Graph Matrices and Applications

Note: Please use a slide show since transitions have been

animated.
Tip: dark red text corresponds to dark red entries in the
table for that slide and so on . . .
Overview:

Graph matrices are just another representation

for graphs

• We will be covering -
 the need for matrices
Matrix operations, relations
 node reduction algorithm
 equivalence class partition
Why do we need matrices?…
• Path tracing can lead to errors
• Links can be missed or covered twice
(redundancy)
• Interruptions while tracing a path can cause
errors and lead to confusion
• There is a need for a more methodical and
mechanical approach
• Proving theorems by mathematical
representations(matrices) helps in proving
theorems about graphs
Operations that comprise the
toolkit…
• Matrix multiplication, which is used to get the
path expression from every node to every
other node
• A partitioning algorithm for converting graphs
with loops into loop free graphs of
equivalence classes
• A collapsing process (analogous to the
determinant of a matrix) which gets the path
expression from any node to any other node
The matrix of a graph
• A graph matrix is a square array with one row
and one column for every node of the graph
• Each row-column combination corresponds to
a relation b/w the node corresponding the row
and the node corresponding the column. This
could be the link name.

1 0
GRAPH MATRIX
Graph matrix observations:
• The size of the matrix (i.e. the number of rows and
columns) equals the number of nodes
GRAPH a 0 MATRIX
1
• If there are several links between two nodes, then, the
entry is a sum. The ‘+’ sign denotes parallel links, as usual.
a
GRAPH b MATRIX

a+b
1 2
Graph matrix observations (cont…)
• The entry at a row and column intersection is
the link weight of the link (if any) that
connects the two nodes in that direction
a
e a d
1 2
b b+e
d c
c

GRAPH 3 MATRIX
Graph matrix observations (cont…)
• A connection from node i to node j does not
imply(mean) a connection from node j to node i
as seen in the graph.

• There is a place to put every possible direct

connection or link between any node and any
other node.
a
GRAPH b a bMATRIX
1 2
Definitions:
• The simplest weight that we can denote is to
indicate if there is a connection or not. Say –
‘1’ means that there is a connection and ‘0’
means that there is no connection. The
arithmetic rules as we already know are-
1+1= 1 1+0= 1 0+0= 0
1*1= 1 1*0= 0 0*0= 0
A matrix with weights defined is called a
connection matrix.
Obtaining the connection matrix-
• Replace each entry with ‘1’ if there is a link and with ‘0’ if there
isn’t. To reduce clutter, ignore the ‘0’s.
• Each row of the matrix denotes the out-link of the node
corresponding to that row
• Each column denotes the in-link corresponding to that node
• A branch node has more than one non-zero entry in its row
• A junction node has more than one non-zero entry in its column
• A Self loop is an entry along the diagonal
• Graph’s cyclo-matic complexity (will be dealt further)
Deducing the relation matrix…
3
a b c h g
m d e f
1 5 6 7 8 2
l
i j k
4
a i Replace each entry
with the link
b h weight if there is a
link and leave it
j blank if there isn’t.
m
RELATION MATRIX
c l d
e
f k g
 Deducing the connection matrix &
calculating the cyclomatic complexity…
3
a b c h g
m d e f
1 5 6 7 8 2
l
i j k
4 Now add the
Replace each 1 the
Add 1 entries in each 2-1=1 results from each
entry with ‘1’ if row & subtract the total row. You get 6.
by 1. Adding 1 to this
there is a link
2-1=1 gives you the cyclo
and leave it matic complexity
blank if there 1-1=0
(M).
isn’t. 1-1=0
CONNECTION MATRIX Cyclo-matic
3-1=2 complexity
1-1=0
6+1=7=M
3-1=2
Simplifying references-
• Instead of saying- ‘entry at row 6, column 7’, we say –
entry at node i and column j.
• So, the link weight between nodes i and j is
represented by aij
• Self loop at node i is represented by aii
• So, the link weight between nodes j and i is
represented by aji
w.r.t the graph,
3 b c abmd should read a13 a35 a56 a67
a m d where, a13 = a
1 5 6 7
a35 = b…
Examples-

