Fundamental Concepts of Electrical Energy Systems

Electric Power Systems

Electricity is only one of many forms of energy used in industry, homes, businesses and
transportation. It has many desirable features; it is clean, convenient, relatively easy to
transfer from point of source to point of use and highly flexible in its use. In some cases,
it is an irreplaceable source of energy.

Power system engineers are more interested in defining power rather than current. In
steady state, most power system quantities (voltage and current) are sinusoidal functions
of time and all with the same frequency. Therefore, it is essential to understand the
sinusoidal steady state analysis using phasor, impedances, admittance and different forms
of power.

Impedance Concept
Average value In the circuit shown below, If the terminal
If v(t ) = Vm cos(ω t + θ v ) , then the average voltage is given as: v(t ) = Vm cos(ω t + θ v )
value of the voltage is given by: This can be converted to the phasor
1T format
VAVE = ò v(t )dt , For pure sinusoidal
T0 (frequency domain) as: v = VRMS ∠θ v
waveform this value is equal to zero. I (t)

Effective value
If v(t ) = Vm cos(ω t + θ v ) , then the effective V (t) Element
(load)
value of the voltage is given by:

1T
v(t ) dt
2
VRMS = ò
T0

100 If the current through the load is given by:

If v(t ) = 100 cos(ω t + 30) then Vrms =
2 i (t ) = I m cos(ω t + θ I ) And in phasor

format is: i = I RMS ∠θ I

Then, the impedance of the element (load) can be defined as the phasor voltage divided
VRMS ∠θ v V
by the phasor current; Z = = ∠θ v − θ I = Z∠θ
I RMS ∠θ I I
Since Z is a phasor, then it can be defined by a magnitude and angle or in rectangular
format as real and imaginary components.
Z = Z∠θ = R + jX
Where: R = Z cosθ and X = Z sin θ

Power Concept

Before presenting the power concept, it is essential to remind with the current reference
direction. The passive sign convention is normally used for this purpose.
Passive Sign Convention
If the current is entering the positive terminal of the element, then this current is positive
and vice versa. If the product of the voltage and the current (the power) is positive, then
this element is ABSORBING power and if the product is negative, then the element is
DELIVERING power.

In order to illustrate the concept of power, we will use the cosine representation of the
waveform as a reference.

Assume any load as shown in the figure below:

If the voltage and current in the load are

given by: I (t)

v(t ) = Vm cos(ω t + θ v )

i (t ) = I m cos(ω t + θ I )
+ V (t) -

Then the instantaneous power will be given as p(t ) = v(t ) i (t ) , but usually we are
interested in the average power over one complete cycle, where:
1T
Pave = ò p(t ) dt , and T is the periodic time of the sinusoidal waveform.
T0
If we take the current as the reference phasor and shift both the voltage and the current
by θ I , then:
v(t ) = Vm cos(ω t + θ v − θ I )

i (t ) = I m cos(ω t )

And p(t ) = Vm I m cos(ω t + θ v − θ I ) cos(ω t )

Vm I m
p(t ) = [ cos (θv − θ I ) + cos(2ω + θv −θ I ) ] (*)
2

From this equation, we can realize that the instantaneous power has double the frequency
of the voltage and current.

Now we have three different cases depending on the element type:

1- Resistance

For resistors, the voltage and current are in-phase and θ v − θ I = 0 . Moreover, the average

1T
value of the component cos(2ω + θ v −θ I ) is equal to zero, ò cos(2ω + θ v −θ I ) dt = 0 .
T0

Vm I m
Therefore, for resistive elements, the average power is equal to = VRMS I RMS .
2
2- Inductance

For inductances, θ v − θ I = 90 . Therefore, the average power in this case will be equal to
zero.

3- Capacitance

For capacitances, θ v − θ I = −90 . Therefore, the average power in this case will be equal
to zero.
Complex Power Concept

Vm I m
Recall that p (t ) = [cos(θ v − θ I ) + cos(2ω + θ v −θ I )]
2
Vm I m
Then p (t ) = [cos(θ v − θ I ) + cos(θ v −θ I ) cos(2ω t ) − sin (θ v −θ I )sin (2ω t )]
2
Vm I m V I
p(t ) = cos(θ v − θ I )[1 + cos(2ω t )] − m m sin(θ v − θ I ) sin 2ω t
2 2
p(t ) = P[1 + cos(2ω t )] − Q sin 2ω t
Vm I m
P= cos(θ v − θ I ) = Real (Active) power (WATT) and
2
Vm I m
Q= sin(θ v − θ I ) = Reactive power (VAR)
2

If we compare the above two formulas with the expression for power in R, L and C
circuits, then:

P = Real Power = Associated with power dissipated in resistive portion of the circuit.
Q = Reactive Power = Associated with the power in the reactive (or L & C) portion of the
circuit.

