UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO SPREAD SPECTRUM COMMUNICATIONS 1. Define spread spectrum Spread-spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal (eg. an electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic signal) generated in a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread inthe frequency domain, resulting in signal with a wider bandwidth. These techniques are used for establishment of secure communications, increasing resistance to natural intetference and jamming, to prevent detection, and to limit power flux density (cg. in satellite downlinks). 2.Mention the Spread Spectrum System Criteria ‘The following two criteria must be satisfied: i. The transmitted signal must occupy a bandwidth much greater than the bandwidth of the modulating, signal (Ie. the input signat to the system). ii, The bandwidth occupied by the transmitted signal must be determined by a prescribed waveform and not by the modulating frequency (i.e. cartier frequency) 3.Give the reasons for use of spread spectrum systems. There are three major reasons for the use of spread spectrum technique i. They aid privacy of the transmission, since the spectral density ofthe spread spectrum may be less than the noise spectral density of the receiver fi, The despreading process in the receiver will spread the spectra of unwanted narrowband improving interference rejection. als, thus ill, The effect on a spread spectrum receiver, that receives a spread spectrum from a different spread spectrum system using the same frequency bands but implementing a different spreading pattern, approximates to noise in the receiver. 4.Give the necessary bandwidth equation for error-free trans information at very low SNR. NC Bz Ss ‘where C is the capacity of a communication channel in bits per herz, By is the bandwidth in hertz, $ is the signal power, and N is the noise power. 5. Mention the conventional systems used before spread spectrum i, WHYN, coined by Harvey, sands for Wobbulated HY perbolic Navigation. fi, LORAN (LOng RAnge Navigation) was eventually won by Sperry Gyroscope Company's CYTAC. Developed in the early 1950s, the CYTAC system and its CYCLAN predecessor had many of the attributes of WHYN, but signal-wise, CYTAC was different in two regards. First, pulse modulation ‘was used s0 that earliest arriving sky waves could be rejected by gating, and second, phase coding of the pulses was innovated to reject multihop sky waves. iii, Madison Nicholson of Sylvania Buffalo headed a proposal effort for the study of a communication system which he called “Hush-Up.” iv, To slew the time base in the Hush-Up receiver, Nicholson's “linear modulator” (or “oycle adder”) was ‘an essential part of another system which Jim Green named the Buffalo Laboratories Application of Digitally Exact Spectra, or BLADES for short. v. The acronym NOMAC, classified confidential atthe time and standing for “NOise Modulation and. Correlation,” was coined by Bennett Basore, vii The prototype SR-NOMAC system developed for the Army Signal Corps by Lincoln Laboratory was called the F9C. 6.What are the three ways to spread the bandwidth of the signal? i. Direct sequence, The digital data is directly coded at a much higher frequency. The code is ‘generated pseudo-randomly, the receiver knows how to generate the same code, and correlates the received signal with that code to extract the dataFrequency hopping. The signal is rapidly switched between different frequencies within the hopping bandwidth pseudo-randomly, and the receiver knows beforehand where to find the signel at any given time. ‘ii, Time hopping. The signal is transmitted in short bursts pseudo-randomly, and the receiver knows beforehand when to expect the burst 7.Define DSSS. Directsequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is a spread spectrum modulation technique in which the {ransmitted signal takes up more bandwidth than the information signal that is being modulated. The name ‘spread spectrum comes from the fact thatthe carrer signals occur over the full bandwidth (spectrum) of a device's transmitting frequency. 8, How signals are transmitted in DSSS? Direct-sequence spread-spectrum transmissions multiply the data being transmitted by a *noise” signal This noise signal is @ pseudorandom sequence of 1 and ~1 values, ata frequency much higher then that of ‘the original signal, thereby spreading the energy of the original signal into a much wider band, If an undesired transmitter transmits on the same channel but with a different PN’ sequence (or no sequence at all, the de-spreading process results in no processing gain for that signal. This effect is the basis for the code division multiple access (CDMA) property of DSSS, which allows multiple transmitters to share the same channel within the limits of the cross-correlation properties of their PN sequences 9.Give the feature of DSSS. 1. DSSS phase-modulates a sine wave pseudorandomly with a continuous string of pscudonoise (PN) ode symbols called "chips, each of which has a much shorter duration then an information bit, That i, each information bit is modulated by a sequence of much faster chips. Therefore, the chip ‘ate is much higher than the information signal bit rate, DSSS uses a signal structure in which the sequence of chips produced by the transmitter is known a priori by the receiver, The receiver can then use the same PN sequence to counteract the effect of the PN sequence on the received signal in order to reconstruct the Information signal, 10. What are the benefits of DSSS? i. Resistance to intended or unintended jamming ‘Sharing ofa single channel among multiple users i, Reduced signal/background-noise level hampers interception (stealth) iv. Determination of relative timing between transmitter and receiver 11, What are the applications of DSSS? |-The United States GPS and European Galileo satellite navigation systems H-DS-CDMA (Direct-Sequence Code Division Multiple Access) is a multiple access scheme based on DSSS, by spreading the signals fromto diferent users with different codes. Its the mest widely ysed type of CDMA. iii. Cordless phones operating in the 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz bands 'wIBEE 802.11b 2.4 GHz Wii, and its predecessor 80211-1999, (8021 uses OFDM instead) vy. Automatic meter reading vi, IBEE 802.15.4 (used e.g. as PHY and MAC layer for ZigBee) 12. Define FHSS.Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly switching @ carrier among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom sequence knowa to both transmiter and receiver. It is utilized as a multiple access method inthe frequency-hopping code division ‘multiple access (FH-CDMA) scheme, 13, Give the advantages of FHSS ‘A spread-spectrum transmission offers three main advantages over a fixed-frequency transmission: | Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to narrowband interference. The process of re-collecting 4 spread signal spreads out the interfering signal, causing it to recede into the background. 2.Spread-spectrum signals are difficult to intercept. An FHSS signal simply appears as an increase in the background noise toa narrowband receiver. An eavesdropper would only be able to intercept the transmission ifthe pseudorandom sequence was known 3. Spread-spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with many types of conventional transmissions with minimal interference. The spread-spectrum signals add minimal noise to the narrow-frequency communications, and vice versa. As a result, bendwidth can be ullized more efficiently, 14. Give the applications of FHSS ‘Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to deliberate jamming, unless the adversary has knowledge of the spreading characteristics, Military radios use cryptographic techniques to generate the channel sequence under the control of a secret Transmission Security Key (TRANSEC) that the sender and receiver share, By itself frequency hopping provides only limited protection against eavesdropping and jamming. To get around this weakness most modem military frequency hopping radios often employ separate encryption devices such as the KY-S7. U.S. military radios that use frequency hopping include HAVE QUICK and SINCGARS, 1S. Give the various types of FHSS i. Adaptive Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH) (as used in Bluetooth) improves resistance to radio frequency interference by avoiding using crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence. This sort of adaptive transmission is easier to implement with FHSS then with DSSS. Hi, The key idea behind AFH is to use only the “good” frequencies, by avoiding the "bad" frequency channels ~ perhaps those "bad" frequency channels are experiencing frequency selective fading, or Perhaps some third party is trying to communicate on those bands, or perhaps those bands are being actively jammed. Therefore, AFH should be complemented by a mechanism for detecting ‘good/bad channels iii, However, ifthe radio frequency interference is itself dynamic, then the strategy of “bad channel femoval”, applied in AFH might not work well. For example, if there are several colocated fequency-hopping networks (as Bluetooth Piconet), then they are mutually interfering and the strategy of AFH fails to avoid this interference. iv. _Inthis case, there is a need to use strategies for dynamic adaptation of the frequency hopping pattern. Such a situation ean often happen in the scenarios that use unlicensed spectrum, In addition, dynamic radio frequency interference is expected to occur in the scenarios related to cognitive radio, where the networks and the devices should exhibit frequency-agile operation, Vi, Chirp modulation can be seen as a form of frequency-hopping that simply scans through the available frequencies in consecutive order. 16. Give the advantages and disadvantages of Spread Spectrum Techniques‘The advantages of spread spectrum techniques as applied to communication systems can be as follows: 1, All types: Multiple usage by different user groups, as each user group can be allocated a different PN code.This code is the key nevessary to unlock the message from the system. Without this key it is very difficult, almost impossible to extract the information. A spread spectrum will see another spread spectrum signal as interference and reject i as it would for a narrowband signal ii, Frequency hopping: A narrow band will only cause minimal interference on the wideband signal. Frequency jamming is extremely difficult and can only be effectively achieved if the jamming receiver has the same PN code and channel allocation. The greater the hop set, the smaller the dwell time and the greater the bandwidth the smaller the interference from narrowband signals. iii, Frequency hopping and direct sequence: The output power of the spread spectrum is spread over a large bandwidth, This means that the spectrum has a very low spectral density; 1W output power over an 8 MHz band gives a spectral density of 1.25 nW/Hz. These systems are particularly Useful to the military and police. The low spectral density may not even be recognized as valid ‘communication, thus leading to low probability of interception and recognition Disadvantages of spread spectrum techniques are: Allltypes: Complex circuitry Expensiveto develop _ Very large bandwidth ‘Time hopping jammed and hence is not generally used in its true form. 17, What is despreading? ‘The resulting signal in the transmitter resembles white noise, like an audio recording of static” However, this noise-like signal can be used to exactly reconstruct the original data atthe receiving end, by ‘multiplying it by the same pseudorandom sequence (because 1 « 1 = 1, and ~1 x ~1 = 1). This process, known as "de-spreading", mathematically constitutes @ correlation ofthe transmitted PN sequence with the PN sequence that the receiver believes the transmitter is using. For de-spreading to work correctly, transmit and receive sequences must be synchronized. 18, Define jamming. Jamming is the (usually deliberate) transmission of radio signals that disrupt communications by decreasing the signal to noise ratio. Unintentional jamming occurs when an operator transmits on a busy frequency without first checking whether it is in use, or without being able to hear stations using the frequency. Another form of unintentional jamming occurs when equipment accidentally radiates a signal 19, What are the assumptions to develop a jam-resistant communication system? tion system under the following (1) Complete invulnerability isnot possible; (2) Jammer has a priori knowledge of system parameters, such as frequency bands, timing & traffic s0 on. G) The jammer has no a priori knowledge of the PN spreading or hopping codes. 20, What are the usual design goals for an anti-jam communication system? Design goal for an antiam (AJ) communication system is to force a jammer to expend its resources i, Over a wide-frequency band, ji. For a maximum time, and For a diversity of sites. 