• aij ajj ajm This expression denotes a path from node i

to j, with a self loop at j and then a link from node j
to m.
• ∑aik akk akj (where k = 1 to n) This expression denotes
the set of all possible paths between nodes i and j via
one(or many) intermediate node(s).
Definitions:
• The transpose of a matrix is the matrix with rows and columns
interchanged (denoted by superscript T) . If C = AT , then cij = aji
• The intersection of two matrices of the same size, (denoted by A
# B) is obtained by an element-by-element multiplication of the
entries. C = A # B  cij = aji (usually Boolean AND/ set
intersection)
• The union of two matrices is defined as the element-by-element
addition (usually Boolean OR/ set union).
Relations:
• A relation is a property that exists between two objects of interest.
a and b are objects and R is used to denote that a has a relation to
b.
Examples:
aR b  a is connected to b. R = ‘is connected to’
a>= b or aR b  R is ‘is greater that or equal to’
A is a subset of b  R is ‘is a subset of’
Redefining what we already know:
• A graph consists of a set of abstract objects called nodes and
a relation R between the nodes. If aRb, it is denoted by a link
(a to b).
• Some relations can be associated with properties. These are
called link weights.
• ‘is connected to’ is the simplest relation denoted by a link
with no weight. A graph with this relation are called a
connection /adjacency matrix.
• General relations form the relation matrix.
Properties of relations (overview):
• Transitive relations
aRbbRcaRc
• Reflexive relations
for every a, a R a (eg. self loop)
• Symmetric relations (undirected graph)
for every a & b, a R b  b R a (aij = aji for all i, j)
• Anti-symmetric relations
for every a & b, a R b  b R a, then a = b
• Equivalence relations
satisfies transitive, reflexive & symmetric
• Partial ordering relations
satisfies transitive, reflexive & anti-symmetric
Properties of relations:
• Transitive relations
aRbbRcaRc
Most relations used in testing are transitive.
Examples for transitive relations: is connected
to, is greater than or equal to, is less than or
equal to, is a relative of, is faster than, is
slower than, takes more time than, is a subset
of, includes, shadows, is the boss of.
Examples for intransitive relations: is acquainted
with, is a friend of, is a neighbor of, is lied to,
has a du chain between.
Properties of relations (cont…):
• Reflexive relations
for every a, a R a (eg. self loop)
A reflexive relation is equivalent to a self loop
at every node.
Examples for reflexive relations: equals, is
acquainted with, is a relative of.
Examples for ir-reflexive relations: not equals, is
a friend of(unfortunately), is on top of, is
under.
Properties of relations (cont…):
• Symmetric relations (undirected graph)
for every a & b, a R b  b R a (aij = aji for all i, j)
This implies that if there is a link from a to b, there is
also a link from b to a. Which means that instead of
two way links between nodes we can justSince
have a to
we need
single undirected link . A graph whose relations use arrows to
are not symmetric is called a directed graph. denote direction
Examples for symmetric relations: is a relative of,
equals, is alongside of, shares a room with, is
married, brother of, OR, AND, XOR.
Examples for asymmetric relations: is the boss of,
is the husband of, is greater than, controls,
dominates, can be reached from.
Properties of relations (cont…):
• Anti-symmetric relations
for every a & b, a R b  b R a, then a = b
This implies that both a & b are the same
elements.
Examples for anti-symmetric relations: is greater than or
equal to, is a subset of, time.
Examples for non-antisymmetric relations: is connected to,
can be reached from, is greater than, is a relative of, is a
friend of.
Properties of relations (cont…):
• Equivalence relations
satisfies transitive, reflexive & symmetric
Example for equivalence relations: numerical equality.
• If a set of objects satisfy an equivalence relation, they
form an equivalence class over that relation.
• Importance of equivalence classes & relations:
any member of the equivalence class, is with respect to
the relation , equivalent to any other member of the
class. [Please refer the text for short notes]
Properties of relations (cont…):
• Partial ordering relations
satisfies transitive, reflexive & anti-symmetric
Properties: loop free, there is at least 1 maximum element & one minimum element,
if you reverse all the rows, the resulting graph is also partially ordered.
Example for partial ordering relations: trees, most data structures, integration plan.
• A maximum element a, is one for which the relation xRa does not hold for any
other element x.
• A minimum element a, is one for which the relation aRx does not hold for any
other element x.
[Please refer the text for short notes]
Partitioning algorithm:
1
1 1
1 1 1
2 7 1 1
8 1 1 1
1 1
3
1
5
1 1 1
4 1 1