The term cos(θ v − θ I ) is known as the power factor (PF) and it controls the amount of

active power supplied and the term sin(θ v − θ I ) is known as the reactive factor (rf).

pf = cos(θ v − θ I )

rf = cos(θ v − θ I )

Two important terminologies have to be known. The first is lagging power factor that
happens in inductive circuits where the angle θ v − θ I > 0 and the current lags the voltage.
The second is the leading power factor case that happens in capacitive circuits when the
current leads the voltage and θ v − θ I < 0 .
The complex power (or known as the apparent power) is an abstract concept, where:

S = P + jQ (VA)

Vm I m V I
Recall that: P = cos(θ v − θ I ) and Q = m m sin(θ v − θ I ) then:
2 2

Vm I m
S= [cos(θ v − θ I ) + j sin(θ v − θ I )]
2
Vm I m j (θ v −θ I ) 1
S= e = Vm e j (θ v ) I m e − j (θ v )
2 2
1 * *
S = V m I m = V rms I rms
2

Important Remarks

2
Vrms
• P = VI cos(θ v − θ I ) = 2
I rms R = = S × pf
R
2
Vrms
• Q = VI sin(θ v − θ I ) = I rms
2
X = = S × rf
X
2
2 Vrms 2
• S = VI = I rms Z= = Vrms Y
Z
2
Vrms 2
• S= = Vrms × Y * = P + jQ
Z*
• Upon computing S, we can obtain P and Q as the real and imaginary parts of S.
• The units for S is (VA), P is (watt) and Q is (VAR).
• The practical significance of the apparent power is as a rating unit for generators
and transformers.
Example
The equivalent induction motor load that is connected to a 79.7kV busbar can be
represented by impedance Z = 80 + j 60 Ω . Determine the real and reactive power
absorbed by this load. Calculate the load power factor.

Solution

1 1
Y= = = 0.008 − j 0.006 moh
Z 80 + j 60

Y * = 0.008 + j 0.006 moh

2
S = Vrms × Y * = P + jQ

S = (0.008 + j 0.006) × (79.7 kV ) 2 = (50.8 + j 38.1) × 106

∴P = 50.8 MW
Q = 38.1 MVAR

P Q æ 38.1 ö
PF = cosθ = = tan −1 = cosç tan −1 ÷ = 0 .8
S P è 50.8 ø

Power in Inductive and Capacitive Circuits

Inductive Circuits
ωL
Consider an inductive load with Z = R + jωL = Z∠φ Ω , where φ = tan −1
R
If the voltage is: V = V∠0 , then

V V∠0 V
I= = = ∠ −φ
Z Z ∠φ Z
The current flowing in the inductive load is then said to be lagging the voltage. The
apparent power S absorbed by the impedance is given by:
*
S = V rms I rms = P + jQ

P = VI cos φ
Q = VI sin φ
 Q

V
P

Capacitive Circuits
1 1
Consider a capacitive load with Z = R + = Z∠ − φ Ω , where φ = tan −1
jωc ωRC
If the voltage is: V = V∠0 , then

V V∠0 V
I= = = ∠φ
Z Z∠ − φ Z
The current flowing in the capacitive load is then said to be leading the voltage. The
apparent power S absorbed by the impedance is given by:
*
S = V rms I rms = P + jQ

P = VI cos φ
Q = −VI sin φ

P
V

Q
 Three-Phase Systems

1. Sources

An ideal three-phase power source may be visualized as consisting of three independent

voltage sources, each producing a sinusoidal voltage displaced in phase by 120° from the
other two sources. The peak magnitude and the frequency of all three sources must be the
same.