21, What are the most prevatent design options? The most prevalent design options are ifequency diversity, by the use of drect-sequence and frequeney-hopping spread-apectrum techniques; ii.time diversity, by the use of time hopping; spatial diserimination, by the use of @ narrow-beam antenna, which forees a jammer to enter the receiver va an antenna sie lobe and hence suffer, typically, a 20- to 25-dB disadvantage, and nations ofthe previous three options 22. What is LFSR? ‘A linear feedback shift register (LFSR) is a shift register whose input bit is @ linear function ofits previous state, The only linear function of single bits is xor, thus itis a shift register whose input bit isdriven by the exclusive-or (xor) of some bits of the overall shift register value. The initial value of the LESR is called the seed, and because the operation of the register is deterministic, the stream of values Produced by the register is completely determined by its current (or previous) state, Likewise, because the ‘egister has a finite number of possible states, it must eventually enter a repeating cycle. However, an LFSR with a well-chosen feedback function can produce a sequence of bits which appears random and which has a very long eycle. 23. Give the applications of LFSR. |, Applications of LFSRs include generating pseudo-random numbers, pseudo-noise sequences, fast digital counters, and whitening sequences, Both hardware and software implementations of LFSRs are common, il. LESRs can be implemented in hardware, and this makes them useful in applications that require very fast generation of @ pseudo-random sequence, such as directsequence spread spectrum radio. LFSRs have also been used for generating an approximation of white noise in various programmable sound generators. iil The Global Positioning System uses an LFSR to rapidly transmit a sequence that indicates high- precision relative time offsets, iv, Uses as counters v.. Uses in cryptography li, Uses in digital brosdeasting and communications 24, What is maximum length sequence ‘A maximum length sequence (MLS) isa type of pseudorandom binary sequence. ‘They are bit sequences generated using maximal linear feedback shift registers and are so called because they are periodic and reproduce every binary sequence that can be reproduced by the shift registers (ie. for length-m registers they produce a sequence of length (2"—1). A MLS is also sometimes called an n-sequence ‘or a m-sequence. MLSs are spectrally fat, with the exception of a near-zero DC term. ‘These sequences may be represented as coefficients of ireducible polynomials in a polynomial ring over 22. 25, Give the application of maximum length sequence Practical applications for MLS include measuring impulse responses (eg.. of room reverberation). They are also used as a basis for deriving pseudo-random sequences in digital communication systems that employ irect-sequence spread spectrum and frequency-hopping spread spectrum transmission systems, and in the efficient design experiments 26. Define correlation, Correlation is a measure of relationship between two mathematical variables or measured data values, ‘hich includes the Pearson correlation coefficient as a special case. Correlation may also refer to > Electronic correlation, a description of the interaction between electrons in a quantum system > Phase correlation, an analysis of translative movement between images > Correlation (projective geometry), a type of duality amongst subspaces of a vector space. 27, The correlation coefficient (r) is always a number between -1 and +1, + Values ofr near 0 indicate a very weak linear relationship, + Extreme values of «1 and +1 indicate the points ina seater plot lie exactly along a straight lis 28, Write notes on gold codes A Gold code, also known as Gold sequence, is a type of binary sequence, used in CDMA and satellite navigation. Gold codes are named after Robert Gold. Gold codes have bounded small cross-correlations within a set, which is useful when multiple devices are broadcasting in the same range. A set of Gold code sequences consists of 2" ~ 1 sequences each one with a period of 2"~ |A set of Gold codes can be generated with the following steps. Pick two maximum length sequences of the same length 2” ~ 1 such that their absolute cross-correlation is less than or equal to 2" 2!'". where n is the size of the LFSR used to generate the maximum length sequence. The set of the 2" — 1 exchisiveors of the two sequences in their various phases (i. translated into all relative positions) is a set of Gold codes. The highest absolute eross-correlaton inthis set of codes is 2"°?? +1 for even m and 2°? | for odd Exclusive OR of two Gold codes from the same set is another Gold code in some phase. Within a set of Gold codes about half ofthe codes are balanced — the number of ones and zeros differs by only one. 29. Write notes on Kasami sequences Kasami sequences are binary sequences of length 2" where N is an even integer, Kasami sequences have ood cross-correlation values approaching the Welch lower bound. There are two classes of Kesami sequences «the small set and the large st. ‘The process of generating a Kasami sequence starts by generating a maximum length sequence a(n), where a-1.2°71 Maximum length sequences are periodic sequences so a) is repeated periodeally form larger than 21. Next we generate another sequence b(n) = a(@tn) where q = 2°*+1, Kasami sequences ee formed by adding a(n) anda time shifted version of b(n) modulo two. The set whichis formed by taking al Kasami sequences generated by different time shifts of fn) plus the a(n) and bjn) sequence forms the Kasami set of sequences. This set has 2"? different sequences, The narrow bandwidth signal is spread over wide band with the help of special code, Hence the ‘name-spread spectrum is given, 31. What is the use of special code in spread spectrum? ‘The special code decides the way in which narrowband signal is spread over wide band. 32, What is key in spread spectrum? The special code is pseudo-noise sequence. 1 is also called Key. Sometimes, the logic for generation of pseudo-noise sequence is called key. 33. What are averaging system and avoidance systems? In averaging systems, the interference is reduced by averaging it over long petiod, In avoidance a System making the signal to avoid the interference a large fraction of time reduces the interference 34, Where spread spectrum is used? {tis used in antjam capability; secure communication such a military and banking purposes. 