RELATION MATRIX
6
… Considering that the graph may have loops.
Diagonal entries are made to represent self loop.
Partitioning algorithm(cont…):
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 7 1 1 1 1
8 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
3
1
5
1 1 1 1 1 1
4 1 1 1 1 1

TRANSITIVE CLOSURE MATRIX

… Explanation for getting the transitive closure matrix
6 & its transpose is not included since we assumed that
you would know this. Please get back if you need any
info. 
Partitioning algorithm(cont…):
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
2 7
1 1 1
8 1
1 1
3 1
5 INTERSECTION WITH ITS TRANSPOSE
4 Considering the entries is the above matrix, we
have the following…
Example: to get values A=[1]
for B – It is evident that B = [ 2, 7 ]
6 B(row 2) has entries at C = [ 3, 4, 5 ]
column 2 & 7. Hence the D=[6]
values. E=[8]
Partitioning algorithm(cont…):
1
A
The resulting graph is ---
2,7
A B C D E B
A 1 8
1
E
3,4,
B 1 1 From the
5C
earlier slide,
1 1 we had --
C
A=[1] 6
1 B = [ 2, 7 ]
D C = [ 3, 4, 5 ]
D
D=[6]
1 1
E E=[8]
… Considering that the graph had self loops.
Diagonal entries are made to represent self loop.
Node Reduction Algorithm – some matrix
properties: interchanging rows 3 & 4 …
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 * * 5
1 a 1 a
2 2

3 d b * c f

4 c f * d b
g e h g e h
5 5

To interchange node names in 1 2 4 3 5

1 a
a matrix, we must interchange
both the corresponding rows 2
and the corresponding
columns… 4 c f

3 d b
interchanging columns 3 & 4 … g e h
5
*Node
• Advantages:
Reduction Algorithm*
– The matrix reduction method is more methodical than the graphical method
– Does not entail(involve) continually redrawing of the graph
• Steps to be followed:
– Select a node for removal, replace the node by equivalent links that bypass that node.
– Add the parallel terms & simplify if you can
– Adjust out-links that have a self loop
– The result is a matrix whose size is reduced by 1.
– Continue until only two nodes are left. There should be only one link between these
nodes.
*Node Reduction Algorithm*
d
1 a 3 b 4 c 2

e f g
1 2 3 4 5
5 1 a
h 2
STEP 1: Eliminate a node 3 d b
and replace it with a set of
c f
equivalent links… 4
g e h
5
Say, we start with eliminating
node 5-

TIP: The out-link of the node removed will correspond to

the row and the in-link will correspond to the column
*Node Reduction Algorithm*
Eliminating node 5 … the self loop is represented with a *
and the outgoing link from the node is multiplied . . .
d
1 a 3 b 4 c 2

e f g
5
1 2 3 4 5
1 a
h
2

3 d b
Say, we start with eliminating 4 c f
node 5. First, we remove the
g
h*g e
h*e h
self loop- 5

TIP: The out-link of the node removed will correspond to

the row and the in-link will correspond to the column
*Node Reduction Algorithm*
Eliminating node 5 … the self loop is represented with a *
and the outgoing link from the node is multiplied . . .
d

1 a 3b c4 2
+
fh*e (fh*g)
1 2 3 4 5
a
1

Now, we eliminate node 5- 2

3 d b
C+fh
4 c fh*e f
TIP: The out-link of the node *g
removed will correspond to the 5 g e h
h*g h*e
row and the in-link will correspond
to the column
*Node Reduction Algorithm*
Eliminating node 4 … the parallel link is added up and serial
links multiplied . . .
d d+
1 a 3b 4 2
fh*e c + (fh*g)
bfh*e bc + b(fh*g) 1 2 3 4 5