Time domain representation

V a = Vm cos ω t Va = Vm cos(ω t − 120) Va = Vm cos(ω t − 240)

Va = Vrms ∠0 Va = Vrms ∠ − 120 Va = Vrms ∠ − 240

Phasor domain representation

Vm
Where Vrms is the phase RMS voltage and is equal to Vrms = .
2
Important Remarks;

• The magnitude and frequency of each single-phase source is the same and the
angular frequency is in rad/s.
• The phasors are defined using the RMS quantities of their magnitude.
If the three sources are connected to one common point, this point is called the neutral of
the system and it is said that the system is three-phase system. Two different
arrangements for three-phase systems are possible; the STAR (Wye) or the DELTA
connection.

Star (Wye) Connection

A star connection is achieved by connecting the three individual sources to one common
point known as the neutral. The three-phase terminals will be the three remaining
terminals of the sources. A star connection is shown in the figure below.

Neutral Point
Va

V ab

Vc Vb

B
V bc
Physical Connection C

Circuit Representation

Va

0
0 120
120

0
120

Vc Vb

Phasor Representation

Where:

• Va , Vb and Vc are the line to neutral voltages and are called the phase voltages

V ph .

• Vab , Vbc and Vca are the line-to-line voltages and are called the line voltage VL .
Phase and Line Voltages Relationship

The magnitude and the phase angle of the line-to-line voltage (line values) can be directly
calculated from the phasor diagram of the three-phase voltages as:

Vab = Va − Vb
Vbc = Vb − Vc
Vca = Vc − Va

These relations can be seen in phasor representation as follows:

-Va

Vab Vca
Vc
Vca -Vb Vc
30 Va
Vbc
Va Vb
Vb 120

Vab
Vbc

-Vc

Vb
120 Va

30
b a
Vab

3
If ab = 2 cm ab = 2V ph cos 30° = 2V ph = 3 V ph
2
∴ab = 3 V ph = VL

The line-to-line magnitude is equal to 3 the line to neutral voltage.

Line voltage = 3 phase voltage.

From the figure above, the angle between Vab and Va is 30° , then:
 Phasor Representation Time-domain representation

Vab = 3V ph ∠30 ( ) (
Vab (t ) = 3 2V ph cos ωt + 30° )
Vbc = 3V ph ∠ − 90 Vbc (t ) = 3 ( 2V )cos(ωt − 90 )
ph
°

Vca = 3V ph ∠150 Vca (t ) = 3 ( 2V )cos(ωt + 150 )

ph
°

Using KVL:

Va + Vb + Vc = 0
Vab + Vbc + Vca = 0

Three-phase four-wire system

Another important and useful connection for three-phase systems is the three-phase four-
wire connection, where a fourth wire is utilized as a neutral wire or a return path. In a
balanced three-phase system, the neutral current will be equal to ZERO, but in case of
unbalanced systems or systems that are polluted with harmonics, this wire can carry
currents that may reach or exceed the phase current magnitude.

Balanced delta connected sources

Frequently, three phase voltages are generated by connecting voltage sources directly to
the lines rather than to a neutral point. In this case, the connection is said to be DELTA
(or π) connection. The circuit connection as well as the phasor representation of the Delta
connection is shown in the figure below.
 a

Vca Vab

Physical Vbc
connection c

Circuit
representation

Vca Vab

Vbc

Phasor
representation
 Three-Phase Loads

When it comes to circuit connection, loads are treated as sources. Loads can be connected
in single-phase or three-phase connections. In three phase circuits, loads are normally
connected in three-phase configuration either in star or delta connection. As will be
discussed latter, in three-phase systems, especially in distribution systems, loads are often
connected in single-phase configuration.

Balanced STAR loads

1. Connection

Balanced STAR loads are connected as follows:

Ia
a

Va
Za
Balanced System
Three-Phase

Vc Vb
n

Zc Zb
Ic c b

Ib

2. Balancing condition

The following condition has to be satisfied for balanced star load system:
Z a = Z b = Z c = Z y ∠θ
3. Current in balanced Y-load

In the above circuit, if we apply Ohm’s law in any branch we get:

Va
Ia =
Za
For a balanced Y-load, the line current is equal to the phase current and the line voltage is
equal to 3 of the phase voltage. I L = I ph and VL = 3 V ph .

4. Phasor Diagram of balanced Y-load

Va

Ia
Vca θ Vab

120 0
120 0
Ic
120 0
Ib
Vc Vb

Vbc

Phasor Representation

• Vca = 3 Va

• Angles between I a , I b and I c is 1200.