35. Is spread spectrum a modulation technique? Sometimes people call spread spectrum modulation. But that does not carry conventional meaning of modulation. Rather it includes conventional digital modulation techniques to generate spread spectrum modulated signals. 36. Explain direct sequence spread spectrum. nthe first stage, incoming data sequence modulates wideband code. This transforms narrow-band incoming data sequence into wideband signal. The wideband signal digitally modulates caren 37. Explain frequency hop spread spectrum In this technique, changing the carver frequency in pseudo-random manner widens the spectrum of data modulated carrier 38. Why pseudo-random code is used as special code for spreading the spectrum? Unintended receiver should not receive the signal. If the spreading code is not random, then unintended receiver can obtain the code by observing the signal over certain period of ime, But if the code is random, then itis very difficult to identify i, 39. What is the meaning of the word jamming and antijam?In general, the word Jam means to block or resist the flow. A noise is transmitted within the ‘bandwidth of the channel, This noise interferes with the signal, so thatthe receiver cannot interpret the signal. This is called Jamming. The capability created against jamming is called anti-jam. 40, What is meant by PN sequence and what are the properties of PN sequence? ‘The PN sequence is coded sequence of ones and zeros with certain auto-correlation properties. There are three properties 1. Balance Property 2. Run Property 3. Correlation property 41. Define chip duration and chip rate? ‘The bit period PN sequence is called chip duration (Te). Chip rate is the rate at which bits of PN sequence are produced. Chip rate (Re) =1/Te 42, What i Ty=NTe Where N is the period of PN sequence, Tis th bit duration, is chip duration the relationship between chip duration and bit duration? 43. How many stages of flip-flops are required to generate PN sequence of length 31? Ne2"-1 0 31=2"—1 m= 5 stages ‘44, What is the shape of auto-correlation function of PN sequence? The shape of auto-correlation funetion of PN sequence isthe triangular shape with period NTs. 45. Define processing gain. BW (spreaded signal) Processing gai BW (unspreaded signal) 46. Define slow frequency hopping. i Several symbols of data are transmitted in one frequency hop. This means symbol rate is higher than hop-rate,47. Difference between DSSS and FHSS METRICS. sss. FHSS. Spectral Density reduced with processing gain Feduced with processing gain Interference Generation ‘continuous spread of the Tx power gives ‘minimum interference only the average Tx power is spread, this gives less interference reduction Transnision continous, broadband liscontinsus, arowband J narrowband interference in the same Imerference narrowband interference inthe sae chanel is | aTowband interernce fs. the same Susceptilty reduced bythe PG chanel has no infos ejection i bandwith is wider than coherence . They of environment (outdoor applications) | 07 of the narrowband channels are Mit en ated | subi torre ms wisn 91 ns corresponding with a wave distance of | “Hl channels possible about 30 marge for indoor applications) - GFK Tess power ecient in Moslaton BPSK and QPSK are very power efficient | CFO, JES. fo Data Tae can be increased by Tareas the | Wider bandwidth is needed ut not Higher Data Rates Sock rate andlor modulation complexity | availble (it would cut the number of (cnutve) thanneso hopin) os only 3 collocated networks upto 1 collocated networks ea higher aggregate throughput = lower aggregate throughput Synchvoniation selFsychronizing nary channels o search Real Time (voice) 'No timing constraints. ia station is jammed, it is jammed until the jammer goes away if channel is jammed, the next available transmission time on a clear channel may be 400 ms away Implementation ‘complex baseband processing simple analog Iiniterdiseriminator receiver Power Consumption ‘more power consumption due to higher speed and more complex processing more simple circuit‘Da SPN \papaou sf uonysinboe apo> 27809215"! 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Pulse jamming occurs when a jammer transmits with power speak = J/, for a fraction p of the time, and nothing for the remaining fraction 1 - 2 of the time. During the pulse interval, noise or tones ean be transmitted while the time-averaged power is J 4. What do you mean by broadband jammer? UF the jamming signal is modelled as a zero-mean wide-sense stationary Gaussian noise Process with a flat power spectral density over the frequency range of interest, then for a fixed jammer teecived power. 1, the jammer power spectral density J" is equal to JW, where W is the bandwidth that the jammer chooses to occupy. If the jammer strategy is to jam’the entire spread-speetrum bandvvidth, Wa. with its fixed power. the jammer is referred to as a wideband or broadband jammer, and the jammer power spectral density is 5. What do you meant by partiak-band jammer?A partal-band noise jammer spreads noise of total power J evenly over some frequency range of bandwidth W, . which isa subset ofthe Coal spread bandwidth W,, then defined us the ratio Pp W, $1 whieh’is the tractiin of the total spreadespectrum band that has noise of power Wes spectral density "Fe jam communication system is one that gives performance close to or better than the baseline performance, regardless of the type of jammer waveform used, How spreading process is done in CDMA? CDMA uses Direct Sequence spreading, where spreading process is done by directly combining the baseband information to high chip rate binary code. Define sprending factor and spreading process gain in CDMA. ‘The Spreading Factor is the ratio of the chips (UMTS =3.84Mchips/s) to baseband information rate, Spreading factors vary ftom 4to 512 in FDD UMTS. Spreading process gain can expressed in dBs (Spreading factor 128 = 214B gain), Chiprate _, 3840k spreadingfactor —— ane datarate 15k 56 What are frequency-fllowing jammers? ‘A tepeatback jammer first estimates parameters Irom the intercepted spreadespectrum signal and then transit jamming waveforms tha use this information. Such jamoner are prima elective aginst FH systems when the hop rates slow enough forthe repeatcback lanes es respond within the hop duration. Ths typeof jammer canbe nettalized by nereasng te hop rate or independ2rtly hopping each tone in the case