + δ
k 2
≤ −[{ φ + } σ (t ) + { C A + B1K x(t ) − C B2 zr (t ) } σ (t ) ]
σ (t ) + δ
It follows that V& (t ) < 0 if condition in Eq. (3.31) is satisfied. Thus, the hitting condition is
satisfied.
3.4.1 Introduction
The virtual reality animation of the active suspension system is realized using the
Virtual Reality Toolbox. The Virtual Reality Toolbox becomes the interface to link
between the car suspension system developed in the Simulink environment and the
virtual reality model. The virtual model or world is created using the standard Virtual
Reality Modeling Language (VRML). It is a text language used for describing 3-D
shapes and interactive environments. The Virtual Reality Toolbox uses the VRML97
technology to deliver the open 3-D visualization.
3.4.2 Methodology
The followings are the steps taken in developing the model:
Passive and active nonlinear model of the quarter car suspension system is first
developed in Simulink from the dynamic equations of motion of the non-linear quarter
car model. These Simulink models are simulated and the outputs of each model are
verified to produce satisfactory result. These Simulink models will later be used to
38
generate signals data for the suspension system animation. This data will be used to
control and manipulate the virtual reality objects.
Next, the virtual world or three-dimensional scenes of a car going on the road
bump on a straight road is created using standard Virtual Reality Modeling Language
(VRML) technology. The V-Realm Builder which comes together with the Virtual
Reality Toolbox is used to create and edit the VRML code. Further detail adjustment of
the coding is later performed using the notepad program.
The scene is kept simple to avoid the system slowing down during simulation.
Thus, the IndexedFaceSet node and texture mapping is use to create some of the
physical object in the scene such as trees, road, road bump sign, and the ground. The
image texture is obtained from the internet and edited using Paint Shop Pro to obtained
transparent background in gif format. The overall material characteristics and
appearance of each object is specified in the Material node. Several view points or
camera positions are also defined in the virtual reality model to enable the observer to
view the motion of the car from many perspectives.
The car movement can be viewed from different perspective using the VRML
FieldOfView. There are several viewpoint defined in this model, static view where the
observer will observe the car moves further from the same viewpoint and dynamic view
where the observer follow the movement of the car as it moves further. User can choose
to view the car from the back right’s corner, the side and from the back. Besides that,
user can use the navigation panel to travel through the scene.
39
Figure 3.6: The scene constructed using V-Realm Builder
To interface the Simulink block diagram with the virtual world, VR Sink block
from the Virtual Reality Toolbox is utilized. The VR sink block is copied and pasted in
the Simulink model. To define the association between the Simulink model and the
virtual world, the VR Sink block is double clicked to open the Block Parameters: VR
Sink dialog box. The respective virtual world is then selected and opened. The Virtual
Reality Toolbox automatically scans a virtual world for available VRML nodes that
Simulink can drive. The available VRML nodes and its properties are then listed in a
hierarchical tree-style viewer. The car and move transform node translational field are
selected as the node to connect the model signal.
40
Figure 3.7: The VR Sink block parameters
As a result, the VR Sink block will appear with the corresponding input. These input
lines are then connected to the matching signals in the Simulink model. These signals
are used to control the motion of the car.
Figure 3.8: The link between Simulink model and virtual world
41
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Simulation
This section contains the results of simulation studies in both inner loop and
outer loop controllers. The parameters of inner loop controller must be optimized
separately until the hydraulic actuator is able to provide the actual target force as close
as possible with the predefined target force. Then, the inner loop controller is integrated
with the outer loop controller. In this configuration, the inner loop controller is used to
track the optimum target force produced by the outer loop controller. The performance
of the inner loop controller is characterized by its ability in tracking the target force with
small amount of force tracking error. Whereas, the performance of the outer loop
controller is characterized by the four performance criteria namely body acceleration,
body displacement, suspension travel, wheel displacement and the rotational angle of
control arm.
4.1.1 Performance of Force Tracking Controller
The force tracking error of the hydraulic actuator model using Proportional
Integral controller for sinusoidal, square, saw-tooth and random functions of the target
force are shown in Figures 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 respectively. This is to check the
controllability of the force tracking controller for a class of continuous and
42
discontinuous functions. In this simulation study, the parameter of proportional gain P is