• Angles between Va , Vb and Vc is 1200.

• Angle between Vab , Vbc and Vca is 1200.

5. Real and reactive power in Y-loads

The average real and reactive power delivered to each individual phase of the star
connected load may be calculated as:
P / phase = V ph I ph cosθ

VL V V
P / phase = I L cosθ = L ⋅ L cosθ
3 3 3Z y

VL2
P / phase = cosθ
3Z y

VL2
Also Q / phase = sin θ
3Z y

We have to realize that the total power is given by the three phases together
VL2
Ptotal = 3 × P / phase = 3V ph I ph cosθ = 3VL I L cosθ = cosθ
Zy

VL2
and Qtotal = 3 × Q / phase = 3V ph I ph sin θ = 3VL I L sin θ = sin θ
Zy

The apparent power (the magnitude of the complex power) is given by:

2 2 VL2
S = Ptotal + Qtotal = 3VL I L =
Zy

The power factor of the three-phase system is given by:

Ptotal
PF = = cosθ
S
Example
A three-phase voltage generator with line voltage of 120V (rms) is used to drive a
balanced y-connected load consisting of three balanced impedances of Z L = 4 + j 3 Ω
through a three-phase four-wire power feeder with per phase impedance of
Z f = 0.1 + j 0.1Ω . Calculate the line voltage at the load terminals and the power

delivered to the load.

Solution

Zf Ia a

ZL Va
Balanced System
Three-Phase

Vb
n

ZL ZL
Zf Ic c Vc b

Zf

Ib

The impedance seen by the source/phase is:

ZT = Z f + Z L Ω = (0.1 + j 0.1) + (4 + j 3) = 4.1 + j 3.1Ω

The current flowing in the load is:

V ph 120 / 3
I ph = I L = = = 13.48 A
ZT (4.1)2 + (3.1)2
The line voltage at the load terminal is given as:
VL = 3 I ph ZT = 3 × 13.48 × 5 = 116.73V

The total power delivered to the load is

PLoad = 3I 2 (Re Z ) = 3 × (13.48)2 × 4 = 2180Watt

Balanced Delta Loads

a) Connection

Balanced delta loads are connected as follows:

Ia
a

I ca I ab
Balanced System

Z ca Z ab
Vac
Three-Phase

Ic c ZL b

I bc
Vcb

Ib

• Vab is the voltage at point a with respect to point b.

• I ab is the current from a to b.

Applying KCL at the nodes a, b, and c we get:
I a = I ab − I ca
I b = I bc − I ab
I c = I ca − I bc

b) Balancing condition

The following condition must be satisfied for a balanced Delta connected load.
Z ab = Z bc = Z ca = Z ∆ ∠θ
c) Current in balanced ∆ –load

In the above circuit, if Vac is taken as reference and applying Ohm’s law in any branch we
get:
Vab V ph ∠0 V ph
I ab = = = ∠ − θ = I ph ∠ − θ = the phase current
Z ab Z ∆ ∠θ Z ∆

d) Phasor Diagram of balanced ∆ -load

Vca

-Ibc
Ica
θ
Ic
0
120
120 0
Ibc
120 0
Iab

Vbc Vab

Phasor Representation

Phase currents
V ph
I ab = ∠ − θ = I ph ∠ − θ
Z∆

I bc = I ph ∠ − θ − 120

I ca = I ph ∠ − θ − 240
Line currents
I L = 2 × I ph cos 30 = 3I ph

I a = 3I ph ∠ − θ − 30
I b = 3I ph ∠ − θ − 150
I c = 3I ph ∠ − θ − 270

e) Real and reactive power in ∆-loads

The average real and reactive power delivered to each individual phase of the delta-
connected load may be calculated as:
P / phase = V ph I ph cosθ

I 2Z
P / phase = VL
IL
( )I
cosθ = I ph Z ∆ × L cosθ = L ∆ cosθ
3
3 3

I L2 Z ∆
P / phase = cosθ
3

I L2 Z ∆
Also Q / phase = sin θ
3

We have to realize that the total power is given by the three phases together

Ptotal = 3 × P / phase = 3V ph I ph cosθ = 3VL I L cosθ = I L2 Z ∆ cosθ

and Qtotal = 3 × Q / phase = 3V ph I ph sin θ = 3VL I L sin θ = I L2 Z ∆ sin θ

The apparent power (the magnitude of the complex power) is given by:
2 2
S = Ptotal + Qtotal = 3VL I L = I L2 Z ∆

The power factor of the three-phase system is given by:

Ptotal
PF = = cosθ
S
Star-Delta Transformation

Loads connected in balanced Star can be converted to balanced delta connection and vice
versa.