of MFSK signals Here such amare ane SBmetimes refered to as “trequency-fllowing jammersune ut FREQUENCY HOPPING SS SYSTEM: Briefly explain TH-SS technique. Intelecommunications, time hopped spread spectrum or Direct sequence spread spectrum is ‘modulation technique where in the cartier is turned on and off by the pseudorandom code. In this technique, each information bit is modulated by a sequence of much faster chips, Therefore, the chip rae is much higher than the information signal bit rate. The receiver can then use the same PN sequence to counteract the effect of the PN sequence on the received signal in ordet to reconstruct the information signal How AWGN is removed in non-coherent detection? With non-coherent detection the MFSK tones on a given hop must be separated by an integer multiple of Re to provide orthogonality. This implies that the transmitted signal will not produce any cross talk other than M-1 energy detectors and if M-ary band contains additive white Gaussian noise then the component of that noise in each detector output will be uncorrelated What is partial band noise jamming? When the Gaussian noise jammer restricts its total power to a fraction,Wj of its full SS bandwidth, Wss as shown in the diagram below, increasing the power density is known as partial band noise jamming. ae path canmien Jayaeo anne t er pe . Tl A Wd ie ‘Why do we go for differentially coherent modulation techniques? Traditionally coherent modulations such as multiple phase-shft-Keying(MPSK). And. quadrature amplitude-shift -keying (QASK) can also be detected using differentially coherent techniques, These techniques are useful in applications where the receiver is unable to provide an exact carrier reference Phase for demodulating each data symbol but is capable of establishing a phase reference to within an arbitrary number of radians, Give the advantage of n=1 band multi tone jammer over partial band noise and broad band noise jamming of un-coded FH/MESK signals, "The worst case n=1 band multi tone jammer has high jamming abilities compared to partial and broadband noise jamming since we see that for larger values of K it has more jamming ability. But for larger values of K in broadband noise jamming we have less jamming,WORST CASE F131 BAND \ MULTITONE eG BROAGBAND NOISE 4% Briefly explain Non-coherent FH system model. This is a conventional M-FSK scheme in which the carrier frequency is pseudo randomly hopped over Wss under the control of a PN sequence. Here a PN sequence of K segments drives a frequency synthesizer which hops the carrier over 2 frequencies. But the FH synthesizer donot generally maintain phase ‘coherence over successive hops consequently coherent data demodulation techniques are possible only within a hop. Why do we go for FH instead of DS SS in practice? In direct sequence systems use the PN sequence to directly spread the data over the carrier producing non continuous power spectrum. This is not easy to synchronize with the receiver in practical cases some nano second errors will affect the communication. Hence we go for FH SS technique. Briefly explain coherent FH system model. This is a conventional M-FSK scheme in which the carrier (requency is pseudo randomly hopped over Wss under the contol of @ PN sequence, Here @ PN sequence of K segments drives a frequency synthesizer ‘which hops the carrier over 2* frequencies. Carrier phase is maintained from one hop pulse to another: Hence itis known to be Coherent FH systems, Give the Block diagram of FH/QPSK modulator. j ov Coben set 4 Frequency | iapper : 4 ae 4 Q®Sk Informe symnet g10, Give the Block diagram of FH/QPSK demodulator. 4 TF Spreoding Coie moby a Soneren wee) 8 “| fmeney + Cemeutae fo — IL Zive the probability of bit error in the presence of partial band multi tone jamming in terms of FH/QPSK in terms of E, and Ns. OBL EyiN > 0.6306 ENN, 1H Poo 4 Bogs , Sosy SP: Eyl Ny 5 0.630%, 7 \N, a 12, Give the probability of BER in presence of partial band multi tone jamming of FH/QASK in terms of Fy andN ouesa 12459 . FUN, 7 Bony: EWN) = 96 19 © EyN, 5 Noa OE a 13, What is frequency synthesizer mention its applications. A Irequeney synthesizer is an electronic system for generating any of a range of frequencies from a single fixed timebase or oscillator. They are found in many modern devices, including radio receivers, mobile telephones. radiotelephones, walkie-talkies, CB radios, satellite receivers, GPS systems, etc. A frequency synthesizer can combine frequency multiplication, frequency division, and frequency _ mixing (the frequency mixing process generates sum and difference frequencies) operations to produce the desired output signal.vi vii. xi xii, UNIT -IV SYNCHRONIZATION OF SS RECEIVERS Define synchronization. Synchronization is timekeeping which requires the coordination of events to operate a system in unison. In electrical engineering terms, for digital logic and data transfer, a synchronous object requires a clock signal. ‘Timekeeping technologies such as the GPS satellites and Network time protocol (NTP) provide real-time access to. close approximation to the UTC timescale, and are used for many terrestrial synchronization applications. Some uses of synchronization While well-designed time synchronization is an important tool for creating reliable systems, excessive use ‘of synchronization where itis not necessary can make systems less fault-tolerant, and hence less reliable. ‘Mobile phone synchronization using SyneML standards or java based technology to perform a backup. Film synchronization of image and sound in sound film. ‘Synchronization is important in fields such as digital telephony, video and digital audio where streams of sampled data are manipulated, In electric power systems, alternator synchronization is required when mulitple generators are connected to an electrical grid Arbiters are needed in digital electronic systems such as microprocessors to deal with asynchronous inputs. There are also electronic digital circuits called synchronizers that attempt to perform arbitration in one clock eyele. Synchronizers, unlike arbiters, are prone to failure Encryption systems usually require some synchronization mechanism to ensure that the receiving cipher is decoding the right bits at the right time,, ‘Automotive transmissions contain synchronizers which allow the toothed rotating parts (gears and splined shaft) to be brought to the same rotational velocity before engaging the teeth. Synchronization is also important in