set to 1.25 and for Integral gain I is set to 0.75. From these figures, it can be seen clearly
that the hydraulic actuator model tracks the desired force well.
Figure 4.1: Force tracking performance for sinusoidal function of target force
Figure 4.2: Force tracking performance for square function of target force
43
Figure 4.3: Force tracking performance for saw-tooth function of target force
Figure 4.4: Force tracking performance for random function of target force
It is also noted that due to the rapid changes of force magnitude in the case of
discontinuous functions of target force such as saw-tooth and square functions, the
performance of the force tracking controller is slightly worse than that of the continuous
function of target force. This is caused by the response of the spool valve that fails to
follow the target force without time delay particularly when rapid change of force
magnitude occurred.
44
4.1.2 Performance of Disturbance Rejection Control
The typical road disturbance considered in this simulation study is a step road
bump. This type of road disturbance has been used in (Smith and Wang, 2001; 2002)
and set in the following form where, a denote the bump amplitude which is set to be ±
10 cm.
⎧ 0 if t < 0.5
⎪
zr = ⎨ (4.1)
⎪a if 0.5 ≤ t ≤ 3
⎩
The simulation was performed for a period of 3 seconds using Heun solver with
a step size of 0.001 second. The numerical values of quarter car model parameters are
set based on the quarter car characteristics used in Hong et al. (2002). The parameters
are:
ms = 453 kg la = 0.66 m
mu = 36 kg l b = 0.34 m
Ks = 17658 N/m l c = 0.37 m
Cs = 1500 Nsec/m α = 74 deg
Kt =183887 N/m θ 0 = -2 deg
The performance of the PISMC is compared to the linear quadratic regulator

(LQR) control approach. Assumes a quadratic performance index in the form of
1 t T T
J = ∫ ( x Qx + u Ru ) dt (4.2)
20
Where the matrix Q is symmetric positive semi-definite and R is positive

symmetric definite. Then, the optimal linear feedback control law is obtained as
45
u (t ) = − Kx (t ) (4.3)
Where K is the designed matrix gain.
In the design of the LQR controller, weighting matrices Q and R are selected as
Q = diag(q1,q2,q3,q4) in which q1 = q2 = q3 = q4 = 200 and R = [0.15] respectively. The
weights for the LQR are determined by using trial and error method with the series of
sensitivity test. In the testing, the weighted matrix Q is positive semidefinite and the
weighted matrix R is positive definite. It is widely accepted in comparing the advanced
controller to the basic controller such as LQR. The designed gains of the LQR controller
are K = [5 30 150 -900]. The pole-zero map of the LQR controller is shown in
Figure 4.5. The value of the matrix K for PISMC is similar to the value of the designed
gains in the LQR controller. In this simulation study, the following values
namely C = [400 10 7500 15000] , φ = 100 , k=1 and δ = 10 are also selected for the
PISMC controller parameters. The sliding surface obtained from the simulation is shown
in Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.5: Pole-zero map of LQR controller

46
Figure 4.6: Sliding surface of PISMC
From the simulation results, the body acceleration and body displacement
performances of PISMC compared to LQR controller along with passive system are
shown in Figures 4.7 and 4.8. From the figures, it is clear that the active system with
PISMC is able to significantly reduce both amplitude and the settling time of unwanted
body motions in the forms of body acceleration and body displacement as compared
with the counterparts. It is noted that the root mean square (RMS) values of body
acceleration for PISMC, LQR and passive system are 2.994 m/sec2, 4.135 m/sec2 and
4.544 m/sec2 respectively. Similarly, the root mean square (RMS) values of body
displacement for PISMC, LQR and passive system are 0.088 m, 0.091 m and 0.094 m
respectively.
47
Figure 4.7: Body acceleration
Figure 4.8: Body displacement
Similar trend was found on the suspension deflection performance as shown in

