‫مبانی کامپیوتر و برنامه‬

‫سازی‬

Bits, Data types, and

Operations
 Data Types

 Numbers
 Signed: -10, 5, 20, -123, …
 Unsigned: 10, 120, 2…
 Integers: 1, 2, 3, …
 Floating point: 2x10-12, 6.23x104 , …
 Complex: 2+j1 4.25+J6.23, …
 Rational: 2.3456, 10.239, …
 Text
 Characters: a, b, c, …
 Strings: “Tehran University”, “Bahman”, …
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 Data Types
 Images:
 Pixels:

 Shapes:
 Sound
 Logical
 True: “3>2”
 False: “6-3=5”
 Instructions
 Add two numbers, multiply 3 by 2, …
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 Decimal Numbers

 “decimal” means that we have ten digits to use in

our representation (the symbols 0 through 9)
 Decimal number 3,546?
 it is three thousands plus five hundreds plus four tens
plus six ones.
329
 Decimal number: 329:
102 101 100
3x100 + 2x10 + 9x1 = 329

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 Data representation in
computers
 At the lowest level, computers are
constructed by a bunch of simple switches.
 A computer is an electronic machine, and the
switches control the flow of electrons.

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 Data representation

 Easy to recognize two conditions:

1. Presence of a voltage – we’ll call this state “1”
2. Absence of a voltage – we’ll call this state “0”

 Could base state on value of voltage,

but control and detection circuits more complex.
 compare turning on a light switch to
measuring or regulating voltage

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 Digital data

 To make things even simpler we don’t count

on absolute presence or absence but the
closeness.
 Digital system:
 finite number of symbols

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 Symbols

 One bit has 2 possible states: 0, 1

 Two bits have 4 possible states:
B1 B0
0 0 0
1 0 1
2*2= 22 = 4
2 1 0
3 1 1

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 Symbols
 Three bits have 8 possible states:
B2 B1 B0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
2 0 1 0
2*2*2= 23 = 8
3 0 1 1
4 1 0 0
5 1 0 1
6 1 1 0
7 1 1 1
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 Symbols

 N Bits have 2N states:

2 * …*2*2= 2N

 To represent K states we need:

K= 2N
N = log2 K

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 Binary Data

 Binary (base two) system:

 has two states: 0 and 1
 Basic unit of information is the binary digit,
or bit.
most least
 Binary number 101 significant 101 significant
22 21 20
1x4 + 0x2 + 1x1 = 5

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 Binary Conversion

 Binary to Decimal
Binary an….a2a1a0 = Decimal an*2n+ …. +a2*22 +a1*21+a0*20

Example:

101101B = 1*25+0*24 + 1*23 + 1*22 +0*21 +1*20

= 32+0+8+4+0+1
= 45 D
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 Binary Conversion
 Decimal to Binary
1. Divide by two – remainder is least significant bit.
2. Keep dividing by two until answer is zero,
writing remainders from right to left.
Example:
X = 104D
104/2 = 52 r: 0 bit 0
52/2 = 26 r: 0 bit 1
26/2 = 13 r: 0 bit 2
13/2 =6 r: 1 bit 3
6/2 =3 r: 0 bit 4
3/2 =1 r: 1 bit 5
1/2 =0 r: 1 bit 6
X = 1101000B
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 Unsigned Addition

 Just like Decimal numbers add from right to

left, propagating carry:carry
10010 10010 1111
+ 1001 + 1011 + 1
11011 11101 10000

10111
+ 111

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 Binary range

 With N bits we can represent numbers in the

range of:
0 ≤ i ≤ 2N - 1

 Problem: How to represent negative

numbers?

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 Signed Magnitude

 In decimal we use a ‘-’ in front of a number to

indicate negative.
 In binary we can use a leading bit to represent sign:
 0: Positive
 1: Negative
Example:
0 1101B = + (1*23 + 1*22 +0*21 +1*20) = 13D
1 1101B = - (1*23 + 1*22 +0*21 +1*20) = -13D
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 Signed Magnitude -4 10100
-3 10011
 Problems: -2 10010
• We have two numbers for zero (+/-)! -1 10001
• How do we do addition/subtraction?
-0 10000
+0 00000
+1 00001
+2 00010
+3 00011
+4 00100
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 One’s Complement

 The leading bit is used to represent sign:

 0: Positive
 1: Negative
 When negative invert all the bits
Example:
0 1101B = + (1*23 + 1*22 +0*21 +1*20) = 13D
1 1101B = - (0*23 + 0*22 +1*21 +0*20) = -2D