industrial automation applications. Time codes are often used as a means of synchronization in film, video, and audio applications. File synchronization is used to maintain same version of files on multiple computing devices. For example, an address book on a telephone might need to be synchronized with an address book on a computer. Software applications must occasionally incorporate application-specific data synchronization in order to mirror changes over time among multiple data sources at @ level more granular than File synchronization. ‘An example use of this is the Data Synchronization specification of Open Mobile Alliance, which continues the work previously done by t SyncML initiative. It was initially proposed to synchronize changes in personal address book and calendar information from computers to mobile phones, but has subsequently been used in applications that synchronize other types of data changes among multiple sources, such as project status changes. ‘The term synchronization is also sometimes used for the transfer of content from a specific media player playlist on a computer to a connected MP3 player. ‘What is tracking? ‘Tracking is defined as a process which continuously maintains the best possible waveform fine alignment bby means ofa feedback loop.{t can be classified as coherent or non-coherent. A coherent loop is one in which the carrier frequency and phase are known exactly so that the loop can operate on a baseband signal. A non- coherent loop is one in which the carrier frequency is not known exactly (due to Doppler effects, for example), nor isthe phase. What is acquisition? ‘Acquisition is a process of bringing the two spreading signals into coarse alignment with one another. ‘Acquisition schemes can be classified as coherent or non coherent.5. What are the types of acqiisition? Correlator Structures Serial Search ‘Sequential Estimation 6. What is sequential estimation? Cross correlation between the generated and incoming codes is done to check whether synchronization has been attained of not, If not, the next n bits are estimated and loaded. This algorithm usually yields rapid acquisition and hence is called the RASE (Rapid Acquisition by Sequential Estimation) algorithm. However, this scheme works well only when the noise associated with the received spread signal is low. ‘What is the draw back in sequential estimation? ‘While the RASE system has a rapid acquisition capability it has the drawback of being highly vulnerable to noise and interference signals. The reason for this is thatthe estimation process consists of a simple chip-by- chip hard-decision demodulation, without using the interference rejection benefits of the PN code, 8. Define matched filters? ‘A matched filter is obtained by correlating a known signal, or template, with an unknown signal to detect the presence of the template in the unknown signal. This is equivalent to convolving the unknown signal with a conjugated time-reversed version of the template. The matched filter is the optimal linear filter for maximizing the signal to noise ratio (SNR) in the presence of additive stochastic noise. Matched filters are commonly used in radar, in which a known signal is sent out, and the reflected signal is examined for common elements of the ‘out-going signal. Pulse compression is an example of matched filtering. Two-dimensional matched filters are ‘commonly used in image processing, e.g. to improve SNR for X-ray pictures. 9. Define detay-locked loop Delay-locked loop (DLL) is a digital circuit similar to a phase-locked loop (PLL), with the main difference being the absence of an internal oscillator. A DLL. can be used to change the phase of a clock signal (a signal with a periodic waveform), usually to enhance the clock rise-to-data output valid timing characteristics of integrated circuits (such as DRAM devices). DLLs can also be used for clock recovery (CDR). From the outside, a DLL can be seen as a negative-delay gate placed in the clock path of a digital circuit 10, Define tau-dither loop or advantage of tau-dither loop ‘A time-shared early-late tracking loop frequently referred to as a tau-dither loop. It ends to deal with this potential problem by intentionally injecting a small error in the tracking correction, so that the loop kind of ‘vibrates around the correct answer. This vibration is typically small, so that the loss in performance is minimal. ‘This design has the advantage that only one correlator is needed to provide the code tracking function and the despreading function. 11, What are the stuffs to be considered for tracking? When determining the limits of uncertainty in time and frequency, the following stuffs must be considered: 1. Uncertainty inthe distance between the transmitter and the receiver translates into uncertainty in the amount of propagation delay. 2. Relative clock instabilities between the transmitter and the receiver result in phase differences between the transmitter and receiver spreading signals that will tend to grow as a function of elapsed time between synchronization. 3. Uncertainty of the receiver's relative velocity with respect to the transmitter translates into uncertainty in the value of Doppler frequency offset of the incoming signal 4, Relative oscillator instabilities between the transmitter and the receiver result in frequency offsets between the ‘wo signals.UNITV APPLICATION OF SPREAD SPECTRUM COMMUNICATIONS Expand CDMA. Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by various radio communication technologies. CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a code) to allow multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical channel. CDMA is a form of spread-spectrum signaling, since the modulated coded signal has a much higher data bandwidth than the data being communicated. ‘What are the advantages of CDMA? lly improving the telephone traffic capacity ly improving the voice quality and eliminating the audible effects of multipath fading iii, Reducing the incidence of dropped calls due to handoff failures iv. Providing reliable transport mechanism for dats communications, such as facsimile and ¥. Reducing the number of sites needed to support any given amount of traffic ‘Simplifying site selection Reducing deployment and operating costs because fewer cell sites are needed Reducing average transmitted power ix. Reducing interference to other electronic devices 1x Reducing potential health risks What are disadvantages of CDMA? i, One major problem