Z ab

Za Zb

n
Z ca Z bc

Zc

Star to Delta Transformation

Z a Zb + Zb Zc + Zc Z a
Z ab =
Zc
Z a Zb + Zb Zc + Zc Z a
Z bc =
Za
Z a Zb + Zb Zc + Zc Z a
Z ca =
Zb

Delta to Star Transformation

Z ab Z ca
Za =
Z ab + Z bc + Z ca
Z bc Z ab
Zb =
Z ab + Z bc + Z ca
Z ca Z bc
Zc =
Z ab + Z bc + Z ca
Source-Load Connection
Let us consider the case of a balanced star-connected source delivering power to a
balanced delta-connected load as shown in the figure below:
Ia

A
a

Va

n
Vab Z Z
Ic a I ab

c b I bc
C Z B

Ib

Ic

Note that:
• I a = I A , I b = I B and I c = I C

• Vab = V AB , Vbc = VBC and Vca = VCA

If we take V AB as the reference phasor and given that the load is Z = Z∠θ , then starting
V AB
from the load side, I ab = and the phasor diagram will be given as follows:
Z
VCA
Vc

I CA

V AB
θ
30 °
I AB

Vb Va
IA
− I CA

VBC
Example

The three winding of the source is connected in wye. The source produces a line voltage
of 440 v, and supplies two resistive loads. One load contains resistors with a value of 4Ω
each and connected in wye. The second load contains resistors with a value of 6Ω each
and connected in delta. Find:
a) Line and phase voltage of load 2.
b) Line and phase current of load 2.
c) Line and phase current of load 1.
d) Line current of the source.
e) Power delivered by the source.

Solution
Since both loads are connected directly to the output of the source, then the line voltage
of both loads will be the same as the line voltage of the source.
VL1 = VL2 = 440V

Since load 1 is connected in star and load 2 is connected in delta, then

VL1
V ph1 = = 254.04V
3
V ph2 = VL2 = 440

V ph
The phase currents in the two loads are equal to
Z ph

254.04
For the star load, I ph1 = = 63.51 A
4
440
For the delta load, I ph2 = = 73.33 A
6
For star connection I L1 = I ph1 = 63.51 A

For delta connection I L2 = 3I ph2 = 127.01 A

The supply line current I LT = I L1 + I L2 = 63.51 + 127.01 = 190.52 A

The supply power P = 3V ph I ph cosθ = 3VL I L cosθ = 3 × 440 × 190.52 × 1 = 145.2 kW

Power Factor Correction

It is highly desirable to have a unity power factor for industrial and residential loads. The
consequences of power factor that is less than unity are numerous including loading the
supply with undesirable reactive current and increasing losses. This implies that the
current drawn from the supply is greater than the minimum current required to transmit
the needed power. A common method to improve the power factor is to install an
inductive element (capacitive or inductive depending on the circuit) in parallel or series
with the load.

Example
A balanced inductive load is connected to a 550 v, 60 Hz, three-phase supply. The line
current is 20A and the total power delivered to the load is 10kW. It is desired to improve
the power factor to 0.9 lagging. Find:
a) The power factor before correction
b) The line current after correction
c) The KVAR rating of the capacitor bank.
d) The per phase capacitance.

Solution
P 10,000
a) The power factor before correction is PF = = = 0.52 lagging
S 3 × 550 × 20
b) The line current before correction is 20A
After correction, the power factor will be 0.9 and the line current in this case will
be:
P 10,000
PF = 0.9 = = and I L2 = 11.66 A
S2 3 × 550 × I L2

c) The reactive power for the original load is:

d) Q1 = S12 − P 2 = ( )
3 × 550 × 20 − (10000)2 = 16.22kVAR
2
The reactive power after compensation should be:

Q2 = S 22 − P 2 = ( )
3 × 550 × 11.66 − (10000)2 = 4.84kVAR
2

The necessary capacitive reactive power to correct the power factor to 0.9 is:
Qc = Q1 − Q2 = 11.38kVAR
The capacitors should be connected in parallel with the load to have the advantage
of the known applied voltage. Assume that the capacitors are connected in Delta
connection, then:
VL2
Qc phase = = ωCVL2
Xc

Qc = 3Qc phase = ωCVL2 = 3 × 2π × 60 × 5502 C = 11.38 × 103

∴ C phase = 33.26 µF

If the capacitors were connected in Star, the capacitance per phase would have
been three times larger.
 Three-Phase Power Measurements

One of the main tasks that are needed in power systems is to measure the power
associated with any load. Different circuit topologies are used to measure the power
delivered by a supply or absorbed by a load. These connections depend mainly on the
circuit connection and the load characteristics (balanced or unbalanced). Given the fact
that we are interested in active (real) power measurements, then the wattmeters are
utilized as the power-measuring device. Two main configurations are utilized for power
measurements, three wattmeter or two wattmeter methods.

Three Wattmeter Method

1. Four-wire system

W1
A Z1

W2
N
B Z2

W3
C Z3

In this case, we are measuring the power of the load by measuring the power in each
phase and adding them.

PT = P1 + P2 + P3
The wattmeter consists of two coils, the current coil and the potential coil. In this case the
current coil is measuring the phase current and the potential coil is measuring the phase
voltage. Each wattmeter is producing the phase power.

Remarks
• The neutral point N is not available for delta connection. Therefore, this method is
not practical when the loads are connected in Delta.
• This method is suitable for balanced and unbalanced loads since each wattmeter is
measuring the power in one phase independent on the other.

2. Three-wire system

Ia W1
A Z1

Ib W2
N
B Z2

x
Ic W3
C Z3

Let x be the common point of the three wattmeter voltage coils. If T is the periodic time
of the source voltage and I a , I b and I c are the time-domain line current entering the

load, then the total power Px indicated by the three wattmeters is given by;
T
1
(Vax I a + Vbx I b + Vcx I c )dt
T ò0
Px =

Regardless of the point x, which is completely arbitrary, we have;

Vax = VaN + VNx
Vbx = VbN + VNx
Vcx = VcN + VNx

Substituting in the power equation we obtain:

T T
1 1
Px = ò (VaN I a + VbN I b + VcN I c ) dt + ò VNx (I a + I b + I c ) dt
T0 T0

But I a + I b + I c = 0 for balanced three phase system

T
1
(VaN I a + VbN I b + VcN I c ) dt
T ò0
Therefore, Px =

Thus, the sum of the three wattmeters reading is precisely the total average power
delivered to the three-phase load.

Two Wattmeter Method

Since the common point x in the previous method is arbitrary, then we may place it on
one of the lines. The wattmeter whose current coil is placed in that line will read zero
because the voltage across its potential coil is zero and thus this wattmeter can be
removed.

Ia W1
A Z1

Ib
N
B
x
Z2

Ic W2
C Z3
Let us assume that the sum of the two wattmeters measurements is P \ and is given by:

T
1
P = ò (Vab I a + Vcb I c ) dt
\

T0

Where:

Vab = VaN + VNb

Vcb = VcN + VNb

Substituting in the power equation we get:

T
1
P = ò (VaN I a + VcN I c ) +VNb (I a + I c ) dt
\

T0

Also I a + I b + I c = 0 and I a + I c = − I b

T
1
P = ò (VaN I a + VcN I c ) +VNb (− I b ) dt
\

T0

T
1
(VaN I a + VbN I b + VcN I c )dt
T ò0
P\ =

The above equation is the equation of the average power in three-phase system

∴ P \ = P , the measured value P \ gives the three-phase power in balanced systems.

Power Measurement Summary

1. In case of three-phase, four-wire systems, the three-wattmeter method is suitable

for power measurements in both balanced and unbalanced systems. The sum of the
three wattmeters will give the total power absorbed by the load. The potential coil
terminals for the three wattmeters should be connected to the neutral wire.
2. In case of three-phase, three-wire systems, the three-wattmeter method is also
suitable for power measurements in both balanced and unbalanced systems. For
balanced systems, the potential coils of the wattmeters can be connected to any
arbitrary point. However, in case of unbalanced systems, the potential coils must be
connected to the neutral point.
3. For Delta connected loads, three-wattmeter method is suitable for balanced and
unbalanced system power measurements.
4. Two-wattmeter method is suitable only for balanced load systems either in delta
or in three-wire star connection. The common point of the two potential coils must be
connected to the phase that does not have a wattmeter.
 Three-Phase vs. Single-Phase Operation