Figure 4.9, in which the active system with PISMC shows significant performances in
reducing both amplitude and the settling time compared with the LQR controller and the
passive system. From the figure, it is clear that the active system with PISMC is able to
improve the rattle-space dynamics of the suspension system. It is noted that the root
48
mean square (RMS) values of suspension deflection for PISMC, LQR and passive
system are 2.437e-3 m, 3.091e-3 m and 4.032e-3 m, respectively.
Figure 4.9: Suspension deflection
It can be seen that the magnitude of the wheel displacements for the active
system of both PISMC and the LQR controllers are better than the passive system as
shown in Figure 4.10. Roughly, the overshoot of wheel displacement of the passive
system is about 5 % larger than the active system. But, it is clear that both the rise time
and the settling time of wheel-hop for the active system with PISMC is better than the
counterparts. The root mean square values of wheel displacement for PISMC, LQR and
the passive system are 9.029e-2 m, 9.140e-2 m and 9.201e-2 m, respectively.
49
Figure 4.10: Wheel displacement
In this study, the angular position of control arm is included as one of the
performance criteria. This is due to the fact that rotational effect of control arm is
included in the quarter car model considered in this study. The similar trend was found
on the performance of angular position of control arm as shown in Figure 4.11. From the
figure, the active system with PISMC shows significant performance in reducing both
amplitude and the settling time of control arm angular position compared with the LQR
controller and the passive system. It is also noted that the active system with PISMC is
able to improve the dynamics of angular motions of the control arm. The root mean
square values of angular position of control arm for PISMC, LQR and the passive
system are 7.370e-3 deg, 9.113e-3 deg and 1.188e-2 deg, respectively.
50
Figure 4.11: The angular dynamics of control arm
The force tracking performances of the inner loop controller for the specified
bump input are shown in Figures 4.12 and 4.13. From the figures, it is demonstrated that
the hydraulic actuator is able to provide the actual force close to the optimum target
force for both PISMC and the LQR controllers. From the force tracking performance of
PISMC and LQR controllers, it is noted that the peak-to-peak values of actuator force
for PISMC is slightly higher than LQR. On the contrary, the RMS value of actuator
force for LQR is also higher than PISMC. This is due to the fact that the actuator force
produced by LQR controller has slower settling time than PISMC.
Figure 4.12: Force tracking performance of PISMC

51
Figure 4.13: Force tracking performance of LQR controller
The robustness of the proposed controller to sprung mass variation is presented

in Figure 4.14. From the figure, it is clear that additional sprung mass from passenger’s
weight will improve vehicle dynamics performance, particularly in the frequency
transmissibility above body natural frequency. It can be seen that the RMS values of
body acceleration, body displacement and suspension working space tend to decrease
with additional sprung mass from passenger’s weight in the frequency transmissibility
above body natural frequency. Conversely, the RMS values of body acceleration, body
displacement and suspension working space slightly increase with additional sprung
mass in the frequency transmissibility below body natural frequency. Sprung mass
variation does not influence the wheel acceleration performance at all frequency range.
52
Figure 4.14: Robustness evaluation of proposed controller to sprung mass variation.
Previously, the modeling and simulation of the car suspension system with
different type of controller have showed satisfactory result. However, the outputs are in
term of 2D graphs only and the user can only view the result after the simulation is
complete. By including a virtual world of a car going on a maneuver, the user now can
view the simulation in three-dimensional animation during the simulation run time. This
will make it easier to understand the simulation output data.
53
The Virtual Reality Toolbox viewer is automatically loaded when the related
Simulink file is opened.
Figure 4.15: The virtual world during simulation
Figure 4.16: The output plotted from graph

54
User can view the virtual reality animation simultaneously with the graph output
during the simulation run time. The animation shows that the active suspension system
model with PISMC controller has better performance compared to the passive
suspension system. The car experienced lesser translational movement when hitting the
road bump. This animation result is also tally with the plot shows on the graph.
Besides that, the virtual world animation can be recorded as movie file during the
simulation run time using the Virtual Reality Toolbox viewer. This file later can be
played on a platform without MATLAB installed. This will assist in studying and
sharing of information related to the suspension system.
55
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
5.1 Conclusion
The study presents a robust strategy in designing a controller for an active

suspension system based on variable structure control theory, which is capable of
satisfying all the design requirements within the actuators limitation. The mathematical
model of a non-linear quarter car model is presented in a state space form. A detailed
study of the proportional integral sliding mode control algorithm is presented and used
to reject the effects of road induced disturbances on the non-linear quarter car model.
The performance characteristics and the robustness of the active suspension system are
evaluated and then compared with the LQR controller and the passive suspension
system.
The result shows that the use of the proposed proportional integral sliding mode
control technique is effective in controlling a vehicle and more robust compared to the
counterparts. From the simulation results, it can be seen that the proposed controller
shows significant improvement in reducing both magnitude and settling time of the body
acceleration, body displacement, suspension displacement, wheel displacement and the
angular motion of control arm. The proposed controller is capable of satisfying all the
requirements for active suspension design.
56
Force tracking performance of the non-linear hydraulic actuator model was also
investigated. Proportional Integral control was implemented for force tracking control of
the hydraulic actuator. The results of the study show that the hydraulic actuator is able to
provide the actual force close to the target force with acceptable force tracking error for
sinusoidal, square, saw-tooth and random functions of target forces. It can also be noted
that the force tracking control is also able to closely follow the target force produced by
PISMC and LQR controller.
The development of the car in the virtual environment on the other hand can
provide an insight into the actual condition when a car hits the road bump, thus provides
more intuitive way to verify the system response. This will allow the user to better
imagine and relate to the real plant that being modeled.
5.2 Suggestion for Future Research
For future work, it is suggested that the PISMC controller design technique can
be improve. In this study, the constants in the matrix C are determined using trial and
error approach. Thus, it is suggested that specific and more reliable method can be used
such as using the optimization technique. In addition, the proposed control strategy
could also be validated with the experimental study.
57
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62
APPENDIX
The following papers have been submitted and published:
i.) Sam Y.M., Huda K. and Osman J.H.S., (2006). “ Proportional-Integral