in CDMA technology is channel pollution, where signals from too many cell sites are present. ii, When compared to GSM lack of international roaming capabilities iii, Ability to upgrade or change to another handset is not easy with this technology because the network service information for the phone is put in the actual phone unlike GSM which uses SIM card, iv. limited varity of the handset, Explain near far interference? ‘The near-far problem occurs when many mobile users share the same channel. In general, the strongest received mobile signal will capture the demodulator at a base station. In CDMA, stronger received signal levels raise the noise floor at the base station demodulators for the weaker signals, thereby decreasing the probability that weaker signals will be received. Give the features of CDMA. The following features are unique to CDMA technology: i. Universal frequency reuse Fast and accurate power control Rake receiver iv, Different types of handoff6 10. a 2 ‘What is meant by rake receiver? What is it used for? A rake receiver is a radio receiver designed to counter the effects of multipath fading. It does this by using several "sub-receivers” called fingers, that is, several correlators each assigned to a different multipath component. Each finger independently decodes a single multipath component; at a later stage the contribution of all fingers are combined in order to make the most use of the different transmission characteristics of each transmission path. This could very well result in higher signal-to-noise ratio (or EyNo) in a multipath environment than in a "clean" environment. RAKE receivers are used to resolve and combine multipath components, thereby reducing the degree of fading ‘What is anti jam military communication? ‘The receiver correlates the received signals to retrieve the original information signal. It is either to resist enemy efforts to jam the communications and it is called anti-jam. It is to hide the fact that communication was even taking place ‘What are the methods to improve the capacity of cellular CDMA? ‘The first technique for reducing interference is anterma sectorization. ‘The second technique involves the monitoring of voice activity such that each transmitter is switched off during periods of no voice activity. How Spectrum spreading complicates the signal detection problem? ‘Spectrum spreading complicates the signal detection problem for a surveillance receiver in two ‘ways: (1) a larger frequency band must be monitored, and (2) the power density of the signal to be detected is lowered in the spectrum-spreading process. What is LPI? What is it used for? SS signal is generally difficult to detect and even harder to decipher by an unauthorized receiver: this characteristic is usually referred to as a low probability of intercept (LPI).Most interceptors operate as energy detectors, and they have to monitor the received signal long enough to achieve a sufficiently high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for reliable detection in the presence of background noise. ‘The LPI advantage of an SS signal is that its power is spread over a bandwidth considerably larger than conventional transmissions, significantly increasing the noise in a receiver that is not privy to the despreading sequence. What are frequency followers? ‘When implementable FH systems operated at low hop rates, their transmissions could conceivably be detected by narrowband monitors capable of following the pseudorandom frequency variations called “frequency followers” It is used to drive repeat-back jammers which could effectively defeat the AJ capability of FH systems. Give the uplink and downlink frequency of satellite system. 6/4 GHz and 14/12 GHz where 6GHz and 14GHz are uplink frequencies and 4GHz and 12GHz are downlink frequencies13, What is uplink and downlink? ‘A forward link isthe link from a fixed location (e.,, a base station) to a mobile user. If the link includes a communications relay satellite, the forward link will consist of both an uplink (base station to satelite) and a downlink (satellite to mobile user). ‘The reverse link (sometimes called a return link) isthe link from a mobile user to a fixed base station. If the link includes a communications relay satellite, the reverse link will consist of both an uplink (mobile station to satellite) and a downlink (satellite to base station) which together constitute a half hop. 14, What is satellite? Satellite is a celestial body that orbits around a planet. In aerospace terms, satellite is a space vehicle launched by humans and orbits earth or another celestial body. 18, What are transponders? ‘A transponder isa wireless communications, monitoring, or contro! device that picks up and automatically. responds to an incoming signal. The term is a contraction of the words transmitter and responder. ‘Transponders can be either passive or active 16. What are the types of satellite? Define them. ‘A passive satellite simply reflects a signal back to earth and there are no gain devices on broad to amplify signal. ‘An active satelite receives, amplifies and retransmits signal back towards earth, 17. Advantages of CDMA over DMA and TDMA. Privacy: The code is distributed only to authorized users, protecting the information from others. Spectrum Efficiency: Several CDMA networks can share the same frequency band, because undetected al behaves as Gaussian noise to all receivers without knowledge of the code sequence. This is particularity useful in applications such as NGSO Mobile Satellite Service systems, where bandwidth allocations are limited Fading Channel Performance: Only a small portion of the signal energy is present in a given frequency will have a limited effect band segment at any one time, therefore frequency selective fading or disper ‘on overall link performance. Jam Resistance: Again, because only a small portion of the signal energy is present in a given frequency band segment at any one time, the signal is more resistant to intentional or unintentional signals presen the frequency band, thereby reducing the effects on link performance 18, What are the benefits offered by SS for satellite communicatic ‘8S may offer the following benefits for satellite communications: J. Rejection of uncorrelated interference permits system operation where adjacent satellites (say at 1.5° spacing in the geostationary arc) may lie within the beamwidth of a small-terminal antenna, This mayfacilitate operation with small antennas at C-band, with its rel large beamwidth. fi, Other link interference, multipath and adjacent channels may be ‘operation in shared bands. ‘The effect of SS transmissions upon other users is relatively benign, appearing simply as additional noise ively longer wavelength and correspondingly similarly tolerated, thereby facilitating rather than as potentially destructive interference. Again, this allows operation in shared bands. iv. Power flux-density values per unit bandwidth are reduced by virtue of the spreading (but the overall power flux density is unchanged). This may permit operation within the letter of regulatory limits for some high EIRP downlinks. Spread spectrum generally provides good LPI (low probability of intercept), which may be highly significant in some military scenarios. 