A big question mark was always raised as which is the favorable system to deal with; is it
single-phase or three-phase system? The answer to this question was always three-phase
systems, and the reasons behind that were mainly related to the system performance,
efficiency and economics.

a) Generation point of view

Three-phase systems always provide better utilization of the generating material. For
the same size of generator, the power capacity of three-phase exceeds single-phase.
Moreover, the efficiency of three-phase generators is higher than single-phase
generators.

b) Transmission and distribution point of view

For this analysis, a comparison between the most common three-phase system and
single-phase system will be conducted. The most common three-phase configuration is
the three-phase, four-wire system. This is compared to the 1-phase, 2-wire system.
Different factors such as the current transmitted, power losses and copper weight are
compared.

1. The value of current transmitted

Assume that the same power P is transmitted by the 1-phase and 3-phase
systems, then:
For 3-phase P3− ph = 3VI 3− ph cosθ

For 1-phase P1− ph = 3VI1− ph cosθ

Therefore,
P
I 3− ph = and
3V cosθ
P
I1− ph =
V cosθ
In conclusion, for the same power transmitted and transmission line voltage, the 3-
1
phase current is only 1 of the 1-phase current, I 3− ph = I1− ph . This fact affects the
3 3
size of the cables used in transmission lines since less conductor material is needed for
the 3-phase system to transmit the same power in 1-phase system. Moreover, since the
current is lower, the cost for the protection devices will be less.

2. The power losses in transmission system

Assume that the same power P is to be transmitted and the transmission voltage
is the same. The power losses equations are given by:
2
æ P ö
PL3− ph = 3ç ÷ R3− ph
è 3V cosθ ø

2
æ P ö
PL1− ph = 2ç ÷ R1− ph
è V cosθ ø

R3− ph and R1− ph are the 3-phase and 1-phase line resistance, respectively.

PL3− ph 1 R3− ph
= ×
PL1− ph 6 R1− ph

In conclusion, if the 3-phase and 1-phase resistances are equal, then the losses in the

three-phase system are 1 that in the single-phase system. We have to note that since
6
the three-phase system is balanced, then no current flow through the neutral wire and
there will be no losses in the fourth wire. This indicates that the 3-phase systems are 6
times more efficient than the 1-phase systems.
It is important to note that if the power losses in the 3-phase and 1-phase systems are
R3− ph
the same, then = 6 which means that for the same type of material and for the
R1− ph

same transmission length, the conductors of the three-phase system have smaller cross-
section area and hence, they are more economical.
 3. The copper weight

Before we analyze this item, let us consider the following facts:

Fact #1

For three-phase balanced systems there is NO neutral current (NO losses in

neutral conductor). Therefore, the cross-section area (CSA) of the neutral
conductor needs not to be the same as the other three-phases. Normally, the
CSA of the neutral conductor is 1/2 of the CSA of the line conductors.

Fact #2

1 ρL
The copper CSA for any system is proportional to since R = , so for the
R A
1
same length L and conductor material ρ , we have R ∝ l .
A

Fact #3

The copper weight for a given conductor is proportional to its CSA.

Given the previous three facts then,
1
1. The copper weight for the three-phase, fore-wire system, which is made of 3 is;
2
copper weight = K × 3.5 × A
1
A1− ph ∝ al
R1− ph

1
A3− ph ∝ al
R3− ph

A1− ph R3− ph
= =6
A3− ph R1− ph

Therefore, the ratio of the copper weight of the two systems is:
Wcopper3− ph K × 3.5 × A3− ph 3.5 A3− ph 3.5 1 7
= = × = × =
Wcopper1− ph K × 2 × A1− ph 2 A1− ph 2 6 24

In conclusion, the saving in the cost of the material, which is proportional to the
transmission and distribution line cost is about 71% in favor of 3-phase, 4-wire systems
(material cost in 3-phase systems are 29% of the material cost in 1-phase systems having
the same conductor material and transmitting the same power at the same voltage level).
R3− ph is the resistance per phase of the 3-phase system and R1− ph is the resistance per line

of the 1-phase system.