Sliding Mode Control of A Hydraulically Actuated Active Suspension
System: Force Tracking and Disturbance Rejection Control on Nonlinear
Quarter Car Model”. International Journal of Vehicle System Modeling
and Testing. (Conditional accepted).
ii.) Sam Y.M., Huda K. and Osman J.H.S., (2006). “ Proportional-Integral

Sliding Mode Control of An Active Suspension System with Force
Tracking of Hydraulic Actuator”. International Journal of Control and
Cyberntics. (under review).
iii.) Sam, Y.M, and Huda K. (2006). “PI/PISMC Control of Hydraulically

Actuated Active Suspension System”, Proceedings of 1st Regional
Conference on Vehicle Engineering and Technology, Kuala Lumpur, July
03-05, 2006.
iv.) Sam, Y.M, and Huda K. (2006). “ Modeling and Force Tracking Control
of Hydraulic Actuator for An Active Suspension”, Proceedings of 1st
IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications, Singapore,
Mei 24 -26, 2006, pp 316-321.

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Robust Control of Active Suspension System For A Quarter Car Model

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ROBUST CONTROL OF ACTIVE SUSPENSION SYSTEM FOR

A QUARTER CAR MODEL

Associate Prof. Dr. Yahaya Md. Sam

Department of Control and Instrumentation Engineering

I am greatly indebted to ALLAH SWT on His blessing for making this

I would like to express my thanks and gratitude to the Ministry of Science,

Finally, thank you to my colleagues at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering,

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

2.2 Vehicle Suspension System Control Strategies

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 The passive suspension system 8

4.11 The angular dynamics of control arm 50

A 4 x 4 system matrix in state space equation of quarter car with

Cs damping of damper (Ns/m)

F matrix related to system input in motion equation of the quarter

lC length of the control arm (m)

mu wheel mass (kg)

w spool valve width = 0.008 m

An active suspension is one in which the passive components are augmented by

However due to budget constraint, a real active suspension system cannot be

1.2 Problem Statement

1.3 Research Objectives

The objectives of this research are as follows:

1.4 Structure and Layout of Report

In Chapter 3, the methodology of the research is presented. The research starts

Chapter 4 discusses the performance evaluation of the proposed Proportional-

2.1 Suspension System

2.1.1 Passive Suspension System

An early design for automobile suspension systems focused on unconstrained

2.1.2 Semi-Active Suspension System

Figure 2.1 The passive suspension system

Figure 2.2 The semi-active suspension system

Figure 2.3 A skyhook damper

More recently, the possible applications of electrorheological (ER) and

2.1.3 Active Suspension System

Active suspensions differ from the conventional passive suspensions in their

Figure 2.4 A low bandwidth or soft active suspension system

Figure 2.5 A high bandwidth or stiff active suspension system

2.1.3.1 Macpherson Type Suspension System vs Conventional Model

The Macpherson type suspension system has many merits, such as an

2. 2 Vehicle Suspension System Control Strategies

Since it is desirable to measure all the system states in the actual

expected should be known or estimated, otherwise, LQR/LTR system may exhibit

The combination of the H-infinity and adaptive nonlinear control technique on

Therefore, the H-infinity controller through frequency shaping performs improvement of

Alleyne and Hedrick (1995) presented a nonlinear adaptive control to active

Yoshimura et al. (1999) presented an active suspension system for passenger

The combinations of fuzzy-proportional integral/proportional derivative (PI/PD)

2.2.1 Summary of Existing Control Methods and Active Suspension System

The intelligent techniques have shown satisfactory performances on the ride

The development of an active suspension system for the vehicle is of great

In addition, researchers have recognized that actuator dynamics can be quite

In this chapter, detail derivation on the modeling of a new type (Macpherson

3.2 Modeling of a Non-Linear Quarter Car Suspension System

3.2.1 Dynamic Model of a Non-Linear Quarter Car Suspension System

Figure 3.1 : Non-Linear quarter car model

C b 2 sin 2 (α '−θ )θ& 2