19. What is IS-95? Interim Standard 95 (IS-95) is the first CDMA-based digital cellular standard by Qualcomm. The brand ‘name for IS-95 is edmaOne. IS-95 is also known as TIA-EIA-95. It is a 2G Mobile Telecommunications Standard that uses CDMA, a multiple access scheme for digital radio, to send voice, data and signaling data (such as a dialed telephone number) between mobile telephones and cell sites.IS-95 channel occupies 1.25 MHz of spectrum 20, Give the frequency of reverse link and forward link of IS9S system. 18-95 is specified for reverse link operation in the 824 - 849 MHz band and 869 - 894 MHz for the forward link, A forward and reverse channel pair is separated by 45 MHz. 21, Give the chip rate and data rate of IS95 system. ‘The maximum user data rate is 9.6 kb/s. User data in 15-95 is spread to a channel chip rate of 1.2288 Mchip/s (a total spreading factor of 128) using a combination of technique 22, What are the channels in forward CDMA channel? Explain the function of all three channels. ‘The pilot channel allows a mobile station to acquire timing for the Forward CDMA channel, provides @ phase reference for coherent demodulation, and provides each mobile with a means for signal strength ‘comparisons between base stations for determining when to handoff. ‘Synchronization channel broadcasts synchronization messages to mobile stations and operates at 1200 bps. ‘The paging channel is used to send control information and paging messages from the base station to the mobiles and operates at 9600, 4800, and 2400bps. The forward traffic channel (Fit) supports variable user data rates at 9600, 4800, 2400, or 1200 bps 23, What is QCELP? QCELP (Qualeomm Code Excited Linear Prediction), also known as Qualcomm PureVoice, is a speech codec developed in 1994 to increase the speech quality of the IS-96A codec used earlier in CDMA networks. It provides better speech quality with fewer bits24, 28, 26, 2, 28, 29, ‘What is data scrambling? Data scrambling is the process of obfuscating or removing sen Processes, ‘What are Walsh codes? Properties. Walsh codes are the backbone of CDMA systems and are used te develop the individual channels in CDMA. What is masking? Masking is the technique of producing extemal "white noise” sounds that will mask the tinnitus and make it tess distracting. I is used in CDMA PN long code sequence generation, ‘What are the channels used in CDMA channel? Zi feverse CDMA channels are made up of access channels (AC) and reverse trafic channels (RTC), Poth share the same frequency assignment, and each Traffc/Access channel i identified by a distinct user long code. The access channel i used by the mobile o initiate communication withthe bars station and to ‘espond to paging channel messages. The access channel is a random access channel with each channel Ae penal ientified by thet long codes. The Reverse CDMA channel mey contain a maximum of 32 ‘What is hadamard matrix? What it is used for? Hadamard matrix is a square matrix whose entries are cither +1 or ~1 and whose rows are mutually orthogonal. In geometric terms, this means that every two different rows in a Hadamard maisis represent rraesreendicular vectors, while in combinatorial terms, it means that every two diferent rome bere matching entries in exactly half of their columns and mismatched entries in the remaining columns, It is a Consequence ofthis definition that the corresponding properties hold for columns as well as rows, . What is the purpose of data randomizer? 4 data randomizer is used to transmit certain bits while tuming the transmitter off at other times. When the data rate is 9600 bps, all interieaver output bits are transmitted. The data burst randomizes ensures that reduces pratt Code symbol is transmitted exactly once, During the gate-ofT process the mobile station reduces its EIRP elther by at least 20 dB with respect tothe power of the most recent pated-on period, or to the transmitter noise floor, whichever is greater. This reduces interference to ether motiie stations ‘operating on the same reverse CDMA channel31. How near-far effect isis controlled in CDMA? ‘To combat the near-far problem, power control is used in most CDMA implementations. Power control is provided by each base station in a cellular system and assures that each mobile within the base station overage area provides the same signal level to the base station receiver. This solves the problem of a nearby subscriber overpowering the base station receiver and drowning out the signals of far away subscribers. Power control is implemented at the base station by rapidly sampling the radio signal strength indicator (RSSI) levels of each mobile and then sending a power change command over the forward radio link, Despite the use of power control within each cell, out-of-cell mobiles provide interference which is ‘not under the control of the receiving base station. 32. Compare FDMA, TDMA and CDMA. Characteristic FDMA TDMA ‘DMA Bandwidth utilization | Single channel per] Muliple channels per carrier | SCPC, partial or full carrier (SCPC) ~ partial allocation allocation Interference rejection | Limited Timited with frequency ‘Can suppress interference, hopping up to noise limit Inter-modulation effects | Most sensitive (most | Less sensitive (Iess back-off — | Least sensitive (Teast back- back-offrequired) | required) off required) Doppler frequency shift | Bandwidth limiting | Burst time limiting Removed by receiver Spectrum flexibility ‘Uses least bandwidth | Moderate Bandwidth use per | Largest demand for per carrier carrier contiguous segment Capacity, Basic capacity | Can provide capacity Capacity indeterminate due available improvement through hopping | to loading unknowns