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 One’s Complement
-4 11011
-3 11100
 Problems: -2 11101
• We have two numbers for zero (+/-)! -1 11110
• How do we do addition/subtraction?
-0 11111
+0 00000
+1 00001
+2 00010
+3 00011
+4 00100
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 Two’s Complement

 The leading bit is used to represent sign:

 0: Positive
 1: Negative
 When negative invert all the bits and add 1 to the
result
Example:
0 1101B = + (1*23 + 1*22 +0*21 +1*20) = 13D
1 1101B = - (0*23 + 0*22 +1*21 +0*20 + 1) = -3D

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 -16 10000
Two’s Complement … …
-3 11101

Advantages: -2 11110
• Only one representation for zero -1 11111
• Operations need not check the sign 0 00000
• Efficient use of all the bits +1 00001
+2 00010
+3 00011
… …
+15 01111
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 ‫‪Two’s complement addition‬‬

‫)‪00101 (5‬‬ ‫)‪01001 (9‬‬

‫)‪+ 11011 (-5‬‬ ‫)‪+10111 (-9‬‬
‫)‪00000 (0‬‬ ‫)‪00000 (0‬‬

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 Binary Conversion

 Binary to Decimal conversion of signed

numbers, for an….a2a1a0 :
 If an = 0, the magnitude of the number is:
an-1….a2a1a0 = an-1*2n-1+ …. +a2*22 +a1*21+a0*20
 if an = 1, obtain the 2’s complement of the number. This
will represent the magnitude.

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 Binary Conversion

 Decimal to Binary conversion of signed

numbers:
1. Divide by two – remainder is least significant bit.
2. Keep dividing by two until answer is zero,
writing remainders from right to left.
3. If the original number is positive append a zero
4. If the original number is negative obtain the 2’s
complement of the result and append it with a 1.

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 Arithmetic Operations

 Addition
 All numbers should have the same number of
bits
 Ignore carry out

01101000 (104) 11110110 (-10)

+ 00010000 ( 16) +11110111 (-9)
01111000 (120) 11101101(-19)

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 Arithmetic Operations
 Subtraction
 All numbers should have the same number of
bits
 Negate subtrahend (2nd no.) and add.
 ignore carry out
01101000 (104)
- 00010000 (16)
01101000 (104)
+ 11110000 (-16)
01011000 (88)
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 Sign extension
 To add two numbers, we must represent
them with the same number of bits.
 If we just pad with zeroes on the left:
4-bit 8-bit
0100 (4) 00000100 (still 4)
1100 (-4) 00001100 (12, not -4)
 Instead, replicate the MS bit -- the sign bit:
4-bit 8-bit
0100 (4) 00000100 (still 4)
1100 (-4) 11111100 (still -4)
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 Number Range

 Unsigned representation
0 ≤ i < 2N - 1
 Signed Magnitude
-2N-1 + 1 < i < 2N-1 - 1
 1’s Complement
-2N-1 + 1 < i < 2N-1 - 1
 2’s Complement
-2N-1 < i < 2N-1 - 1

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 Overflow
 If operands are too big, then sum cannot be
represented as an n-bit 2’s comp number.
01000 (8) 11000 (-8)
+ 01001 (9) + 10111 (-9)
10001 (-15) 01111 (+15)
 We have overflow if:
 signs of both operands are the same, and
 sign of sum is different.
 Another test -- easy for hardware:
 carry into MS bit does not equal carry out
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 Fractional Values

0.329
 In Decimal: 10-1 10-2 10-3
3x0.1 + 2x0.01 + 9x0.001 = 329

0.011
 In Binary 2-1 2-2 2-3
0x0.5 + 1x0.25 + 1x0.125 = 0.375

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 Fractional Operations

 2’s comp addition and subtraction still work

if binary points are aligned
2-1 = 0.5
2-2 = 0.25
2-3 = 0.125
00101000.101 (40.625)
+ 11111110.110 (-1.25)
00100111.011 (39.375)

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 Fractional Values

 Fixed point notation problem:

 Large values: 6.023 x 1023 -- requires 79 bits
 Small values: 6.626 x 10-34 -- requires >110 bits

 Use equivalent of “scientific notation”: F x 2E

 Need to represent F (fraction), E (exponent), and
sign.
 IEEE 754 Floating-Point Standard (32-bits)

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 Floating Point Representation
1 8 bits 23 bits
s exponent fraction

N = (-1)s x 1.fraction x 2(exponent – 127)

 Represent all exponent values as unsigned integers
 Example:

10111111010000000000000000000000

sign exponent fraction

 Sign is 1 – number is negative.
 Exponent field is 01111110 = 126 (decimal).
 Fraction is 0.100000000000… = 0.5 (decimal).
 Value = -1.5 x 2(126-127) = -1.5 x 2-1 = -0.75.
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 Floating Point

 Values represented by convention:

 Infinity (+ and -): exponent = 255 and fraction = 0
 NaN (not a number): exponent = 255 and fraction ≠ 0
 Zero (0): exponent = 0 and fraction = 0
 Exponent = 0 => fraction is de-normalized:

N = (-1)s x 0.fraction x 2(exponent – 127)

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Double precision floating point

1 11 bits 52 bits
s exponent fraction

N = (-1)s x 1.fraction x 2(exponent – 1023)

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 Hexadecimal

 It is often convenient to write binary (base-2)

numbers as hexadecimal (base-16) numbers instead.
 fewer digits -- four bits per hex digit
 less error prone -- easy to corrupt long string of 1’s and
0’s
 0 to 9 represented as such
 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 represented by A, B, C, D, E, F
 16 = 24: i.e. every hexadecimal digit can be represented
by a 4-bit binary (unsigned) and vice-versa.

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 Hexadecimal

 Every four bits is a hex digit.

– start grouping from right-hand side

011101010001111010011010111

3 A 8 F 4 D 7

This is not a new machine representation,

just a convenient way to write the number.

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 ‫‪Hexadecimal‬‬

‫‪16AB16 = x16AB‬‬
‫‪= 1x163 + 6x16 2 + 10x16 + 11‬‬
‫‪= 580310 = #5803‬‬
‫‪= 0001 0110 1010 10112‬‬

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 Logical Operations

 0, 1 in a binary value can represent logical

TRUE = 1, or FALSE = 0.
 We can perform logical operations on binary
bits or a set of binary bits, also known as
Boolean algebra.
 The basic operations are AND, OR, NOT

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 Basic Logic Operations
Truth Tables of Basic Operations
AND OR
NOT A B A.B A B A+B
A A' 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
Equivalent Notations
1 1 1 1 1 1
 Not A = A’ = A
 A and B = A.B = A∧B = A intersection B
 A or B = A+B = A∨B = A union B
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 More Logic Operations

 XOR and XNOR

XOR XNOR
A B A⊕B A B (A⊕B)’
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1

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 Logical Operations Example
 AND
11000101
 useful for clearing bits
AND 00001111
 AND with zero = 0
 AND with one = no change 00000101
 OR
 useful for setting bits
11000101
 OR with zero = no change OR 00001111
 OR with one = 1 11001111
 NOT
 unary operation -- one argument NOT 11000101
 flips every bit 00111010
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 Text Representation
 ASCII: Maps 128 characters to 7-bit code.
 both printable and non-printable (ESC, DEL, …) characters
00 nul 10 dle 20 sp 30 0 40 @ 50 P 60 ` 70 p
01 soh 11 dc1 21 ! 31 1 41 A 51 Q 61 a 71 q
02 stx 12 dc2 22 " 32 2 42 B 52 R 62 b 72 r
03 etx 13 dc3 23 # 33 3 43 C 53 S 63 c 73 s
04 eot 14 dc4 24 $ 34 4 44 D 54 T 64 d 74 t
05 enq 15 nak 25 % 35 5 45 E 55 U 65 e 75 u
06 ack 16 syn 26 & 36 6 46 F 56 V 66 f 76 v
07 bel 17 etb 27 ' 37 7 47 G 57 W 67 g 77 w
08 bs 18 can 28 ( 38 8 48 H 58 X 68 h 78 x
09 ht 19 em 29 ) 39 9 49 I 59 Y 69 i 79 y
0a nl 1a sub 2a * 3a : 4a J 5a Z 6a j 7a z
0b vt 1b esc 2b + 3b ; 4b K 5b [ 6b k 7b {
0c np 1c fs 2c , 3c < 4c L 5c \ 6c l 7c |
0d cr 1d gs 2d - 3d = 4d M 5d ] 6d m 7d }
0e so 1e rs 2e . 3e > 4e N 5e ^ 6e n 7e ~
0f si 1f us 2f / 3f ? 4f O 5f _ 6f o 7f del
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 Other Data Types
 Text strings
 sequence of characters, terminated with NULL (0)
 typically, no hardware support
 Image
 array of pixels
 monochrome: one bit (1/0 = black/white)
 color: red, green, blue (RGB) components (e.g., 8 bits each)

 other properties: transparency

 Sound
 sequence of fixed-point numbers
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