1 a

2
d
d+bc+ b
Now, we eliminate node 4-
3 bfh*g
bfh*g

c
C+fh f
4 *g
fh*e

g e h
5 h*g h*e
*Node Reduction Algorithm*
Eliminating node 4 … the parallel link is added up and serial
links multiplied . . .
a X d+ bc + b(fh*g) bfh*e
1 3 23

Now, we should ideally 1 2 3 4 5

eliminate node 3-
Since row 2 and column 2
1 a

are empty, these are

dropped. Values of nodes 1 2
and 3 are retained.
d
d+bc+ b
If row n and its 3 bfh*g
bfh*g
corresponding column n is
not empty, them we need to c
C+fh f
4 *g
fh*e
continue removing node 3
and retain values for nodes 1 g e h
& 2. 5 h*g h*e
Building tools (node degree & graph density):
• The out-degree of a node is the number of out-links it has.
• The in-degree of a node is the number of in-links it has.
• The degree of a node is the sum of in-degree and out-
degree.
• The average degree(mean) of a node is b/w 3 and 4.
• Degree of a simple branch/junction is 3
• Degree of a loop contained in 1 statement is 4
• Mean degree of 4 or 5  very busy flow graph
Node Reduction Optimization (tips):
• The optimum order for node reduction is to do the lowest degree
nodes first.
• When a node with degree 3(may be 1 in-link & 2out-links or 2 in-links
& 1 out-link) is removed , it reduces the total link count by 1 link.
• A degree 4 node keeps the link count the same & all higher degree
nodes increase the link count.
What’s wrong with arrays?
Matrix as a 2-dimensional array is not
convenient for larger graphs. Herez why!...
We have four reasons for the same-
• Space: For a matrix representation of an array, space
grows as n2 whereas, for a linked list, it grows only as kn,
where k is a small number such as 3 or 4.
• Weights: Most weights in arrays are complicated and may
have many components. This means that an additional
weight matrix is required for each such weight.
What’s wrong with arrays? (cont…)
• Variable-length weights: If the weights are regular
expressions/algebraic expressions, we would then need a 2-
dimensional string array (most of whose entries would be null).
• Processing time: Even though operations over null entries are
fast, it still takes time to access such entries and discard them.
The matrix representation forces us to spend a lot of time
processing combinations of entries that we know will yield null
results.
 Building tools - Linked
d
list representations: 1 2 3 4 5
1
a b c a
1 3 4 2 2

3 d b
e f g 4 c f
5
g e h
h 5
node1, 3 ; a
node1,2, The link names will usually
Every node is a unique be pointers to entries in a
name/ number. node3, 2 ; d
string array(where actual
A link is a pair of node node3, 4; b weight expressions are
names. stored).
node4, 2 ; c
The linked list entries for
the above are  … node4, 5 ; f
If the weights are fixed
node5, 2 ; g length, they can be
Format for linked list node5, 3 ; e associated with links in
entries: node5, 5 ; h parallel-fixed entry length
row, column ; data entry array.
Building tools - Linked list list entry content
representations: 1 node1, 3 ; a
Clarifying entries by using node 2 node2,exit
names & pointers…
list entry content 3,
1, 3 ; a 1 node1, 3 ; a 4,
2, 2 node2,exit 5,
3, 2 ; d 3 node3, 2 ; d 3 node3, 2 ; d

3, 4; b 3, 4; b 3, 4; b
1,
4, 2 ; c 4 node4, 2 ; c
5,
4, 5 ; f 4, 5 ; f
4 node4, 2 ; c
5, 2 ; g 5 node5, 2 ; g
4, 5 ; f
5, 3 ; e 5, 3 ; e
3,
5, 5 ; h 5, 5 ; h 5 node5, 2 ; g
Fig.1 is represented in a more logical format 3;e
in Fig.2 by representing the nodes under list 5;h
entry. Fig 3 is more detailed the with in-links 4,
to that node added (highlighted in black).
5,
Matrix operations:
• Parallel Reduction: the easiest operation. After
sorting, parallel links are adjacent entries with the
same pair of node names.
Example: Say we have 3 parallel links from node 17 to
node 44. y, z & w are the pointers to the weight
expressions.
Depicting all the entries for
parallel links between node
17 & node 44, we have -
node 17, 21 ; x  node 17, 21 ; x
, 44 ; y , 44 ; y
, 44 ; z where, y = y + z + w
, 44 ; w
Matrix operations:
• Loop Reduction: the self loop is identified. To remove the loop,
the link weight must be multiplied with all the out-links from that node.
Start by identifying the out-links to be multiplied. Multiply the self loop
(h*) where h is the link weight of the self loop with the out-link.
Example: From the below entries, it is evident at entry(5,5;h) that it is a self
loop at node 5 with link weight h. Also, from the 1st two entries, we see
that the out-links from node 5 are 2 and 3. We need to multiply the self
loop (h*) with the link weights of nodes going from node 5 to node 2 & 3.

Refer fig. on slide 43 for the

node 5, 2 ; g node 5, 2 ; h*g
graph.
5, 3 ; e 5, 3 ; h*e
5, 5 ; h 5, 5 ; h
Matrix operations:
• Cross-Term Reduction: Select a node for reduction. The
cross-term step requires that you combine every in-link to the
node with every out-link from that node. The in-links are
obtained by back pointers. The new links created be removing
the node will be associated with the nodes of the in-links.
Example: Say that the node to be removed was node 4.
• entry
list content d list entry content
• 2 node2, exit 3 b 4 c 2 2 node2, exit
(inlink)4, 2
(inlink)4, 2 f
5 (inlink)3,2
(inlink)3,2
3 node3,2 ; d
3 node3,2 ; d The changes are
• 3,4 ; b highlighted in dark red
3,2 ; bc
3,5 ; bf
4 node4, 2 ; c d 4 node4, 2 ; c
4, 5 ; f 3 2
bc 4, 5 ; f
(inlink)3,4; b (inlink)3,4; b
• 5 (inlink)4, 5 bf 5 5 (inlink) 4, 5
The powers of a matrix has not
been covered. This includes basic
matrix multiplication that you
already know & sets of paths.
Please read through…  Page 405 of the
Boris Beizer text.
*** Some Questions picked up from the previous papers for units V, VI, VII, VIII ***
--8 marks questions--
1.Write the designers comments about state graphs.
2.Write an algorithm for all pair paths using matrix operations.
3.Define – maximum element and minimum element of a graph.
4.Explain parallel reduction and loop reduction.
5.Explain -
a) Distributive laws b) Absorption rule
6.Illustrate the applications of Decision tables?
7.The behavior of a finite state machine is invariant under all encodings. Justify?
8.What operations does a tool kit consist for the representation of graphs?
9.How can a relation matrix be represented and what are the properties of relations?
10.What are the rules of Boolean algebra?
--12 marks questions --
1.Define the purpose of KV charts. Describe the use of KV charts in logic based testing.
2.Define a state chart. Define the method used to distinguish good and bad state graphs.
3.Briefly discuss the following -
a) matrix of a graph b) node reduction algorithms
--16 marks questions--
1.Draw a hard disk recovery system with a state graph and state table.
2.What is decision table and how is it useful in testing? Explain it with the help of an example.
3.Write short notes on -
a) Transition bugs b) Dead states
c) State bugs d) Encoding bugs.
4.Explain State graphs with implementation?
5.What is Decision table and how is a Decision table useful in testing? Explain with the help of an example?
6.Explain -
a) finite state machine b)state graph inputs and outputs c) transitions and state tables
And yeah!!! Plz solve all
the questions that
appeared in previous
papers! 

Done!!! Do feel free to get back

incase you have any questions 

Note: Please read through the text

by ‘Boris Beizer’ atleast once. This
PPT is just for your reference & for
step by step understanding of the
processing.